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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/cottagecyclopedi00pier_0 


THE 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 

A COPIOUS  DICTIONARY 

OP 


MEMORABLE  PERSONS,  EVENTS,  PLACES,  AND  THINGS, 


WITH 


NOTICES  OF  THE  PRESENT  STATE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES  AND 
NATIONS  OF  THE  KNOWN  WORLD, 


AND  A 

CHRONOLOGICAL  VIEW  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY 
TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

BY  ED.  M.  PIERCE. 


COLUMBUS,  OHIO: 

O.  S.  READ,  PUBLISHER 
1873. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by 
CASE,  LOCKWOOD  AND  COMPANY, 
in  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


Manufactured  by 

CA8E,  LOCKWOOD  & BRAINARtt 

HARTFORD,  CONN. 


PREFACE 


Every  reader  of  a book,  a magazine,  or  a newspaper,  is  sometimes  at 
loss  for  a date  or.  fact,  and  meets  with  frequent  references  to  historical 
and  biographical  subjects  which  he  knows  nothing  about,  or  obscurely 
remembers,  or  only  partially  understands.  If  he  has  at  hand  a volume 
which  will  readily  answer  any  inquiries  that  arise  in  his  mind,  he  will 
turn  to  it,  and  thus  remove  his  ignorance,  or  clear  away  the  doubt  and 
obscurity  that  rest  upon  his  understanding.  If  he  has  no  such  work  at 
easy  command,  he  will  in  most  cases  let  the  matter  pass,  and  the  need 
for  knowledge  goes  unsatisfied. 

JiSuch  extensive  works  as  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and  the  Ameri- 
' can  Cyclopedia  are  costly,  and  are  therefore  in  the  hands  of  compara- 
A tively  few  persons ; besides,  they  are  too  cumbrous  for  easy  and  frequent 
reference.  The  value  of  a volume  like  The  Cottage  Cyclopedia  of 
History  and  Biography,  to  lie  familiarly  upon  the  table  or  the  shelf, 
ready  at  call  to  answer  the  thousand  questions  that  arise,  is  too  plain 
to  require  discussion.  It  will  prove  a great  convenience  even  to  those 
w*%ho  possess  ample  libraries,  and  whose  minds  are  stored  with  historical 
data.  But  it  is  more  especially  designed  for  family  use,  and  for  the 


c 

* 


young. 

The  Cottage  Cyclopedia  is  intended  to  supply  to  every  general  reader 
such  a book  of  reference  as  that  of  which  the  need  has  been  shown. 
It  is  particularly  commended  to  the  attention  of  parents : let  them  place 


iv 


PREFACE. 


it  within  the  reach  of  their  children,  and  inculcate  the  habit  of  consult- 
ing it  as  a dictionary  of  history  and  biography,  whenever  curiosity, 
doubt,  or  want  of  information  may  suggest.  There  will  be  thus  laid 
up  a store  of  precise  practical  knowledge,  incalculable  in  value. 

It  is  not,  however,  as  a mere  book  of  reference,  that  this  volume  is 
offered  to  the  public.  The  materials  are,  it  is  true,  gathered  to  a great 
extent  from  books  familiar  to  the  public.  The  Compiler,  however,  has 
culled  many  traits,  anecdotes,  and  adventures,  from  less  common  sources; 
and  interspersing  these  and  other  illustrative  sketches  throughout  the 
pages,  he  has  sought  to  enliven  the  work,  and  thus  render  it  amusing, 
attractive,  and  readable.  Many  of  the  articles  are  more  extensive  than 
in  the  voluminous  encyclopedias.  Interesting  topics  not  found  in  those 
are  also  introduced.  The  history  of  our  own  country  will  be  found 
fully  treated  of,  under  different  heads ; and  at  the  close  of  the  volume 
a Chronological  View  of  American  History  is  appended.  The  present 
condition  of  the  various  countries  of  the  earth  is  sketched  in  connection 
with  their  history.  The  lives  of  eminent  political  characters  in  all  ages, 
as  well  as  the  lives  of  those  whose  greatness  in  science  or  literature 
made  their  names  enduring,  are  given,  some  of  them  at  considerable 
length,  and  with  many  characteristic  anecdotes.  Extended  sketches  will 
be  found  of  several  royal  families ; as  the  houses  of  Hanover,  Plantag- 
enet,  Romanoff,  Stuart,  Tudor,  &c.  Such  topics  as  Oracles,  Druids,  El 
Dorado,  Knighthood,  Chivalry,  Fairies,  the  Argonauts,  the  Man  in  the 
Iron  Mask,  Don  Carlos,  the  Gulf  Stream,  Jesuits,  Ac.,  &c.,  which  are 
frequently  alluded  to  in  literature,  are  treated  of  with  particularity. 

The  dates  of  important  inventions,  discoveries,  and  improvements  in 
the  arts  and  sciences,  and  remarkable  and  interesting  facts  generally, 
will  be  found  appropriately  arranged.  Among  such  topics  may  be  men- 
tioned the  following: — Abdications;  Alliances;  Amazons;  Ambassadors; 
the  Armada ; Bachelors ; Banks ; order  of  the  Bath ; Bells  ; Bible ; the 
vicar  of  Bray;  the  Cinque  Ports;  Coin;  the  Continental  Congress; 
Conspiracies  and  Insurrections ; the  English  Constitution ; the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States;  Councils  of  the  Church;  Declaration  of 
Independence,  with  those  passages  in  the  original  draught  which  were 


PREFACE. 


V 


omitted  or  changed  by  Congress;  Discoveries  in  modern  times,  Dress; 
Earthquakes;  order  of  the  Garter;  Labor;  Libraries;  Luxury;  Lynch 
Law;  Marriage;  Massacres;  Metals;  Naval  Battles;  North-west  Passage ; 
Painting;  Plague;  Planets;  Poet  Laureate;  Popes;  Printing;  Time; 
Wandering  Jew;  Wonders  of  the  World. 

The  great  battles  of  the  world,  ancient  and  modern,  by  land  and  by 
sea, — Thermopylae,  Marathon,  Cannae,  Pharsalia,  Blenheim,  Austerlitz, 
Marengo,  Waterloo,  Bunker  Hill,  Saratoga,  Yorktown,  New  Orleans, 
Buena  Vista,  Cerro  Gordo,  Chapultepec,  Alma,  Inkermann,  Balaklava, 
&c. ; Salamis,  Actium,  Aboukir,  Trafalgar,  Erie,  Champlain,  &c., — are 
duly  chronicled. 

The  work  is  liberally  illustrated  with  wood-cuts,  of  a superior  execu- 
tion ; the  most  of  them  designed  by  Baker  & Andrew.  A list  of  them 
is  given  on  another  page. 

The  Cottage  Cyclopedia  is  arranged  with  a view  to  compress  a great 
amount  of  matter  into  a small  compass,  that  the  bulk  of  the  volume 
may  not  render  it  inconvenient,  and  that  its  expense  may  not  hinder  its 
general  circulation.  In  preparing  so  extensive  a publication  for  the 
press,  the  Compiler  can  not  hope  that  he  has  wholly  escaped  error  or 
that  omissions  may  not  be  noticed ; but  he  trusts  that  the  volume  may 
be  found  sufficiently  accurate  and  complete  to  fulfill  the  proper  design 
of  such  a work,  and  that  it  may  prove  a valuable  accession  to  the 
means  of  diffusing  useful  knowledge. 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Residence  of  Adams  Family,  Quincy,  Mass. 
Great  Chestnut-tree  of  Mount  iEtna. 
Alabama. 

Alcibiades. 

Cleopatra’s  Needle,  at  Alexandria. 

The  Court  of  Lions,  Alhambra. 

Mont  Blanc. 

Mount  Ararat. 

Arkansas. 

The  Hill  of  the  Areopagus. 

Place  where  Gold  was  first  discovered  in 
Australia. 

The  Balloon. 

Reading  the  Bible  to  the  People. 

Diamond  Washing  in  Brazil. 

The  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge. 

California. 

Peak  of  Tenerifife. 

Charles  the  Twelfth. 

The  Charter  Oak. 

Chinese  Lady  of  Rank. 

Great  Wall  of  China. 

Ashland. 

De  Witt  Clinton. 

Capitol  at  Washington. 

Connecticut. 

Delaware. 

Stonehenge. 

A Druid. 

Earthquake  at  Lisbon. 

Colossi  near  Thebes. 

Florida. 

Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  at  Strasburg. 
Franklin’s  Grave  at  Philadelphia. 

Fulton’s  First  Steamboat. 

Georgia. 

Hamilton’s  Monument  in  Trinity  Church- 
yard, New  York. 

The  Hancock  House  in  Boston. 
Hieroglyphics. 

Homer. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 


Iowa. 

Jackson  at  the  Hermitage. 

Monticello. 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens. 
Kentucky. 

Louisiana. 

Montpelier,  Madison’s  Residence. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan. 

Minnesota. 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

New  Hampshire. 

New  Jersey. 

New  York. 

North  Carolina. 

Ohio. 

Pennsylvania. 

Temple  of  Isis  at  Pompeii. 

Faust  taking  First  Proof  from  Moveable  Types. 
Rhode  Island. 

The  Colossus  of  Rhodes. 

The  Coliseum. 

St.  Peter’s. 

South  Carolina. 

Story’s  House  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 
Tennessee. 

Texas. 

Arch  of  Titus  at  Rome. 

Plains  of  Troy. 

Henry  the  Eighth. 

Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa. 

Tyrolese  Peasants. 

Vermont. 

Vesuvius. 

Virginia. 

Mount  Vernon. 

Washington’s  Tomb. 

Birthplace  of  Webster. 

Wisconsin. 

The  Pyramids  and  Sphinx. 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


A. 


AARON,  the  brother  and  associate  of  Mo- 
ses, and  the  first  high-priest  of  the  Jews, 
born  about  b.c.  1574,  and  died  b.c.  1451. 

ABAUZIT,  Firmin,  a Protestant  author  of 
celebrity  and  learning,  born  in  Languedoc, 
1679,  and  died  in  1767,  having  long  filled  the 
office  of  public  librarian  at  Geneva.  His 
knowledge  was  great,  and  embraced  the 
whole  circle  of  the  sciences.  He  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

ABBAS,  Shah,  the  Great,  ascended  the 
throne  of  Persia  in  1589,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  arms,  by  his  victories  over  the  Ot- 
tomans, and  by  wresting  Ormus  from  the 
Portuguese  in  1622,  aided,  however,  by  the 
British.  During  his  reign,  Ispahan  became 
the  capital  of  Persia.  His  death  took  place 
in  1629. 

ABBASSIDES.  The  caliphs  who,  during 
the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  made  Bagdad 
their  capital,  are  distinguished  in  history  as 
the  Abbassides.  Their  sway  extended  over 
Persia,  Arabia,  and  Syria.  Al-Mansur,  in 
762,  built  Bagdad,  and  raised  the  Saracenic 
empire  to  its  highest  point  of  splendor  and 
fame.  Al-Modi,  to  whom  the  empire  was 
transmitted,  did  not  let  its  reputation  wane, 
and,  under  Haroun  al  Raschid,  the  dignity 
of  the  caliphate  was  preserved  and  adorned. 
After  Haroun,  reigned  Al-Amin  and  Al-Ma- 
mun.  Under  Al-Motasser  the  governors  of 
several  provinces  asserted  their  independence, 
and  Bagdad  alone  was  governed  by  the  caliph. 

ABBEY,  or  monastery,  is  a house  erected 
for  the  dwelling  of  men  or  women  who  have 
taken  the  monastic  vow,  which  binds  them 
1 


to  relinquish  all  worldly  interests,  and  devote 
themselves  to  the  performance  of  religious 
duties,  living  in  a state  of  celibacy.  A mon- 
astery receives  its  title  from  that  of  the  eccle- 
siastic governing  it.  An  abbey  is  governed 
by  an  abbot  or  abbess ; a priory,  by  a prior 
or  prioress,  &c.  The  term  nunnery  is  applied 
to  a religious  house  inhabited  by  women. 
The  buildings  inhabited  by  religious  commu- 
nities were  originally  of  the  plainest  kinc^ 
but  increased  in  extent  and  splendor  with 
their  revenues,  until,  from  the  humble  dwell- 
ings of  unpretending  ecclesiastics,  they  be- 
came the  abodes  of  luxury,  brilliant  with 
costly  architectural  decorations,  and  hiding, 
within  their  lofty  walls,  the  revels  of  men 
whose  piety  was  but  a cloak  for  unlimited 
indulgence.  The  buildings  constituting  an 
abbey  or  monastery,  consisted  principally  of 
churches,  cloisters,  refectories,  chapters,  par- 
lors, dormitories,  courts,  gardens,  &c.  The 
choir  and  interior  buildings  of  convents  were 
fenced  in  by  grates,  and  inaccessible  to  vis- 
itors. The  church  consisted  of  the  choir,  an 
altar,  a nave,  aisles,  chapels,  and  a tower. 
The  cloister  comprehended  the  galleries  or 
covered  porticoes  of  a monastery,  in  which 
the  monks  took  their  exercise,  and  surround- 
ed an  open  space,  generally  devoted  to  the. 
cultivation  of  flowers,  neatly  distributed  in 
parterres,  interspersed  with  grass-plats,  and 
refreshed  by  careful  irrigation.  The  cloisters 
were  sometimes  adorned  with  valuable  paint- 
ings, and  were  generally  finished  specimens 
of  art.  The  refectory  of  an  abbey  was  the 
hall  in  which  the  fathers  ate.  The  refectory 


ABB 


2 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


furnished  at  first  frugal  fare,  and  the  holy 
fathers  did  not  tarry  long  in  it ; but  with  the 
declension  of  ecclesiastical  simplicity,  the 
character  of  their  meals  was  changed,  and 
they  made  the  walls  ring  with  the  merriment 
of  high  living  and  rich  wines.  The  refectory 
of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis,  at  Paris,  has  been 
celebrated  for  its  architectural  beauty.  The 
chapter  was  for  the  reception  of  assemblies 
to  discuss  the  private  affairs  of  the  house. 
The  chapter-houses  were  sometimes  orna- 
mented with  splendid  pictures.  The  parlor 
was  a kind  of  cabinet,  where  visitors  convers- 
ed with  the  monks  or  nuns  through  a grated 
window.  Formerly,  convents  contained  par- 
lors, in  which  novices  were  allowed  the  priv- 
ilege of  conversing  together,  at  hours  of 
recreation,  but  even  then  they  were  over- 
heard by  their  superiors,  who  were  provided 
with  places  for  eavesdropping.  The  dormi- 
tories were  usually  wings  in  the  building, 
containing  the  cells  of  its  inhabitants.  Here 
the  monks  enjoyed  their  brief  repose,  from 
which  they  were  awakened  to  acts  of  devo- 
tion, or  to  bend  in  solitude  before  the  crucifix, 
with  its  accompanying  mementos  of  mortal- 
ity, and  lose  themselves  in  the  reveries  of 
religious  enthusiasm.  The  gardens  of  mon- 
asteries generally  exhibited  neatness,  and 
were  not  the  least  favorite  appendage  to  the 
dwellings  of  the  monks. 

The  monks,  in  the  ages  of  general  dark- 
ness (that  is,  from  a.d.  600  to  1500),  pre- 
served in  their  monasteries  many  valuable 
volumes,  and  kept  alive  the  spark  of  learning, 
which,  but  for  their  exertions,  would  have 
been  extinguished.  Religious  houses  were, 
for  ages,  the  sole  depositories  of  literature 
and  science,  and  their  inhabitants  were  act- 
ively employed  in  the  duties  of  education. 
In  England,  one  person  or  more  in  each  con- 
vent was  appointed  to  instruct  pupils,  and 
these  were  the  children  of  those  neighbors 
who  chose  to  send  them.  They  were  instruct- 
ed in  grammar  and  church  music,  free  of  ex- 
pense. In  the  nunneries,  females  were  taught 
to  read  and  work,  and  the  daughters  of  noble- 
men and  gentlemen,  as  well  as  of  the  poorer 
people,  were  indebted  to  the  nuns  for  a large 
part  of  whatever  knowledge  they  possessed. 
Many  poor  descendants  of  noble  families 
looked  to  monasteries  for  refuge,  and  having 
taken  the  vow,  made  use  of  the  influence  of 


friends  to  gain  high  ecclesiastical  offices. 
Many  of  the  monks  were  men  driven  to  enter 
religious  houses  by  the  pangs  of  remorse,  and 
who  hoped  to  expiate  a career  of  crimes  by  se- 
clusion from  the  world,  and  the  observance  of 
the  most  austere  rites  of  the  church.  These,  as 
well  as  some  who  were  unaffectedly  pious, lived 
a blameless  life ; but  there  were  others  whose 
profligacy  was  unrepressed,  because  hidden 
by  that  veil  of  hypocrisy  which  they  closely 
drew  around  them.  Many  monks  were  skill- 
ful painters,  as  the  richly  illuminated  manu- 
scripts of  other  days  prove,  and  numerous 
were  the  legends  of  saints,  gorgeously  bla- 
zoned upon  pages  of  vellum,  that  filled  the 
shelves  of  the  holy  fathers.  Living  a life  of 
undisturbed  seclusion,  those  who  possessed  a 
literary  turn,  had  ample  time  to  indulge  their 
propensity,  though  very  few  literary  works 
of  any  merit  issued  from  the  monasteries. 

The  year  305  is  that  in  which  the  earliest 
monasteries  were  established  in  Egypt,  under 
the  conduct  of  St.  Anthony,  and  hence  sprang 
shortly  afterward,  many  others  in  various 
places.  In  360,  the  earliest  monastery  in 
France,  that  of  Saint  Martin,  at  Poitiers,  was 
established.  In  the  beginning,  monasteries 
were  inhabited  by  laymen.  For  more  than 
six  centuries  all  the  eastern  monasteries  were 
independent  of  each  other,  and  governed  by 
abbots  who  were  answerable  to  their  bishops 
only.  The  first  monasteries,  in  times  of 
trouble  and  darkness,  preserved  the  spirit  of 
religion,  and  were  sanctuaries  in  which  piety 
and  learning  sought  refuge  from  the  igno- 
rance, irreligion,  and  persecutions  of  the 
world.  A mild  light,  denied  to  the  rest  of 
mankind,  was  shed  upon  those  who  took 
upon  themselves  the  fulfillment  of  monastic 
vows.  The  conduct  of  the  monks  was  regu- 
lated by  the  plain  commands  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  antiquity  was  followed  in  the  celebration 
of  religious  ceremonies,  and  the  practice  of' 
Christian  virtues.  The  monks,  as  remarked 
above,  were,  for  many  centuries,  the  pre- 
servers of  literature,  many  valuable  works  of 
the  present  day  having  been  rescued  from 
destruction  by  monastic  libraries.  But  with 
the  revival  of  letters,  and  the  triumph  of  the 
Reformation,  the  usefulness  of  monastic  es- 
tablishments passed  away. 

Constantine  IV.  ordered  a vast  number  of 
friars  and  nuns  to  appear  at  Ephesus,  where 


ABB 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


3 


he  bade  them  change  their  black  habits  for 
white,  and  to  destroy  their  images.  They 
remonstrated  that  because  of  their  vows,  to 
obey  was  impossible ; whereupon  their  eyes 
were  put  out,  they  were  banished,  and  their 
monasteries  forfeited  and  sold  for  the  uses 
of  the  state.  The  suppression  of  monastic 
•houses  has  been  frequent,  even  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries.  All  those  in  England 
were  swept  away  by  Henry  YITI.  Their 
revenues,  treasures,  and  lands  were  either 
retained  by  the  crown  or  bestowed  upon 
favorite  courtiers. 

The  diminution  of  the  papal  power,  and 
the  enlightened  spirit  of  the  age,  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  exerted  a strong  influ- 
ence upon  the  public  mind  with  regard  to 
monasteries  in  Catholic  countries,  and  they 
lost  many  of  their  privileges  and  much  of 
the  protection  previously  given  them  by  law. 
Joseph  II.  of  Austria,  in  1781,  abolished 
some  orders  of  monasteries  and  limited  the 
number  of  inmates  in  others.  In  France 
they  were  all  abolished  in  1790.  During  the 
reign  of  Napoleon,  all  the  states  incorporated 
with  France,  as  well  as  other  Catholic  <*>un- 
tries  of  Europe,  abolished  them,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Spain,  Portugal,  Naples,  Austria, 
Poland,  and  Russia.  Pope  Pius  VII.  pro- 
cured means  for  the  maintenance  of  old,  and 
the  foundation  of  new  ones  in  France,  Bava- 
ria, and  Naples,  while  in  Austria  they  became 
extinct. 

ABBOT,  George,  born  in  1562,  and  made 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1610.  He  was 
a cloth-worker,  and  early  remarkable  for 
polemical  skill.  He  strenuously  opposed 
some  measures  of  King  James,  thereby  dis- 
proving the  assertion  that  he  owed  his  rise 
to  acts  more  worthy  of  a courtier  than  an 
ecclesiastic.  Having  the  misfortune  to  kill  a 
gamekeeper  of  Lord  Zouch,  he  ever  afterward 
fasted  upon  Tuesday,  the  day  on  which  the 
unhappy  event  took  place,  fie  was  sup- 
planted in  favor  at  court  by  Laud,  and  died 
at  the  age  of  seventy-one  in  1633. 

ABBOT,  Charles,  Viscount  Colchester, 
was  speaker  of  the  British  House  of  Com- 
mons, from  1802  to  1817.  He  was  born  in 
1757,  and  died  in  1829. 

ABDICATIONS  OF  MONARCHS:  of 
Sylla  as  perpetual  dictator  of  Rome,  b.c.  79. 
Dioclesian,  a.d.  304.  Ceawlin,  king  of  the 


West  Saxons,  593.  Henry  IV.  of  Germany, 
1080.  Stephen  II.  of  Hungary,  1114.  Al- 
bert of  Saxony,  1142.  Lestus  V.  of  Poland, 
1200.  Uladislaus  III.  of  Poland,  1206.  John 
Baliol  of  Scotland,  1306.  Otho  of  Hungary, 
1309.  Eric  IX.  of  Denmark,  1439.  Eric 
XIII.  of  Sweden,  1441.  Amurath  II.,  em- 
peror of  the  Turks,  1447.  Charles  V.  of 
Germany,  and  as  Charles  I.  of  Spain,  1556. 
Christina  of  Sweden,  1654.  John  Casimir 
of  Poland,  1668.  James  II.  of  England 
(really  dethroned),  1688.  Frederick  Augus- 
tus II.  of  Poland,  1704.  Philip  V.  of  Spain, 
1724,  January  15th,  but  resumed  the  scepter 
in  about  fourteen  months  afterward,  on  the 
death  of  his  son  Louis,  in  whose  favor  he  had 
abdicated.  Victor  Amadeus  of  Sardinia, 
1730.  Charles  of  Naples,  1759.  Stanislaus 
of  Poland,  1795.  Victor  of  Sardinia,  June 
4th,  1802.  Francis  II.  resigns  his  title  as 
Emperor  of  Germany,  August  11th,  1804. 
Charles  IV.  of  Spain,  March  19th,  1808. 
Joseph  Bonaparte  from  Naples  to  take  the 
crown  of  Spain,  June  1st,  1808;  fled  before 
the  British  from  Madrid,  July  29th,  1808. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  IV.  of  Sweden,  March 
19th,  1809.  Louis  Bonaparte  of  Holland, 
July  1st,  1810.  Jerome  Bonaparte  of  West- 
phalia, Oct.  20th,  1813.  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
of  France,  April  5th,  1814.  Emmanuel  of 
Sardinia,  March  13th,  1821.  Pedro  IV.  of 
Portugal,  May  2d,  1826.  Charles  X.  of 
France,  Aug.  2d,  1830.  Pedro  I.  of  Brazil, 
April  7th,  1831.  Miguel  of  Portugal,  May 
26th,  1834.  William  I.  of  Holland,  Oct.  8th, 
1840.  Christina  of  Spain  (queen  dowager 
and  regent),  Oct.  12th,  1840.  Louis  Phil- 
ippe of  France,  Feb.  24th,  1848  (deposed 
immediately  afterward).  Louis  Charles  of 
Bavaria,  March  21st,  1848.  Ferdinand  of 
Austria,  Dec.  2d,  1848.  Charles  Albert  of 
Sardinia,  March  26th,  1849. 

ABEL,  son  of  Waldemar  II.  of  Denmark, 
gained  the  scepter  by  assassinating  his  brother 
Eric  in  1250.  A revolt  of  the  Frisons  caused 
the  loss  of  his  life,  in  1252.  His  appellation 
was  certainly  a misnomer. 

ABELARD,  Peter  (properly  Abailard, 
Pierre),  was  born  in  1079,  of  a noble  family, 
at  Palais,  near  Nantes  in  Brittany.  The  stir- 
ring incidents  of  his  chequered  life,  and 
especially  his  passion  for  Heloise,  with  its 
melancholy  fruits,  have  thrown  a peculiar  and 


ABE 


4 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


romantic  charm  around  the  name  of  Abelard. 
From  his  youth  he  devoted  himself  to  study. 
Coming  to  Paris  at  the  age  of  twenty,  and 
having  soon  rivaled  and  eclipsed  his  tutor, 
Guillaume  de  Champeaux,  he  removed  in  two 
years  from  Paris  to  Melun,  thence  to  Corbeil, 
and  thence  to  Palais,  his  birthplace,  teaching 
philosophy 'all  the  while  with  great  success. 
The  attractions  of  Paris  soon  drew  him  again 
to  the  metropolis,  where  he  attacked  the 
realism  of  his  old  master  with  such  dialectic 
dexterity  and  vigor,  that  Champeaux’ s school 
was  speedily  extinguished.  By  and  by  his 
antagonist  was  made  Bishop  of  Chalon-sur- 
Marne,  and  Abelard  commenced  to  study 
theology  under  Anselm  at  Laon.  Having, 
by  his  transcendent  talent,  made  the  seminary 
at  Laon  his  envious  enemy,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  opened  a school  of  divinity  with 
unrivaled  popularity.  In  that  school  were 
trained  many  men,  from  various  countries, 
who  afterward  arrived  at  high  ecclesiastical 
honors ; one  pope,  nineteen  cardinals,  and 
above  fifty  bishops.  In  this  zenith  of  his 
fame,  when,  according  to  his  own  confession, 
pride  and  luxury  had  misled  him,  he  loved 
and  seduced  his  pupil,  Heloise,  a young  and 
fatherless  lady,  not  twenty  years  of  age,  and 
a niece  of  Canon  Fulbert,  a Parisian  ecclesi- 
astic. Heloise  was  conveyed  to  Brittany,  and 
bore  a son  in  the  house  of  Abelard’s  sister. 
The  canon  insisted  upon  a marriage,  which 
accordingly  took  place ; a union  which  He- 
loise openly  denied,  to  her  uncle’s  great  vexa- 
tion. Abelard  placed  her  in  the  convent,  of 
Argenteuil ; but  her  uncle  took  a terrible  re- 
venge for  the  abduction  of  his  niece.  Hired 
ruffians  broke  into  Abelard’s  chamber,  and 
inflicted  on  his  person  a disgraceful  mutila- 
tion. Heloise  became  a nun,  and  Abelard 
retired  as  a monk  into  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis. 
At  length  he  resumed  his  prelections,  but 
had  the  misfortune  of  being  suspected  of 
heresy,  and  was  condemned  in  1121,  by  a 
council  which  met  at  Soissons.  He  retired 
to  Troyes,  and  selected  a retreat  which  his 
subdued  and  chastened  spirit  named  the  Par- 
aclete, or  Comforter;  and  in  this  convent 
Heloise  was  at  length  established  as  superior. 
But  the  unfortunate  recluse  provoked  the  ire 
of  his  neighbor,  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  and 
a>  ?in,  for  suspected  heresy,  did  the  council 
0 Sens  put  its  brand  upon  him.  He  appeal- 


ed to  Rome,  but  did  not  follow  out  his  appeal. 
Worn  out  with  fatigue,  persecution,  and 
infirmity,  he  at  length  took  refuge  in  the 
priory  of  St.  Marcel,  where  he  died  April 
21st,  1142,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  His 
body,  first  interred  at'Cluni,  was  soon  removed 
to  the  Paraclete ; and  twenty  years  afterward 
Heloise  was  buried  beside  him  at  her  own 
request.  Their  ashes  lay  undisturbed  for 
three  hundred  years  ; but  in  1497  they  were 
transferred  to  the  church  of  the  abbey ; then 
in  1800  removed  to  the  garden  of  the  Musee 
Fran§ais,  in  Paris;  and  lastly,  in  1817  they 
were  deposited  beneath  a Gothic  shrine  in  the 
cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise.  The  brilliant 
talents  and  oratory  of  Abelard  are  beyond 
dispute.  As  a subtle  and  accomplished  dia- 
lectician he  had  no  rival. 

ABERCROMBIE,  John,  M.  D.,  a writer  of 
some  note  in  intellectual  philosophy,  born  at 
Aberdeen,  Scotland,  Nov.  11th,  1781 ; attain- 
ed high  rank  as  a physician  at  Edinburgh ; 
died  Nov.  14th,  1844. 

ABERCROMBIE,  Sir  Ralph,  an  eminent 
British  general,  was  born  in  Scotland,  in  1788. 
He  Entered  the  army  at  eighteen,  and  rose 
from  cornet  to  general.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Duke  of  York’s  campaigns  in 
Holland,  from  1793  to  1795.  He  was  then 
made  commander-in-chief  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  conquered  several  islands  from  the  French. 
He  commanded  the  expedition  to  re-conquer 
Egypt  in  1801,  and  fell  at  the  battle  of  Alex- 
andria, March  21st.  In  this  action,  by  whose 
decision  Egypt  was  lost  to  France,  Gen. 
Abercrombie  displayed  the  chivalric  valor 
of  a knight  of  the  olden  time.  Dismounted, 
and  suffering  from  two  mortal  wounds,  he 
disarmed  his  adversary,  and  gave  the  sword 
into  the  hands  of  Sir  Sydney  Smith.  He 
survived  about  a week.  His  memory  was 
honored  by  his  countrymen,  and  a costly 
monument  erected  in  St.  Paul’s,  a public 
token  of  the  respect  of  England  for  as  brave 
and  true  a soldier  as  ever  fought  beneath  her 
banner. 

ABERNETHY,  John  (1763-1831),  was  a 
native  of  the  north  of  Ireland.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  John  Hunter,  and  became  an  emi- 
nent surgeon  in  London.  He  was  as  eccen- 
tric and  brusque  in  his  manners  as  he  was 
skillful  in  his  profession. 

ABINGER  (James  Scarlett),  Lord,  an 


ABI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


5 


eminent  English  barrister  and  judge,  was 
born  in  Jamaica,  about  1769,  of  an  influential 
West  Indian  family.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge and  the  Middle  Temple,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1791.  He  was  a successful 
lawyer ; sat  in  parliament,  at  first  acting  with 
the  Whigs ; going  over  to  the  Tories,  he  was- 
attorney-general  under  Canning,  and  after- 
ward under  Wellington.  In  1834  he  was 
made  chief  baron  • of  the  exchequer,  and 
raised  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Baron 
Abinger.  He  died  April  7th,  1844,  of  paraly- 
sis, by  which  he  was  attacked  while  on  the 
circuit. 

ABOUKIR,  the  site  of  the  ancient  Cano- 
pus, is  an  Arabian  village  containing  but 
about  a hundred  inhabitants.  Its  bay  is  spa- 
cious, and  has,  upon  the  western  side,  a castle 
of  considerable  strength.  It  is  thirteen  miles 
north-east  of  Alexandria,  upon  the  coast  of 
Egypt.  Aboukir  is  rendered  famous  by  the 
important  naval  battle  fought  here  between 
the  French  and  English  fleets,  the  latter  com- 
manded by  Admiral  Nelson,  «on  the  1st  of 
August,  1798.  Bonaparte’s  army  was  con- 
veyed to  Egypt  by  the  French  fleet,  which 
sailed  from  the  harbor  of  Toulon,  on  the  1 9th 
of  May,  1798.  As  soon  as  intelligence  of 
this  reached  the  English  fleet  before  Cadiz, 
Admiral  St.  Vincent  despatched  Rear-Admiral 
Nelson  with  fourteen  ships  of  the  line,  to  the 
Mediterranean,  with  orders  to  find  and  attack 
the  French  fleet.  Nelson,  burning  for  fame, 
and  eager  to  meet  the  enemy,  at  length  found 
them  in  the  road  of  Aboukir.  The  signal  for 
battle  was  immediately  given.  The  French 
captains,  who  had  been  assembled  on  board 
the  admiral’s  ship,  hastened  to  their  posts, 
and  an  English  ship  instantly  commenced 
the  attack.  The*  French  fleet  was  disposed 
in  the  form  of  a crescent,  following  the  curve 
of  the  bay,  and  anchored  as  close  as  possible 
to  an  island  on  which  was  erected  a powerful 
battery  of  cannon  and  mortars.  Nelson  or- 
dered a part  of  his  fleet  to  break  through 
between  the  island  and  the  French  line  of 
battle,  and  to  coast  along  until  they  gained 
the  enemy *s  rear,  while  the  remainder  of  the 
English  fleet  approached  the  enemy’s  front, 
and  anchored  within  pistol-shot.  These  or- 
ders were  executed  with  skill  and  daring, 
and,  at  half  past  six  in  the  evening,  the  battle 
began,  just  as  the  setting  sun  threw  a fiery 


hue  upon  the  fearful  scene.  The  fire  of  the 
English  was  well  directed  and  deadly.  At 
the  end  of  one  hour,  five  French  ships  were 
disabled  and  captured.  Admiral  Brueys  was 
shot  as  he  was  directing  the  fight  from  his 
ship  1’ Orient.  After  the  admiral  was  shot, 
Capt.  Casabianca  and  crew,  determined  to 
maintain  the  honor  of  the  flag-ship,  fought 
her  with  great  spirit.  L’ Orient,  blew  up  after 
having  been  fought  for  four  hours.  She  was 
a superb  vessel,  a hundred-and-twenty  gun 
ship,  with  a crew  of  a thousand  men,  out  of 
whom  but  eighty  or  ninety  were  saved  from 
destruction.  The  scene  of  the  combat  must 
have  been  awfully  sublime,  for  the  cannon- 
ading continued  all  night,  and  day  dawned 
upon  a scene  of  destruction  and  dismay.  The 
French  suffered  severely.  Only  two  of  their 
ships  of  the  line,  and  two  frigates,  got  off 
clear.  Nine  ships  of  the  line  were  taken, 
one  blown  up,  and  one  frigate  sunk.  The 
French  themselves  set  fire  to  and  burned  a 
ship  of  the  line  and  a frigate.  The  success 
of  the  British  was  a severe  blow  to  Bona- 
parte, as  it  cut  off  his  communication  with 
France,  and  inspired  his  enemies  with  fresh 
hope  and  resolution,  giving  spirit  to  the  coali- 
tion formed  against  the  power  which  had  so 
suddenly  attained  a giant  strength.  The  con- 
flict is  also  sometimes  called  the  battle  of  the 
Nile:  it  obtained  the  victorious  admiral  a 
peerage,  by  the  title  of  Baron  Nelson  of  the 
Nile.  His  exclamation  upon  going  into  the 
fight  was,  “ Victory  or  W estminster  Abbey ! ” 
Aboukir  was  also  the  point  where  Abercrom- 
bie’s forces  debarked,  and  it  surrendered  to 
him  after  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  strug- 
gle with  the  French,  March  8th,  1801. 

ABRADATES,  a king  of  Susa,  of  whom 
Xenophon  relates  that  his  wife,  Panthea, 
having  been  taken  prisoner  by  Cyrus,  was 
well  treated,  in  consequence  of  which  her 
husband  joined  the  troops  of  he  conqueror, 
but  was  killed  in  the  very  first  battle  which 
he  fought  for  him.  His  wife,  in  despair, 
killed  herself  upon  his  corpse.  Both  were 
honored  and  lamented  by  Cyrus. 

ABRUZZO  is  divided  into  three  provinces : 
Abruzzo  Citra,  and  Abruzzo  Ultra,  I.  and  II. ; 
so  named  from  their  relative  position  with  re- 
gard to  Naples.  It  is  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  Neapolitan  kingdom,  and  bounded  on 
the  north  and  west  by  the  territories  of  the 


ABR 


6 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


church,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic.  Its 
population  in  1845  was  estimated  at  825,940. 
The  country  is  crossed  in  all  directions  by 
the  lofty  Apennines  and  their  off-shoots. 
The  spring  rains  and  thaws  often  swell  the 
streams  to  such  an  extent,  that  bridges  are 
swept  away,  and  all  communication  broken 
up.  The  inhabitants  of  the  valleys,  which 
are  fertile,  are  generally  shepherds,  and  fine 
herds  feed  upon  the  eminences  and  pasturage 
spots  of  the  valleys.  Abruzzo  is  a very  im- 
portant division  of  the  Neapolitan  states,  of 
which  it  constitutes  the  chief  defense  on  the 
land. side.  During  the  numerous  invasions 
and  civil  wars  of  that  kingdom  it  has  often 
been  the  scene  of  protracted  contests.  The 
chief  towns  are,  Chieti,  population  15,000; 
Teramo,  population  10,000;  Aquila,  popula- 
tion 14,000. 

ABULFEDA,  or  Ishmael,  prince  of  Hamah 
in  Syria;  an  Arabian,  famous  for  his  historical 
and  geographical  writings,  and  surnamed  the 
Pillar  of  Religion,  and  the  Prince  of  Victory. 
He  was  a native  of  Damascus,  and  born  a.d. 
1273.  Although  inheriting  the  throne  of 
Hamah  from  his  uncle,  he  was  debarred  for  a 
long  time  from  the  enjoyment  of  his  rights, 
but  when  gained,  the  kingdom  remained  un- 
disturbed under  his  sway,  until  the  time  of 
his  death,  which  took  place  a.d.  1333. 

ABYDOS,  a city  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the 
Dardanelles,  of  Milesian  origin,  famed  for  the 
bridge  of  boats  constructed  by  order  of 
Xerxes,  and  familiar  to  all  readers  as  the  res- 
idence of  Hero,  the  mistress  of  Leander,  who 
swam  the  Hellespont  to  meet  her,  until 

“ That  night  of  stormy  water, 

When  Love — who  sent — forgot  to  save 

The  lone,  the  beautiful,  the  brave, 

The  only  hope  of  Sestos’  daughter.” 

Lord  Byron,  whose  lines  we  quote,  per- 
formed Leander’ s feat  in  company  with  Mr. 
Ekenhead,  an  Englishman.  The  turbulence 
of  the  currents  renders  the  passage  a critical 
undertaking.  The  inhabitants  of  Abydos 
gallantly  defended  their  city  against  Philip 
of  Macedon. 

Another  Abydos  in  Upper  Egypt,  was 
famed  for  the  magnificence  of  the  palace  of 
Memnon  and  the  temple  of  Osiris.  Some 
splendid  ruins,  manifesting  its  former  grand- 
eur, are  to  be  found  in  the  village  of  El- 
Rherbeh. 


ABYSSINIA  is  a large  tract  of  elevated 
table-land  in  eastern  Africa,  the  north-eastern 
edge  of  which  is  directed  toward  the  Red 
Sea,  and  is  from  thirty  to  sixty  miles  from 
the  coast.  It  lies  between  8°  30'  and  15°  40 
N.  lat.,  and  between  35°  and  42°  E.  long.,  and 
is  drained  by  the  principal  branches  of  the 
Nile.  The  name  is  thought  by  most  authors 
to  be  derived  from  the  Arabic  Habesh , which 
signifies  a mixed  people.  The  Portuguese 
gave  this  country  the  name  of  Prester  or 
Presbyter  John’s  empire,  but  it  appears  that 
there  is  no  foundation  for  the  supposition  that 
any  such  person  ever  dwelt  or  was  heard  of 
in  Abyssinia.  The  ancients,  who  were  very 
little  acquainted  with  the  kingdom,  represent- 
ed its  extent  as  far  greater  than  the  reality 
proved.  Its  three  grand  divisions  are  Tigre, 
Amhara,  and  Shoa  and  Efat.  There  is  an 
ancient  tradition  that  Abyssinia  was  the 
kingdom  of  Sheba  or  Seba,  the  visit  of  whose 
queen  to  Solomon  is  spoken  of  in  the  sacred 
writings,  and  that  the  Queen  of  Sheba  had  a 
son,  of  whom  Solomon  was  the  father.  From 
this  prince,  whose  name  was  Menileh,  the 
sovereigns  of  Abyssinia  claimed  to  be  de- 
scended. The  Jewish  religion,  some  think, 
was  prevalent  in  Abyssinia  until  nearly  the 
middle  of  the.  fourth  century,  when  mission- 
aries from  Alexandria  converted  the  people 
to  Christianity.  Others  conjecture  that  Abys- 
sinia was  the  kingdom  of  that  queen  Can- 
dace, whose  eunuch  was  baptized  by  Philip, 
and  that  Candace  and  her  people  embraced 
the  same  faith.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the 
Portuguese  assisted  the  Abyssinian  monarch 
against  his  enemies  and  in  return  he  adopted 
the  Catholic  religion.  The  Romish  priests 
were  finally  expelled  in  1632. 

For  more  than  a century  this  country  has 
been  in  anarchy.  There  is  a sovereign,  but 
his  authority  is  only  nominal,  and  civil  wars 
are  frequent.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
between  three  and  four  millions.  The  bulk  of 
the  people  are  of  the  Circassian  race.  There 
are  many  Mohammedans  in  the  land,  but  the 
prevailing  faith  is  Coptic  Christianity.  The 
head  of  the  church,  called  Abuna,  (meaning 
“our  father”),  receives  his  ordination  from 
the  Archbishop  of  Alexandria.  Wheat  and 
barley  are  grown;  in  some  places  Indian 
corn,  and  in  others  cotton.  The  country  is 
poor  in  minerals.  Iron-ore  of  good  quality 


ABY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


7 


is  found.  Rock  salt  is  found  abundantly  in  the 
eastern  extremity  of  Tigre,  and  the  common 
currency  consists  of  pieces  in  the  shape  of 
a whetstone,  weighing  nineteen  or  twenty 
ounces.  The  manufactures  are  rude,  but 
what  progress  in  these  the  Abyssinians  have 
made,  is  original,  for  they  have  had  little  in- 
tercourse with  Europeans.  They  tan  skins 
well,  make  rough  iron  implements,  and  weave 
coarse  cotton  cloth.  Coarse  black  pottery  is 
made  in  every  part  of  the  country.  They 
have  some  traffic  with  the  interior  of  Africa, 
in  slaves,  ivory,  coffee,  civet,  gold,  cloth,  iron, 
and  cattle. 

The  first  ruler  who  established  supremacy 
over  the  petty  princes  and  consolidated  the 
country  into  one  empire,  was  King  Theodore 
(real  name  Kassai),  who  acceded  to  the 
throne  in  1855.  He  involved  himself  in  a 
war  with  England  by  imprisoning  some  of 
her  subjects,  and  was  killed  at  the  capture  of 
his  fortress,  Magdala,  by  the  English,  April 
1868.  In  Aug.  1868,  King  Gobazie,  the  ruler 
of  Waag,  declared  himself  Emperor  of  all 
Abyssinia,  and  was  crowned  at  Gondar  in 
September  of  the  same  year. 

Bruce  gives  a sorry  picture  of  the  people. 
The  punishments  in  Abyssinia  are  severe, 
and  frequently  as  well  as  unfeelingly  inflicted. 
Death  on  the  cross,  hanging,  stoning  to  death, 
flaying  alive,  and  plucking  out  the  eyes,  stand 
foremost  in  the  dark  catalogue.  Their  fes- 
tivities are  disgraced  by  the  most  revolting 
practices.  When  the  guests  are  assembled, 
the  cooks  cut  steaks  from  the  cattle  at  the 
door  while  they  are  yet  alive,  and  roaring 
with  agony.  The  guests  wipe  their  fingers 
upon  the  cakes  which  they  afterward  eat. 
The  people  are  illiterate  and  depraved,  and 
their  whole  country  exhibits  the  appearance 
of  hopeless  wretchedness  and  poverty. 

ACARNANIA,  a division  of  ancient  Greece, 
now  II  Carnia,  or  II  Despotato,  Albania,  was 
formerly  called  Curetis,  a country  of  Epirus, 
separated  from  iEtolia  by  the  Achelous,  and 
long  an  independent  state.  After  having 
been  conquered  by  the  Romans,  it  was  per- 
mitted to  retain  its  own  laws  until  the  de- 
struction of  Corinth  by  Mummius,  when  it 
Was  united  to  the  province  of  Achaia. 

ACHAIA  was  a narrow  strip  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, and  stretching  along  the  Bay  of 
Corinth.  The  name  is  sometimes  employed 


by  the  early  poets  to  distinguish  all  Greece. 
After  Greece  became  a Roman  province, 
Achaia  included  all  the  Grecian  states  but 
Macedonia  and  Thessaly.  Eighty  years  after 
the  Trojan  war,  the  descendants  of  Achaeus, 
who  first  dwelt  in  the  country  near  Argos, 
being  driven  out  by  the  Heraclidse,  seized 
upon  the  twelve  Ionian  cities,  and  kept  them. 
These  were  Pellene,  ^Egira,  iEges,  Bura, 
Tritaea,  iEgion,  Rhypse,  Olenos,  Helice,  Pa- 
trae,  Dyme,  and  Pharae.  These  twelve  little 
states  of  Achaia  were  independent  republics, 
and  were  combined  in  the  famous  confederacy 
known  as  the  Achaian  League,  about  b.c. 
281.  This  was  much  like  the  federal  union  of 
our  own  states.  Aratus  and  Philopcemen  by 
their  talents  and  bravery  raised  it  to  a high 
rank.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Romans 
146  b.c. 

ACHILLAS,  a general  of  Ptolemy,  and 
the  murderer  of  Pompey  the  Great. 

ACHILLES,  as  the  poets  tell  us,  was  the 
son  of  Peleus,  a Thessalian  king,  and  Thetis, 
daughter  of  Nereus,  grandson  of  iEacus. 
Thetis,  in  order  to  preserve  her  beautiful  boy 
from  the  dangers  of  war,  dipped  him  in  the 
Styx  (a  river  of  hell),  which  rendered  him 
invulnerable,  with  the  exception  of  the  heel 
by  which  she  held  him.  Having  been  warned 
that  if  Achilles  went  to  the  Trojan  war,  he 
would  meet  death  after  a glorious  career,  while, 
in  remaining  at  home,  he  would  attain  a good 
old  age,  Thetis  disguised  her  boy  in  a female 
' dress,  and  sent  him,  under  the  name  of  Pyrrha, 
to  be  educated  at  the  court  of  Lycomedes, 
king  of  Scyros,  who  brought  him  up  with 
his  daughters.  The  Greeks  were  informed 
by  the  prophet  Chalcas,  that  Troy  could  not 
be  taken  without  the  aid  of  Achilles,  and 
accordingly,  Ulysses,  the  most  wily  of  the 
Greeks,  went  as  a merchant  to  the  court  of 
Lycomedes.  Here  he  was  surrounded  by  the 
princesses,  before  whose  eager  eyes  he  spread 
out  his  sparkling  store,  taking  care  to  mingle 
implements  of  war  with  feminine  articles. 
While  the  daughters  of  the  king  seized  upon 
the  trinkets,  Achilles  possessed  himself  of 
the  arms.  The  gleaming  breastplate  and  the 
burnished  spear  ill  matched  the  garb  he  wore, 
and  the  fiery  young  hero  was  soon  induced 
to  cast  it  off,  and  take  part  with  the  Greeks 
in  their  expedition.  Phoenix  and  the  Cen- 
taur Chiron  had  instructed  him  in  mental 


ACH 


8 


^OTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  bodily  accomplishments,  and  the  former 
accompanied  him  to  Troy.  Achilles  is  one  of 
the  bravest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  Homeric 
heroes,  being  the  subject  of  some  of  the 
finest  verses  in  the  “ Iliad.”  The  following 
glowing  description  is  from  the  nineteenth 
book  of  the  immortal  poem. 

“ In  the  midst  was  arm’d  the  godlike  Achilles, 
Grinding  his  teeth,  and  whose  eyes 
Roll’d  glowing  like  a flash  of  fire,  into  whose 
heart 

Enter’d  intolerable  pain : raving  against  the 
Trojans, 

He  donn’d  the  gifts  divine  which  the  artist  Vul- 
can had  made  for  him. 

First  around  his  thighs  he  placed  the  cuishes 
Beautifully  form’d,  and  fix’d  with  silver  clasps, 
Next  the  cuirass  on  his  chest  he  placed, 

Then  around  his  shoulders  he  threw  the  baldric 
of  his  sword  studded  with  silver  knobs 
And  brass : and  then  his  shield,  large  and  broad, 
He  took,  whose  refulgence  spread  far  and  wide 
like  that  of  the  moon, 

As  when  from  the  sea,  there  shines  to  mariners 
a beam 

Of  flaming  fire,  which  blazed  aloft  from  the 
mountains, 

In  a shepherd’s  solitude : them  reluctant,  the 
tempests 

Bear  far  away  from  their  friends  over  the  fishy 
sea : 

In  like  manner  the  gleam  mounted  heavenward 
from  Achilles’  shield 

Beautiful,  Dsedalaean.  His  mighty  helmet  up- 
lifting 

On  his  head  he  placed ; like  a star,  shone 
Che  horsehair-crested  helmet : there  waved 
around  him  the  hair 

Ox  gold,  with  which  in  great  abundance  Vulcan 
had  surrounded  the  crest. 

The  godlike  Achilles  essayed  himself  in  his 
armor, 

Whether  it  might  fit  him,  at  d if  his  fair  limbs 
should  move  easily  : 

To  him  it  was  like  wings,  iilid  buoyed  up  the 
Shepherd  of  the  people. 

From  the  sheath  his  paternal  spear  he  drew, 
Ponderous,  huge,  strong:  which  none  other  of 
the  Greeks  was  able 

To  brandish,  and  which  Achilles  alone  knew  how 
to  rear, 

— That  ashen  spear  of  Peleus  which  Chiron  had 
hewed  for  his  father 

From  the  summit  of  Pelion, — to  be  death  to 
heroes ! ” 

Achilles  proved  himself  no  wavering  or 
weak  partisan.  His  presence  was  a host,  but 
he  also  sailed  with  fifty  ships  well  manned, 
and  destroyed  twelve  island  cities,  and  eleven 
on  the  main-land.  Minerva  and  Juno  aided 
him.  Agamemnon,  whom  the  Greeks  had 
chosen  their  leader,  having  taken  prisoner 


Chryseis,  daughter  of  Chryses,  priest  of 
Apollo,  was  forced  to  restore  the  maid  to 
avert  from  the  Greeks  the  plague  which 
Apollo,  moved  by  the  prayers  of  his  aged 
worshiper,  sent  upon  them.  Agamemnon 
offended  Achilles  by  taking  fiom  him  his 
beautiful  captive,  Briseis,  daughter  of  Brises, 
and  wife  of  Mines,  king  of  Lyrnessus.  En- 
raged at  his  loss,  the  formidable  warrior  re- 
tired from  the  field,  permitting  the  Trojan 
Hector  to  carry  terror  and  slaughter  through 
the  ranks  of  the  Greeks.  He,  however,  suf- 
fered his  friend  Patroclus  to  assume  his  arms, 
and  take  the  field  at  the  head  nf  his  own 
warriors ; but  this  hero  soon  fell  beneath  the 
arm  of  Hector.  Burning  to  revenge  the  death 
of  his  friend,  Achilles  determined  again  to 
confront  the  Trojans.  His  mother  brought 
him  the  splendid  arms  which  Vulcan  had 
forged  for  him,  so  finely  described  above. 
Again  he  burned  with  a warrior’s  ardor,  was 
reconciled  to  Agamemnon,  and,  refreshed  by 
nectar  and  ambrosia  sent  by  Minerva,  plunged 
into  the  heat  of  battle. 

Achilles  speedily  rolled  back  the  tide  of 
war.  He  pursued  the  retreating  Trojans  into 
the  river  Xanthus,  which  became  choked 
with  bodies,  and  crimson  with  carnage.  The 
river-god,  resenting  this  sanguinary  pursuit 
as  an  insult,  comman^bd  Achilles  to  desist,  and 
on  the  refusal  of  the  impetuous  warrior,  over- 
flowed his  banks,  and  opposed  him,  assisted 
by  the  waters  of  Simois.  The  west  and  south 
winds,  and  the  aid  of  Vulcan,  sent  by  Juno, 
chastised  the  assumption  of  the  river-god  and 
reduced  him  to  his  original  limits.  Achilles 
was  only  prevented  from  taking  the  city  by 
the  interference  of  Apollo,  the  protector  of 
the  Trojans.  Hector  confronted  and  fought 
Achilles,  by  whom  he  was  slain.  His  body, 
after  being  attached  to  the  chariot  of  the  vic- 
tor, and  dragged  round  the  city,  was  ran- 
somed by  Priam,  the  venerable  father  of  the 
slain  warrior.  Achilles,  falling  in  love  with 
Polyxena,  daughter  of  Priam,  purchased  her 
hand  by  a promise  to  defend  Troy ; but  while 
standing  at  the  altar  with  her,  an  arrow  from 
the  bow  of  Paris  pierced  his  heel  and  slew 
him.  His  body  was  a prize  for  which  a fierce 
contest  arose.  The  Greeks  sacrificed  his 
bride  upon  his  tomb,  according  to  his  dying 
request,  that  he  might  enjoy  her  society  in 
the  Elysian  fields,  the  paradise  of  the  heathen 


ACII 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


9 


Alexander  the  Great,  who  venerated  and  im- 
itated Homeric  heroes,  visited  the  tomb  of 
Achilles,  and  crowned  it,  saying,  “Achilles 
was  happy  in  having  Patroclus  for  a friend, 
and  Homer  for  a poet.” 

ACHMET  I.,  sultan  of  the  Turks,  began  to 
reign  in  1603,  and  died  in  1617.  The  tran- 
quillity of  this  sovereign  was  disturbed  by 
insurrections,  and  the  intrigues  of  a pretender 
to  his  throne.  Achmet  II.  was  sultan  of  the 
Turks  from  1691  to  1695.  Achmet  III.,  son 
of  Mahomet  IV.,  was  raised  to  the  throne  of 
the  Ottoman  empire,  in  1705,  by  the  revolt 
of  the  Janizaries,  who  deposed  his  brother, 
Mustapha  II.  Achmet,  although  he  appre- 
hended and  punished  the  leaders  of  the  revolt, 
yet  availed  himself  of  the  fruits  of  their 
crime.  His  reign,  however,  was  by  no  means 
passed  in  tranquillity,  and  repeated  changes 
of  the  viziers  marked  the  insecurity  felt  by 
the  monarch.  Achmet  placed  his  principal 
reliance  on  the  power  of  gold,  which  he 
sometimes  used  for  good  ends.  When  Charles 
XII.  had  been  defeated  at  Pultowa,  he  was 
hospitably  received  at  the  Turkish  court, 
where  his  intrigues  soon  kindled  the  flame 
of  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey;  but 
Achmet  III.  was  unable  to  compete  with 
Peter  the  Great,  and  the  military  views  of 
his  vizier  were  by  no  “means  clear.  When 
the  fortunes  of  the  czar  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  Turks  on  the  borders  of  the  Pruth,  the 
Muscovite  purchased  of  the  vizier  permission 
to  retreat,  but  surrendered  Azof  to  the  Otto- 
mans. Against  the  Venetians  Achmet  was 
more  successful,  wresting  the  Morea  from 
their  grasp  in  a single  campaign.  But  the 
imperialists,  under  the  able  conduct  of  Prince 
Eugene  of  Savoy,  trampled  on  the  laurels  of 
the  Turks,  and  humbled  the  pride  of  their 
sultan.  Achmet,  by  the  loss  of  Peterwaradin, 
and  the  taking  of  Belgrade  and  Temeswar, 
was  forced  to  sign  the  treaty  of  Passarowitz. 
In  1718,  the  sultan  lost  Temeswar,  Orsoa, 
Belgrade,  Servia,  and  part  of  Wallachia;  a 
loss  which  was  compensated,  in  the  ensuing 
year,  by  his  Persian  successes.  A revolt  of 
the  Janizaries  made  Achmet  sultan,  and  a 
similar  rebellion  hurled  him  from  the  throne 
in  1730.  The  celebrated  Caliph  Patrona 
headed  this  revolt.  Achmet  went  in  person 
to  seek  his  nephew,  Mahmoud  I.,  and,  saluting 
him  as  ruler,  said,  “ Profit  by  my  example. 


Had  I always  adhered  to  my  old  policy  of 
permitting  my  vizier  but  a short  stay  in  office, 
I should  have  ended  my  reign  as  triumph- 
antly as  I commenced  it.  Farewell ! May 
your  career  be  happier  than  mine!  I com- 
mend to  your  especial  care  my  son.”  He 
then  went  into  the  obscurity  of  that  prison 
from  which  he  had  drawn  his  nephew.  He 
died  of  apoplexy,  on  the  23d  of  June,  1736. 
Achmet  possessed  a brilliant  wit,  and  much 
shrewdness,  with  a ready  turn  for  public 
business.  He  loved  money,  and  was  the  first 
to  levy  imposts  on  the  Turks,  but  he  was  no 
less  attached  to  science,  which  he  patronized. 
He  established  the  first  printing-press  at  Con- 
stantinople, 1727.  He  was  fond  of  pleasure, 
and  the  Turks  yet  cherish  the  recollection 
of  those  splendid  festivals  at  Constantinople, 
which  sprang  from  his  luxury,  and  were 
graced  by  his  presence.  Achmet  gave  con- 
certs of  nightingales,  numbers  of  those  birds 
being  inclosed  in  cages,  delighting  the  court 
with  their  rare  and  plaintive  melody. 

ACRE,  called  also,  Akka,  St.  Jean  d’Acre, 
and,  in  the  middle  ages,  Ptolemais,  is  a town 
on  the  coast  of  Syria.  The  famous  Mount 
Carmel  overlooks  the  city,  which  contains 
16,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  emporium  of 
the  cotton  trade  of  Syria.  Its  harbor  is  good, 
although  containing  many  sand-banks.  Acre 
has  been  a noted  scene  in  war.  It  was  taken 
by  Richard  I.  and  other  crusaders,  July  12th, 
1191,  after  a siege  of  two  years,  which  cost 
the  lives  of  six  archbishops,  twelve  bishops, 
forty  earls,  five  hundred  barons,  and  three 
hundred  thousand  soldiers.  It  was  held  by 
the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  till 
1291,  when  it  was  retaken  by  the  Saracens. 
Sixty  thousand  Christians  perished  in  this 
capture,  which  was  also  memorable  for  the 
slaughter  of  the  nuns,  who  had  mangled 
their  faces  to  avoid  the  lust  of  the  conquerors. 
In  the  siege  of  Acre  by  Bonaparte  in  1799, 
the  Turks  were  relieved  by  a British  fleet 
under  Sir  Sydney  Smith.  Twelve  assaults 
were  repulsed  between  March  6th  and  May 
27th.  Baffled  by  the  British  squadron  on 
the  water  and  the  Turks  on  shore,  Bonaparte 
raised  the  siege.  On  the  retreat  from  St„ 
Jean  d’Acre,  it  is  said  that  a body  of  French 
soldiers,  who  were  sick  of  the  plague,  were 
poisoned  by  order  of  Bonaparte ; but  this 
has  been  frequently  denied.  Of  the  kindness 


ACR 


10 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  Bonaparte  to  his  sick  soldiers  we  have 
many  proofs.  Louis  Philippe,  when  king  of 
the  French,  having  his  attention  called  to  an 
old  veteran  who  had  been  in  the  army  of 
Napoleon,  rode  up  and  shook  hands  with  him. 
The  old  man  was  not  flattered.  “When  I 
was  sick  with  the  plague  at  Jaffa,5 ’ said  he, 
bluntly,  “the  emperor  shook  hands  with  me; 
but  he  didn’t  have  gloves  on.”  The  siege  of 
St.  Jean  d’Acre  lasted  sixty-one  days,  and 
was  attended  with  great  loss  to  both  parties. 
Acre  was  seized  by  Ibrahim  Pacha  in  1832 
when  Egypt  revolted  from  Turkish  rule.  In 
1840  it  was  stormed  by  an  Anglo-Austrian 
fleet,  given  up  by  the  Egyptians,  and  restored 
to  the  sultan. 

ACTIUM,  a promontory  on  the  Gulf  of 
Arta  on  the  western  coast  of  Greece,  at  the 
extremity  of  Acarnania.  Here  was  fought 


the  most  memorable  naval  battle  of  antiquity, 
since  the  stake  was  the  empire  of  the  world, 
Sept.  2d,  b.c.  31.  The  leaders  of  the  hostile 
forces  were  Marc  Antony  and  Octavius.  The 
latter  had  80,000  infantry,  12,000  cavalry, 
and  260  ships  of  war;  while  Antony  had 
100,000  infantry,  12,000  cavalry,  and  220 
ships  of  war.  The  battle  was  hotly  contested. 
Cleopatra,  the  beautiful  Egyptian  queen  who 
had  captivated  Antony,  seized  with  a panic, 
fled  from  the  battle  with  her  sixty  galleys, 
the  most  brilliant  vessels  brought  into  action. 
Antony,  whose  energies  had  been  prostrated 
by  dissipation,  followed  his  leman,  and  a dis- 
graceful rout  among  the  troops  on  shore  com- 
pleted his  ruin,  while  the  sovereignty  of  the 
world  was  the  prize  of  Octavius,  afterward 
Augustus  Caesar. 


RESIDENCE  OF  ADAMS  FAMILY,  QUINCY,  MASS. 


ADAMS,  John,  the  second  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  October  19th  (o.s.), 
1735,  in  that  part  of  Braintree,  Mass.,  which 
has  since  been  incorporated  as  the  town  of 
Quincy.  He  was  the  fourth  in  descent  from 
Henry  Adams,  who  fled  from  persecution  in 
Devonshire,  and  settled  in  Massachusetts, 
about  1 630.  Another  of  his  ancestors  was 
John  Alden,  one  of  the  pilgrim  founders  of 


Ptymouth.  He  received  his  early  education 
in  his  native  town,  and  in  1751  entered  Har- 
vard College,  where  he  graduated  in  regular 
course  four  years  afterward.  He  commenced 
the  study  of  law  at  Worcester  with  Mr.  James 
Putnam,  defraying  his  expenses  by  his  in- 
come as  instructor  in  Greek  and  Latin.  In 
1758  Mr.  Adams  entered  the  office  of  Jeremy 
Gridley,  attorney-general  of  the  province, 


ADA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


11 


who  had  previously  directed  the  law  studies 
of  James  Otis,  and  who,  in  allusion  to  his 
two  talented  pupils,  said,  “ I have  trained  up 
two  young  eagles,  who  are,  one  day  or  other, 
to  pick  out  my  eyes.”  In  1759,  Mr.  Adams 
was  admitted  to  the  Suffolk  bar,  and  com- 
menced practice  in  Braintree.  In'  1761,  he 
was  admitted  to  the  degree  of  barrister  at 
law,  and  very  soon  afterward  his  father’s 
decease  put  him  in  possession  of  a small 
landed  property.  In  the  February  of  this 
year  the  British  cabinet  enjoined  the  Massa- 
chusetts custom-house  officers  to  execute 
their  oppressive  acts  of  trade,  applying  to  the 
supreme  provincial  judicature  for  writs  of 
assistance,  a kind  of  general  search-warrants. 
The  applications  made  in  consequence  to  the 
court  at  Salem,  were  resisted  on  the  ground 
of  their  unconstitutionality.  When  it  was 
determined  to  argue  the  matter  by  counsel 
in  Boston,  Mr.  Otis  was  engaged  to  defend 
the  rights  of  the  Salem  and  Boston  mer- 
chants, and,  that  he  might  do  it  with  the 
more  freedom,  he  relinquished  his  lucrative 
office  of  advocate-general  in  the  court  of 
admiralty.  Mr.  Adams,  who  took  a deep 
interest  in  the  affair,  was  present  at  the  dis- 
cussion, and  thus  eulogizes  the  orator : “ Otis 
was  a flame  of  fire ! With  a promptitude  of 
classical  allusion,  a depth  of  research,  a rapid 
summary  of  historical  events  and  dates,  a 
profusion  of  legal  authorities,  a prophetic 
glance  of  his  eyes  into  futurity,  and  a rapid 
torrent  of  impetuous  eloquence,  he  hurried 
away  all  before  him.  American  independence 
was  then  and  there  born .” 

In  1764,  Mr.  Adams  married  Abigail, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  William  Smith,  of  Wey- 
mouth, and  grand-daughter  of  Col.  Quincy. 
She  was  a lady  of  uncommon  endowments 
and  excellent  education,  and  her  patriotism 
and  piety  rendered  her  worthy  of  her  hus- 
band. He  had  previously  imbibed  a preju- 
dice against  the  prevailing  religious  opinions 
of  New  England.  He  was  Unitarian  in  his 
predilections,  and  a firm  believer  in  the 
Christian  faith.  In  1765,  he  published  anon- 
ymously a series  of  articles  in  the  Boston 
Gazette , under  the  title  of  “An  Essay  on 
Canon  and  Feudal  Law,”  the  object  of  which 
was  to  show  the  conspiracy  between  church 
and  state  to  oppress  the  people.  It  was  re- 


printed in  England  and  gained  high  com', 
mendation. 

In  1766,  by  the  advice  of  Mr.  Gridley,  he 
removed  to  Boston,  where  his  superior  talents 
soon  won  him  a prosperous  practice.  At  an 
earlier  period  of  life  he  had  turned  his 
thoughts  to  politics  and  the  condition  of 
the  harassed  colonies.  Soon  after  leaving 
college,  he  wrote  a letter  to  a friend,  dated  at 
Worcester,  Oct.  12th,  1755,  which  evinces  so 
remarkable  a foresight  that  it  is  fortunate  it 
has  been  preserved.  “ Soon  after  the  refor- 
mation, a few  people  came  over  into  this  new 
world  for  conscience’  sake.  Perhaps  this 
apparently  trivial  incident  may  transfer  the 
great  seat  of  empire  into  America.  It  looks 
likely  to  me,  if  we  can  remove  the  turbulent 
Gallics,  our  people,  according  to  the  exactest 
computation,  will,  in  another  century,  become 
more  numerous  than  England  herself.  The 
only  way  to  keep  us  from  setting  up  for  our- 
selves, is  to  disunite  us.  Divide  et  impera. 
Keep  us  in  distinct  colonies,  and  then  some 
great  men  in  each  colony,  desiring  the  mon- 
archy of  the  whole,  will  destroy  each  other’s 
influence  and  keep  the  country  in  equilibrio. 
Be  not  surprised  that  I am  turned  politician : 
the  whole  town  is  immersed  in  politics.  I sit 
and  hear,  and,  after  being  led  through  a maze 
of  sage  observations,  I sometimes  retire,  and, 
by  laying  things  together,  form  some  reflec- 
tions pleasing  to  myself.  The  produce  of  one 
of  these  reveries  you  have  read  above.” 

After  his  removal  to  Boston,  the  friends  of 
the  crown  attempted  to  lure  him  by  the  offer 
of  the  office  of  advocate-general  in  the  court 
of  admiralty,  but  he  refused  “ decidedly  and 
peremptorily,  though  respectfully.”  He  was 
appointed,  in  1769,  chairman  of  the  commit- 
tee chosen  by  the  town  of  Boston  tt>  draw  up 
instructions  to  their  representatives  to  resist 
the  unpardonable  and  increasing  encroach- 
ments of  the  crown.  At  this  time  the  indig- 
nation of  the  friends  of  liberty  was  excited 
by  the  presence  of  an  armed  force  in  the 
town,  while  a band  of  hirelings  surrounded 
the  state-house,  and  cannon  menaced  its 
doors.  Mr.  Adams  displayed  his  sense  of 
honor  and  firmness  by  advocating  the  cause 
of  the  soldiers  who,  when  attacked  by  the 
mob,  in  State  street,  on  the  5 th  of  March, 
1770,  fired  upon  them  and  killed  several. 


ADA 


12 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Such  was  the  excitement  of  the  public  mind 
that  a word  in  defense  of  the  British  was 
almost  sure  of  being  punished  by  the  loss  of 
popularity,  and  yet,  Adams,  in  company  with 
Josiah  Quincy  and  Mr.  Blowers,  scrupled  not 
to  defend  the  soldiers  on  their  trial.  In  con- 
sequence of  this,  all  were  acquitted  but  two, 
who,  being  found  guilty  of  manslaughter’ 
were  dismissed  with  a slight  branding.  But 
in  May,  1770,  Mr.  Adams  received  a proof 
that  he  had  not  lost  favor  with  his  fellow- 
citizens,  being  chosen  a representative  of  the 
town  of  Boston  in  the  legislature.  The  active 
part  which  he  took  in  resisting  despotism  in 
every  shape,  and  espousing  the  cause  of  his 
countrymen  in  every  way,  brought  him  under 
the  displeasure  of  Gov.  Hutchinson,  who 
negatived  the  choice  of  Mr.  Adams  as  coun- 
cilor, in  1773.  In  1774,  Gov.  Gage  also  re- 
jected him,  and  he  was  soon  chosen  member 
of  the  committee  employed  to  prepare  reso- 
lutions on  the  Boston  port-bill.  That  same 
year  Gov.  Gage  dissolved  the  assembly. 
Before  separation,  Thomas  Cushing,  Samuel 
Adams,  John  Adams,  and  Robert  Treat  Paine 
had  been  chosen  to  act  as  delegates  in  the 
first  continental  congress. 

Mr.  Adams  took  his  seat  in  Congress  on 
the  first  day  of  the  session,  September  5 th, 
1774.  He  was.  one  of  the  most  efficient  and 
able  advocates  of  liberty,  and  his  voice  was 
decided  for  prompt  and  vigorous  action.  The 
following  spring  he  was  instrumental  in  put- 
ting Washington  at  the  head  of  the  army. 
He  was  the  adviser  and  great  supporter  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  May  6th, 
1776,  Mr.  Adams  moved  a resolution,  recom- 
mending the  colonies  “to  adopt  such  a gov- 
ernment as  would,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
representatives  of  the  people,  bes.t  conduce 
to  the  happiness  and  safety  of  their  constitu- 
ents and  of  America.”  It  was  not  without  a 
hard  struggle  that  this  passed  on  the  15th  of 
the  same  month,  and  preluded  Richard  Henry 
Lee’s  daring  resolution  of  the  7th  of  June 
following,  declaring  the  dissolution  of  the 
connection  with  Great  Britain.  On  the  4th 
of  July,  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
with  but  few  alterations  from  the  words  of 
Mr.  Jefferson,  passed.  The  committee  who 
had  been  chosen  to  prepare  it  was  composed 
of  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams,  Benjamin 
Franklin,  Roger  Sherman,  and  Robert  R. 


Livingston.  Mr.  Jefferson  and  Mr.  Adams 
were  deputed  a sub-committee  to  prepare  the 
instrument,  and  the  former  did  so  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  latter.  The  declaration  did 
not  pass  without  the  most  strenuous  opposi- 
tion by  many  members,  including  some  lead- 
ing and  able  men.  Mr.  Adams  overcame  all 
arguments  offered  against  it,  by  an  over- 
whelming torrent  of  splendid  eloquence.  In 
the  words  of  Mr.  Jefferson,  “the  great  pillar 
of  support  to  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, and  its  ablest  advocate  and  champion 
on  the  floor  of  the  house,  was  John  Adams.” 
His  speech  on  the  subject  of  independence  is 
said  to  have  been  unrivaled.  Mr.  Webster 
has  done  honor  to  the  style  and  sentiments 
of  Mr.  Adams,  in  alluding  to  his  brightest 
effort.  He  tells  us  that  he  spoke  right  on,  and 
that  the  torrent  of  his  manly  reasoning  car- 
ried conviction  along  with  it.  Mr.  Webster 
gives  what  we  may  well  suppose  to  be  a por- 
tion of  Mr.  Adams’s  speech,  concluding  with 
this  powerful  and  patriotic  language.  “ Sink 
or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I am 
for  the  declaration.  Living,  it  is  my  living 
sentiment,  and,  by  the  blessing  of  God,  it 
shall  be  my  dying  sentiment — Independence 
now  and  independence  forever  ! ” 

On  the  recall  of  Silas  Deane,  who  (with 
Dr.  Franklin  and  Arthur  Lee)  was  a com- 
missioner at  the  court  of  Versailles,  Mr. 
Adams  was  appointed  to  fill  his  place,  Nov. 
28th,  1777.  Mr.  Adams,  embarking  on  board 
the  frigate  Boston,  arrived  safely  at  his  place 
of  destination,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of 
an  English  fleet  to  intercept  him.  On  his 
return,  in  the  summer  of  1779,  being  chosen 
member  of  the  convention  to  form  a plan  of 
government  for  Massachusetts,  he  was  placed 
upon  the  sub-committee  whose  task  it  was  to 
draught  the  plan  of  a constitution.  His  plan 
was,  in  most  of  its  important  features,  adopted 
by  the  convention.  He  went  abroad  again 
upon  public  business  and  visited  Holland  and 
France.  The  definite  treaty  of  peace  which 
he  visited  Paris  to  negotiate,  in  1782,  with 
Dr.  Franklin,  Mr.  Jay,  Mr.  Laurens,  and  Mr. 
Jefferson  for  colleagues,  was  ratified,  Jan. 
14th,  1784.  The  next  year  Mr.  Adams  was 
appointed  the  first  minister  to  London,  an 
office  at  that  time  peculiarly  delicate  and  in- 
teresting. His  reception  by  George  III.  was 
favorable  and  courteous,  but  the  cabinet  were 


ADA 


HISTORY  AND 


BIOGRAPHY. 


13 


cold  and  unfriendly,  and  Mr.  Adams  was 
unable  to  negotiate  a commercial  treaty. 
Having  assisted  in  forming  treaties  with 
Prussia  and  Morocco,  he  resigned,  and  in 
June,  1788,  arrived  in  *his  native  land  after 
an  absence  of  nearly  nine  years.  That  fall 
he  was  chosen  vice-president,  the  first  elected 
under  the  new  constitution,  and  was  re-elected 
in  1792.  On  the  resignation  of  Washington, 
Mr.  Adams  was  chosen  president,  entering 
upon  office  March  4th,  1797.  The  adminis- 
tration of  Mr.  Adams  though  at  first  popular, 
was  strongly  opposed  toward  its  close.  At 
the  expiration  of  his  term  he  was  the  candi- 
date of  the  Federal  party  for  re-election.  He 
Was  defeated,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr. 
Jefferson,  his  warm  personal  friend  and  de- 
cided political  adversary. 

After  Mr.  Adams’s  retirement  from  public 
life,  he  occupied  himself  MTith  literary  and 
agricultural  pursuits  at  his  seat  at  Quincy, 
and  with  the  exception  of  severe  afflictions, 
the  loss  of  his  wife  in  1818,  and  the  death 
of  his  only  daughter  in  1813,  his  days  glided 
calmly  away  until  the  4th  of  July,  1826. 
On  that  day  he  died,  with  the  sentiment  upon 
his  lips  which  he  had  uttered  with  such  force 
fifty  years  before  upon  the  floor  of  Congress — 
independence  forever  ! On  the  morning  of 
that  eventful  day,  the  peals  of  the  bells  and 
the  report  of  cannon  awakened  him.  He  was 
asked  if  he  knew  what  day  it  was.  “Oh! 
yes,”  he  replied,  “it  is  the  glorious  Fourth 
of  July:  God  bless  it,  God  bless  you  all!” 
In  the  course  of  the  day,  he  said,  “ It  is  a 
great  and  glorious  day ! ” Before  his  death, 
he  said,  “ Jefferson  survives.”  He  was  mis- 
taken. On  that  very  day,  an  hour  after  noon, 
Jefferson  breathed  his  last. 

The  services  of  John  Adams  to  the  cause 
of  independence  were  unsurpassed.  They 
were  not  so  readily  appreciated  by  the  people, 
as  exploits  in  the  field,  and  though  he  was 
of  great  worth  in  the  public  councils,  others 
may  have  outshone  him  there.  But  he  was 
an  indefatigable  man  of  business,  lofty  in  his 
patriotism  and  honest  in  his  devotion  to  what 
he  considered  the  true  interests  of  the  coun- 
try. He  has  been  called  the  Great  Leader  of 
the  American  Revolution. 

ADAMS,  John  Quincy  (sixth  president 
of  the  United  States,  and  the  son  of  JohTi 
Adams,  the  second  president),  was  born  at 


Braintree,  July  11th,  1767.  The  boy  was 
cradled  and  bred  amid  the  most  ardent  pat- 
riotism, and  when  but  a lad  of  nine  years, 
heard  the  first  reading  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  from  the  old  state-house  in 
Boston.  His  father  took  him  abroad,  and  he 
studied  at  the  public  school  of  Amsterdam 
and  the  university  of  Leyden.  In  1781,  Fran- 
cis Dana,  of  Massachusetts,  who  had  been 
designated  as  minister  to  Russia,  selected 
young  Adams  as  his  private  secretary.  In 
the  winter  of  1782-3  he  returned  to  Holland, 
and  till  May,  1785,  he  was  chiefly  with  his 
father  in  England,  Holland,  and  France.  It 
was  at  this  time,  that  he  became  acquainted 
with  Mr.  Jefferson,  who  was  his  father’s  in- 
timate friend  and  then  minister  at  Paris. 

He  was  now  a youth  of  eighteen.  His  life 
had  been  one  of  unusual  wandering  and 
changes.  His  studies  had  been  interrupted 
and  irregular.  When  his  father,  in  1785,  was 
appointed  minister  to  England,  he  obtained 
permission  to  return  to  America,  studied  at 
Harvard  College,  and  graduated  in  1787. 

After  preparatory  law  studies  under  Theoph- 
ilus  Parsons  at  Newburyport,  he  began  prac- 
tice at  Boston.  His  essays  and  speculations 
on  the  politics  and  public  questions  of  the 
day  attracted  attention,  and  won  him  high 
reputation  as  a statesman  and  political  think- 
er. They  drew  upon  him  the  notice,  and 
gained  him  the  confidence,  of  Washington, 
to  whom  he  had  been  warmly  recommended 
by  Jefferson;  and  in  1794  he  was  honored 
with  the  mission  to  the  Netherlands,  where  4 

he  remained  for  two  years.  His  father  was 
then  vice-president,  but  the  appointment  was 
made  by  Washington  without  any  intimation 
to  him.  Toward  the  close  of  the-administra- 
tion,  Washington  made  Mr.  Adams  minister 
to  Portugal.  On  his  way  from  the  Hague 
to  Lisbon  he  received  a new  commission, 
changing  his  destination  to  the  Prussian  court. 

This  transfer  to  Berlin  was  made  by  his  father, 
who  had  succeeded  Washington  in  the  presi- 
dency. Fearful  that  the  change  might  be 
imputed  to  paternal  partiality,  the  senior 
Adams  had  consulted  his  predecessor,  and 
had  received  the  following  letter. 

“Monday,  February  20,  1797. 

“Dear  Sir:  I thank  you  for  giving  me  a 
perusal  of  the  enclosed.  The  sentiments  do 


ADA 


14 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


honor  to  the  head  and  heart  of  the  writer ; 
and  if  my  wishes  would  be  of  any  avail,  they 
should  go  to  you  in  a strong  hope  that  you 
will  not  withhold  merited  promotion  from 
John  Q.  Adams  because  he  is  your  son.  For, 
without  intending  to  compliment  the  father 
or  the  mother,  or  to  censure  any  others,  I 
give  it  as  my  decided  opinion,  that  Mr.  Adams 
is  the  most  valuable  public  character  we  have 
abroad ; and  that  there  remains  no  doubt  in 
my  mind,  that  he  will  prove  himself  to  be  the 
ablest  of  all  our  diplomatic  corps.  If  he  was 
now  to  be  brought  into  that  line,  or  into  any 
other  public  walk,  I could  not,  upon  the  prin- 
ciple which  has  regulated  my  own  conduct, 
disapprove  of  the  caution  which  is  hinted  at 
in  the  letter.  But  he  is  already  entered ; the 
public,  more  and  more,  as  he  is  known,  are 
appreciating  his  talents  and  worth ; and  his 
country  would  sustain  a loss,  if  these  were  to 
be  checked  by  over-delicacy  on  your  part. 

“With  sincere  esteem  and  affectionate  re- 
gard, 

“I  am  ever  yours, 

“George  Washington.” 

Mr.  Adams  was  recalled  by  his  father  in 
1801,  and  after  serving  in  the  state  senate, 
was  chosen  United  States  senator  in  1803. 
He  pursued  an  independent  course  in  the 
senate,  and  for  supporting  the  embargo  rec- 
ommended by  Jefferson,  was  censured  in 
1808,  by  the  Federalist  legislature  of  his  state. 
Not  choosing  to  represent  constituents  whose 
confidence  he  had  lost,  he  resigned  his  seat. 
Soon  after  Mr.  Madison  sent  him  to  Russia, 
the  first  minister  from  the  United  States  to 
that  country.  Through  his  influence  the  Em- 
peror Alexander  offered  himself  as  a media- 
tor to  conclude  the  difficulties  between  Great 
Britain  and  our  country ; and  although  the 
proffer  was  declined  by  the  British,  it  led 
them  to  an  offer  to  treat  directly,  which  re- 
sulted in  peace.  Mr.  Adams  was  therefore 
fitly  put  at  the  head  of  the  American  com- 
mission by  which  the  treaty  of  Ghent  was 
negotiated.  His  colleagues  were,  James  H. 
Bayard,  of  Delaware,  Henry  Clay,  of  Ken- 
tucky, Jonathan  Russell,  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  Albert  Gallatin,  of  Pennsylvania.  In  the 
counsels  and  labors  of  the  important  confer- 
ence, Mr.  Adams  bore  his  full  part.  With 
Messrs.  Clay  and  Gallatin  he  was  afterward 


employed  in  adjusting  a commercial  conven- 
tion with  Great  Britain,  and  in  February, 
1815,  he  was  appointed  minister  to  the  Brit- 
ish court.  Mr.  Monro£  recalled  him  in  1817 
to  take  the  post  of  secretary  of  state  in  his 
cabinet.  During  the  eight  years  of  Mr.  Mon- 
roe’s administration,  Mr.  Adams  continued  at 
the  head  of  that  department,  and  his  expe- 
rience abroad  was  of  great  service  in  directing 
the  foreign  policy  of  the  government.  With 
Mr.  Clay  he  was  instrumental  in  obtaining 
the  recognition  of  the  independence  of  the 
South  American  republics.  Long  standing 
difficulties  with  Spain  were  also  honorably 
and  successfully  closed  under  his  direction, 
and  the  important  acquisition  of  Florida  was 
made. 

At  the  close  of  Mr.  Monroe’s  second  term, 
Mr.  Adams  was  a prominent  candidate  for  the 
succession,  and  of  many  who  preferred  Jack- 
son,  or  Clay,  or  Crawford,  he  was  the  second 
choice.  When  the  votes  of  the  electoral  col- 
lege were  counted,  it  was  found  that  Mr.  Cal- 
houn had  been  elected  vice-president,  while 
for  president  there  was  no  choice.  General 
Jackson  had  received  ninety-nine  votes,  Mr. 
Adams  eighty-four,  Mr.  Crawford  forty-one, 
and  Mr.  Clay  thirty-seven.  The  choice  of 
president  from  the  three  leading  candidates, 
accordingly  devolved  upon  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives. The  friends  of  Mr.  Clay  in  that 
body  voted  for  Mr.  Adams,  and  his  election 
was  effected  on  the  first  ballot.  He  received 
the  votes  of  thirteen  states,  General  Jack- 
son  seven  states,  and  Mr.  Crawford  four  states. 
The  Crawford  men  and  Jackson  men  corm 
bined  in  opposition  to  the  administration,  and 
although  Mr.  Adams’s  course  was  not  parti- 
san, but  conciliatory  to  his  opponents,  his 
efforts  to  conduct  the  public  affairs  with  in- 
tegrity and  usefulness  could  not  turn  the  flood 
of  popular  opinion  that  set  steadily  against 
him ; and  in  1828,  General  Jackson  was  elect- 
ed president  by  a large  majority  over  him. 
Mr.  Adams  retired  to  private  life  at  Quincy, 
esteemed  by  his  political  friends  and  respected 
by  his  opponents.  But  his  neighbors  and 
friends  were  not  willing  that  the  country 
should  have  no  more  the  benefit  of  his  ser- 
vices, and  they  elected  him  to  represent  the 
district  in  Congress.  In  December,  1831, 
being  then  in  the  sixtj-fifth  year  of  his  age, 
and  already  forty  years  in  active  public  ser- 


ADA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


15 


vice,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, a member  of  which  he  continued 
till  his  death,  more  than  sixteen  years  after. 

In  this  position  he  maintained  the  stand  to 
which  his  distinguished  services  and  expe- 
rience, no  less  than  his  eminent  talents,  well 
entitled  him.  At  the  opening  of  the  twenty- 
sixth  congress,  a singular  scene  was  exhibited 
in  the  house  of  representatives.  Eight  seats 
were  contested,  and  the  clerk  of  the  last  house, 
upon  whom  it  fell  to  preside  till  a speaker 
should  be  chosen,  in  calling  the  roll  of  mem- 
bers elect,  refused  to  call  the  gentlemen  hold- 
ing certificates  for  the  contested  seats.  An 
angry  and  discordant  debate,  amid  confusion 
and  disorder,  ensued  for  three  days,  and  on 
the  fourth  there  was . little  better  than  anar- 
chy. The  clerk  persisted  in  his  contumacy, 
no  speaker  could  be  chosen,  and  the  mode  of 
extrication  could  not  be  discerned.  At  this 
point  Mr.  Adams  rose.  The  tumult  hushed. 
After  a short,  pointed  speech,  aimed  at  the 
impudence  of  the  acting  clerk,  he  submitted 
a motion  that  that  official  should  at  once  pro- 
ceed with  the*  call  of  the  roll  in  due  and  usual 
order.  The  clerk,  as  he  had  previously  done, 
refused  to  entertain  the  motion.  “ How  shall 
the  question  be  put  ? ” anxiously  cried  several 
voices.  “I  intend  to  put  it  myself!  ” replied 
Mr.  Adams.  This  restored  order.  Richard 
Barnwell  Rhett,  of  South  Carolina,  sprang  to 
the  floor  and  loudly  moved  that  John  Quin- 
cy Adams  should  take  the  speaker’s  chair 
until  the  house  should  be  constitutionally 
organized ; put  the  question  himself,  and  de- 
clared it  carried.  Mr.  Adams  presided  several 
days,  till  Mr.  Hunter,  of  Virginia,  was  chosen 
speaker. 

A striking  feature  of  Mr.  Adams’s  congres- 
sional career,  was  the  earnestness  and  firmness 
with  which  he  adhered  to  the  right  of  the 
people  to  petition  Congress,  and  to  be  heard 
through  their  representatives,  on  any  subject 
whatsoever.  He  took  an  active  part  in  debate, 
on  nearly  every  topic  of  public  interest,  and 
his  speeches  were  marked  with  a fervor  that 
won  him  the  name  of  “The  Old  Man  Elo- 
quent.” Like  Lord  Chatham,  he  died  at  his 
post.  The  22d  of  February,  1848,  he  was 
stricken  by  paralysis  in  his  seat,  was  borne  to 
the  speaker’s  room,  and  there  died  the  next 
day,  being  in  his  eighty-first  year  of  age. 
His  last  words  were,  “This  is  the  last  of 


earth.”  A committee  from  Congress  accom- 
panied his  remains  to  the  family’s  place  of 
burial  at  Quincy,  and  solemn  honors  were 
paid  to  his  memory  in  the  towns  and  cities 
through  which  the  corpse  was  borne. 

Mr.  Adams  was  of  middle  stature  and  full 
person,  his  eyes  dark  and  beaming,  and  pierc- 
ing with  intelligence.  He  always  led  an  act- 
ive life,  and  enjoyed  good  health  to  an 
advanced  age,  the  fruit,  no  doubt,  of  his 
early  rising  and  bodily  exercise.  His  mind 
was  highly  cultivated,  and  he  was  considered 
one  of  the  most  accomplished  among  Ameri- 
can scholars  and  statesmen.  In  May,  1797, 
he  was  married  to  Louisa  Catherine,  daugh 
ter  of  Joshua  Johnson,  Esq.,  of  Maryland, 
who'then  resided  . in  London.  By  this  lady 
who  survived  him,  he  had  three  sons  and  one 
daughter.  Only  one  child,  Charles  Francis, 
survived  him. 

ADAMS,  Samuel,  a distinguished  patriot 
in  our  revolution,  born  in  Boston,  Sept.  27th, 
1722,  was  descended  from  a family  which  had 
been  among  the  earliest  settlers  in  New  Eng- 
land. Mr.  Adams  graduated  at  Harvard, 
with  the  usual  academical  honors,  in  1740. 
On  taking  the  degree  of  master  of  arts  he  dis- 
cussed the  question,  “Whether  it  be  lawful 
to  resist  the  supreme  magistrate,  if  the  com- 
monwealth can  not  be  otherwise  preserved  ? ” 
and  maintained  the  affirmative  with  great 
ability.  He  commenced  the  study  of  divin- 
ity, but  found  his  attention  completely  ab- 
sorbed by  politics,  which  then  excited  an 
universal  interest.  His  vigorous  support  of 
republican  principles  soon  endeared  him  to 
the  patriotic  party,  who  placed  him  in  the  leg- 
islature in  1766.  Thenceforward  he  distin- 
guished himself  as  one  of  the  most  active, 
able,  and  uncompromising  advocates  of  inde- 
pendence. He  was  on  every  committee,  his 
hand  was  employed  upon  every  report,  and 
his  voice  heard  upon  every  subject,  involving 
opposition  to  the  tyrannical  measures  of  the 
colonial  government.  The  enemies  of  Amer- 
ica heard  that  Mr.  Adams  was  poor,  and  those 
among  them  who  believed  in  the  omnipotence 
of  British  gold,  asked  why  this  demagogue 
was  not  silenced  by  a bribe.  Governor  Hutch- 
inson answered,  “Such  is  the  obstinacy  and 
inflexible  disposition  of  the  man,  that  he  can 
never  be  conciliated  by  any  office  or  gift  what- 
ever.” In  1774,  he  was  sent  to  the  first  con- 


ADA 


16 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


gress  of  the  old  confederation.  He  was  one 
of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence in  1776.  He  was  active  in  the  conven- 
tion which  formed  the  constitution  of  Massa- 
chusetts, was  placed  in  the  senate  of  the  state, 
presided  for  several  years  over  that  body, 
and  was  elected  lieutenant-governor  in  1789. 
In  1794,  at  the  death  of  Hancock,  he  was 
chosen  governor,  and  was  yearly  re-elected 
until  1797.  His  retirement  from  public  life 
took  place  in  that  year ; and,  on  October  2d, 
1803,  he  expired  at  his  house  in  Winter 
street,  Boston,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of 
his  age. 

Mr.  Adams  foresaw  the  course  which  the 
colonies  were  obliged  to  take  from  the  begin- 
ning. He  was  aware  that,  upon  the  side  of 
the  British,  there  would  be  no  concessions, 
no  retractions ; that  they  entertained  a con- 
temptuous opinion  of  the  force  and  spirit  of 
the  colonies,  and  would  abide  by  their  own 
measures.'  He  received  warning  at  Lexing- 
ton, on  the  night  of  the  18th  of  April,  of  the 
intended  British  expedition,  which  turned  out 
so  disastrously  for  them,  and  prepared  to 
make  his  escape  at  dawn  across  the  fields. 
Turning  to  the  friends  who  accompanied  him, 
he  exclaimed,  “ This  is  a fine  day ! ” His  re- 
mark was  thought  to  allude  to  the  weather, 
and  one  of  his  companions  answered,  “It  is 
really  a pleasant  day.”  “I  mean,”  said  he, 
his  eye  lighting  up,  as  he  spoke,  “ I mean,  this 
is  a glorious  day  for  my  country ! ” There 
was  a certain  narrowness  and  sternness  in  the 
political  and  religious  opinions  of  Samuel 
Adams.  He  was  a strict  Calvinist,  and  re- 
garded with  no  favor  opinions  at  variance 
with  those  of  his  sect.  He  was  firmly  at- 
tached to  habits  and  principles  in  which  he 
had  been  bred,  and  too  fond  of  making  im- 
portant measures  conform  to  a certain  code 
of  his  own.  He  undervalued  the  services  of 
Washington  during  the  war,  thinking  him  too 
slow  and  cautious,  and  being  impatient  for 
some  decisive  stroke,  which  the  commander- 
in-chief  would  not  have  failed  to  strike  when- 
ever the  opportunity  occurred.  After  the  war 
was  happily  concluded,  and  there  could  be 
but  one  opinion  of  the  services  of  Washing- 
ton, Mr.  Adams  feared  for  his  country,  when 
the  man  who  had  led  her  through  the  perils 
of  the  armed  struggle  was  made  her  chief  mag- 
istrate. He  feared  the  popularity  of  Wash- 


ington ; but  his  was  the  error  of  judgment. 
No  unprejudiced  man  who  had  regarded  the 
previous  course  of  the  Father  of  his  country, 
could  fear  that  he  could  prove  either  a Caesar 
or  a Cromwell.  Mr.  Adams  possessed  those 
manly  virtues  which  eminently  fitted  him  fora 
revolutionary  epoch,  and  when  the  cloud  hung 
darkest  over  his  country,  his  character  and 
resources  appeared  most  strikingly.  Of  an 
austere  and  unyielding  mind,  he  was  yet  dig- 
nified and  courteous  to  a high  degree.  He 
was  never  shackled  by  pecuniary  considera- 
tions, and  would  have  died  in  poverty,  had  not 
the  death  of  an  only  son  supplied  his  wants, 
while  it  grieved  him  to  the  soul.  A colleague 
of  Mr.  Adams  thus  described  him  in  good- 
humored  caricature:  “Samuel  Adams  would 
have  the  state  of  Massachusetts  govern  the 
Union,  the  town  of  Boston  govern  Massachu- 
setts, and  that  he  should  govern  the  town  of 
Boston,  and  then  the  whole  would  not  be  in- 
tentionally ill-governed.” 

ADDISON,  Joseph,  an  author  of  celebrity, 
was  the  son  of  a clergyman,  and  was  born  at 
Milston,  Wiltshire,  in  1672.  He'was  educated 
at  the  Charter-House  in  London,  and  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
Latin  poetry.  Having  obtained  a pension,  he 
set  out  on  his  travels,  remaining  abroad  two 
years.  Of  his  “ Travels,”  which  he  published 
on  his  return,  Dr.  Johnson  said,  that  “they 
might  have  been  written  at  home.”  In  1704, 
a poem  on  the  victory  of  Blenheim  procured 
him  the  office  of  commissioner  of  appeals.  In 
1796  he  was  chosen  under-secretary  of  state, 
and  in  1709  went  to  Ireland  as  Lord  Whar- 
ton’s secretary,  at  the  same  time  deriving  an 
income  of  £300  a year  from  his  appointment 
of  keeper  of  the  Irish  records.  The  “Tat- 
tler,” “Spectator,”  and  “Guardian,”  periodi- 
cal papers  commenced  by  Steele,  owed  their 
celebrity  in  a good  degree  to  the  essays  of  Ad- 
dison. In  these  papers,  which  were  read  with 
avidity  by  all  classes,  Addison  displayed  that 
chaste  humor,  refined  observation,  and  world- 
ly knowledge,  that  poetical  imagination,  deep 
vein  of  feeling,  and  purity  of  style,  which 
make  his  prose  a model  in  our  language. 
The  success  of  his  tragedy  ot  “ Cato,”  pro- 
duced in  1713,  was  owing  less  to  the  merits 
of  the  piece  (which  is  better  adapted  to  pri- 
vate perusal  than  public  exhibition),  than  to 
the  high  state  of  party  feeling;  anything 


ADD 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


IT 


liberal  in  tone  being  warmly  supported  by 
the  Whigs. 

The  pen  of  Addison  was  devoted  to  politi- 
cal subjects  for  a long  time,  and  he  was  em- 
ployed a second  time  as  secretary  to  the 
viceroy  of  Ireland,  and  afterward  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  lords  of  trade.  Having 
fixed  his  affections  on  the  dowager  Countess 
of  Warwick,  he  obtained  her  hand  with  diffi- 
culty, and  was  married  in  1716.  The  union, 
however,  was  anything  but  happy.  The  lady 
awarded  him  the  “heraldry  of  hands,  not 
hearts,”  treated  him  with  contempt,  and 
made  his  fireside  so  uncomfortable  that  he 
often  forsook  it  for  a tavern.  In  1717  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  state,  but  finding  him- 
self incapable  of  filling  the  office  with  honor, 
he  retired  with  a pension  of  £1,500.  He 
wanted  the  physical  boldness  and  ready  re- 
sources of  an  effective  public  speaker,  and 
was  unable  to  defend  his  measures  in  parlia- 
ment. He  is  also  said  to  have  been  slow 
and  fastidious  in  the  quieter  duties  of  office. 
When  he  was  under-secretary,  it  fell  to  him 
to  send  word  to  Hanover  of  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne.  The  critical  nicety  of  the  au- 
thor so  distracted  him  in  the  choice  of  ex- 
pressions, that  the  task  was  abandoned  to  a 
clerk,  who  boasted  of  having  done  what  was 
too  hard  for  Addison.  In  retirement  he  en- 
gaged himself  in  writing  a work  on  “The 
Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion,”  which 
he  did  not  live  to  complete.  Throughout  his 
life  he  was  a sincere  Christian.  He  died  in 
1719,  and  on  his  death-bed  he  sent  for  Lord 
Warwick,  a youth  of  dissolute  habits,  and 
said  to  him:  “I  have  sent  for  you,  young 
man,  to  show  you  with  what  calmness  a 
Christian  can  die.” 

The  temper  of  Addison  was  jealous  and 
taciturn,  until  cheered  by  wine.  “I  have 
never  seen  a more  modest  or  more  awkward 
man,”  was  the  remark  of  Lord  Chesterfield, 
one  of  the  best  judges  and  most  accurate  ob- 
servers of  manners  that  ever  lived.  Button’s 
coffee-house  was  the  favorite  resort  of  Ad- 
dison and  contemporary  wits  in  London. 

ADRIAN,  or  HADRIAN,  Publius  HSlius, 
the  fifteenth  emperor  of  Rome,  was  born 
a.d.  76,  and  brought  up  under  the  eye  of 
Trajan,  his  father’s  kinsman,  who  adopted 
him  as  his  son,  and  to  whom  he  succeeded, 
117.  He  was  a successful  soldier,  and  a great 
9, 


lover  of  literature  and  the  arts,  but  disgraced 
by  the  indulgence  of  sensuality.  In  the 
course  of  his  reign  he  visited  nearly  every 
part  of  his  dominions,  and  when  in  Britain, 
120,  built  a wall  eighty  miles  in  length,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  to  Solway  Frith,  to 
prevent  the  incursions  of  the  Caledonians. 
He  was  the  restorer  of  Jerusalem,  which  he 
named  TElia  Capitolina,  and  on  Mount  Cal- 
vary he  erected  a temple  to  Jupiter ; died  138. 

Six  popes  have  also  borne  the  name  of 
Adrian. 

ADRIATIC  SEA,  or  Gulf  of  Venice,  wash- 
es the  shores  of  Italy,  Illyria,  Dalmatia,  and 
Albania.  It  is  about  480  miles  long,  and  gen- 
erally 130  broad.  Venice  claimed  the  exclu- 
sive sovereignty  of  this  sea.  The  ceremony 
of  the  Doge  of  Venice  wedding  the  Adriatic 
was  instituted  in  1173.  Annually,  upon  As- 
cension day,  the  doge  dropped  a ring  into 
its  waves  from  his  bucentaur  or  state  barge. 
On  these  occasions  he  was  attended  by  all 
the  Venetian  nobles  and  the  foreign  ambassa- 
dors in  gondolas.  The  ceremony  was  inter- 
mitted, for  the  first  time  in  centuries,  in 
1797. 

REGINA,  an  island  thirty  miles  in  circum- 
ference, between  the  coasts  of  Attica  and  the 
Peloponnesus,  formerly  independent,  popu- 
lous, wealthy,  and  famed  for  the  commercial 
spirit  of  its  inhabitants.  Its  capital  bore  the 
same  name. 

7ELFRIC,  a brave  and  talented  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  who  lived  in  the  tenth  centu- 
ry. He  translated  the  historical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  distinguished  himself  for 
his  resistance  to  the  Danes.  His  death  took 
place  in  1005. 

i&MILIUS  PAULUS,  a brave  and  noble 
Roman,  father  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  Young- 
er. He  defeated  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon, 
and  celebrated  his  success  by  a triumph, 
b.c.  168,  which  was  rendered  memorable 
by  the  death  of  his  two  sons,  and  the 
heroic  fortitude  with  which  he  bore  their  loss, 
thanking  the  gods  that  they  were  chosen  for 
victims,  so  that  the  Roman  people  might  be 
shielded  from  calamity. 

JENEAS,  a Trojan  prince,  the  hero  of  the 
“ JEneid”  of  Virgil,  who  represents  him  as 
the  son  of  Anchises  and  the  goddess  Venus. 
The  former  he  bore  in  safety,  from  the  flames 
of  Troy,  which  he  had  defended  until  valor 


iENE 


18 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


was  of  no  avail.  He  retired  to  Mount  Ida, 
where  he  built  a fleet,  and  sailed  in  quest  of 
a settlement.  He  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
temporary with  Dido,  and,  after  plighting  his 
faith  to  the  Carthaginian  queen,  to  have  left 
her  a prey  to  pangs  so  poignant  as  to  deprive 
her  of  judgment,  in  which  state  she  threw 
herself  upon  a funeral  pile  and  was  burned 
alive.  This,  however,  is  a poetical  anach- 
ronism. iEneas,  after  various  adventures, 
and  great  sufferings,  landed  on  the  coast  of 
Latium,  in  Italy,  where  he  was  hospitably 
received  by  king  Latinus,  who  bestowed  upon 
the  stranger  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Lavin- 
ia.  This  gift  involved  iEneas  in  a war  with 
Turnus,  a disappointed  rival,  who  was  signally 
defeated  by  the  son  of  V enus.  The  history 
of  iEneas  is  wholly  traditional. 

iEOLIANS,  a Thessalian  tribe,  who  estab- 
lished several  small  states  in  Greece,  while  a 
portion  settled  iEolis,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the 
ancient  Troad.  They  united  themselves  in  a 
confederacy,  and  were  free  while  they  pre- 
served it.  The  name  AEolic  is  applied  to  a 
dialect  of  the  Greek  language,  very  nearly 
resembling  the  Doric. 

AESCHINES,  an  Athenian  orator,  the  rival 
of  Demosthenes,  born  393,  died  323  b.c.  He  at 
first  led  a life  of  wandering  poverty,  but  be- 
came an  actor,  a pupil  of  Plato  and  Socrates, 
and  attained  some  distinction.  Having  lost 
the  favor  of  the  people,  he  fled  to  Samos  and 
Rhodes,  where  he  taught  rhetoric  until  his 
death.  Another  ^Eschines,  a philosopher, 
was  a poor  disciple  of  Socrates. 

7ESCHYLUS,  a celebrated  Greek  dramatic 
writer,  was  born  of  a noble  family  at  Eleusis 
in  Attica,  b.c.  525,  and  died  at  Gela  in  Sic- 
ily, b.c.  456.  At  the  age  of  twenty -five, 
b.c.  499,  he  first  presented  himself  at  the 
festival  of  Bacchus  as  a competitor  for  the 
public  prize,  and  fifteen  years  afterward,  b.c. 
484,  gained  his  first  victory.  The  pre-emi- 
nence which  he  thus  acquired  was  success- 
fully maintained  till  b.c.  468,  when  he  was 
deieated  in  a similar  contest  by  his  younger 
rival,  Sophocles.  Mortified  at  the  indignity 
he  thought  thus  put  upon  him,  he  quitted 
Athens  and  went  to  the  court  of  Hiero,  king 
of  Syracuse.  Of  the  remaining  portion  of  his 
life  but  little  is  known,  except  that  he  con- 
tinued to  prosecute  his  favorite  pursuit ; and 
that  his  residence  in  Sicily  was  of  some  dura- 


tion, may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
sufficient  to  affect  the  purity  of  his  language. 
His  thirteenth  and  last  victory  was  gained 
b.c.  458.  On  the  manner  of  his  death,  which 
was  singular,  the  ancient  writers  are  unani- 
mous. While  sitting  motionless  in  the  fields, 
his  bald  head  was  mistaken  for  a stone  by  an 
eagle  which  happened  to  be  flying  over  him 
with  a tortoise  in  her  bill.  The  bird  dropped 
the  tortoise  to  break  the  shell,  and  the  poet 
was  killed  by  the  blow.  iEschylus  is  said  to 
have  been  the  author  of  seventy  tragedies,  of 
which  only  seven  are  now  extant.  The  im- 
provements which  he  introduced  in  the  econ- 
omy of  the  drama,  were,  so  important  as  to 
gain  for  him  the  distinction  of  the  Father  of 
Greek  Tragedy.  To  the  single  actor  of  Thes- 
pis he  added  a second,  and  thus  presented  the 
regular  dialogue.  He  abridged  the  length  of 
the  choral  odes  and  made  them  subservient  to 
the  main  interest  of  the  plot ; substituted  a 
regular  stage  for  the  movable  wain  of  his 
predecessor ; provided  appropriate  scenic  dec- 
orations, and  dresses  for  the  actors;  and 
removed  all  deeds  of  murder  and  bloodshed 
from  public  view.  His  style  is  bold,  lofty, 
and  sublime,  full  of  gorgeous  imagery  and 
magnificent  expressions,  suitable  to  the  ele- 
vated characters  of  his  dramas.  His  plays 
have  little  or  no  plot ; and  have  therefore  been 
blamed  as  deficient  in  dramatic  interest.  But 
iEschylus  was  illustrious  not  merely  as  a 
poet.  Along  with  his  brother  Cynaegirus  he 
distinguished  himself  so  highly  in  the  battle 
of  Marathon,  b.c.  490,  that  his  exploits  were 
commemorated  by  a descriptive  painting  in 
the  theater  of  Athens ; and  it  is  probable  that 
he  took  part  in  the  subsequent  battles  of 
Artemisium,  Salamis  and  Plataea. 

iESQULAPIUS,  believed  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  medicine,  and  worshiped  as  a di- 
vinity in  many  cities  of  Greece.  He  is  gen- 
erally represented  with  a long  beard,  and 
grasping  in  one  hand  a staff  entwined  by  a 
serpent,  the  emblem  of  convalescence,  the 
other  hand  supported  by  a serpent.  Some- 
times he  was  denoted  by  a serpent  only.  He 
was  believed  to  be  the  son  of  Apollo. 

iESOP,  whose  fables  have  been  so  celebra- 
ted, was  born  in  Phrygia,  a country  of  Asia 
Minor,  about  the  fifty-second  Olympiad,  the 
first  year  of  which  corresponds  with  572  b.c. 
The  age  in  which  he  lived  is  noted  in  Grecian 


JE  SO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY* 


19 


history  as  that  in  which  Solon,  the  famous 
lawgiver,  flourished.  In  his  youth  iEsop  was 
a slave.  Among  the  Greeks  the  condition  of 
the  slaves  was  abject  and  pitiable  indeed ; the 
Spartans,  in  particular,  regarding  them  in  the 
light  of  brute  beasts,  whom  it  was  allowable 
to  kill  upon  the  least  provocation,  and  even 
without  the  slightest  offense.  It  does  not, 
however,  appear  that  iEsop  experienced  any 
great  severity  of  treatment.  His  first  master 
was  one  Dinarchus,  who  resided  at  Athens. 
iEsop  passed  into  the  hands  of  Xanthus  of 
Samos,  who  afterward  sold  him  to  Iadmon  of 
the  same  place.  There  were  no  fewer  than 
three  islands  to  which  the  ancients  gave  the 
name  of  Samos.  That  of  which  we  speak 
was  situated  off  the  coast  of  Ionia.  It  was 
supposed  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  the 
goddess  Juno,  to  whom  a magnificent  tem- 
ple was  erected,  no  remains  of  which  have 
escaped  the  ravages  of  time.  The  fertility  of 
“he  island,  and  the  salubrity  of  its  climate, 
gained  it  universal  admiration,  and  made  its 
possession  an  object  of  great  importance.  It 
was  formerly  not  so  much  noted  for  its  wine 
as  it  is  at  present,  the  Samian  wine  being  con- 
sidered by  the  moderns  as  equal  to  that  of 
Cyprus,  while  it  was  very  much  underrated 
by  the  ancients. 

After  he  had  obtained  his  freedom,  iEsop 
distinguished  himself  by  his  art  of  inculcat- 
ing useful  truths  under  the  cloak  of  fiction. 
This  invention  is  attributed  to  him,  and  Phae- 
drus  acknowledges  this  in  his  own  fables. 
* The  words,”  says  the  latter,  “are  mine,  but 
the  invention  belongs  to  iEsop.”  It  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that  fables  originated  with  the 
oriental  nations,  from  whom  iEsop  borrowed 
them. 

Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  whose  wealth  was 
so  immense,  hearing  of  the  fame  of  iEsop, 
invited  him  to  his  court.  It  has  been  Tsaid 
that  the  personal  appearance  of  iEsop  was 
far  from  being  prepossessing ; that  he  was  of 
small  size  and  dreadfully  deformed;  that 
Croesus  was  at  first  disgusted  at  beholding  a 
figure  so  entirely  at  variance  with  his  precon- 
ceived ideas  of  the  man;  and  that  iEsop 
speaking  of  his  own  deformity,  said,  “ It  is 
not  the  exterior  of  the  vase  that  we  should 
regard,  but  the  quality  of  the  wine  which  it 
contains.”  The  conduct  of  JEsop  and  Solon, 
both  of  whom  were  at  the  same  time  at  the 


court  of  Croesus,  exhibited  a marked  con- 
trast. The  fabulist  played  well  the  part 
of  an  accomplished  courtier,  but  the  stern 
lawgiver  rigidly  adhered  to  the  truth  in 
all  he  said.  Solon  having  displeased  the 
monarch  by  the  independent  tone  which  he 
assumed,  iEsop  said  to  him,  “You  should 
never  speak  to  kings,  or  only  tell  them  what 
will  flatter  them.”  “Not  so,”  said  Solon; 
“we  must  never  speak  to  kings,  or  only  tell 
them  useful  truths.” 

A3sop  had  lived  too  long  in  slavery  not  to 
have  acquired  habits  of  submission  and  def- 
erence toward  those  whom  circumstances 
made  his  superiors.  He  found  no  difficulty 
in  winning  the  entire  confidence  of  Croesus. 
The  latter,  wishing  to  consult  the  oracle  of 
Delphi  with  regard  to  Cyrus,  who  menaced 
him  with  ruin,  sent  iEsop  with  instructions 
to  offer  up  sacrifices  to  the  deity  in  the  name 
of  the  king  of  Lydia,  and  to  present  to  each 
inhabitant  of  Delphi  a considerable  sum  of 
money.  iEsop  came  to  Delphi,  and  offered 
up  his  sacrifices,  but  having  quarreled  with 
the  Delphians,  he  sent  away  the  money  which 
the  Lydian  monarch  had  intended  for  them, 
and  declared  that  they  were  unworthy  of 
such  benefactions.  The  cause  of  this  quarrel 
is  not  exactly  known,  but  perhaps  the  nat- 
ural shrewdness  and  intelligence  of  iEsop 
enabled  him  to  make  a discovery  of  the  arti- 
fices employed  to  deceive  those  who  referred 
to  the  oracle  for  instruction,  and  his  indigna- 
tion impelled  him  to  reproach  the  priests  with 
their  imposition.  The  Delphians,  enraged  at 
the  conduct  of  the  bold  stranger,  and  fearing 
that,  if  permitted  to  depart,  he  might  reveal 
enough  to  destroy  their  character  and  hopes 
forever,  determined,  if  possible,  to  effect  his 
ruin.  To  accomplish  their  purposes,  they 
hid  a golden  cup  which  had  been  consecrated 
to  Apollo,  among  his  effects,  and  then  cnarged 
him  with  having  stolen  it.  He  indignantly 
denied  the  charge.  His  enemies  were  inex- 
orable ; a search  was  made,  and  the  golden 
cup  having  been  found  in  his  possession,  he 
was  condemned  to  death,  and,  pursuant  to 
his  unjust  sentence,  hurled  from  the  summit 
of  a high  rock.  Soon  after  this  bloody  deed, 
heavy  calamities  fell  upon  the  Delphians, 
which  they  did  not  fail  to  attribute  to  the  in- 
dignation of  the  gods,  aroused  at  their  inhu- 
man conduct.  Various  methods  were  resort- 


A ESO 


20 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ed  to  in  order  to  appease  the  just  indignation 
of  their  deities.  At  length  they  offered  to 
make  restitution  to  the  descendants  of  iEsop, 
if  any  such  existed.  iEsop,  however,  was  a 
solitary  being,  the  last  of  his  race.  But  a 
relation  of  Iadmon,  his  last  master,  came 
forward,  claimed,  and  received,  the  proffered 
indemnity. 

The  authorship  of  the  fables  attributed  to 
iEsop  has  been  a source  of  much  dispute 
among  different  writers.  It  is  thought  that 
many  of  the  fables  which  have  descended  to 
us  with  his  name  were  not  of  his  invention. 
The  fables  of  iEsop  attained  a very  great  ce- 
lebrity in  Greece.  iEsop  was  peculiarly  hap- 
py in  the  application  of  his  fables.  Having 
visited  Athens  soon  after  Pisistratus  had 
usurped  the  authority,  and  found  the  Athen- 
ians shrinking  beneath  the  yoke  which  had 
been  imposed  upon  them,  he  related  to  them 
the  following  fable.  “Once  upon  a time, 
the  frogs,  thinking  it  a fine  thing  to  have  a 
ruler,  petitioned  Jupiter  to  give  them  a king. 
Yielding  to  their  wishes,  he  threw  down  a 
huge  log,  from  which  they  at  first  fled  in  dis- 
may. But  finding  it  quiet  and  harmless, 
they  at  length  ventured  to  approach,  and 
soon  after  grew  weary  of  its  inaction,  and 
complained  bitterly  to  Jupiter  of  their  stupid 
ruler,  desiring  one  more  active.  Indignant 
at  their  querulous  cries,  Jupiter  sent  down  a 
stork,  whose  activity  made  up  for  the  long 
sloth  of  the  log ; in  fact,  he  was  never  idle, 
but  darting  here  and  there,  preyed  upon  his 
subjects  with  restless  ferocity,  until  the  rem- 
nant of  the  frogs  groaned  to  be  restored  to 
their  former  liberty.”  The  moral  of  this 
fable  was  apparent  to  the  meanest  under- 
standing. The  Athenians  honored  the  mem- 
ory of  iEsop,  by  erecting  a fine  statue, 
executed  by  Lysippus,  to  the  man  who  was 
once  a slave.  Its  design  was  to  show  that 
the  road  to  fame  was  open  to  all,  and  that, 
with  perseverance  and  mental  power,  a man 
requires  few  external  advantages,  to  succeed 
in  what  he  undertakes.  The  life  of  iEsop 
was  checkered  with  light  and  shade : perhaps 
the  latter  predominated,  for,  in  allusion  to 
the  misfortunes  of  humanity,  he  was  wont  to 
say  that  “Prometheus  formed  man  of  clay, 
and  tempered  it  with  tears.”  His  death  took 
place  about  the  year  531  b.c. 

JETIUS,  the  brave  general  of  Yalentinian 


III.,  who  repulsed  Attila,  and  was  stabbed 
by  his  suspicious  master  in  454. 

^ETNA,  the  greatest  volcano  in  Europe,  is 
on  the  north-eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  and  now 
called  Mongibello.  Its  elevation  above  the 
surface  of  the  sea  is  10,784  feet.  Towns  and 
villages  are  scattered  on  its  sides.  It  exhib- 
its three  distinct  climates,  the  hot,  temperate, 
and  frigid;  and  three  distinct  regions,  the 
fertile,  woody,  and  barren.  It  measures  nine- 
ty miles  round  the  base,  and  its  crater  forms 
a circle  of  three  or  four  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence. The  crater’s  shape  and  size  are  liable 
to  constant  change  from  the  eruptions.  The 
summit  is  enveloped  in  smoke  and  snow  at 
the  same  time,  while  the  sides  of  the  moun- 
tain present  a rich  prospect  of  cultivated  fields 
and  smiling  vineyards.  The  mountain  fur- 
nishes snow  and  ice  to  Sicily  and  Malta,  and 
thus  yields  quite  an  income  to  the  Bishop  of 
Catania,  the  exclusive  proprietor  of  the  trade. 
A chestnut-tree,  wonderful  for  its  gigantic 
size,  stands  upon  the  side  of  Mount  iEtna. 
It  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Castagno  de 
Cento  Cavilli,  because  it  is  said  to  be  capable 
of  sheltering  a hundred  horses  beneath  its 
boughs.  It  still  bears  rich  foliage  and  much 
small  fruit,  though  the  heart  of  the  trunk  is 
decayed,  and  a road  leads  through  it  wide 
enough  for  two  coaches  abreast. 

Here  were  the  fabled  forges  of  the  Cyclops. 
Diodorus  Siculus  mentions  an  eruption  as  hav- 
ing happened  1693  b.c.  Thucydides  speaks 
of  three  eruptions,  occurring  734,  477  and 
425  b.c.  To  the  second  of  these,  both  ^Es- 
chylus  and  Pindar  allude.  The  awful  erup- 
tion of  1169  overwhelmed  Catania,  and  fifteen 
thousand  persons  perished  among  the  burn- 
ing ruins.  There  were  destructive  eruptions 
in  1329,  1408,  1444,  1536,  1537,  1564.  In 
that  of  1669,  tens  of  thousands  lost  their  lives 
in  the  streams  of  lava  that  flooded  the  land. 
The  hot  flood  reached  the  walls  of  Catania, 
which  had  been  raised  to  save  the  town, 
swelled  over  the  barrier,  and  fell  in  a fiery 
cascade.  The  wall  was  not  thrown  down,  and 
the  solid  lava  may  still  be  seen,  curling  over 
the  rampart  like  a torrent  in  the  act  of  fall- 
ing. There  were  eruptions  in  1766,  1787, 
1809,  1811,  and  in  May,  1830,  when  several 
villages  were  destroyed  and  showers  of  lava 
reached  near  to  Rome.  By  the  violent  out- 
break of  November,  1832,  Bronte,  a town  of 


BMVC  LY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.. 


21 


GREAT  CHESTNUT-TR] 

13,000  inhabitants  was  destroyed.  A violent 
eruption  occurred  in  August  and  September, 
1852. 

iETOLIA,  a country  of  antiquity,  in  the 
middle  of  Greece,  whose  boundaries  varied 
greatly  from  time  to  time.  It  was  strong, 
but  unfruitful,  and  the  inhabitants  illiberal, 
given  to  plunder  and  avaricious.  Divided 
into  small  tribes,  they  were  proud  of  their  in- 
dependence, and  ardent  lovers  of  freedom. 
After  the  ruin  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  they 
attained  an  eminence  which  they  had  not  be- 
fore possessed,  and  ranked  with  the  Mace- 
donians and  Achaians  as  a leading  power  in 
Greece.  As  allies  of  the  Romans,  they  ren- 
dered themselves  formidable,  and  were  no  less 
so  when  they  forsook  the  former  for  the  Mace- 
donians. They  were  conquered  by  Fulvius. 
In  war,  their  fine  cavalry  was  famed  for  the 
fierce  impetus  of  its  attacks.  Their  common- 
wealth was  much  like  that  of  Achaia.  i 


E OF  MOUNT  A2TNA. 

AFGHANISTAN,  in  Asia,  has  an  area 
somewhat  larger  than  that  of  France.  To 
the  north  of  it  is  Turkistan,  to  the  east  the 
Punjaub,  to  the  south  Beloochistan,  and  on 
the  west  Persia.  Beloochistan  is  properly  a 
part  of  Afghanistan,  but  is  at  present  polit- 
ically separated  from  it.  Afghanistan  is  an 
elevated  table-land,  the  eastern  base  of  which 
is  washed  by  the  Indus.  The  mountain 
range  of  Hindoo-Coosh  on  the  north,  rises  to 
eighteen  and  twenty  thousand  feet,  and  may 
be  considered  as  an  offshoot  of  the  Himalaya 
chain.  The  valleys  are  fertile.  The  snow 
on  the  mountains  feeds  numerous  streams, 
but  there  are  no  navigable  rivers.  The  pop- 
ulation is  estimated  at  14,000,000,  inclusive 
of  Beloochistan.  The  large  towns,  such  as 
Cabul,  Candahar,  Ghuznee,  Jellalabad,  and 
Herat,  are  inhabited  chiefly  by  Persians  and 
Hindoos ; an  Afghan  never  keeps  a shop  or 
labors  at  a trade.  The  only  Afghans  found 


22 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


in  the  towns  are  officers  of  government,  and 
their  followers,  with  soldiers  and  priests. 
The  Afghans,  who  number  little  more  than  a 
third  of  the  people,  are  of  moderate  stature, 
remarkably  hardy  and  athletic.  Their  high 
cheek-bones  and  prominent  noses  distinguish 
them  essentially  from  the  Tartars.  Their 
manners  are  frank  and  open.  Little  respect 
is  paid  to  rank,  but  great  reverence  is  shown 
for  old  age.  They  are  sociable,  and  like  sing- 
ing, dancing,  and  music.  Of  games  of  chance 
or  skill  they  are  fond.  In  long  genealogies 
they  feel  pride,  scarcely  allowing  a man  to  be 
a genuine  Afghan,  if  he  can  not  prove  six 
descents.  Hospitality  is  a point  of  honor. 
A man  may  travel  without  money  from  one 
end  of  the  country  to  the  other,  and  the  bit- 
terest enemy  is  safe  if  he  claims  the  protection 
of  hospitality.  They  have,  however,  more  of 
such  honor  than  conscience,  and  robberies 
are  frequent  in  the  more  remote  districts. 
Social  intercourse  with  women  is  less  re- 
strained than  among  other  Mohammedans. 
Women  are  generally  well  treated,  not  being 
permitted  to  engage  promiscuously  in  the 
labors  of  the  men,  but  being  employed  in 
domestic  avocations.  Wives,  are,  however, 
regarded  as  property,  being  invariably  pur- 
chased, and  those  of  the  upper  classes  live  in 
total  seclusion,  though  their  privacy  is  lux- 
urious, and  their  style  of  life  magnificent. 
Want  of  feeling  is  not  in  general  a fault  of 
the  Afghans,  and  the  females  are  frequently 
regarded  with  a tenderness  and  devotion 
worthy  of  the  chivalric  age.  Many  a young 
Afghan,  in  consequence  of  passionate  attach- 
ment to  some  young  woman  to  whom  his 
plighted  faith  belongs,  resolutely  bids  a fare- 
well to  home,  and  labors  for  a long  time  in 
a distant  place,  until  he  procures  sufficient 
money  to  buy  her  from  her  father.  Instances 
of  cruelty  to  women  are  of  infrequent  occur- 
rence. The  Afghans  are  not  insensible  to  the 
advantages  of  education,  and  are  rather  liber- 
al in  their  allotments  of  land  for  the  support 
of  public  teachers,  who  are  also  ministers  of 
religion.  They  are  an  imaginative  people, 
and  take  delight  in  those  wild  narratives 
which  it  is  the  sport  and  province  of  oriental 
imaginations  to  create.  The  spirited  lyrics 
of  their  poets  breathe  a strong  love  for  liberty. 

The  Afghans  are  divided  into  tribes,  almost 
independent  in  their  government.  Their  re- 


publican spirit  has  saved  them  from  sinking 
into  the  common  oriental  despotism.  The 
Duranees  and  the  Ghiljies  are  the  leading 
tribes.  The  tribes  are  subdivided  into  clans, 
often  at  feud  with  one  another.  To  an  En- 
glish traveler,  who  expatiated  on  the  freedom 
from  alarm,  blood,  and  discord,  that  a stead- 
ier government  would  give,  this  reply  was 
made : “We  are  content  with  discord,  we  are 
content  with  alarms,  we  are  content  with 
blood,  but  we  will  never  be  content  with  a 
master.”  There  are  three  independent  po- 
litical states,  Cabul,  Candahar,  and  Herat,  the 
chiefs  of  which  have  but  a limited  authority. 

Afghanistan  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as 
Ariana.  As  part  of  the  Persian  empire,  it 
passed  under  the  dominion  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  The  origin  of  the  Afghan  race  and 
the  date  of  its  settlement  in  the  land  are  un- 
certain. They  have  a tradition  that  they  are 
the  descendants  of  Afghan,  the  son  of  Irmia, 
or  Berkia,  son  of  Saul,  king  of  Israel ; and 
their  histories  begin  with  narrating  the  trans- 
actions of  the  Jews,  from  Abraham  down  to 
the  captivity.  Various  tides  of  conquest, 
Scythian,  Arab,  Tartar,  and  Mogul,  have 
swept  over  the  land.  Ahmed  Khan  estab- 
lished its  independence  of  Persia  in  1747,  and 
founded  the  Duranee  dynasty.  In  the  early 
part  of  this  century  the  sway  was  disputed 
by  various  rivals.  In  1838  the  British  es- 
poused the  cause  of  Shah  Soojah  against 
Host  Mahomed.  Candahar,  Ghuznee,  and 
Cabul  were  taken;  Shah  Soojah  was  put  on 
the  throne ; the  conquest  was  considered  com- 
plete ; and  the  main  body  of  the  British  army 
returned  to  India.  The  next  year  insurrec- 
tions broke  out  and  grew  more  and  more 
troublous.  In  September,  1841,  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Cabul  swarmed  with  predatory 
bands.  On  the  2d  of  November,  the  house 
of  Sir  Alexander  Burnes,  one  of  the  British 
envoys  at  Cabul,  was  fired,  and  he  and  every 
man,  woman,  and  child  on  the  premises, 
murdered.  The  British  officers  seemed  to  be 
stupefied.  G encral  Elphinstone  held  the  chief 
command,  but  was  in  such  a state  of  nervous 
weakness  from  ill  health  as  to  be  utterly  in- 
capable of  acting  with  the  energy  necessary 
for  such  an  emergency.  The  Afghans  grew 
bolder;  the  British  became  more  confused 
and  indecisive.  The  23d  of  December,  Sir 
William  MacNaghten,  the  other  envoy,  was 

?G 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


23 


murdered  by  Akbar  Khan,  (son  of  Dost  Ma- 
homed), who  had  invited  him  to  a conference. 
Three  days  later  the  despairing  Europeans 
agreed  to  yield  all  but  six  guns,  to  relinquish 
all  the  treasure,  to  leave  four  officers  as  host- 
ages, and  to  pay  forty  thousand  rupees,  in 
bills  drawn  upon  India,  but  negotiated  on  the 
spot  by  Hindoo  bankers,  for  a safe  escort  to 
Peshawur.  Akbar  Khan  undertook  to  con- 
duct them  in  safety  to  Jellalabad.  The  disas- 
trous retreat  from  Cabul  was  commenced  on 
the  6th  of  January,  1842.  The  British  force 
was  estimated  at  forty-five  hundred  soldiers, 
twelve  thousand  men  of  camp-followers,  be- 
sides a great  number  of  women  and  children. 
Massacre  began  at  once.  The  cold  was  in- 
tense ; the  attacks  of  the  Afghans  were  inces- 
sant ; the  fugitives  were  almost  without  food ; 
only  a handful  escaped ; twenty-six  thousand 
individuals  were  destroyed.  This  terrible 
reverse  aroused  the  British  to  great  effort; 
victories  were  gained,  and  before  the  close  of 
1842  the  war  was  at  an  end,  and  the  British 
army  withdrawn.  Shah  Soojah  had  been 
assassinated,  and  Dost  Mahomed  regained  the 
sovereignty. 

AFRICA  formed  a third  part  of  the  world, 
known  to  the  ancients.  They  gave  it  the 
name  of  Libya,  and  divided  it  into  Africa 
Propria  and  Africa  Interior.  The  former  of 
these,  or  the  territory  of  Carthage,  included 
several  countries  inhabited  by  twenty-six  dif- 
ferent nations,  comprehending  two  provinces, 
the  Regio  Zeugitana  and  Byzacium,  corre- 
sponding with  the  kingdom  of  Tunis.  Ham 
and  his  descendants  are  thought  to  have  first 
peopled  Africa.  Egypt  was  peopled  by  Miz- 
raim.  Africa  Interior  included  the  distant 
portions  of  Africa  little  known  to  the  ancients, 
whose  knowledge  did  not  extend  much  be- 
yond the  tropic  of  Cancer,  the  limit  of  both 
their  victories  and  researches.  Those  parts 
of  Africa  which  they  did  not  visit,  their  fer- 
tile fancies  peopled  with  various  races  of  men 
endowed  with  strange  attributes ; and  singu- 
lar tales,  thus  originating,  have  been  handed 
down  even  to  modern  times.  Thus  we  hear 
of  nations  of  curious  dwarfs,  of  men  who 
dwelt  in  trees  like  monkeys,  of  races  forming 
a connecting  link  between  man  and  the  brutes, 
and  tribes  whose  history  has  been  invented 
by  wild  imaginations  in  their  wildest  flights. 
Herodotus  states  that  Africa  is  surrounded 


with  water  except  at  the  narrow  neck  of 
Suez.  He  reports  its  circumnavigation  by 
Phenician  mariners  between  the  years  6 lb 
and  594  b.c.  “Necho,  king  of  Egypt,”  he 
says,  “ dispatched  some  Phenicians  in  vessels, 
with  instructions  to  sail  round  Libya  and 
through  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  [straits  of 
Gibraltar]  into  the  northern  [Mediterranean] 
sea,  and  so  to  return  to  Egypt.  They  set  out 
from  the  Red  Sea  and  navigated  the  southern 
ocean.  When  the  rainy  season  came  on, 
they  would  land  on  whatever  part  of  the  coast 
they  happened  to  be,  sow  the  ground,  and 
wait  for  the  harvest.  After  reaping  it,  they 
would  again  put  to  sea ; and  thus  after  two 
years  had  gone,  in  the  third  they  passed 
through  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  and  arrived 
at  Egypt.  And  they  said  (but  for  my  part  I 
do  not  believe  the  assertion,  though  others 
may)  that  in  their  voyage  round  Libya,  they 
had  the  sun  on  their  right  hand.” 

Africa  was  an  important  division  of  the 
ancient  world.  Many  of  her  nations  and 
states,  at  a very  early  period,  had  made  great 
advancement  in  the  liberal  arts.  The  north- 
ern part  was  inhabited  by  several  enterprising 
nations,  whose  extensive  commerce  rolled 
abundant  wealth  into  the  land.  With  their 
riches  the  power  of  these  states  increased  : 
Egypt  and  Ethiopia  became  famous,  and 
Carthage  sent  forth  her  fleets  to  every  part  of 
the  then  known  world.  The  career  of  dis 
covery  by  which  Africa  has  become  known 
to  the  modern  world,  was  commenced  by  the 
Portuguese  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Prince 
Henry,  a younger  son  of  John  I.,  devoted  his 
life  to  the  task.  The  Azores,  the  Cape  Verde 
Isles,  and  various  points  on  the  coast,  were 
colonized  under  his  auspices.  His  zeal  excit- 
ed long-continued  ridicule  and  opposition,  but 
African  discovery  became  a national  passion, 
and  after  his  death,  was  prosecuted  by  the 
government.  Bartholomew  Diaz  rounded  the 
continent’s  farthest  promontory  in  1487. 
The  storms  that  tossed  him  there  led  him  to 
call  it  the  Cape  of  Tempests,  but  John  II., 
thinking  the  discovery  a precursor  of  brighter 
revelations  beyond,  changed  the  name  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Vasco  de  Gama  doubled 
it  in  1497,  sailed  along  the  eastern  coast,  and 
found  the  path  to  India.  Portuguese  mar- 
iners had  now  navigated  the  whole  extent 
of  the  African  coast,  from  the  Straits  of  Gib- 


24: 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


raltar  to  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-mandeb,  with 
the  exception  of  the  thousand  miles  between 
the  latter  point  and  Magadoxa.  They  had  as- 
certained the  general  shape  of  the  continent 
to  this  extent,  and  the  position  of  most  of  the 
principal  rivers  and  headlands.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  century,  the  line  of  coast  thus 
traced  was  entirely  unknown  to  the  nations 
of  Europe,  excepting  the  extent  of  six  hund- 
red miles  between  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and 
Cape  Nun.  But  the  Arabs  had  long  been  ac- 
quainted with  the  greater  part  of  the  eastern 
coast  along  which  Yasco  de  Gama  passed  after 
doubling  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  and  the 
great  towns  which  he  saw  or  heard  of,  from 
Sofala  onward  to  Magadoxa,  were  for  the  most 
part  settlements  that  they  had  founded.  The 
chief  of  these  was  the  town  of  Quiloa.  In 
course  of  time  the  Portuguese  gained  consid- 
erable knowledge  of  the  interior  also,  partly 
by  means  of  the  establishments  they  formed 
at  divers  points,  and  partly  from  information 
brought  them  from  other  parts  by  the  natives. 
Very  early  they  heard  of  a great  Christian 
potentate  whom  they  called  Priest  John ; 
anglicized  to  Prester  John.  The  expeditions 
to  find  the  domains  of  this  mysterious  person- 
age, and  the  missions  of  a later  date,  all  help- 
ed to  increase  the  scanty  and  confused  knowl- 
edge of  the  vast  country.  The  French,  the  En- 
glish, the  Dutch,  and  others,  followed  the  lead 
of  Portugal,  and  founded  settlements  on  the 
coast,  and  penetrated  a little  into  the  interior. 

The  discoveries  of  Bruce  in  his  long  and 
perilous  journey  toward  the  sources  of  the 
Nile,  gave  a new  impetus  to  African  explora- 
tion at  the  close  of  the  last  century.  An 
association  for  its  promotion  was  formed  in 
London,  under  whose  auspices  Mungo  Park 
searched  for  the  secret  of  the  Niger’s  course. 
Since  then  important  discoveries  have  been 
made,  bought  for  the  most  part  by  the  lives 
of  the  explorers.  Eminent  are  the  names  of 
Park,  Burckhardt,  Ledyard,  Hornemann,  La- 
ing,  Denham,  and  Clapperton,  Lander,  Rich- 
ardson, Overweg,  and  Barth,  in  the  north ; 
and  Sparrman,  Vaillant,  Cowan,  and  Dono- 
van, Lichtenstein,  Campbell,  Alexander,  and 
Livingston,  in  the  southern  part,  while  Grant, 
Speke,  and  Baker,  have  completed  the  dis- 
coveries of  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  Dr.  Liv- 
ingston, who  was  a missionary  at  Kolobeng, 
(24°  3i0'  S.  latitude,  26°  E.  longitude,)  made 


several  journeys  thence  into  the  interior,  and 
in  1849,  reachei  Lake  Ngami.  The  exists 
ence  of  this  large  inland  sea  had  been  report- 
ed to  the  Portuguese  as  early  as  1508.  In  a 
subsequent  journey  Dr.  Livingston  penetrated 
as  far  north  as  10  > S.  lat.,  came  out  unexpect- 
edly at  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Loanda, 
pushed  back  into  the  wilderness,  and  at  last 
returned  to  England  in  1856.  The  river  Lee- 
ambye,  after  innumerable  windings,  he  traced 
to  the  river  Zambezi,  which  discharges  itself 
into  the  Mozambique  Channel.  The  Leeam- 
bye  consists  of  a system  of  rivers,  which 
spread  out  periodically  into  a great  sea,  filling 
hundreds  of  lateral  channels.  The  principal 
stream  is  about  a thousand  yards  broad.  But 
a small  portion  of  its  waters  reaches  the  sea, 
the  remainder  being  absorbed  by  vast  lakes  and 
marshes.  It  is  so  diminutive  when  it  reaches 
the  sea  as  not  to  be  navigable  for  vessels.  It 
will,  however,  be  of  great  use,  as  a means  of 
communication  with  the  interior.  Dr.  Liv- 
ingston ascertained  that  a large  portion  of  the 
blank  in  South  African  maps  consists  of  ferr 
tile  countries,  inhabited  by  populous  tribes, 
and  intersected  by  large  rivers.  The  farther 
he  traveled  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  the 
more  civilized  and  numerous  he  found  the 
inhabitants.  They  were  less  ferocious  and 
suspicious,  had  better  and  more  settled  forms 
of  government,  and  more  comforts  than  the 
coast  tribes.  He  met  with  tribes  who  practic- 
ed inoculation,  knew  the  medicinal  virtues  of 
quinine,  and  had  a tradition  of  Noah’s  deluge. 
He  found  the  climate  of  eastern  Africa  more 
humid  than  the  other  sections.  The  natives 
were  athletic  and  brave.  The  next  or  middle 
zone  is  comparatively  arid  and  flat.  The  in- 
habitants are  not  as  well  developed  as  the  Kaf- 
firs. The  western  portion  is  nearly  flat  and 
sandy,  but  it  is  not  a desert.  There  is  abund- 
ance of  vegetation,  but  water  is  scarce.  The 
inhabitants  manage  to  subsist  on  a very  small 
supply  of  the  precious  fluid,  some  of  which 
is  obtained  from  tuberous  roots,  which  con- 
tain in  their  cellular  tissues  supplies  of  pure 
water.  In  the  plains  are  immense  numbers 
of  ostriches  and  antelopes,  which  can  subsist 
for  months  without  water. 

Mr.  Anderssen,  in  1851,  penetrated  from 
the  western  coast  to  Lake  Ngami.  He  there 
heard  of  the  existence  of  a large  town  called 
Liberbe,  nineteen  days  journey  to  the  north- 


AFR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


25 


east,  which  was  said  to  be  a great  place 
of  trade.  Between  1847  and  1850,  Messrs. 
Krapf  and  Rebmann,  missionaries  stationed 
near  Mombaz  on  the  eastern  coast,  made  sev- 
eral journeys  inland,  and  discovered  two  lofty 
mountains,  crowned  with  everlasting  snow, 
Kilimandjaro  and  Kenia.  From  the  latter 
a river  flows  northward,  which  is  conjectured 
to  feed  the  Nile. 

One  of  the  most  important  expeditions  ever 
undertaken  to  the  interior  of  Africa  was  that 
sent  out  by  the  British  and  Prussian  govern- 
ments in  1849,  and  conducted  by  Messrs. 
Richardson,  Barth,  and  Overweg.  The  trav- 
elers departed  from  Tripoli  in  March,  1850. 
On  the  way  across  the  desert  Dr.  Barth  vis- 
ited Agadez,  the  capital  of  Air,  a city  of 
eight  thousand  inhabitants,  situated  in  a fer- 
tile valley.  The  kingdom  has  a population 
of  seventy  thousand.  The  climate  is  healthy 
for  Europeans.  The  people  are  tall  and  fine- 
ly formed.  The  children  are  taught  to  read 
the  Koran  and  to  write.  No  European  had 
wandered  there  before  Dr.  Barth.  The  par- 
ty arrived  on  the  borders  of  Soudan  Jan.  1st, 
1851.  Here  they  separated.  Richardson 
sickened  under  the  heat  and  fatigue,  and 
died  in  the  following  March.  Dr.  Overweg 
visited  Mariadi  and  Guber,  two  independent 
pagan  nations  toward  Sackatoo,  where  he  was 
kindly  received  by  the  natives,  who  are  a 
cross  between  the  Tuaricks  and  the  negro 
races,  and  obtained  much  curious  information. 
Dr.  Barth  at  Kano  heard  of  a large  kingdom 
in  the  south,  called  Adamawa,  said  to  be  the 
most  beautiful  portion  of  Central  Africa. 
The  sultan  of  Bornou  furnished  him  an  escort ; 
he  traveled  three  weeks  over  broad,  fertile 
plains  and  through  a forest  infested  with 
lions  and  elephants.  He  found  Adamawa 
thickly  populated.  The  inhabitants  have 
large  herds  of  cattle.  The  soil  is  tilled  by 
slaves,  who  greatly  outnumber  the  free  inhab- 
itants. On  the  18th  of  June  Dr.  Barth  came 
to  the  great  river  Benueh.  The  name  signi- 
fies the  ‘mother  of  waters,’  and  the  stream  is 
half  a mile  wide  and  nine  feet  deep  in  the 
channel.  His  conjecture  that  it  'was  the  same 
as  the  Chadda,  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Niger, 
has  been  confirmed.  Yola,  the  capital  of 
Adamawa,  is  a town  two  miles  and  a half  in 
length  by  one  and  a half  in  breadth,  sited  on 
a plain  at  the  foot  of  Alantika,  a mountain 


ten  thousand  feet  in  height.  Dr.  Barth  was 
allowed  to  tarry  in  Yola  only  three  days,  re- 
turned by  the  route  he  came,  and  rejoined  Dr. 
Overweg  at  Kuka  the  22d  of  July.  During 
his  absence  the  latter  had  launched  his  boat 
on  Lake  Tchad,  and  explored  the  islands  and 
shores.  He  found  the  lake  to  be  about  eighty 
miles  in  breadth,  quite  shallow,  and  filled 
with  islands  inhabited  by  the  Biddumas,  who 
treated  him  with  great  kindness.  Barth  and 
Overbeg  planned  an  excursion  to  Kanem  and 
Borgou,  an  unexplored  region  north-east  of 
Lake  Tchad,  and  extending  midway  to  Egypt. 
Their  party  was  driven  back  by  the  Zibboos, 
and  they  returned  to  Kuka.  They  accompa- 
nied an  expedition  sent  to  subjugate  Mandara, 
a country  north-east  of  Bornou.  The  campaign 
lasted  from  the  25th  of  November  to  the  1st 
of  February,  1852.  The  army  of  twenty 
thousand  men  penetrated  to  the  distance  of 
two  hundred  miles,  and  returned  with  a booty 
of  five  thousand  slaves  and  ten  thousand  head 
of  cattle.  The  country  was  level,  and  abound- 
ed with  marshes.  The  next  year,  Dr.  Barth 
after  great  difficulties  and  dangers,  succeeded 
in  reaching  Masena,  the  capital  of  Baghirmi, 
a powerful  kingdom  east  of  Bornou,  never 
before  visited  by  an  European.  Unable  to 
penetrate  further  to  the  east,  he  returned  to 
Kuka  in  August.  Dr.  Overbeg  had  unsuc- 
cessfully attempted  to  enter  the  great  Fellatah 
kingdom  of  Yakoba,  on  the  river  Benueh. 
He  succumbed  to  the  heat,  and  died  at  Kuka 
in  September.  Thus  left  alone  Dr.  Barth 
relinquished  the  design  of  journeying  from 
Kuka  to  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
turned  his  steps  toward  the  Niger.  He  left 
Kuka  on  the  25th  of  November,  1852,  reach- 
ed Sackatoo  in  April,  1853,  and  entered  the 
famous  city  of  Timbuctoo  on  the  7th  of  Sep- 
tember. Nothing  was  heard  of  him  for  a 
long  time ; then  rumors  reached  Tripoli  that 
he  had  been  murdered.  At  last  came  the 
joyful  news  that  he  was  yet  alive.  He  had 
tarried  in  Timbuctoo  nearly  a year,  had  ex- 
plored the  whole  middle  course  of  the  Niger, 
and  had  found  two  large  kingdoms,  Gando 
and  Hamd-Allahi,  the  very  names  of  which 
were  before  unknown.  He  finally  returned 
safe  to  Europe  in  the  autumn  of  1855. 

The  country  traversed  by  Dr.  Barth  in  this 
expedition  extended  over  twenty-four  degrees 
of  latitude  and  twenty  of  longitude.  He  had 


AFR 


26 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


erosscd  deserts  of  frightful  desolation,  and 
traversed  fertile  lands  watered  by  navigable 
rivers  and  large  central  lakes,  covered  with 
the  finest  timber  and  fruitful  in  grain,  rice, 
nuts,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  indigo,  products 
found  abundantly  all  over  Central  Africa. 
The  people  wear  cotton  of  their  own  weav- 
ing, and  dyed  with  native  indigo.  The  Niger, 
by  means  of  its  eastern  branch,  affords  unin- 
terrupted navigation  into  the  interior  for  six 
hundred  miles.  At  a distance  of  about  three 
hundred  miles  from  the  coast,  the  western 
branch  is  interrupted  by  rapids  and  cataracts, 
but  higher  up,  the  river  opens  an  unobstruct- 
ed highway  a thousand  miles  long,  into  the 
heart  of  western  Africa,  so  rich  in  vegetable, 
animal,  and  mineral  products.  These  regions 
exhibit  an  equal  variety  in  the  human  race. 
Starting  from  Tripoli,  on  the  north,  the  trav- 
eler proceeds  from  the  Arab  villages,  rem- 
nants of  the  empires  of  the  middle  ages,  into 
a country  dotted  with  ruins  of  the  Roman 
dominion,  through  the  wild  roving  hordes  of 
the  Tuaricks,  to  the  Negro  tribes  and  the  na- 
tives of  Southern  Africa.  Throughout  this 
vast  region  the  greatest  diversity  of  race  and 
idiom  prevails.  Mohammedan  learning  is 
ingrafted  on  ignorance,  and  magnificent  cere- 
monial rises  side  by  side  with  the  simplicity 
of  barbarous  Negro  tribes.  A thread  of  his- 
tory, even,  can  be  traced  through  this  laby- 
rinth of  tribes  and  overthrown  kingdoms, 
and  a commerce  is  found  radiating  from  Kano, 
the  great  emporium  of  Central  Africa,  in 
every  direction.  In  respect  to  the  Nile  ex- 
plorations, Capt.  Speke  ascertained,  on  the 
28th  of  July,  18G2,  what  he  had  already  sur- 
mised from  previous  discoveries,  that  the  lake 
Victoria  Ny'anza  was  one  of  the  sources  of 
the  Nile.  The  second  great  source,  the  lake 
Albert  Ny'anza,  was  discovered  by  Baker,  on 
the  14  th  of  March,  1864.  Dr.  Livingstone 
has  also  been  absent  several  years  in  Africa 
engaged  in  extended  explorations.  There 
have  been  various  rumors  of  his  death,  but 
they  have  generally  been  regarded  as  false. 

Africa  comprises  an  area  of  10,786,000 
square  miles.  Its  population,  roughly  estima- 
ted of  course,  is  set  down  at  61,689,000. 
Its  chief  rivers  are  the  Nile,  in  Egypt ; the 
Senegal  and  Gambia,  in  Senegambia;  the 
Niger  or  Quorra,  the  Congo  or  Zaire;  the 
Orange,  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Cape 


colony ; and  the  Zambezi  on  the  eastern  coast 
The  great  feature  of  Northern  Africa  is  the 
Sahara  or  Great  Desert,  the  most  barren, 
parched,  and  terrific  waste  on  the  globe.  The 
mineral  treasures  of  this  immense  continent 
are  of  course  as  imperfectly  known  as  its 
geography.  Salt  is  widely  diffused ; gold  dust 
is  found  in  the  sands  of  almost  all  the  streams ; 
copper,  iron,  and  some  tin  are  also  met  with. 
The  southern  regions  of  this  continent  are 
occupied  by  two  distinct  races,  Hottentots  and 
Kaffirs  ; the  former  one  of  the  most  indolent, 
shiftless,  and  dirty  of  the  human  family ; the 
latter  higher  in  the  scale.  The  most  widely 
extended  race  in  Africa  is  the  Negro,  varying 
in  intelligence  and  power  with  different  local- 
ities. The  Moors  of  the  north  are  of  mixed 
descent,  since  the  Barbary  region  has  been 
occupied  by  various  races.  The  Arab  stock 
has  produced  the  most  marked  effect. 

AGAMEMNON,  leader  of  the  Greeks  in  the 
Trojan  war,  was  king  of  Mycene  and  Argos, 
son  of  Plisthenes,  and  brother  of  Menelaus, 
the  seduction  of  whose  wife  lighted  the  flames 
of  war.  Returning,  after  the  destruction  of 
the  city,  he  was  murdered  by  his  wife,  Clyt- 
emnestra,  either  from  jealousy,  or  on  account 
of  her  love  for  another. 

AGATHOCLES,  a potter,  who,  from  being 
a private  soldier,  made  himself  master  of  Syr- 
acuse and  Sicily,  b.c.  317.  This  he  accom- 
plished by  the  death  of  thousands.  Although 
defeated  by  the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily,  he 
carried  the  war  into  Africa,  where  he  was 
successful.  After  having  lost  his  sons  and 
army  by  a mutiny  in  Africa,  he  succeeded  in 
establishing  tranquillity,  b.c.  306.  In  Italy 
he  conquered  the  Brutii,  and  took  and  sacked 
Crotona.  He  was  killed  by  his  favorite, 
Msenon,  who  poisoned  the  feather  with  which 
the  king  usually  cleansed  his  teeth  after 
dinner. 

AGESILAUS,  king  of  Sparta,  signalized 
himself  by  his  valorous  resistance  to  the  Per- 
sians, and  successfully  opposed  the  arms  of 
the  Thebans  under  Epammondas.  Agesilaus 
was  lame  and  of  small  stature,  but  brave,  and 
almost  idolized  by  his  troops.  He  was  eighty- 
four  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  death,  b.c. 
360. 

AGTNCOURT,  or  Azincour,  a village  in 
the  department  of  Pas  de  Calais,  France, 
where  Henry  V.  of  England,  with  an  army  of 


AGI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


27 


little  more  than  fifteen  thousand  men,  defeat- 
ed the  flower  of  the  French  troops,  amount- 
ing to  seventy  or  a hundred  thousand.  Hen- 
ry entrenched  his  archers  against  onsets  of 
cavalry,  within  fences  of  pointed  stakes,  then 
first  used,  and  in  modern  times,  known  under 
the  name  of  chevaux  de  /rise.  The  rashness 
and  disordered  impetuosity  of  the  French, 
and  the  coolness  and  orderly  intrepidity  of 
the  English,  produced  the  same  effects  at  Ag- 
incourt  as  at  Poictiers.  The  English  had 
spent  the  previous  evening  in  preparing  their 
weapons,  confessing  themselves,  and  receiving 
the  sacrament ; while  the  French  gamed  and 
drank  the  night  away.  The  narrowness  of 
the  field  prevented  the  French  from  profiting 
by  their  superior  force.  The  Constable  d’ Al- 
bret,  the  Count  de  Nevers,  and  the  Duke  of 
Brabant,  the  Dukes  of  Alencon  and  Bar,  the 
Counts  of  Yaudemont  and  Marie,  scorning  to 
survive  defeat,  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the 
fight  and  died,  with  upward  of  ten  thousand 
of  their  followers.  The  number  of  captives 
taken  by  the  English  was  fourteen  thousand, 
a number  about  equal  to  that  of  the  conquer- 
ors. Among  the  captives  were  the  Dukes  of 
Orleans  and  Bourbon.  The  loss  of  the  Eng- 
lish was  about  twelve  hundred,  and  the  Duke 
of  York  almost  the  only  person  of  rank  who 
fell.  This  nobleman  was  Henry’s  uncle,  and 
was  slain  in  defending  the  king  against  the 
Duke  of  Alencon,  who  rode  furiously  upon 
him.  Alencon  dashed  Henry’s  crown  from 
his  head,  with  a blow  of  his  battle-axe,  and 
was  preparing  to  dispatch  him,  when  the 
king’s  attendants  closed  around  him  in  a 
steely  circle,  and  he  fell,  covered  with  wounds, 
the  blood  pouring  from  every  joint  of  his  ar- 
mor. This  great  battle  was  fought  October 
25th,  1415. 

AGNESI,  Maria  Gaetana,  born  at  Milan, 
in  1718.  In  a Latin  oration,  delivered  in  her 
ninth  year,  she  advocated  the  study  of  the 
ancient  languages  by  females.  At  the  age  of 
eleven,  she  was  conversant  with  Greek,  which 
she  spoke  with  great  fluency,  and  she  after- 
ward mastered  the  oriental  languages.  Ge- 
ometry and  philosophy  next  engaged  her 
attention.  She  was  the  ornament  of  brilliant 
and  talented  circles,  and  her  loveliness  added 
to  the  magic  of  her  words.  In  mathematics 
she  was  no  less  successful,  and  at  thirty 
she  published  a treatise  on  the  rudiments  of 


analysis,  thought  to  be  the  best  introduction 
to  Euler’s  works  extant.  She  acquired  such 
fame  by  this  performance,  that  she  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Bologna.  Incessant  application 
seems  finally  to  have  rendered  her  melan- 
choly ; she  renounced  society,  and  died  in  a 
nunnery,  1799. 

AGRICOLA,  Cneius  Julius,  a brave  Ro- 
man commander,  and  a distinguished  states- 
man. He  subjected  a great  part  of  Britain, 
a.d.  70.  Domitian  recalled  him,  and  he  died 
in  retirement,  a.d.  93. 

AGRIPPA,  Henry  Cornelius,  a native  of 
Cologne,  born  in  1486,  and  noted  for  his 
acquirements,  talents,  and  eccentricity.  For 
his  military  services,  he  was  knighted.  He 
was  acquainted  with  eight  languages,  and 
made  pretensions  to  magic,  which  procured 
him  invitations  from  various  personages  of 
celebrity,  who  sought  to  acquire  a knowledge 
of  futurity.  After  a life  full  of  change  and 
incident,  he  died  at  Grenoble,  in  1535. 

AGRIPPA  I.,  grandson  of  Herod  the 
Great,  and  king  of  Judea.  St.  James  per- 
ished in  a persecution  commenced  by  him. 
The  occasion  and  manner  of  his  death  are 
related,  Acts  xii.  20-23,  under  his  patronymic 
name  of  Herod. 

AGRIPPA,  Marcus  Vipsanius,  the  son-in- 
law  and  friend  of  xVugustus,  whose  fleet  he 
commanded  in  the  battle  of  Actium ; died 
B.C.  12. 

AGRIPPINA,  the  elder,  daughter  of  the 
above,  wife  of  Germanicus  Caesar,  whom 
she  accompanied  in  his  German  expeditions. 
She  was  banished  a.d.  33,  by  the  cruel  Tibe- 
rius, who  hated  her  for  her  virtues  and  popu- 
larity, to  the  island  of  Pandataria,  where  she 
starved  herself  to  death. 

AGRIPPINA,  the  younger,  daughter  of  the 
former,  was  born  at  Cologne.  She  was  pos- 
sessed of  talents,  but  intriguing,  dissolute,  and 
ambitious.  She  was  married  to  her  uncle 
Claudius,  the  emperor,  whom  she  poisoned  to 
clear  the  throne  for  her  wicked  son  Nero,  who 
assassinated  her  when  she  became  trouble- 
some after  his  elevation. 

AHASUERUS,  the  king  of  Persia  whose 
marriage  with  Esther,  and  protection  of  the 
Jews,  are  described  in  the  Scriptures.  He  is 
probably  the  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  of  the 
Greeks,  whose  reign  began  b.c.  465. 


AHA 


28 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (Aachen),  a Prus- 
sian city  on  the  borders  of  Belgium,  lying  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  Meuse,  in  a rich  valley 
encompassed  by  hills ; population  45,000.  It 
was  the  birth-place  of  Charlemagne,  accord- 
ing to  some  authors,  and  contains  many  build- 
ings and  monuments  of  historical  interest. 
It  was  the  northern  capital  of  .Charlemagne, 
who  held  a splendid  court  here,  and  was 
buried  in  its  cathedral.  Succeeding  empe- 
rors conferred  so  many  privileges  on  the  city, 
that  it  was  remarked  that  “the  air  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  gave  freedom  even  to  the  outlaws.” 
By  the  celebrated  treaty  signed  here  in 
1784,  peace  was  concluded  between  England, 
France,  Holland,  Hungary,  Spain,  and  Genoa. 
A congress  of  the  sovereigns  of  Austria,  Rus- 
sia, and  Prussia,  with  ambassadors  from 
England  and  France,  was  held  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1818,  to  decide  upon  the  terms 
for  the  evacuation  of  France  by  the  allied 
army. 

AKBAH,  a Saracen  conqueror,  who  over- 
ran Africa  from  Cairo  to  the  Atlantic,  was 
killed  in  a revolt  of  the  Greeks  and  Africans, 
682. 

AKENSIDE,  Mark,  the  son  of  a butcher, 
born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  November  9th, 
1721.  He  was  intended  for  the  ministry,  but 
preferred  the  study  of  medicine.  He  never 
had  much  success  in  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession, but  as  a poet  acquired  renown.  His 
“Pleasures  of  the  Imagination”  is  his  best 
poem.  He  died  of  a fever,  June  23d,  1770. 

ALABAMA  was  originally  settled  by 
Frenchmen  and  Spaniards.  In  1800  the 
region  between  Georgia  and  the  Mississippi 
river  was  organized  as  a territory.  It  was 
divided  in  1817,  the  western  portion  forming 
the  state  of  Mississippi ; the  eastern  the  ter- 
ritory of  Alabama,  now  the  state  of  that  name, 
having  been  so  constituted  by  Congress  in 
1819.  It  contains  50,722  square  miles.  The 
state  is  divided  into  several  regular  terraces, 
or  belts,  as  it  were,  which  rise  above  each 
other  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Of  these  the 
southern  is  flat  and  swampy,  containing  sev- 
eral savannahs.  In  the  center  of  the  state 
the  wide  spread  plains  or  gently  waving  lands 
of  the  prairies  are  covered  with  herbage, 
grass,  and  flowers.  The  greater  part  of  Ala- 
bama is  separated  from  the  Tennessee  valley 
by  abrupt  and  precipitous  hills,  or  rather 


mountains,  which,  in  some  places,  rise  to  an 
elevation  of  two  thousand  feet  above  the  gulf 
level.  The  swamps  in  the  vicinity  of  Florida 
are  numerous,  and  covered  with  cypress,  gum, 
and  loblolly  pine-trees,  while  the  uplands  are 
timbered  with  the  long-leaved  pine.  What 
are  termed  the  hummock  lands,  the  fertility  of 
which  is  lasting,  form  a belt  between  the  pine 
ridges  and  the  bottoms.  The  French  imag- 
ined that  they  were  well  adapted  to  the 
rearing  of  grape-vines.  Attention  is  now 
being  more  than  ever  turned  to  wine-grow- 
ing, and  it  may  not  be  long  before  these 
slopes  will  be  clustered  with  smiling  vine- 
yards, and  echo  the  joyous  song  of  the  vine- 
dresser, and  the  merriment  of  the  autumnal 
vintage.  Corn,  cotton,  wheat,  and  rice  con- 
stitute the  main  products  of  the  state.  Groves 
of  orange-trees,  undoubtedly  of  Spanish  or- 
igin, are  not  infrequent.  Tobacco  and  sugar 
are  grown  to  some  extent.  Iron  and  coal  are 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  state.  Nearly 
every  part  of  the  state  is  amply  watered  by 
large  streams,  admitting  of  extensive  steam- 
boat navigation.  The  most  important  of 
these  rivers  are  the  Tennessee,  Chattahoo- 
chee, Alabama,  and  Tombigbee. 

The  French  who  settled  on  the  borders  of 
the  Mississippi  at  an  early  period,  did  not 
meet  with  much  success  at  first,  and  for  a 
long  time  the  French  settlements  were  insig- 
nificant and  unnoticed.  Instead  of  drawing 
their  support  from  the  fertile  bosom  of  the 
earth  beneath  their  feet,  they  are  said  to  have 
subsisted  on  provisions  obtained  from  France 
and  the  Spanish  colonies.  So  slow  were  they 
in  appreciating  the  richness  of  the  soil,  and 
so  tenacious  of  established  opinions  and  pre- 
judices, that  on  a superficial  examination  of 
facts,  we  are  surprised  to  find  that,  in  the 
northern  and  more  sterile  parts  of  North 
America,  where  a thousand  obstacles  pre- 
sented themselves  in  the  path  of  the  adven- 
turer, the  work  of  colonization  went  on  with 
the  greatest  rapidity.  This  appears  to  have 
been  a wise  ordination  of  providence.  The 
French  settlers,  while  they  wanted  the  per- 
severance of  the  English  and  the  colonial 
experience  of  the  Spaniards,  had  a singular 
facility  in  winning  the  friendship  and  esteem 
of  the  savages.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this  advan- 
tage, few  of  the  colonies  they  founded  at  the 
south,  went  on  without  many  interruptions, 


ALA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


29 


while  the  Spanish  settlements  were  generally 
permanent. 

After  the  English  had  obtained  possession 
of  the  whole  country  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
which  was  ceded  to  them  by  the  French,  in 
the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  between  France 
and  Great  Britain,  Feb.  10th,  1763,  they  en- 
countered the  hostility  of  the  Spanish,  who 
were  in  possession  of  Louisiana,  and  were 
inflamed  against  the  English  by  hostility  and 
jealousy.  The  war  of  the  American  revolu- 
tion placed  the  British  colonists  in  this  section 
in  a peculiarly  embarrassing  and  dangerous 
situation.  On  the  one  hand  they  were  threat- 
ened by  the  Spanish  colonists  of  Louisiana, 
while,  on  the  other,  they  feared  the  hostility 
of  the  new  states.  The  Spanish  colonists  in 
turn,  although  fearful  of  the  spread  of  liberal 
principles,  and  aware  that  the  discomfiture 
of  the  British  in  the  south-west  would  be  a 
source  of  congratulation  to  the  Americans, 
yet  so  ardently  desired  the  conquest,  that 
they  laid  aside  all  minor  considerations,  and 
determined  on  attempting  it.  At  this  time, 
Galvez,  a gallant  and  enterprising  officer,  was 
the  Spanish  commander  of  Louisiana.  He 
took  the  field  against  the  British  with  twenty- 
three  hundred  men.  Natchez  and  Pensa- 
cola capitulated,  and  Galvez,  in  1780,  sailed 
against  Mobile  with  a powerful  armament. 
A storm  overtook  him  in  the  gulf,  and  the 
wreck  of  one  of  his  armed  vessels,  with  the 


no  good  omen  of  ultimate  success.  Many 
commanders  so  circumstanced,  would  have 
despaired,  but  Galvez,  keeping  up  a tolerable 
appearance,  landed  near  Mobile,  and  halted 
in  the  momentary  expectation  of  an  attack 
from  the  British.  He  saw  that  such  an  attack 
would  be  ruinous,  and  entertaining  no  doubt 
that  the  British  would  commence  hostilities, 
made  preparations  for  relinquishing  his  artil- 
lery and  military  stores,  and  falling  back,  in 
what  order  he  might,  upon  New  Orleans. 
Whether  from  want  of  foresight,  or  from 
cowardice,  the  English  did  not  attempt  to 
disturb  him.* 

Finding  himself,  much  to  his  surprise,  un- 
molested, Galvez  took  heart  again,  and  having 
carefully  dried  his  stores  and  ammunition, 
which,  upon  examination,  were  found  not 
to  have  been  spoiled,  though  badly  wet,  he 
marched  upon  Mobile,  which  was  garrisoned 
and  defended  by  regulars  and  militia.  Six 
Spanish  batteries,  playing,  with  well-directed 
aim,  upon  the  place,  opened  a breach,  and  the 
garrison  immediately  capitulated!  At  Pen- 
sacola, only  sixty  miles  off,  General  Camp- 
bell was  stationed  with  an  overwhelming 
force ; yet  he  marched  not  to  the  relief  of  Mo- 
bile, until  it  was  in  the  hands  of  Galvez. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  year  1811,  the 
troops  of  the  United  States  were  employed 
against  the  Indians,  who  formed  powerful 
hostile  combinations  in  the  western  country. 
During  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  many 


wetting  of  his  provision  and  ammunition,  gave 

ALA 


80 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


bloody  engagements  were  fought  with  the 
Indians.  After  the  surrender  of  Detroit,  an 
event  which  produced  such  an  universal  feel- 
ing of  shame  and  degradation  in  the  west, 
the  Indians  sent  news  of  their  triumph  even 
to  the  most  southerly  extremity  of  the  Union, 
and  invited  the  neutral  tribes  of  the  south 
to  assume  the  hatchet.  The  Creeks  and  Sem- 
inoles,  with  many  other  tribes,  were  not  slow 
in  responding  to  the  summons,  and  became 
involved  in  the  war,  which  was  felt,  in  hostile 
incursions,  by  the  entire  frontier,  from  Ten- 
nessee to  the  bay  of  Mobile.  Tecunseh, 
arming  himself  with  the  persuasive  predic- 
tions of  his  brother,  the  Prophet,  arrived 
among  the  Creeks  in  1812,  and  urged  them 
forward  to  deeds  of  blood.  The  most  dread- 
ful outrages  were  consequently  perpetrated 
by  the  Creeks  along  the  Alabama  frontier, 
which  suffered  extremely  during  this  war. 

In  1814,  Mobile  was  attacked  by  the  Brit- 
ish, and  defended  by  Major  Lawrence,  with  a 
gallantry  which  gained  him  no  inconsiderable 
renown.  His  Spartan  band  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty  men  were  resolved  to  suffer  no 
stain  to  dim  the  brilliancy  of  their  starred 
banner,  and  to  uphold  it  while  life-blood  ran 
warm  in  their  veins.  On  the  12th  of  Sep- 
tember, intelligence  was  received  at  the  fort 
of  the  landing  of  a pretty  large  force  of  In- 
dians and  Spaniards  in  its  vicinity.  In  the 
course  of  that  day  two  British  brigs  and 
sloops  hove  in  sight,  and  anchored  at  no  in- 
considerable distance.  At  half  after  four  in 
the  evening  of  the  15th,  the  Hermes,  Charon, 
Sophia,  and  Anaconda,  with  ninety  guns, 
anchored  at  such  a distance  from  the  fort,  as 
to  admit  of  firing  upon  it  conveniently.  A 
simultaneous  land  attack  was  begun  by  Cap- 
tains Nicholls  and  Woodbine.  Their  fortifi- 
cations were  made  of  sand,  and  they  brought 
a howitzer  to  bear  upon  the  fort  at  point 
blank  distance ; but  they  were  soon  compelled 
to  abandon  their  position.  Still  a severe 
firing  was  maintained  by  the  ships  and  fort. 
The  Hermes,  receiving  a raking  fire,  ran 
ashore,  was  abandoned,  and  blew  up.  The 
Charon  was  almost  wholly  disabled.  When 
the  flag-staff  of  the  fort  was  shot  away, 
Woodbine  and  Nicholls,  thinking  the  foe  van- 
quished, rushed  forward  to  the  fort,  but  were 
awakened  to  a sense  of  their  error  by  a mur- 
derous fire  which  sent  them  to  the  right  about 


with  enviable  facility.  What  praise  is  too 
warm  for  the  conduct  of  the  few  who  com- 
posed the  garrison,  when  we  consider  the 
numbers  and  advantages  of  the  enemy  ? Six 
hundred  men  attacked  the  fort  by  sea,  sup- 
ported by  ninety  heavy  guns.  Four  hund- 
red Indians  and  others  made  an  attack  in  the 
rear.  Captain  Lawrence  had  but  about  a 
seventh  of  the  enemy’s  numerical  force,  and 
twenty  guns,  all  badly  mounted,  and  some  of 
them  quite  ineffective.  Yet,  while  he  lost 
but  ten  men,  he  compelled  the  enemy  to 
retire  with  a loss  of  their  very  best  ship,  and 
two  hundred  and  thirty  men. 

The  state  secaded  January  11,  1861 ; at  its 
capital,  Montgomery,  the  rebel  congress  as- 
sembled, Feb.  4,  inaugurated  the  rebel  gov- 
ernment, and  adjourned  to  Richmond,  March 
16,  1861.  It  underwent  a fair  share  of  the 
miseries  of  war,  having  been  penetrated  and 
traversed  a number  of  times  by  the  Union 
troops,  particularly  by  Gen.  Rousseau  with  a 
strong  cavalry  force  in  July,  1864,  during 
Sherman’s  investment  of  Atlanta,  by  Gen. 
Wilson  with  an  army  of  10,000  cavalry  in 
March  and  April,  1865,  and  by  the  forces 
operating  against  Mobile,  in  1864  and  ’65. 
Farragut,  with  a fleet  of  32  vessels  and  231 
guns,  forced  an  entrance  into  Mobile  Bay, 
Aug.  5,  1864,  defeating  the  rebel  fleet  and  tak- 
ing the  ram  Tennessee.  Operations  against 
the  city  itself  began  March  25th,  1865,  when 
Smith  and  Canby  broke  ground  before  Span- 
ish Fort.  Mobile  was  evacuated  Apr.  10th 
and  11th,  and  Gen.  Canby’s  troops  entered  it 
on  the  12th.  This  was  the  last  important 
fighting  of  the  rebellion,  Lee  having  surren- 
dered to  Grant  some  days  before. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  State  is  vested 
in  a supreme  court  with  three  Justices;  a 
court  of  chancery  with  three  chancellors,  the 
state  being  divided  into  three  districts  ; nine 
circuit  courts ; a city  court  for  Mobile,  and 
courts  of  probate.  The  justices  are  chosen 
by  the  legislature  by  joint  ballot  for  terms  of 
six  years  each.  The  judges  are  chosen  by 
the  people  and  may  be  removed  by  impeach- 
ment or  by  the  governor  on  petition  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  legislature. 

The  capital  of  Alabama  is  Montgomery,  a 
thriving  city,  built  on  a high  bluff  at  the 
head  of  steamboat  navigation  on  the  Alabama 
river;  population  in  1870,10,588.  The  most 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


31 


important  town  is  Mobile,  which  except  New 
Orleans  is  the  largest  cotton  mart  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  a handsome  city,  and 
rapidly  growing  in  business  and  prosperity. 
Population  in  1870,  32,034.  Tuscaloosa,  the 
former  capital,  stands  at  the  head  of  steam- 
boat navigation  on  the  Tuscaloosa  River; 
population  in  1870,  5,029. 

By  the  U.  S.  census  of  1870,  Alabama  had 
a population  of  996,992  : consisting  of  521,384 
whites,  475,510  colored,  and  98  Indians. 

AL  ANI,  or  Alans,  a warlike  tribe  that  left 
their  abodes  near  Mount  Caucasus,  in  Alia, 
when  the  Roman  empire  was  declining,  and 
aided  in  its  overthrow.  After  412,  they  be- 
came lost  among  the  Vandals. 

ALARIC,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  and  con- 
queror of  Rome.  But  little  is  known  of  his 
early  history.  His  wild  ambition  was  excited 
by  overtures  from  intriguers  against  Arca- 
dius,  emperor  of  the  eastern  empire,  and  he 
commenced  his  famous  march  from  the  Dan- 
ube, through  Thrace,  Dacia,  Macedonia,  and 
Thessaly,  into  Achaia.  Everywhere  the 
Goths  were  victorious,  and  in  their  ravages 
some  of  the  finest  monuments  of  Grecian  art 
were  lost.  Ilonorius,  the  emperor  of  the  west, 
sent  an  army  to  the  aid  of  his  brother,  and 
for  a few  years  a truce  was  had  between 
Alaric  and  the  Romans.  But  in  405  his 
army  entered  the  eternal  city.  The  Romans 
bought  his  forbearance  by  a ransom  of  five 
thousand  pounds  of  gold,  thirty  thousand 
pounds  of  silver,  four  thousand  garments  of 
silk,  three  thousand  pieces  of  fine  scarlet 
cloth,  and  three  thousand  pounds  of  pepper. 
In  410  his  bands  returned  and  sacked  the 
city.  The  treasures  which  had  been  accu- 
mulated during  a thousand  years,  vanished  in 
three  days  beneath  the  hands  of  the  rapacious 
conquerors.  The  flames  destroyed  works  of 
art  which  the  barbarians  were  unable  to  carry 
off,  but  Alaric  spared  the  churches  and  those 
who  had  sought  refuge  in  them.  Alaric  died 
at  a Calabrian  town  (Cosenza),  a.d.  410, 
when  he  was  preparing  to  lay  waste  Sicily 
and  Africa.  In  order  to  conceal  his  remains 
from  the  Romans,  slaves  were  employed  to 
divert  the  waters  of  the  Busento,  and  hollow 
his  last  resting-place  in  the  channel  of  the 
stream.  When  the  earth  had  received  the 
body  of  the  conqueror,  the  waves  were  per- 
mitted to  rush  in  above  it,  and  the  slaves 


were  murdered,  that  Alaric’ s secret  might 
be  in  the  keeping  of  the  waters  and  the 
voiceless  dead. 

ALASKA.  See  Appendix,  page  971. 

ALBERT  I.,  emperor  and  duke  of  Aus- 
tria, the  son  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  He 
was  crowned  in  1298,  after  slaying  Adolphus 
of  Nassau,  his  competitor.  They  engaged 
in  single  combat,  and  Adolphus  exclaimed, 
“Your  crown  and  life  are  lost!”  “Heaven 
will  decide,”  was  the  answer  of  Albert,  as 
he  forced  his  lance  into  the  face  of  his  adver- 
sary and  unhorsed  him.  Albert  was  assassin- 
ated in  1308,  by  his  nephew  John,  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Suabia,  whose  paternal  estates  he 
had  seized.  John  had  often  asserted  his 
claims,  and  urged  them  upon  Albert  when 
he  was  departing  for  Switzerland,  on  account 
of  the  revolt  of  the  Swiss.  The  emperor  con- 
temptuously offered  his  nephew  a garland  of 
flowers.  “ Take  this,”  said  he,  “amuse  your- 
self with  botanical  investigations,  but  leave 
the  cares  of  government  to  those  who  are  old 
and  wise  enough  to  understand  them.”  Al- 
bert breathed  his  last  in  the  arms  of  a poor 
woman,  who  was  sitting  by  the  road-side  at 
the  time  of  his  assassination. 

ALBERTUS  MAGNUS,  or  Albertus  Gro- 
tus,  was  born  in  Lauingen,  in  Suabia,  about 
the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
In  youth  he  is  said  to  have  been  singularly 
obtuse;  but  he  afterward  studied  at  Paris, 
Padua,  and  Bologna,  displayed  prodigious 
capacity,  and  became  a wonder  of  erudition. 
He  was  a Dominican,  and  was  made  Bishop 
of  Ratisbon  in  1260;  resigned  his  episcopate 
in  1263,  and  died  in  1280.  Cologne  was  his 
chief  place  of  residence.  Thomas  Aquinas 
was  among  his  pupils. 

ALBIGENSES,  the  Protestants  of  Savoy 
and  Piedmont,  in  the  middle  ages ; the  ob- 
jects of  cruel  persecution  and  of  several  cru- 
sades. They  are  said  to  have  originated  at 
Albigeois,  in  Languedoc,  about  1 1 60.  They 
professed  a hatred  of  the  corruptions  of  the 
Church  of  Rome. 

ALBRET,  Jeanne  d’,  daughter  of  Marga- 
ret, Queen  of  Navarre,  was  married  at  the  age 
of  eleven  to  the  Duke  of  Cleves,  but  the  mar- 
riage was  annulled  in  1548,  when  she  espous- 
ed Anthony  de  Bourbon,  Duke  of  Vendome, 
by  whom  she  became  mother  of  Henry  IV. 
In  1555,  her  father  dying,  she  became  Queen 


ALB 


32 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


of  Navarre,  and  in  1562,  the  death  of  her 
husband  left  her  independent.  She  then  set 
herself  to  establish  the  Reformation  in  her 
kingdom,  although  opposed  by  France  and 
Spain.  She  expired  suddenly,  at  Versailles, 
in  1572,  and  her  death  was  attributed  to 
poison. 

ALBUERA,  Battle  of.  Between  the 
French,  commanded  by  Marshal  Soult,  and 
the  British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  com- 
manded by  Marshal  Beresford,  May  16th, 
1811.  After  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary 
engagement,  the  latter  obtained  the  victory, 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  the 
peninsular  war.  The  French  loss  exceeded 
7,000  men,  and  the  allies  lost  an  equal 
number. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  the  name  of  two  Portu- 
guese brothers,  distinguished  for  bravery, 
who  founded  the  Portuguese  dominion  in  the 
Indies.  They  took  Cochin,  in  India,  in  1505. 
Francis  was  lost  on  his  passage  home.  When 
Alphonso  captured  Ormus,  the  Persian  king 
demanded  the  tribute  which  he  had  been 
accustomed  to  receive  from  the  princes  of  the 
island.  Upon  this  Albuquerque  laid  down 
a sword  and  a bullet,  saying  haughtily, 
“ This  is  the  coin  in  which  Portugal  pays  her 
tribute.”  After  a rash  and  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt upon  Calicut,  he  took  Goa  and  Malacca. 
The  envy  of  courtiers,  and  the  suspicions  of 
King  Emmanuel,  did  not  spare  even  the  dis- 
tinguished merit  of  Albuquerque,  who  died 
at  Goa,  in  1515,  after  his  ungrateful  master 
had  appointed  his  personal  enemy,  Lopez 
Soarez,  to  fill  his  post. 

ALCIBIADES,  an  Athenian,  famous  for 
his  enterprise,  gallantry,  versatility,  and  nat- 
ural foibles.  He  was  the  son  of  Clinias  and 
Dinomache,  and  was  born  at  Athens,  about 
450  b.c.  He  inherited  high  rank  and  vast 
wealth,  while  nature  had  endowed  him  with 
a person  unusually  handsome,  manners  the 
most  fascinating,  a'nd  talents  of  high  order. 
Left  early  an  orphan,  he  was  educated  in  the 
house  of  Pericles,  who  was  too  much  occu- 
pied with  state  affairs  to  pay  much  attention 
to  the  youth.  The  impetuosity  of  Alcibiades 
displayed  itself  early,  as  the  following  anec- 
dote shows.  While  he  was  playing  dice  in 
the  street  with  some  juvenile  companions,  a 
wagon  came  up.  Alcibiades  requested  the 
driver  to  stop,  but  he  refused.  The  daring 


ALCIBIADES. 

youth  then  threw  himself  before  the  wheel,  and 
exclaimed,  “ Drive  on,  if  thou  darest ! ” The 
instructions  of  Socrates  restrained  for  a time 
his  vain  and  wanton  propensities.  Socrates 
fought  by  his  side  in  his  first  battle,  and, 
when  he  was  wounded,  defended  him,  and 
bore  him  off  safe.  The  dissipation  and  ex- 
travagance of  Alcibiades  were  unbounded. 
One  night,  being  at  a banquet,  he  laid  a 
wager  that  he  would  box  the  ears  of  the  rich 
Hipponicus,  and  did  so.  This  excited  gen- 
eral indignation,  but  Alcibiades  went  to  the 
injured  party,  threw  off  his  garment,  and, 
placing  a rod  in  his  hand,  bade  him  strike 
and  revenge  himself.  Hipponicus  not  only 
pardoned  him  freely,  but  gave  him  his  daugh- 
ter in  marriage  w ith  a goodly  portion.  At 
the  Olympic  games,  Alcibiades  would  enter 
seven  chariots,  and  at  one  time  wron  three 
prizes. 

In  the  Peloponnesian  war  he  encouraged  the 
Athenians  to  engage  in  an  expedition  against 
Syracuse.  He  was  chosen  general  in  that 
wrar,  and  in  his  absence,  his  enemies,  having 
found  all  the  statues  of  Mercury  broken, 
charged  him  writh  being  concerned  in  the 
deed  and  confiscated  all  his  property.  He 
then  fled  to  Sparta,  wrhere  he  attempted  to 
gain  popularity  by  adopting  the  temperate 
habits  of  the  Spartans,  whom  he  wished  to 
rouse  against  the  Athenians.  Finding  this 
of  no  avail,  he  went  to  Tissaphernes,  the 


ALC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


33 


satrap  of  Lydia.  He  was  afterward  recalled 
by  the  Athenians,  and  having  compelled  the 
Spartans  to  sue  for  peace,  and  been  success- 
ful in  Asia,  was  welcomed  to  Athens  with  high 
honors.  The  failure  of  an  expedition,  with 
the  command  of  which  he  was  intrusted, 
again  aroused  the  resentment  of  the  people, 
and  Alcibiades  fled  to  Pharnabazes,  satrap 
of  Bithynia.  Lysander,  the  Spartan  general, 
induced  Pharnabazes  to  assassinate  him.  The 
attendants  sent  for  that  purpose,  found  him 
in  a castle  in  Phrygia,  in  company  with  his 
favorite  Timandra.  They  set  the  building  on 
fire,  and  the  warrior  rushed  out  sword  in 
hand.  Dreading  his  valor,  the  cowardly  as- 
sassins retreated  to  a safe  distance,  and  shot 
him  with  their  arrows.  Thus  perished  Alci- 
biades, in  the  forty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  about 
404  b.c.  Though  he  wanted  firm  moral  prin- 
ciples, he  was  generous,  brave,  persevering, 
and  gifted  with  distinguished  qualities.  His 
eloquence  won  the  hearts  of  men  impercep- 
tibly and  unostentatiously ; although  it  is  said 
that  he  stuttered,  and  was  unable  to  pro- 
nounce the  letter  ‘ r.’ 

ALEMANNI,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Suabia  and  Switzerland,  united  in  a league, 
from  whence  Germany  derives  its  French 
name  of  Allemagne.  They  were  the  deter- 
mined opponents  of  the  Romans.  They 
finally  submitted  to  the  Franks. 

ALEXANDER  the  Great,  son  of  Philip 
of  Macedon,  was  born  at  Pella,  b.c.  356. 
Olympias,  daughter  of  Neoptolemus  of  Epi- 
rus, was  his  mother.  At  an  early  age,  he 
showed  a veneration  for  great  deeds  and  a 
determination  to  achieve  them.  Hearing  of 
the  victories  of  Philip,  he  exclaimed,  “ My 
father  will  leave  nothing  for  me  to  do.”  Ar- 
istotle instructed  him  in  the  most  elegant  as 
well  as  the  most  profound  branches  of  knowl- 
edge, and  never  for  a moment  forgot  that  it 
was  his  duty  to  fit  him  for  governing  a great 
kingdom.  That  he  might  become  acquainted 
wTith  military  virtues  and  ambition,  Aristotle 
put  the  “Iliad”  into  the  hands  of  his  noble 
pupil.  Alexander  was  so  fond  of  this,  that 
he  never  lay  down  without  having  read  some 
pages  in  it.  His  exclusive  ambition  is'  well 
illustrated  by  the  letter  which  he  wrote  his 
preceptor  on  the  publication  of  his  “ Meta- 
physics.” “You  did  wrong  in  publishing 
those  branches  of  science  hitherto  not  to  be 

" 3 


acquired  but  from  oral  instruction.  In  what 
shall  1 excel  others,  if  the  more  profound 
knowledge  I gained  from  you  be  communicat- 
ed to  all  ? For  my  part,  I had  rather  surpass 
the  majority  of  mankind  in  the  sublimer 
branches  of  learning,  than  in  the  extent  of 
power  and  dominion.” 

It  was  no  part  of  the  ancient  Grecian  plan 
of  education,  to  permit  the  culture  of  the 
mind  to  supersede  that  of  the  body.  The 
instructors  of  the  young  trained  the  intellec- 
tual and  corporeal  powers  at  the  saifie  time. 
Alexander  was  early  accustomed  to  gymnas- 
tic exercises,  and  at  a tender  age,  displayed 
his  strength  and  skill  in  an  extraordinary 
manner.  His  father  had  been  presented  with 
a superb  charger  (Bucephalus),  which  no  one 
dared  to  mount.  Alexander  sprang  upon 
his  back  and  succeeded  in  completely  taming 
him,  after  which  the  steed  would  permit  none 
but  the  noble  youth  to  mount  him.  He  bore 
him  through  some  of  the  most  perilous  scenes 
of  his  career,  and,  when  he  died,  was  honored 
by  a splendid  memorial,  the  erection  of  a city 
called  Bucephalia.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
years,  Alexander  was  appointed  by  his  father, 
regent  of  Macedon,  when  the  latter  departed 
on  his  expedition  to  Byzantium.  In  338,  at 
the  battle  of  Cheeronea,  he  so  distinguished 
himself,  that  Philip,  embracing  him,  exclaim- 
ed, “My  son,  seek  another  empire,  for  that 
you  will  inherit  is  unworthy  of  you.” 

When  Philip  married  Cleopatra,  and  di- 
vorced, or  at  least  disgraced,  Olympias,  Al- 
exander, having  taken  the  part  of  his  mother, 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  his  father,  and 
was  forced  to  fly  to  Epirus,  whence,  however, 
he  was  soon  recalled.  Soon  after  this  he 
saved  his  father’s  life  in  an  expedition  against 
the  Triballi.  Philip  was  assassinated,  b.c. 
336,  when  preparing  to  make  war  upon  Per- 
sia, at  the  head  of  all  the  Grecian  forces. 
Alexander,  then  twenty  years  of  age,  ascended 
the  throne,  and  soon  gave  proof  of  talents  to 
govern  and  to  conquer.  He  conquered  the 
Illyrii  and  Triballi,  and  forced  a triumphant 
passage  through  Thrace.  Urged  by  the  elo- 
quence of  Demosthenes,  the  Athenians  were 
about  to  join  the  Thebans,  who  had  taken  up 
arms,  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Macedon. 
Alexander  promptly  repaired  to  Thebes,  and 
on  the  refusal  of  the  citizens  to  surrender, 
took  it  and  destroyed  it,  with  the  exception 


ALE 


34 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  the  poet  Pindar’s  house.  Six  thousand 
individuals  were  put  to  the  sword,  and  thirty 
thousand  reduced  to  captivity.  The  Athen- 
ians, although  punished,  were  not  so  severely 
handled,  and  the  fate  of  Thebes  had  the 
intended  effect  of  striking  terror  into  all 
Greece.  The  general  assembly  of  the  Greeks 
confirmed  Alexander  in  the  chief  command 
against  Persia,  and  he  determined  to  leave 
Antipater,  who  had  been  a minister  of  his 
father,  at  the  head  of  the  government.  The 
confidence  reposed  in  this  man  was  great,  as 
appears  from  the  following  anecdote.  Philip 
was  fond  of  wine,  and  occasionally  indulged 
himself  to  excess.  One  night,  observing  one 
of  his  companions  unwilling  to  drink  deeply, 
“Drink,  drink,”  said  he,  “all’s  safe,  for  An- 
tipater is  awake.” 

In  the  spring  of  334,  Alexander  crossed 
into  Asia  with  30,000  foot  and  5,000  horse. 
In  the  plains  of  Ilium,  he  offered  sacrifices 
to  Minerva,  and  crowned  the  tomb  of  Achilles. 
Approaching  the  Granicus,  he  learned  that 
Persian  satraps,  with  600,000  foot  and  20,000 
horse,  were  prepared  to  oppose  his  progress. 
The  passage  of  the  river  was  effected  in  the 
teeth  of  this  force,  and  Alexander  was  com- 
pletely triumphant.  During  the  heat  of  battle, 
the  Macedonian  monarch  was  a mark  for  the 
weapons  of  the  enemy,  by  the  splendor  of  hi^ 
equipments,  and  the  conspicuous  beauty  of 
his  superb  charger.  The  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
with  few  exceptions,  now  opened  their  gates  to 
the  youthful  conqueror.  In  passing  through 
Gordium,  Alexander  cut  the  Gordian  knot. 
Lycia,  Ionia,  Caria,  Pamphylia,  and  Cappa- 
docia, were  successively  conquered.  The  con- 
queror was  seized  with  a severe  illness  in 
consequence  of  imprudently  bathing  in  the 
Cydnus,  which  proved  a check  to  his  career. 
While  in  a dangerous  state,  he  received  a 
letter  from  Parmenio,  his  general,  warning 
him  against  his  physician  Philip,  whom  Par- 
menio accused  of  the  design  of  poisoning  his 
master.  Phjlip  was  at  that  time  preparing  a 
potion  for  the  king;  and  Alexander,  hand- 
ing him  the  letter,  looked  steadily  in  his 
face  while  he  drank  off  the  draught.  He 
recovered. 

Darius,  instead  of  waiting  for  Alexander  on 
the  plains  of  Assyria,  had  advanced  with  an 
immense  army  to  the  defiles  of  Cilicia,  whither 
the  Macedonian  followed,  defeating  the  Per- 


sians in  the  battle  of  Issus,  which  placed  the 
treasures,  and  the  mother,  wife,  and  children 
of  Darius  in  the  hands  of  the  conqueror. 
His  generous  treatment  of  the  family  of  Da- 
rius conferred  as  much  honor  upon  Alexander, 
as  the  victory  which  preceded  it.  He  turned 
toward  Coelosyria  and  Phoenicia  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cutting  off  Darius,  who  had  fled 
toward  the  Euphrates.  The  Persian  monarch 
sent  a letter  to  Alexander  suing  for  peace,  and 
the  latter  answered  him,  that  if  he  would 
come  to  him,  he  should  receive  his  mother,  his 
wife,  his  children,  and  his  empire;  but  no 
notice  was  taken  of  this  liberal  proposal. 
Damascus,  and  all  the  towns  along  the  Med- 
iterranean, were  entered  and  taken  possession 
of  by  Alexander.  The  resistance  of  Tyre 
was  severely  punished ; it  stood  a siege  of 
seven  months ; the  inhabitants  were  massa- 
cred or  sold  as  slaves.  This  is  one  of  the 
blackest  acts  in  Alexander’s  career.  In  Pal- 
estine, Gaza,  which  resisted  the  conqueror 
like  Tyre,  shared  a like  fate.  Gaza  was  the 
emporium,  for  the  productions  of  Arabia,  and 
a place  of  considerable  wealth  and  import- 
ance. Among  the  plunder,  the  conquer- 
or gained  great  quantities  of  frankincense, 
myrrh,  and  other  aromatics,  the  sight  of 
which  recalled  a long  forgotten  incident  of 
his  juvenile  days.  His  governor,  Leonatus, 
observing  him  one  day  at  a sacrifice  throw 
incense  into  the  flame  by  handfuls,  remon- 
strated, and  said,  “ Alexander,  when  you 
have  conquered  the  spice  countries,  you  may 
be  thus  lavish  of  your  incense ; meantime  use 
what  you  have  more  sparingly.”  Alexander 
now  sent  his  governor  several  large  bales  of 
spices,  with  the  following  note:  “Leonatus, 
.1  have  sent  you  frankincense  and  myrrh  in 
abundance ; so  be  no  longer  a churl  to  the 
gods.”  On  his  way  through  Palestine  it  is 
said  that  Alexander  marched  against  Jerusa- 
lem to  destroy  it ; but  when  he  saw  Jaddus 
the  high-priest  clad  in  his  solemn  robes,  he 
declared  he  had  seen  such  a figure  in  a vision 
in  Macedonia,  inviting  him  to  Asia  and  prom- 
ising to  deliver  the  Persian  empire  into  his 
hands.  The  holy  city  was  spared,  and  in  the 
temple  Alexander  offered  sacrifices  to  the 
God  of  the  Jews. 

He  proceeded  into  Egypt,  and  founded  the 
city  of  Alexandria.  The  Egyptians,  to  whom 
the  Persian  yoke  had  been  a galling  burden, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


35 


were  well  pleased  with  the  arrival  of  Alex- 
ander, whom  they  gratefully  regarded  as  a 
deliverer.  His  next  expedition  was  a visit 
to  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  in  the  des- 
erts of  Libya,  where,  having  consulted  the 
oracle,  the  crafty  god  is  said  to  have  acknowl- 
edged him  as  his  son.  In  the  ensuing  spring, 
learning  that  Darius  had  gathered  an  im- 
mense force  in  Assyria,  and  was  determined 
to  tight  to  the  last,  rejecting  all  proposals  for 
peace,  Alexander  marched  in  that  direction. 
In  331,  a furious  battle  was  fought  at  Gauga- 
mela,  not  far  from  Arbela,  in  which  the  army 
of  Darius  was  not  less  than  500,000  strong. 
Notwithstanding  this  overwhelming  force, 
the  Macedonian  was  irresistible,  and  scattered 
the  thronged  Persians  like  leaves  before  the 
tempest.  Alexander’s  principal  object  was 
to  capture  the  Persian  monarch,  or  prevent 
his  flight  by  death.  In  the  midst  of  the 
crowd  and  crush  of  battle,  Darius  was  no  incon- 
siderable figure,  for  he  was  mounted  on  a char- 
iot of  great  height,  and  surrounded  by  guards 
splendidly  armed  and  equipped.  These, 
however,  no  sooner  perceived  the  extraordi- 
nary success  of  Alexander,  than,  forgetful  of 
their  duty,  they  took  to  flight.  Darius  was 
saved  by  the  speed  of  a horse  upon  which  he 
hastily  threw  himself. 

The  immense  wealth  of  the  East  was  de- 
posited in  Babylon  and  Susa,  both  of  which 
opened  their  gates  without  hesitation  to  the 
mighty  victor,  who  continued  his  march  to- 
ward Persepolis,  then  the  capital  of  Persia. 
Ariobarzanes,  with  40,000  men,  had  thrown 
himself  into  the  only  passage  which  opened 
on  Persepolis,  to  defend  it  as  long  as  he  was 
able.  He  did  not  hold  out  long,  for  the 
troops  of  Alexander,  flushed  with  success, 
and  impatient  of  opposition,  swept  away  all 
obstacles.  Persepolis,  with  all  its  wealth 
and  luxury,  was  won.  In  Persepolis,  Alex- 
ander forgot  his  duty  and  his  interest  in 
unexampled  riot  and  dissipation.  He  was 
intoxicated  with  success,  and  inclined  to 
believe  himself  the  god  which  his  flatterers 
would  have  made  him.  In  a moment  of  in- 
toxication and  unbridled  pleasure.  Alexander, 
yielding  to  the  persuasions  of  an  abandoned 
woman,  Thais,  the  Athenian,  fired  the  cap- 
ital of  Persia,  which*  was  soon  reduced  to 
ruins.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Medus  and 
Araxes,  near  Istakar,  the  ruins  of  the  royal 


palace  of  Persepolis  are  still  visible ; tall  col- 
umns yet  attesting  its  former  magnificence, 
before  the  vengeance  of  the  Greek  was 
wreaked  upon  the  pride  of  art. 

The  burning  of  Persepolis  filled  Alexander 
with  remorse,  and  he  set  forth  in  pursuit  of 
Darius.  He  soon  learned  that  Bessus,  the  per- 
fidious satrap  of  Bactria,  kept  his  master  in 
custody,  but  before  he  could  save  Darius,  Bes- 
sus had  the  unfortunate  monarch  assassinated, 
b.c.  330.  He  was  found  lying  in  his  chariot 
covered  with  wounds.  The  perfidy  of  Bess-us 
was  subsequently  punished  with  death.  Da- 
rius was  interred  with  great  solemnity,  and 
Alexander  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
king  of  Asia.  While  occupied  in  the  for- 
mation of  plans  of  vast  importance,  a conspir- 
acy broke  out  in  the  camp  of  Alexander,  in 
which  Philotas,  the  son  of  Parmenio,  was 
found  to  be  concerned.  Philotas,  though 
brave  and  hardy,  was  addicted  to  pleasure, 
to  expensive  amusements,  and  given  to  boast- 
ing. He  frequently  spoke  slightingly  of 
Alexander  to  the  companions  of  his  pleasures, 
calling  him  the  and  saying  that  the 

victories  were  rather  the  result  of  his  own 
exertions  and  those  of  his  father,  than  of  the 
bravery  and  skill  of  Alexander.  Parmenio 
endeavored  to  check  his  son,  saying,  “ Make 
yourself  less  conspicuous,”  but  his  counsel 
was  of  no  avail.  Alexander  heard  of  the 
boastings  of  Philotas  with  indignation ; and 
when  the  conspiracy  broke  forth,  his  anger 
knew  no  bounds.  Philotas  was  executed, 
and,  by  the  orders  of  Alexander,  the  veteran 
Parmenio  was  secretly  put  to  death,  a crim- 
inal act  which  excited  the  displeasure  of  the 
whole  army. 

Meanwhile  Agis,  king  of  Sparta,  threatened 
the  destruction  of  the  power  of  Alexander  in 
Greece,  and  raised  a powerful  army  to  obtain 
independence,  but  he  was  defeated  by  Anti- 
pater,  and  the  dissolution  of  the  Grecian 
league  ensued.  Neither  the  severity  of  the 
winter  nor  the  want  of  local  knowledge  pre- 
vented Alexander  from  marching  into  the 
north  of  Asia  and  reaching  the  Caspian  Sea. 
He  attacked  the  Scythians,  urged  on  by  an 
insatiable  thirst  for  distinction.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Bactria,  he  assumed  the  dress  of  the 
Persians,  which  disgusted  the  Macedonians, 
who  thought  the  flowing  robes  of  the  orien- 
tals too  effeminate.  The  Persians  were  dis- 


ALE 


86 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


pleased  at  beholding  the  Macedonian  officers 
entering  the  royal  presence  without  those 
tokens  of  respect,  which  the  kings  of  their 
nation  invariably  exacted  from  their  subjects. 
The  low  inclinations  of  reverence  could  oaly 
be  claimed  from  the  Greeks  on  the  plea  that 
Alexander,  as  a god,  was  entitled  to  them. 
A blunt  Spartan  once  satisfied  the  master  of 
ceremonies  and  his  own  scruples,  by  first 
dropping  a ring  and  then  stooping  to  pick  it 
up  in  the  presence  of  the  king.  Offimded 
with  the  independence  and  freedom  of  Clitus, 
Alexander  slew  him  with  his  own  hand  at  a 
banquet.  As  soon  as  he  saw  the  lifeless  body 
of  his  most  faithful  friend  and  bravest  general 
stretched  before  him,  he  was  seized  with  all 
the  agonies  of  remorse. 

The  next  year  Alexander  subdued  Sogdi- 
ana,  and  married  the  Bactrian  Roxana,  love- 
liest of  Asiatic  women.  The  Asiatic  women, 
but  particularly  the  ladies  of  Persia,  were 
famous  for  the  richness  of  their  attire,  and 
the  art  with  which  they  heightened  their 
native  beauty.  The  Persian  ladies  wore  the 
tiara  or  turban,  richly  adorned  with  jewels. 
They  wore  their  hair  long,  and  both  plaited 
and  curled  it ; nor,  if  the  natural  failed,  did 
they  scruple  to  use  false  locks.  They  pen- 
ciled the  eye-brows,  and  tinged  the  eye-lid, 
■with  a dye  that  was  supposed  to  add  a pecu- 
liar brilliancy  to  the  eyes.  They  wrere  fond 
of  perfumes,  and  the  delightful  attar  was  the 
favorite.  Their  tunic  and  drawers  were  of 
fine  linen ; the  robe  or  gown,  of  silk,  with  a 
long  train  that  on  state  occasions  required  a 
supporter.  Round  the  waist  they  wore  a 
broad  zone  or  cincture,  flounced  on  both 
edges,  and  embroidered  and  jeweled  in  the 
centre.  They  also  wore  stockings  and  gloves, 
but  history  does  not  record  their  materials. 
They  used  no  sandals ; a light  and  ornamental 
shoe  was  worn  in  the  house ; and  for  walking 
they  had  a kind  of  coarse  half  boot.  They 
used  shawls  and  wrappers  for  the  person,  and 
veils  for  the  head ; the  veil  was  large  and 
square,  and  wffien  thrown  over  the  head, 
descended  low  on  all  sides.  They  were  fond 
of  glowing  colors,  especially  of  purple,  scar- 
let, and  light-blue  dresses.  Their  favorite 
ornaments  were  pearls ; they  wreathed  these 
in  their  hair,  wore  them  as  necklaces,  ear- 
drops, amulets,  bracelets,  anklets,  and  worked 
them  into  conspicuous  parts  of  their  dresses. 


Of  the  precious  stones  they  preferred  eme- 
ralds, rubies,  and  turquoises,  which  wrere  set 
in  gold  and  worn  like  the  pearls.  No  fewer 
than  ten  thousand  Greeks,  captivated  with 
their  charms,  married  Asiatic  brides,  and 
each  couple  received  a present  from  Alexan- 
der. 

Soon  after  the  marriage  of  Alexander  with 
Roxana,  a conspiracy  was  discovered  among 
his  troops,  headed  by  Hermolaus.  All  were 
condemned  to  death  but  Callisthenes,  who 
was  mutilated  and  carried  about  with  the 
army  in  an  iron  cage,  until  his  tortures  be- 
came insufferable,  and  he  killed  himself  by 
poison.  Alexander  penetrated  into  India  and 
was  highly  successful.  His  most  determined 
enemy  was  Porus,  an  Indian  king,  whom 
he  effectually  subdued.  When  this  warlike 
monarch  was  asked  how  he  should  be  treated, 
he  answered  Alexander,  “ Like  a king,”  and 
was  consequently  restored  to  his  kingdom. 

Alexander  established  Greek  colonies  in 
India,  and  is  said  to  have  built  no  fewer  than 
seventy  towns,  one  of  which  was  erected  in 
honor  of  his  horse  Bucephalus,  killed  on  the 
banks  of  the  ITydaspes.  He  would  have  pen- 
etrated as  far  as  the  Ganges,  but  for  the  mur- 
murs of  his  fatigued  army.  He  returned  to 
the  Hydaspes,  and  built  a fleet  upon  its  banks, 
dispatching  part  of  his  army  by  water, 
while  the  remainder  marched  down  by  land. 
His  march  through  the  country  was  not 
unopposed,  and  he  himself  received  a severe 
wound,  from  which,  however,  he  recovered, 
and  sailing  down  the  Indus,  reached  the  sea. 
Nearchus,  the  admiral  of  Alexander,  sailed 
to  the  Persian  gulf,  while  the  conqueror 
reached  Babylon  by  land,  in  the  spring 
of  324  b.c.,  after  encountering  incredible 
fatigues,  wrhich  cost  him  the  loss  of  many 
men.  At  Susa,  he  was  married  to  two  Per- 
sian princesses.  At  Opis,  on  the  Tigris,  he 
sent  home  the  invalids  with  presents,  and 
quelled  a mutiny  of  his  troops.  Not  long 
after  this,  his  friend  and  favorite,  Hephaestion, 
died.  It  is  asserted  that  the  fever  of  He- 
phaestion was  brought  on  by  hard  drinking. 
Alexander’s  grief  at  the  loss  of  his  favorite 
was  excessive,  and  even  endangered  his  rea- 
son ; for  three  days  he  tasted  no  food,  and  lay 
stretched  upon  the  ground,  either  in  silent 
sorrow  or  loud  lamentation.  The  money 
expended  on  the  funeral  pile  might  have 


ALE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


37 


erected  a palace ; and  all  the  barbarian  sub- 
jects of  Alexander  were  ordered  to  go  into 
mourning. 

When  Alexander  went  from  Ecbatana  to 
Babylon,  which  he  meant  to  make  the  capital 
of  his  empire,  he  is  said  to  have  been  warned 
by  the  astrologers  that  the  latter  place  would 
prove  fatal  to  him.  Despising  these  warnings, 
he  went  to  Babylon  and  gave  audience  to  the 
several  foreign  ambassadors  who  awaited  his 
arrival.  His  mind  was  engaged  in  forming 
vast  plans  of  future  conquest,  when  he  was 
seized  with  sickness,  after  a banquet,  and 
died  in  the  spring  of  323  b.c.  Alexander  had 
reigned  twelve  years  and  eight  months,  and 
was  thirty-two  years  old  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  The  vast  possessions  which  he  had 
acquired  by  force,  were  deluged  by  continual 
bloodshed  when  he  was  no  more.  When 
asked  to  whom  he  left  his  kingdom,  he  an- 
swered, “to  the  worthiest.”  . The  body  of 
Alexander  was  interred  with  all  the  pomp  and 
circumstance  of  regal  burial  at  Alexandria, 
where  Ptolemy  inclosed  his  remains  in  a 
golden  coffin.  The  Egyptians  and  other  na- 
tions paid  divine  honors  to  him  after  his 
death.  A modern  writer  has  said:  “The 
history  of  Alexander  forms  an  important 
epoch  in  the  history  of  mankind.  Unlike 
other  Asiatic  conquerors,  his  progress  was 
marked  by  something  more  than  devastation 
and  ruin ; at  every  step  of  his  course  the 
Greek  language  and  civilization  took  root  and 
flourished ; and  after  his  death,  Greek  king- 
doms were  formed  in  all  parts  of  Asia,  which 
continued  to  exist  for  centuries.  By  his  con- 
quests the  knowledge  of  mankind  was  in- 
creased; the  sciences  of  geography,  natural 
history,  and  others  received  vast  additions ; 
and  it  was  through  him  that  a road  was 
opened  to  India,  and  that  Europeans  became 
acquainted  with  the  products  of  the  remote 
East.” 

ALEXANDER  SEVERUS,  a Phoenician 
by  birth,  related  to  Heliogabalus,  who  at- 
tempted his  life,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
praetorian  guards  slew  the  monster,  and 
made  Alexander  emperor  in  his  seventeenth 
year.  He  proved  himself  worthy  of  the 
sceptre,  and  having  .gained  a great  victory 
over  the  Persians,  on  his  return  to  Rome  was 
honored  by  a triumph.  When  he  marched 
into  Gaul,  where  an  irruption  of  the  Germans 


required  his  presence,  he  fell,  by  a mutiny  of 
his  troops,  in  the  year  235,  after  a reign  of 
twelve  years.  He  was  temperate,  frugal, 
humane,  and  so  favorably  disposed  to  Chris- 
tianity, that  he  placed  the  statue  of  Jesus  in 
his  private  chapel. 

ALEXANDER,  the  name  of  seven  popes, 
the  first  of  whom  introduced  the  use  of  holy 
water.  The  sixth  was  remarkable  for  his 
cruelty  and  the  infamy  of  his  son,  Caesar 
Borgia.  He  died  in  1503,  having  greatly 
extended  the  papal  dominions  in  Italy. 

ALEXANDER  NEVSKOI,  grand  duke 
of  Russia,  a hero  and  saint  of  the  Russian 
church,  was  born  in  1218,  and  died  1263 

ALEXANDER  I.,  of  Russia.  [ See  Roman- 
off.] . 

ALEXANDRIA  was  the  Greek  capital  of 
ancient  Egypt,  and  under  the  Ptolemies, 
whose  favorite  residence  it  was,  was  cele- 
brated for  its  wealth,  splendor,  and  arts.  It 
was  founded  in  332  b.c.  by  Alexander,  who 
employed  the  celebrated  architect,  Dinocrates, 
in  beautifying  and  embellishing  it,  and  sprang 
at  once  into  beauty  and  importance.  The 
situation  of  Alexandria,  and  the  excellence 
of  its  fine  harbors,  appeared  to  adapt  it  to 
the  rank  which  its  founder  hoped  that  it 
would  hold  among  the  cities  of  the  world. 
Ptolemy  Soter,  or  the  Savior,  and  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  conferred  great  benefits  upon 
the  city,  which  became  the  seat  of  literature, 
the  resort  of  the  learned  of  all  countries,  and 
an  important  mart.  Its  earliest  inhabitants 
were  Greeks  and  Egyptians.  The  population 
was  augmented  by  colonies  of  Jews  trans- 
ported thither  for  that  purpose.  These  peo- 
ple made  themselves  familiar  with  Grecian 
lore,  and  translated  into  the  Greek  language 
the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament,  a version 
called  the  Septuagint.  Four  hundred  thou# 
sand  volumes  of  the  royal  library  were  con- 
tained in  a magnificent  edifice  belonging  to 
the  academy  and  museum,  in  which  Euclid 
taught;  300,000  more  were  deposited  in  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis.  As  all  these  works 
were  in  manuscript,  their  value  was  immense. 
The  Ptolemies  spared  no  pains  to  enrich  their 
library,  which  became  the  finest  in  the  world. 
When  Julius  Caesar  besieged  Alexandria,  47 
b.c.,  the  library  was  injured  by  fire,  but  the 
loss  was  repaired  by  the  library  of  Pergamus 
which  Antony  presented  to  Queen  Cleopatra. 


ALE 


86 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Cleopatra’s  needle. 


It  was  much  injured  by  the  Christians  under 
Theodosius  the  Great,  and  the  Arabs  com- 
pleted the  devastation.  When  the  division 
of  the  Roman  empire  was  effected,  Alexan- 
dria, together  with  the  country  of  which  it 
was  the  capital,  was  included  in  the  Eastern 
empire.  Alexandria  came  into  the  hands  of 
the  Arabs  in  640.  It  received  the  attention 
of  the  Caliph  Motawakcl,  who,  mindful  of 
its  former  state,  restored  both  the  library  and 
academy,  in  845.  In  868,  it  was  taken  by 
the  Turks,  and  under  their  sway,  very  rap- 
idly declined.  Still  its  commerce  was  in  a 
flourishing  state,  and  continued  so  until  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the  Por- 
tuguese, by  the  discovery  of  the  passage  to 
the  Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  altered 
the  commercial  channel,  and  enriched  them- 
selves at  the  expense  of  the  Egyptians.  The 
modern  city  of  Alexandria  occupies  only  a part 


of  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  The  remains 
of  ancient  Alexandria  are  unimportant,  the 
red  granite  obelisks  called  Cleopatra’s  needles, 
and  Pompey’s  pillar,  being  the  most  conspic- 
uous. The  latter  was  erected  by  a prefect  of 
Egypt,  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian; 
but  the  equestrian  statue  which  formerly 
surmounted  it,  is  gone.  Some  years  past,  a 
party  of  English  sailors  resolved  to  amuse 
themselves,  and  astonish  the  natives,  by 
mounting  to  the  top,  and  refreshing  them- 
selves at  an  elevation  which  should  put  them 
above  the  cares  and  turmoils  of  humanity. 
How  to  accomplish  their  purpose  was  the 
next  question.  This  was  soon  settled.  They 
raised  a line  by  means  of  a kite,  and  dropped 
it  over  the  pillar,  and  by  this  means  drew  up 
a rope,  by  which  they  gained  the  top,  whence, 
looking  down  upon  the  spectators  from  a 
giddy  elevation  of  eighty-eight  feet,  they  eon- 


ALE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


39 


gratulated  themselves  on  their  success.  The 
island  of  Pharos  yet  bears  the  ruins  of  the 
light-house  erected  by  the  Ptolemies.  This 
celebrated  building  was  of  white  marble. 
Ptolemy  directed  his  name  to  be  inscribed 
upon  the  tower,  but  the  cunning  architect 
carved  the  name  of  his  employer  upon  a 
tablet  of  plaster,  which,  decaying  in  time, 
displayed  the  name  of  the  builder,  with  a 
dedication  to  the  gods,  claiming  for  himself 
all  the  honors  due  to  his  sovereign.  One 
of  Cleopatra’s  needles  was  presented  to  En- 
gland by  the  pacha,  but  its  weight,  400,000 
pounds,  was  a serious  bar  to  its  transportation. 
The  ancient  Alexandria  had  a population  of 
600,000;  the  modern  contains  about  60,000. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a patriarch.  It  is  the  only 
port  of  Egypt,  and  the  ancient  canal  com- 
munication with  the  Nile  has  been  reopened. 
This,  and  the  establishment  of  the  overland 
route  to  India,  have  increased  its  importance. 

A battle  was  fought  at  Alexandria,  March 
21st, ‘ 1801,  between  the  French  under  Menou 
and  the  British  under  Abercrombie.  The 
latter  gained  the  day.  Abercrombie  was 
mortally  wounded. 

ALFIERI,  Victor,  Count,  was  born  at 
Asti  in  Piedmont,  in  1749.  His  family  was 
rich  and  distinguished,  but,  an  orphan  from 
childhood,  his  education  was  neglected,  like 
that  of  most  of  the  young  Italian  nobles  of 
his  age  and  rank.  Thus  he  quitted  the 
academy  of  Turin,  with  an  undisciplined  and 
uninformed  mind,  and  joined  a regiment  in 
the  hope  of  finding  something  exciting  in 
military  pursuits.  But  here  he  was  disap- 
pointed : the  regiment  was  mustered  only  a 
few  days  in  the  year,  and  he  was  compelled 
to  seek  some  other  mode  of  killing'  time.  For 
several  years  he  led  a dissipated  and  wander- 
ing life  through  Italy,  France,  England,  and 
Holland,  but  wanted  the  information  to  ren- 
der his  wanderings  profitable.  A love  for 
horses  and  horsemanship  was  one  of  his  two 
strongest  passions.  The  other  involved  him 
in  a swarm  of  profligate  amours.  Yet  by  one 
of  these  affairs,  his  poetical  susceptibility 
and  his  literary  ambition  were  for  the  first 
time  aroused.  Aware  of  his  deficiencies,  he 
resolved  to  educate  himself.  He  studied  as- 
siduously Latin  and  Tuscan.  In  Tuscany, 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  Countess  of 
Albany,  the  unhappy  wife  of  the  Chevalier 


Charles  Edward  Stuart.  To  her  love  he 
owed  much  of  his  inspiration.  Settling  his 
fortune  on  his  sister,  he  resided  alternately 
at  Florence  and  Rome,  until  the  death  of 
Charles  Stuart  put  an  end  to  the  woes  of 
the  Countess  of  Albany,  and  enabled  her  to 
marry  him.  They  lived  together  in  Alsace 
and  at  Paris,  until  the  revolution  in  France 
drove  Alfieri  from  a country  he  loved,  to  his 
native  land,  where  he  resided  at  Florence  till 
his  death,  in  1803.  Alfieri’s  talents  were 
great,  but  misapplied,  and  his  tragedies  are 
rather  valuable  as  indicating  his  powers,  than 
as  establishing  his  fame. 

ALFRED  the  Great,  was  born  849,  and 
died  900.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of  Eth- 
elwolf,  king  of  the  W est  Saxons,  and  was 
born  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire.  He  went  to 
Rome  at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  was 
annointed  by  the  pope,  although  he  then  had 
an  elder  brother.  This  brother,  Etheldred, 
fell  in  battle  with  the  Danes,  and  in  872, 
Alfred  ascended  the  throne.  This  was  an 
unpropitious  time,  for  the  power  of  the  Danes 
was  then  great  and  employed  in  harassing 
the  Saxons,  whose  country  they  ravaged  in 
various  directions.  Alfred  concluded  some 
treaties  with  them,  but  they  were  not  kept, 
and  unable  to  make  head  against  the  invaders, 
he  was  compelled  to  fly,  and  in  concealment 
to  await  a moment  when  his  reappearance 
would  be  advantageous  for  his  country.  The 
old  chronicles  tell  that  he  found  refuge  in  a 
peasant’s  hut  at  Athelney  in  Somersetshire. 
The  goodwife  .set  the  disguised  monarch  to 
watch  the  baking  of  cakes.  His  mind  was 
busy  with  the  Danes ; the  cakes  burned  to  a 
coal ; and  the  words  of  his  mistress  were 
loud  and  sharp.  In  the  disguise  of  a harper, 
he  penetrated  the  Danish  camp  to  gain  infor- 
mation of  the  strength  and  hopes  of  his  foes. 
Having  satisfied  himself  of  both,  he  directed 
his  nobles  and  their  vassals  to  assemble  at 
Selwood.  Here  he  headed  the  troops,  and, 
attacking  the  Danes  at  Eddington,  gained  a 
signal  victory.  A series  of  successes  soon 
restored  him  his  throne.  He  permitted  those 
Danes  who  were  willing  to  embrace  the 
Christian  religion,  to  remain  in  the  kingdom 
of  East  Anglia,  which  he  surrendered  to 
them.  He  built  forts  to  secure  his  subjects, 
augmented  and  strengthened  his  navy,  and 
established  the  prosperity  of  London  on  a 


40 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


firm  basis.  He  defeated  the  Danes  who  still 
persisted  in  attempting  to  obtain  footing  in 
England,  and  made  his  name  a terror  to  the 
pirates.  He  had  fought  fifty-six  battles  by 
sea  and  land,  in  every  one  of  which  he  was 
personally  engaged.  His  zeal  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  laws  and  manners  is  as  honorable  to 
him  as  his  military  prowess.  He  composed 
a valuable  code.  By  some  he  is  said  to  have 
instituted  the  trial  by  jury,  and  to  have 
divided  England  into  shires,  hundreds  and 
tithings.  But  it  is  probable  that  the  jury 
trial  and  these  municipal  divisions  had  pre- 
viously subsisted  among  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
and  that  Alfred  confirmed  them  upon  a surer 
basis.  He  so  arranged  the  business  of  the 
nation  that  all  measures  passed  through  three 
councils.  To  the  first  of  these  only  those 
high  in  the  king’s  confidence  were  admitted, 
and  here  were  debated  all  affairs  that  were  to 
be  laid  before  the  second  council,  which  con- 
sisted of  bishops  and  nobles,  appointed  by 
the  king.  The  third  was  a general  assembly 
of  the  nation,  called  Wittenagemote,  to  sit 
in  which  quality  and  offices  gave  a right  in- 
dependent of  the  king.  In  these  councils  we 
discern  the  origin  of  the  present  cabinet, 
privy  council,  and  parliament  of  England. 

Alfred  was  an  ardent  lover  of  learning,  and 
was  himself  a distinguished  scholar.  He  in- 
vited learned  men  from  all  parts,  and  estab- 
lished schools  throughout  his  kingdom.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  or,  at  least,  to  have  exalted 
it  to  a height  which  it  had  never  before 
attained.  University  College  sprang  from 
his  liberality.  He  composed  several  works, 
and  translated  others  into  Anglo-Saxon  for 
the  benefit  of  his  subjects.  Among  his  trans- 
lations may  be  mentioned  the  “ Consolations 
of  Philosophy”  of  Boethius,  and  perhaps  the 
Psalms  of  David  and  the  Fables  of  .ZEsop. 
He  was  industrious  and  fond  of  order,  divid- 
ing the  twenty-four  hours  into  three  equal 
portions ; one  devoted  to  religious  duties, 
another  to  public  affairs,  and  the  third  to 
rest.  Alfred  laid  the  foundation  of  the  navy 
of  England,  by  building  galleys  of  a size 
superior  to  that  of  any  of  the  age.  In  pri- 
vate life,  he  was  distinguished  by  piety, 
affability,  and  cheerfulness.  His  person  was 
commanding  and  stately. 

ALGIERS.  The  state  formely  known  as 


the  regency  of  Algiers  is  now  in  possession 
of  the  French,  and  called  by  them  L’Algerie. 
It  comprises  the  territory  of  the  kingdom  of 
Numidia,  which  was  reduced  to  a Roman 
province  44  b.c.,  and  afterward  subjugated  by 
the  Vandals,  then  by  the  Byzantine  Greeks, 
and  finally  by  the  Arabs,  who  invaded  the 
north  of  Africa  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century  and  established  Islamism.  The  city 
of  Algiers  was  founded  by  Zeiri,  an  Arab  of 
distinction,  in  944,  and  his  family  were  en- 
dowed with  hereditary  power  by  one  of  the 
Fatimite  caliphs. 

TheZeirite  dynasty  ruled  until  1148,  when 
Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  and  the  Moravites, 
possessed  themselves  at  different  times  of  the 
whole  of  the  territory  of  Hassad  Ben  Ali. 
Algiers  was  again  an  independent  sovereignty 
after  1270.  The  regency  of  Algiers,  tributary 
to  the  Turkish  sultan,  was  founded  about 
1518,  by  Horush  (nicknamed  Barbarossa) 
and  his  brother  Khair-ed-din,  two  Turkish 
corsairs  who  were  summoned  by  the  Algerines 
to  beat  back  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and  who 
usurped  the  government.  It  was  about  this 
time  that  the  Christian  knights,  having  war- 
red  against  the  Mohammedan  states,  and  al- 
most annihilated  the  Moorish  commerce,  the 
Moslem  rulers  exhorted  their  subjects  to 
make  reprisals,  and  to  annoy  their  foes  by 
extensive  piracies.  The  call  was  obeyed 
without  reluctance,  and  the  Mohammedans, 
crowded  beneath  the  crescent,  spread  the 
terror  of  their  name  upon  the  seas.  The 
piratical  republic  founded  by  the  fierce 
chieftains  above  named,  was  the  stronghold 
of  religious  fanaticism  and  authorized  piracy. 
The  barks  of  the  corsairs  swept  the  seas 
in  triumph,  and  the  Algerines  distinguished 
themselves  above  the  inhabitants  of  the  other 
Barbary  states,  by  the  fierce  perseverance  with 
which  they  pursued  their  career  of  crime. 

Charles  V.  undertook  the  siege  of  Algiers, 
in  the  latter  part  of  1541,  with  an  armament 
of  two  hundred  sail  and  thirty  thousand  men. 
But  his  ships  and  camp  were  destroyed  by 
storms  of  uncommon  violence,  followed  by 
the  ravages  of  earthquakes.  He  lost  his 
cannon,  military  stores,  and  baggage,  and  was 
compelled  to  abandon  some  of  his  scattered 
troops,  while  fifteen  ships  of  war,  a hundred 
and  forty  transports,  and  eight  thousand 
men  perished  in  the  storm. . This  success 


ALG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


41 


inspired  the  Moors  with  the  liveliest  joy,  but 
they  attributed  it  entirely  to  the  pious  exer- 
tions of  Sid-Atica,  a marabout  who  employed 
himself  diligently  in  beating  the  sea  with  his 
stick,  until  the  waves  lost  all  patience* and, 
rising  in  a body,  destroyed  the  Christian 
fleet.  The  worthy  old  gentleman  was  buried 
with  great  solemnity,  and  his  bones  rested 
beneath  a monument  erected  by  his  country- 
men. They  were  said  to  be  gifted  with  the 
magic  power  of  his  stick,  and,  employed  upon 
the  waves  with  proper  emphasis,  capable 
of  raising  the  wind  to  an  incredible  extent. 
Antiquity  furnishes  precedent  fora  belief  in 
the  efficacy  of  chastising  the  waters,  for 
Xerxes,  enraged  at  the  turbulence  of  the  Gre- 
cian waves,  caused  them  to  be.  whipped  with 
rods. 

The  corsairs  continued  the  scourge  of  Chris- 
tendom. On  even  the  coasts  of  England  and 
Ireland  they  swooped,  and  “took  prey  of  men 
to  be  made  slaves.”  “ They  carried  their  En- 
glish captives  to  France,  drove  them  in  chains 
overland  to  Marseilles,  to  ship  them  thence 
with  greater  safety  for  slaves  to  Algiers,”  an 
old  historian  says.  Admiral  Blake  taught  the 
pirates  to  respect  the  flag  of  England,  in  1653 ; 
but  they  repulsed  later  attacks  of  that  and 
other  European  powers.  Many  nations  paid 
tribute  to  the  dey,  and  thus  bought  freedom 
for  their  flags.  In  1815  Commodore  Decatur 
compelled  the  Algerines  not  only  to  renounce 
their  claim  to  black  mail  from  our  shipping, 
but  to  make  indemnification  for  the  losses 
which  we  had  experienced  from  their  pira- 
cies. The  city  of  Algiers  was  vigorously 
bombarded  by  a British  fleet  under  Lord 
Exmouth,  Aug.  27th,  1816.  The  dey  was 
forced  to  conclude  a treaty,  by  which  all 
Christian  slaves  were  set  free,  and  he  prom- 
ised that  no  more  captives  should  be  reduced 
to  that  ignominious  condition.  This  last 
stipulation  was  afterward  evaded.  The  Al- 
gerines claimed  the  right,  as  an  independent 
power,  of  declaring  war  against  any  state 
they  chose,  and  of  seizing  its  merchantmen, 
and  keeping  the  crews  in  prison  till  peace 
was  agreed  on.  In  1817  their  corsairs  pene- 
trated the  North  Sea,  and  there,  with  sur- 
prising audacity,  captured  ships  which  did 
not  belong  to  tributary  powers,  or  to  those 
who  were  exempted  from  their  depredations 
by  treaty.  Prisoners  were  only  ransomed  at 


enormous  prices.  Their  treatment,  now,  in- 
stead of  being  ameliorated  was  more  harsh 
than  ever,  and  the  corsairs,  although  they 
respected  the  flags  of  America  and  other 
strong  powers,  warred  with  the  ships  of 
weaker  states,  and  enforced  the  superiority  of 
might  over  right.  The  jealousy  of  the  Eu- 
ropean states  for  a long  time  favored  the 
encroachments  of  the  Algerines,  until  the 
French  prepared  for  conflict  with  stern  de- 
cision. One  of  the  last  events  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  X.,  was  the  entire  prostration  of  the 
power  of  Algiers.  The  dey,  with  his  personal 
treasures  and  his  women,  was  permitted  to 
retire,  and  selected  Italy  as  a retreat.  The 
French  took  possession  of  the  town,  the  castle, 
and  all  public  property  whatsoever.  Among 
the  spoil  were  twelve  ships  of  war,  fifteen 
hundred  brass  cannon,  and  forty-eight  mil- 
lion francs  in  gold  and  silver.  They  secured 
their  conquest,  and  since  then  Algiers  has 
been  a military  province  of  France. 

During  the  prosperity  of  Algiers,  a strug- 
gle was  kept  up  with  the  Sublime  Porte  about 
the  appointment  of  the  deys,  till  the  sultan 
finally  relinquished  the  claim  of  choosing 
them  to  the  soldiery,  and  retained  but  a nom- 
inal authority  over  Algiers.  The  deys,  when- 
ever they  displeased  the  ferocious  soldiery 
they  affected  to  rule,  were  deposed  and  put 
to  death.  The  lives  of  these  men  were  pro- 
verbially short,  but  we  admit  an  exception  in 
the  person  of  Mohammed  III.,  who  died  in 
1791,  after  a reign  of  twenty-three  years,  at  the 
age  of  ninety-three.  Omar  Pacha,  the  oppo- 
nent of  Lord  Exmouth,  was  murdered  in  1817. 
Ali  Hodya,  his  successor,  shut  himself  up  in 
the  castle  of  Casaba,  where,  by  means  of  his 
fifty-six  cannon,  and  a garrison  on  which  he 
could  rely,  he  maintained  ascendency  over  the 
city  and  the  cruel  Turkish  troops,  who  had 
murdered  Omar.  Hussein,  successor  of  Hodya, 
rendered  cautious  by  experience,  likewise 
occupied  this  strong  castle.  The  government 
of  Algiers  was  despotic,  the  dey  possessing 
unlimited  power,  but  being  assisted  by  a 
divan  composed  of  his  chief  officers  of  state 
and  first  ministers.  The  common  soldiers 
elected  the  dey,  but  no  election  was  permit- 
ted without  unanimity  in  the  electors.  There- 
fore, when  there  was  a difference,  the  majority 
compelled  the  weaker  party  to  concur  with 
them.  The  new  dey  espoused  the  principle 


ALG 


42 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  proscription,  and  frequently  put  to  death 
incumbents,  for  the  sake  of  opening  state 
offices  to  his  partisans.  He  held  a court  of 
justice  on  four  days  in  the  week,  where  pro- 
ceedings were  summary,  and  condemnation 
was  followed  by  punishment  at  no  long 
interval. 

By  the  capitulation  of  the  dey,  the  French 
became  possessed  “of  the  city  of  Algiers, 
and  the  forts  and  harbors  depending  on  it.” 
No  mention  was  made  of  the  provinces,  or  of 
the  native  tribes  in  the  interior,  over  which 
the  authority  of  the  dey  was  little  else  than 
nominal.  Ahmed  Bey  of  Constantine  and 
the  Bey  of  Titteri  refused  allegiance,  and 
were  not  subdued  for  several  years.  The 
grasping  policy  of  the  French  alienated  the 
Arab  tribes  moreover.  In  May,  1833,  Abd- 
el-Kader,  the  Emir  of  Mascara,  took  up  arms 
against  the  invaders,  and  his  leadership  was 
soon  recognized  by  all  the  Arabs.  The  con- 
test between  him  and  the  French  was  not 
closed  till  December,  1847,  when  he  surren- 
dered and  was  sent  with  his  family  and 
attendants  to  France.  There  he  remained  a 
prisoner,  treated  however  with  much  cour- 
tesy, till  October,  1852,  when  he  was 
released  by  Louis  Napoleon.  He  swore  upon 
the  Koran  never  to  disturb  Africa  again,  and 
was  to  reside  thenceforward  at  Broussa,  in 
Asia  Minor.  In  consequence  of  the  earth- 
quake at  that  place,  Feb.  28th,  1855,  he 
removed  to  .Constantinople. 

The  French  keep  a large  army  in  the  col- 
ony. The  European  emigration  settled  in 
Algeria  up  to  1852,  amounted  to  about  sev- 
enty thousand,  and  it  has  since  been  rapidly 
augmented.  The  native  races  of  the  country 
consist  of  Berbers  or  Kabyles  (the  aboriginal 
inhabitants),  Arabs,  Moors,  Kooloolis  (de- 
scendants of  Turks),  Jews  (who  flocked  hither 
when  extirpated  from  Spain  and  Portugal), 
and  negro  slaves  from  Soudan.  Slavery  has 
been  abolished  by  the  French.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  city  of  Algiers  is  94,600,  of  whom 
45,000  are  Europeans,  and  the  remainder  na- 
tive Mussuhnen  and  Jews.  The  French  have 
much  improved  its  appearance;  they  have 
opened  wide  streets  and  squares,  built  fine 
houses  in  the  European  style,  hotels,  coffee- 
houses, a theatre,  &c.  The  activity  of  the 
new  settlers  will  soon  change  the  look  of  the 


whole  country.  Constantine,  the  ancient 
Cirta,  has  a population  of  about  30,000. 

ALHAMBRA  was  the  fortified  palace  of 
the  Moorish  kings  of  Granada,  a possession 
to  which  they  clung  with  their  latest  grasp, 
and  which  was  the  best  beloved  spot  in  their 
terrestrial  paradise.  The  meaning  of  the 
Moorish  name  is  ‘the  red,’  and  it  was  so 
called  from  the  deep  red  brick  of  which  the 
pile  is  built.  The  Spanish  term  it  the  Sierra 
del  Sol,  because,  from  its  situation  on  an  emi- 
nence, it  catches  and  reflects  the  first  beams 
of  the  rising  sun.  The  palace  composes  but 
a small  portion  of  the  fortress,  whose  walls 
encompass  the  crest  of  a lofty  hill  rising  from 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  or  ‘snowy  mountain.’ 
The  fortress  was  at  one  time  capable  of  con- 
taining forty  thousand  men.  The  Alhambra 
originally  consisted  of  a summer  palace  and 
a winter  palace.  The  latter  was  pulled  down 
to  make  room  for  the  palace  commenced  and 
never  finished  by  Charles  Y.  The  pile  that 
remains  exhibits  traces  of  the  splendor  of  the 
arts  among  the  Moors.  A striking  portion 
of  the  palace  is  the  Court  of  Lions,  which 
is  a hundred  feet  in  length,  and  fifty  in 
breadth,  surrounded  by  a beautiful  colon- 
nade seven  feet  broad  at  the  sides,  and 
ten  at  the  ends  Two  splendid  porticoes, 
fifteen  feet  square,  project  into  this  court. 
The  square  is  paved  with  tiles,  the  colonnade 
with  white  marble.  The  walls  are  covered 
with  arabesques.  The  columns  upon  which 
the  roof  and  gallery  rest,  are  grotesqtiely  or- 
namented and  irregularly  distributed.  Over 
the  columns  is  inscribed  in  Cufic  characters, 
“And  there  is  no  conqueror  but  God.”  The 
capitals  abound  with  curious  devices.  The 
fountain  consists  of  twelve  ill-shaped  lions, 
bearing  on  their  backs  a large  basin,  out  of 
which  rises  a smaller  one.  Here  water  gushed 
from  the  inner  basin,  and,  passing  through 
the  lions,  communicated  by  channels  with 
other  apartments.  The  fountain  is  of  white 
marble  and  inscribed  with  Arabian  distiches, 
like  the  following:  “See’st  thou  how  the 
water  flows  copiously  like  the  Nile  ? ” “ The 

fair  princess  that  walks  by  this  garden,  cov- 
ered with  pearls,  ornaments  its  beauty  so 
much,  that  thou  mayest  doubt  whether  it  be 
a fountain  that  flows  or  the  tears  of  her 
admirers.” 


ALH 


THE  COURT  OF  LIONS.  ALHAMBRA, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


43 


44 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


The  hall  beyond  the  colonnade  on  the  south 
side  was  the  place  chosen  by  Boabdil  for  the 
execution  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Abencerrages, 
and  their  bleeding  heads  fell,  as  fast  as  they 
were  decapitated,  into  the  limpid  waters  of 
the  fountain.  The  hall  of  the  Two  Sisters 
( Torre  de  las  dos  Ilermanas ) was  named  from 
two  beautiful  slabs  of  white  marble,  inserted 
in  the  pavement.  El  Tocador,  or  the  Tiring 
Tower,  was  appropriated  to  the  toilette  of  the 
sultana,  who  in  one  part  had  a marble  slab 
in  the  floor  perforated  with  holes,  to  admit 
vapor  and  perfumes  for  the  purification  of 
her  person.  The  king’s  bed-chamber  was 
furnished  with  fountains  to  cool  the  atmos- 
phere, and  the  royal  baths  were  commodious 
and  superb.  Beneath  were  vaults  used  as  a 
cemetery  by  the  Moorish  monarchs.  The 
regret  of  the  Moors  at  leaving  this  place, 
which  wealth,  art,  and  taste  had  brought  to 
such  splendor,  can  easily  be  conceived.  They 
never  ceased  to  offer  up  prayers  in  their 
mosques  for  their  restoration  to  Granada. 
After  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  believers, 
Alhambra  continued  to  be  a royal  demesne. 
Charles  V.  abandoned  it  as  a residence  in 
consequence  of  earthquakes ; and  Philip  V., 
with  his  beautiful  queen,  Elizabeth  of  Parma, 
was  the  last  royal  tenant  of  this  princely 
abode.  Subsequently  it  became  infested  by 
a lawless  population ; this  was  expelled ; but, 
owing  to  culpable  negligence,  the  palace  was 
permitted  to  fall  into  decay,  from  which  the 
Moorish  portion  was  partially  rescued  by  the 
exertions  of  the  French  troops  garrisoned  in 
it  from  1810  to  1812.  The  French,  on  their 
departure,  blew  up  part  of  the  walls  of  the 
fortress,  and  destroyed  its  importance  as  a 
military  post.  To  the  historian,  the  poet, 
the  antiquary,  and  the  artist,  this  relic  of 
Moorish  splendor  possesses  an  indisputable 
interest.  Nothing  could  be  more  plain  and 
unattractive  than  its  exterior,  but  within  it 
was  probably  the  most  gorgeous  specimen  of 
Moorish  architecture  and  decoration  that  has 
ever  existed. 

ALT,  the  cousin  and  son-in-law  of  Mahomet. 
When  Mahomet,  assembling  his  kinsmen, 
and  making  known  to  them  his  pretended 
mission,  asked  who  would  be  his  vizier,  Ali, 
then  only  fourteen  years  of  age,  started  up 
and  exclaimed:  “I  will!  Let  but  a man 
advance  against  thee,  I will  pluck  out  his 


eyes,  dash  in  his  jaws,  break  his  legs,  and 
tear  up  his  belly.  0 prophet,  I am  thy 
vizier.”  So  well  did  he  keep  his  word,  that 
he  .was  called  the  ‘lion  of  the  Lord/  the 
‘ever  victorious.’  He  should  have  succeeded 
Mahomet,  but  being  opposed  successfully  by 
Omar  and  Othman,  he  formed  a sect  of  his 
own,  and  gained  many  followers.  On  the 
death  of  Othman,  he  was  declared  caliph, 
but  was  assassinated  in  a mosque,  !at  Cufa,  in 
the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age,  669*  The 
Persians  belong  to  the  sect  of  Ali. 

ALT,  Pacha  of  Janina,  commonly  called 
Ali  Pacha,  was  born  in  Albania,  in  1744,  and 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  headed  the  followers 
whom  the  death  of  his  father  left  with  no  other 
leader.  In  freebooting  he  was  so  unsuccess- 
ful, that  he  was  forced  to  pawn  his  sabre  to 
keep  himself  from  starving.  As  he  was  sit- 
ting, ruminating  upon  his  hard  luck,  and 
carelessly  turning  up  the  ground  with  his 
staff,  he  struck  upon  something  hard.  Cm 
riosity  induced  him  to  search  further,  and  he 
dug  up  a chest  of  gold ! He  now  equipped 
a band  of  followers  whose  cruelty  and  rapac- 
ity made  them  formidable.  Having  rendered 
some  service  to  the  Porte,  he  obtained  the 
pachalic  of  Janina  in  southern  Albania,  and 
maintained  himself  in  almost  independent 
sovereignty.  He  subjugated  the  Suliotes,  be- 
came a formidable  military  potentate  between 
1790  and  1821,  and  raised  Albania  to  power 
and  renown  that  recalled  the  memory  of  its 
ancient  Epirote  princes.  Having  declared 
himself  independent,  and  his  capital,  Janina, 
being  taken,  he  was  put  to  death  by  order  of 
the  sultan,  in  1822.  He  was  brave  and  able, 
but  cruel,  rapacious,  false,  ambitious,  and 
suspicious.  He  had  a Greek  lady,  Euphros- 
yne,  and  fifteen  other  women  thrown  into 
the  sea,  because  he  suspected  that  they  ex- 
erted an  undue  influence  over  his  son.  If  he 
wished  to  possess  himself  of  a beautiful 
Greek  girl,  he  sent  his  executioner  to  her 
parents,  with  this  message,  “Your  daughter 
has  found  favor  in  the  eyes  of  Ali.”  They 
were  forced  to  surrender  her,  or  fly. 

ALLEN,  Ethan,  brigadier-general  in  our 
revolutionary  army,  was  born  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  Jan.  10th,  1737.  His  parents  re- 
moved to  Vermont,  when  he  was  quite  young. 
In  the  contest  between  the  settlers  of  Ver- 
mont and  the  colony  of  New  York,  which 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


45 


began  about  1770,  he  took  so  active  a part 
that  he  was  outlawed  by  New  York  and  five 
hundred  guineas  were  offered  for  his  capture. 
Soon  after  the  battle  of  Lexington,  in  com- 
pliance with  the  request  of  the  legislature  of 
Connecticut,  he  headed  two  hundred  and 
thirty  Green  Mountain  boys,  and  marched 
against  the  fortresses  of  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point.  At  Castleton  he  was  to  have 
been  joined  by  a reinforcement  under  Bene- 
dict Arnold,  but  the  latter,  unable  to  raise  the 
proposed  force,  set  forward  with  the  Spartan 
band  of  Allen.  On  the  night  of  the  9th  of 
May,  1775,  Allen  landed  eighty-three  men 
near  Ticonderoga,  having  with  difficulty  pro- 
cured boats  for  that  purpose.  Bay  surprised 
him  before  his  rear-guard  was  brought  over, 
and  he  found  himself  compelled  to  attack  the 
fort.  He  concluded  an  animated  speech  by 
saying,  “ I am  going  to  lead  you  forward. 
The  attempt  is  desperate.  I wish  to  urge  no 
man  onward  against  his  will.  Those  who 
will  follow  me,  poise  firelocks ! ” Every  fire- 
lock was  immediately  poised.  “On  then, 
my  boys ! ” said  Allen,  and  led  the  central 
file  to  the  wicket  gate.  He  was  opposed  by 
a sentry,  but  brought  his  men  through  the 
covered  way,  and  formed  them  on  the  parade. 
The  huzzas  of  the  assailants  roused  the  com- 
manding officer,  Captain  de  la  Place,  from 
his  slumbers.  He  awoke  to  find  Allen  hold- 
ing a drawn  sword  over  his  head  and  demand- 
ing the  surrender  of  the  fortress.  “ In  whose 
name?”  asked  the  commander.  “In  the 
name  of  the  Great  Jehovah,  and  the  Conti- 
nental Congress.”  On  the  same  day,  by 
the  capture  of  Crown  Point,  and  the  only 
armed  vessel  on  Lake  Champlain,  that  im- 
portant lake  was  placed  in  Allen’s  power. 

In  the  autumn,  in  conjunction  with  Col. 
Brown,  he  attempted  the  reduction  of  Mon- 
treal, but  being  attacked  by  the  British 
before  Col.  Brown’s  troops  came  up,  he  was 
defeated  and  made  prisoner.  He  was  treated 
with  great  barbarity  in  his  captivity ; carried 
to  England,  and  then  to  Halifax ; thence  to 
New  York,  where  he  remained  a year  and  a 
half,  before  he  was  exchanged.  His  health 
having  been  greatly  impaired,  he  returned  to 
Vermont,  where  he  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand the  militia.  He  indignantly  rejected 
the  bribes  offered  by  the  British  to  attempt  a 
union  of Vermont  with  Canada.  He  died  sud- 


denly, at  his  estate  at  Colchester,  Feb.  13th, 
1789.  He  published  some  pamphlets,  one  of 
which  contained  an  open  declaration  of  infi- 
delity. He  adopted  the  most  absurd  ideas 
of  the  ancients,  with  regard  to  the  transmi- 
gration of  souls,  often  saying  that  he  expected 
to  live  again  in  the  form  of  a large  white 
horse ; but  if  we  may  believe  the  following 
anecdote,  his  atheism  was  insincere.  When 
his  daughter  was  dying,  she  sent  for  him,  and 
said,  “Father,  I am  about  to  die:  shall  I be- 
lieve in  what  you  have  taught  me,  or  in  the 
Christian  principles  my  mother  teaches.” 
After  a moment  of  convulsive  agitation,  he 
replied,  “Believe  in  what  your  mother  has 
taught  you.” 

ALLIANCES.  Between  the  .confederate 
Greeks,  against  Troy,  b.c.  1194-84.  Between 
the  Romans  and  the  Carthaginians,  b.c.  508. 
Between  the  Athenians,  Thebans,  Corin- 
thians, and  Argives,  against  the  Lacedemo- 
nians, b.c.  395.  It  is  not  a little  remarkable, 
that  in  the  long  course  of  Roman  conquest, 
not  one  well  arranged  and  conducted  alliance 
was  formed  and  contributed  to  restrain  her 
power.  In  modern  ages,  alliances  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  term,  are  recent.  The  crusades 
were  really  a species  of  alliance,  but  with 
very  little  of  the  system  of  modern  alliances. 
The  league  of  Cambray,  formed  Dec.  10th, 
1508,  between  Louis  XII.  of  France,  Maxi- 
milian of  Germany,  Pope  Julius  II.,  and 
Ferdinand  of  Spain,  against  the  Venetians, 
was  the  first  of  those  coalitions  so  disastrous 
or  beneficial,  as  the  case  may  be,  which  have 
so  deeply  influenced  modern  European  policy. 
By  it  Venice  was  forced  to  cede  to  Spain  her 
possessions  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Those 
of  most  importance  since  have  been,  a league 
between  Henry  VIII.  of  England  and  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V.,  against  Francis  of  France. 
The  league  of  the  princes  of  Germany  in 
favor  of  Protestantism,  at  Smalcald,  Dec. 
22d,  1530.  Between  Francis  I.  of  France  and 
Sultan  Solyman,  against  Charles  V.,  1536; 
renewed  in  1542.  Between  Charles  V.  and 
Pope  Paul  III.,  against  the  Protestants,  1546. 
Between  Spain,  Venice,  and  Pope  Pius  V., 
against  the  Turks,  1570.  Between  England 
and  the  states-general  of  Holland,  against 
Spain,  1578.  Union  of  Utrecht,  whereby 
began  the  Dutch  republic  of  the  Seven 
United  Provinces,  1579.  Evangelical  league, 


ALL 


46 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


formed  in  1626,  between  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany  and  Denmark  (Sweden 
afterward  acceded),  against  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  I.  Triple  alliance  between  En- 
gland, Sweden,  and  the  states-general  of 
Holland,  against  France,  16p8.  Alliance  of 
the  empire  and  Holland  against  France,  July 
15th,  1672.  League  of  Augsburg  against 
France,  July  1 1th,  1686.  Grand  alliance 
between  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  the  states-gen- 
eral of  Holland,  and  William  III-,  of  England, 
against  France,  May  12th,  1689.  First 
treaty  of  partition,  between  England  and 
Holland,  for  regulating  the  Spanish  succes- 
sion, 1698.  Second  treaty  of  partition,  be- 
tween France,  England,  and  Holland,  declar- 
ing the  Archduke  Charles  heir  presumptive 
of  the  Spanish  kingdom,  1700.  Alliance  of 
Germany,  England,  and  Holland,  against 
France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  1701.  Barrier 
treaty  of  Antwerp,  between  Germany,  Hol- 
land, and  England,  by  which  the  Low  Coun- 
tries were  ceded  to  the  empire,  Nov.  15th, 
1715.  Quadruple  alliance  between  Great 
Britain,  France,  Germany,  and  Holland,  to 
guarantee  the  succession  of  the  reigning 
families  in  Great  Britain  and  France,  and  to 
settle  the  partition  of  the  Spanish  monarchy, 
Aug.  2d,  1718.  Defensive  alliance  between 
Great  Britain  and  Prussia,  1742.  Between 
Great  Britain  and  Prussia,  Feb.  16th,  1756; 
renewed  April  11th,  1758,  without  any  regu- 
lar compact.  France,  Austria,  Russia  and 
Sweden,  were  at  the  epoch  of  the  last  men- 
tioned alliance  between  Great  Britain  and 
Prussia,  actually  in  the  field  against  Prussia. 
To  the  United  States,  if  not  to  the  wrorld,  the 
most  important  of  all  alliances  or  confedera- 
tions was  that  of  the  British  North  Ameri- 
can colonies.  This  great  union,  not  for  war, 
but  defense,  after  many  incipient  steps,  was 
formed  in  1775;  announced  to  the  world  as 
free  and  independent,  July  4th,  1776;  received 
the  general  name  of  the  United  States,  by  a 
resolution  of  Congress,  Sept.,  1776,  and  was 
consummated  by  the  adoption  of  a federal 
constitution  of  government,  March  3d,  1789. 
First  coalition  against  France,  by  Great  Brit- 
ain, Prussia,  Austria,  Sardinia,  &c.,  1793. 
Second,  by  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Russia, 
Naples,  Portugal,  and  Turkey,  June  22d, 
1799.  Third,  by  Great  Britain,  Austria,  and 
Naples,  Aug.  5th,  1805.  Fourth,  by  Great 


Britain,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Saxony,  Aug. 
6th,  1806.  Fifth,  by  Great  Britain  and 
Austria,  April  6th,  1809.  Sixth,  by  Russia 
and  Prussia,  March  17th,  1813.  Sweden 
joined  the  grand  alliance  against  Napoleon, 
March  13th,  1813.  Alliance  of  Toplitz  be- 
tween Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Great 
Britain,  Sept.  13th,  1813.  Holy  Alliance, 
between  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  1815. 
Alliance  of  England,  France,  and  Turkey, 
against  Russia,  sigfied  at  Constantinople, 
March  12th,  1854;  ratified  by  the  first  two 
powers,  April  3d,  1854;  joined  by  Sardinia, 
Jan.  26th,  1855. 

ALLSTON,  Washington,  was  born  in 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  Nov.  5th,  1779.  He  fitted 
for  college  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  entered 
Harvard  University  in  1796,  graduating  four 
years  after.  He  had  inherited  a handsome 
patrimony,  and  he  determined  to  devote  him- 
self to  art.  For  this  purpose  he  repaired  to 
London  in  1801,  and  entered  as  a student  in 
the  Royal  Academy.  Benjamin  West,  who 
had  just  succeeded  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as 
president  of  the  institution,  warmly  wel- 
comed his  young  countryman.  Two  years 
were  well  spent  in  London;  then  Allston 
enriched  his  pencil  awhile  amid  the  rich  col- 
lection of  the  Louvre,  richer  than  ever  with 
the  spoils  that  Napoleon  had  borne  there ; 
and  soon  after  we  find  him  settled  in  Rome, 
where  he  dwelt  four  years.  There  he  formed 
an  acquaintance  with  Coleridge,  which  be- 
came a close  friendship.  He  studied  his  art 
diligently,  and  by  fellow-artists  was  held  in 
high  esteem.  He  returned  to  America  in 
1809.  The  public  mind  was  absorbed  in  pol- 
itics, and  Art  could  not  gain  its  attention. 
Allston  had  married,  and  needed  that  the  pro- 
fession in  which  his  genius  and  skill  were  so 
great,  should  support  him.  After  two  years’ 
trial  he  repaired  to  London  again.  There  he 
was  embarrassed  by  the  hostilities  which 
arose  between  the  two  countries.  Fie  lost 
heart,  was  laid  low  by  a long  and  serious 
illness,  and  had  but  a little  while  recovered 
when  he  was  bereft  of  his  cherished  and 
lovely  consort.  "When  again  he  resumed  the 
pencil,  he  found  his  pictures  sought  for  by 
the  most  approved  judges,  and  he  was  no  less 
beloved  for  the  qualities  of  his  heart  than 
admired  for  his  genius.  He  returned  to 
America  in  1818,  and  for  the  remaining 


ALL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


47 


twenty-five  years  of  his  life  Boston  or  its 
vicinity  was  his  residence.  Here  he  found 
cordial  welcome  from  a wide  circle  of  friends, 
and  a patronage  only  limited  by  his  power  of 
producing.  His  great  historical  painting, 
“Belshazzar’s  Feast,”  unfinished  as  it  is,  fur- 
nishes decisive  proof  that  in  the  highest 
branch  of  the  art  he  has  had  no  equal  in  the 
present  century.  His  relative,  Mr.  Dana,  in 
the  preface  to  Mr.  Allston’s  “Lectures  on 
Art,”  thus  describes  his  last  hours:  “His 
death  occurred  at  his  own  house,  in  Cam- 
bridge, a little  past  midnight,  on  the  morning 
of  Sunday,  the  Oth  of  July,  1843.  He  had 
finished  a day  and  week  of  labor  in  his 
studio,  upon  his  great  picture  of  ‘Belshaz- 
zar’s Feast;’  the  fresh  paint  denoting  that 
the  last  touches  of  his  pencil  were  given  to 
that  glorious  but  melancholy  monument  of 
the  best  years  of  his  later  life.  Having  con- 
versed with  his  retiring  family  with  peculiar 
solemnity  and  earnestness  upon  the  obliga- 
tion and  beauty  of  a pure  spiritual  life,  and 
on  the  realities  of  the  world  to  come,  he  had 
seated  himself  at  his  nightly  employment  of 
reading  and  writing,  which  he  usually  carried 
into  the  early  hours  of  the  morning.  In  the 
silence  and  solitude  of  this  occupation,  in  a 
moment,  ‘ with  a touch  as  gentle  as  the  morn- 
ing light,’  which  was  even  then  approaching, 
his  spirit  was  called  away  to  its  proper  home.” 
Allston  was  an  author  as  well  as  an  artist, 
and  published  a volume  of  poems  and  several 
works  of  fiction. 

ALMA,  Battle  of  the.  The  English  and 
French  armies  moved  out  of  their  first  en- 
campment in  the  Crimea,  Sept.  19th,  1854, 
and  bivouacked  for  the  night  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Bulganac.  The  Russians  (com- 
manded by  Prince  MenschikofF)  mustering 
40,000  infantry,  had  180  field-pieces  on  the 
heights  of  the  Alma,  and  on  the  morning  of 
the  20th  were  joined  by  6,000  cavalry.  The 
English  force,  under  Lord  Raglan,  consisted 
of  25,000  men;  the  French,  under  Marshal 
St.  Arnaud,  of  23,000.  At  twelve  o’clock 
the  signal  to  advance  was  made,  and  the  river 
Alma  crossed  under  the  severe  fire  of  the 
Russian  batteries.  After  four  sanguinary 
hours  the  allies  were  completely  victorious. 
The  Russians  flung  away  their  arms  and 
knapsacks  in  their  hasty  flight,  having  lost 
about  5,000  men,  of  whom  900  were  made 


prisoners.  The  loss  of  the  English  was  353 
killed,  1,612  wounded  ; that  of  the  French, 
236  killed,  1,087  wounded. 

ALPS,  the  loftiest  system  of  mountains 
in  Europe.  Mont  Blanc,  the  highest,  is 
15,777  feet  high,  Monte  Rosa,  15,206  and 
Monte  Cervin,  14,835.  Separating  Italy  from 
Spain,  France,  and  Germany,  it  would  seem 
as  if  they  opposed  an  insurmountable  barrier 
to  the  march  of  conquest ; but  they  have 
been  several  times  crossed  by  large  armies, 
the  expeditions  of  Hannibal  and  Bonaparte 
being  the  most  celebrated.  Bonaparte  passed 
the  Great  St.  Bernard,  in  the  year  1800,  and 
swooped  like  a hawk  upon  the  plains  of  Italy. 
His  army  met  with  obstacles  which  only 
genuine  enthusiasm  enabled  them  to  sur- 
mount. They  had  to  draw  their  artillery 
along  narrow  paths,  in  many  places  almost 
perpendicular,  and  over  mountains  of  snow. 
A very  small  force  would  have  arrested  their 
progress,  but  they  met  no  opposition.  They 
reached  St.  Peter,  near  the  Great  St.  Bernard, 
on  the  15th  of  May,  General  Berthier  acting 
as  Bonaparte’s  lieutenant.  Here  the  whole 
park  of  artillery  was  collected.  The  moun- 
tain they  had  to  pass  over  was  wild  and  bar- 
ren, with  a vast  extent  of  snow  and  ice, 
mingled  with  terrific  silence.  Over  this 
frightful  route  the  mind  of  Bonaparte  had  con- 
ceived the  possibility  of  passing  his  army 
with  all  its  artillery,  baggage,  &c.  The  can- 
non, caissons,  forges,  &c.,  were  immediately 
dismounted,  piece  by  piece;  a number  of 
trees  were  hollowed  like  troughs,  in  which 
the  pieces  of  cannon  might  safely  slide,  and 
five  or  six  hundred  men  drew  them  up  these 
•tremendous  heights  ; the  wheels  were  carried 
on  poles ; sledges  conveyed  the  axle-trees ; 
and  empty  caissons  and  mules  were  loaded 
with  the  ammunition-boxes  made  of  fir. 

The  consul  took  no  more  baggage  than  was 
absolutely  necessary.  Five  hours  were  con- 
sumed in  climbing  as  high  as  the  monastery 
of  the  Bernardines.  There  were  still  six 
leagues  to  go,  and  the  rapidity  of  the  descent 
made  that  distance  truly  terrible  ; men  and 
horses  constantly  falling,  and  often  recover- 
ing with  the  greatest  difficulty.  The  march 
commenced  at  midnight,  and  did  not  finish 
till  about  nine  o’clock  the  next  evening.  Two 
other  Alpine  roads  were  constructed  by  Na- 
poleon, one  of  which  passes  near  Mount  Ce- 


ALP 


48 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


MONT  BLANC. 


nis.  In  the  year  1865,  Mr.  Fell,  an  English 
engineer,  obtained  a grant  from  the  French 
and  Italian  governments  to  lay  down  a rail- 
way of  new  construction  on  the  line  of  the 
Mount  Cenis  road.  The  railway  is  now  in 
successful  operation.  But  several  years  be- 
fore this  work  was  begun,  an  enterprise  of  far 
greater  importance  had  been  commenced. 
This  was  the  excavation  through  Mount  Ce- 
nis of  a sufficient  size  for  the  construction  of 
a railway.  This  gigantic  work  was  begun  in 
1859,  and  on  the  26th  of  December,  1870,  the 
working  parties  in  the  opposite  headings  of 
the  tunnel  were  within  hearing  distance  of 
each  other.  On  September  17th,  1871,  the 
opening  of  the  tunnel  was  formally  inaugu- 
rated by  the  French  and  Italian  ministers. 
The  tunnel  is  nearly  eight  miles  long,  and  its 
cost  is  estimated  at  $15,000,000. 

Over  the  pass  of  the  Simplon  a magnificent 


road  leading  from  Switzerland  into  Italy  was 
constructed  by  order  of  Napoleon  in  1801-6. 
It  has  eight  principal  bridges.  Between  thirty 
and  forty  thousand  workmen  were  employed 
upon  this  undertaking  at  once. 

ALYA,  Ferdinand  Alvarez,  Duke  of, 
descended  from  a high  Castilian  family,  born 
in  1508,  distinguished  himself  in  the  career 
of  arms  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  was  at 
the  siege  of  Pavia.  Charles  Y.  made  him  a 
general,  and  he  was  commander  at  the  siege 
of  Mentz,  where  he  fought  with  desperate 
but  unavailing  valor,  for  the  siege  was  raised. 
He  was  noted  for  excessive  cruelty  and  super- 
stition. In  the  campaign  against  the  pope, 
Alva  compelled  the  pontiff  to  sue  for  peace, 
and  then  went  to  Rome  to  supplicate  pardon 
for  the  offense.  In  1561,  he  was  sent  to  the 
Netherlands  by  Philip  II.,  to  reduce  them 
more  completely  to  the  Spanish  yoke,  and 


ALY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


49 


extirpate  the  Protestant  heresy.  The  cruelty 
of  the  Council  of  Blood,  a military  tribunal 
which  he  established,  deluged  the  United 
Provinces  in  their  best  blood.  At  first  the 
arms  of  Alva  were  successful,  but  the  mad- 
dened malcontents  afterward  gaining  head, 
he  was  recalled.  In  Portugal,  he  acquired 
renown  by  his  success  in  driving  Don  Anto- 
nio from  the  throne.  He  died  in  1582. 

AMADEUS,  the  name  of  several  of  the 
Counts  of  Savoy,  of  whom  Amadeus  VI.  was 
the  most  famous.  He  lent  his  powerful  aid 
to  John  of  France,  against  Edward  of  En- 
gland, and  was  the  ally  of  John  Paleologus 
(Emperor  of  Greece),  in  1365.  His  reign  of 
forty  years  was  glorious,  and  his  death  in 
1383,  deeply  lamented. 

AMAZONS,  a fabulous  race  of  female  war- 
riors in  antiquity.  They  are  said  to  have 
been  the  descendants  of  Scythians  in  Cappa- 
docia, whose  husbands  were  all  slain  in  war. 
The  widows  resolved  to  form  a female  domin- 
ion. Having  firmly  established  themselves, 
they  decreed  that  matrimony  was  a shameful 
state.  They  were  said  to  have  been  con- 
quered by  Theseus  about  1231  b.c.  These 
warlike  women  burned  their  right  breasts 
off,  that  they  might  hurl  the  javelin  with 
more  force ; whence  their  name,  from  the 
Greek  a (no)  and  /<«£ os  (breast).  Orellana,  the 
discoverer  of  the  river  Amazon,  saw  bands 
of  armed  women  on  its  banks,  whence  he 
gave  the  stream  that  name. 

AMBASSADORS  and  ministers  plenipoten- 
tiary, have  been  from  time  immemorial,  con- 
sidered in  some  measure,  privileged  charac- 
ters. Those  of  King  David,  about  1030  b.c., 
being  insulted  by  the  king  of  the  Ammonites, 
led  to  a war  destructive  to  the  aggressors. 
The  Roman  ambassadors  at  Clusium,  b.c.  390, 
mixing  with  the  inhabitants  in  battle  with  the 
Gauls,  Brennus,  king  of  the  latter,  considered 
their  conduct  an  act  of  hostility  on  the  part 
of  their  country,  raised  the  siege  of  Clusium, 
marched  toward  Rome,  defeated  the  Romans 
at  the  Alia,  and  took,  plundered,  and  burned 
Rome.  In  modern  times  the  privileges  of 
ambassadors  have  been  more  distinctly  de- 
fined. In  England  during  the  protectorship 
of  Oliver  Cromwell,  Don  Pantaleon  Sa,  brother 
to  the  Portuguese  ambassador  in  London, 
committed  a murder  in  open  day,  and  sought 
refuge  in  his  brother’s  house ; but  the  pro- 

4 


\ tector  refused  to  sanction  such  an  asylum  in 
a case  of  murder,  and  Sa  was  seized,  tried, 
and  hanged,  1653.  About  twenty  years  af- 
terward, the  Prince  of  Furstenburg  was  ar- 
rested at  the  diet  of  Ratisbon,  for  murder,  by 
order  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  the 
case  of  Sa  given  as  a justification.  In  1709, 
in  England,  the  Russian  ambassador  was  ar- 
rested for  debt  by  a lace  merchant,  which  led 
to  an  act  of  parliament  exempting  ambassa- 
dors, or  their  immediate  suit,  from  arrest  in 
civil  cases. 

The  first  ambassador  from  Russia  to  Eng- 
land, arrived  in  London,  1556.  First  from 
India  to  any  part  of  Europe,  was  from  Tippoo 
Saib  to  France,  1778.  First  from  the  United 
States  was  Silas  Deane  to  France,  1776.  First 
from  the  Ottoman  emperor  to  Great  Britain, 
1793.  The  first  from  the  United  States  to 
England  was  John  Adams,  presented  to 
George  III.  June  2d,  1785.  The  first  from 
England  to  America  was  Mr.  Hammond,  in 
1791. 

AMBROSE,  St.,  was  born  at  Treves  about 
340.  He  was  Bishop  of  Milan,  and  died  in 
397.  He  introduced  anthems  into  the  church 
service,  and  the  glorious  “ Te  Deum  Lauda- 
mus ” is  ascribed  to  him  and  Augustin,  al- 
though some  say  a later  date  belongs  to  it. 

AMERICA,  one  of  the  twin  continents  of 
the  earth,  including  a vast  extent  of  territory, 
embracing  every  variety  of  climate,  and  bear- 
ing within  it,  besides  its  precious  ore  and 
gems,  the  germs  of  immense  wealth,  remained 
undiscovered  until  the  11th  of  October,  1492, 
when  Christopher  Columbus,  a native  of  Ge- 
noa, who  had  sailed  from  Spain  with  three 
small  vessels  under  the  patronage  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  seeking  a westward  way  to  In- 
dia, first  beheld  a light  on  the  shores  of  the 
new  world,  two  hours  before  midnight.  On 
the  ensuing  day  he  set  foot  in  the  virgin  isle. 
Columbus  felt  the  importance  of  the  discovery, 
as,  erecting  the  cross,  and  surrounded  by  his 
crew  and  the  wild  and  wonder-stricken  na- 
tives, he  took  possession  of  the  new  country 
in  the  name  of  the  sovereigns  of  Spain.  The 
Christian  adventurers  did  not  fail  to  kneel 
upon  the  sand,  and  offer  up  their  thanks  for 
having  been  preserved  through  the  perils  of 
a long  voyage,  and  favored  with  such  brilliant 
success  to  compensate  for  all  their  perils. 
This  island  was  called  Guanahani  by  the  na- 


AME 


50 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tives,  a name  which  Columbus  altered  to  St. 
Salvador,  and  was  one  of  the  Bahamas.  He 
then  visited  other  adjacent  islands,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Cuba  and  Hay  ti ; the  latter  he  called 
Hispaniola.  In  subsequent  voyages  he  dis- 
covered Jamaica  and  Trinidad,  and  landed  on 
the  coast  of  South  America  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Orinoco.  » 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  vast  conti- 
nent which  Columbus  discovered  was  not 
called  by  his  name,  but  derived  its  appellation 
from  Amerigo  Vespucci,  a Florentine  naviga- 
tor, who  made  some  subsequent  discoveries, 
in  company  with  Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  in  1499, 
and  was  the  first  to  publish  an  account  of  the 
new  countries.  The  work  which  he  issued 
became  very  popular  and  was  soon  translated 
into  several  different  languages.  Thus  Amerigo 
Vespucci  attained  a greater  degree  of  celebrity 
than  he  merited,  and,  by  the  concurrence  of 
all  classes,  gave  his  name  to  that  extensive 
and  important  country  which  another  had  dis- 
covered. Neither  was  Columbus  the  first  to 
reach  the  continent.  He  did  not  touch  upon 
South  America  till  May  30th,  1498.  Almost  a 
year  sooner,  June  24th,  1497,  Sebastian  Cabot 
had  reached  the  coast  of  North  America. 

The  wondrous  field  for  exploration  and  dis- 
covery that  Columbus  had  opened  was  soon 
thickly  occupied.  In  1498,  Cabot  in  a second 
expedition  visited  Newfoundland.  In  1500, 
Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral,  admiral  of  a Portuguese 
fleet  bound  for  the  East  Indies  around  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  blundered  upon  Brazil. 
Nunez  de  Balboa  saw  the  Pacific  Ocean  from 
a mountain  near  Panama,  in  1513.  He  was 
transported  with  delight  as  he  beheld  its  waves 
sparkling  in  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  appearing 
to  glitter  with  that  gold  which  the  natives  told 
him  abounded  in  the  country  to  the  south. 
He  imagined  that  he  had  found  the  Indies,  a 
region  then  the  greatest  ambition  of  European 
adventurers  to  reach.  He  acquainted  the 
Spanish  court  with  his  discovery,  and  solicited 
an  appointment  proportionate  to  the  extent  of 
his  services.  He  was,  however,  grievously 
disappointed ; the  government  of  Darien  was 
obtained  by  Davila,  and  this  rival,  finding  a 
pretext  for  wreaking  his  vengeance  upon  Bal- 
boa, had  him  executed  publicly  in  1517.  In 
1513,  Diaz  de  Solis  landed  on  the  south-east 
coast  of  South  America,  about  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  where  he  and  several  of 


his  crew  were  killed,  roasted,  and  eaten  by 
the  savages.  In  1520  Magellan  passed  through 
the  straits  that  bear  his  name  and  crossed  the 
Pacific. 

The  Spaniards  entertained  the  most  exag- 
gerated ideas  of  the  wonders  of  the  New 
World.  To  most  of  them,  it  appeared  a realm 
of  magic,  a fairy-land,  in  which  supernatural 
occurrences  were  by  no  means  infrequent. 
Thus  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  in  1512,  fitted  out 
three  ships  from  Porto  Rico,  of  which  he  was 
governor,  and  set  forth  in  search  of  a fountain 
which  was  fabled  to  restore  all  who  bathed  in 
it,  even  if  they  were  tormented  by  the  infirm- 
ities of  extreme  old  age,  to  the  freshness,  vigor, 
and  beauty  of  youth.  Although  he  failed  to 
find  the  fountain,  he  made  the  discovery  of 
Florida.  As  the  Spaniards  had  been  foremost 
in  American  discovery,  so  they  were  first  in 
conquest  and  settlement.  Early  in  the  six- 
teenth century  Cortez  conquered  Mexico,  and 
not  long  after  Pizarro  subjugated  Peru.  More 
than  a hundred  years  elapsed  after  North 
America  was  first  visited  by  Cabot,  before  an 
English  colony  was  established  in  the  country. 

The  external  appearance  of  the  New  World 
has  much  which  presents  a very  marked  con- 
trast to  the  superficial  features  of  the  Old. 
A stupendous  chain  of  elevated  mountains 
traverses  the  whole  continent,  running  from 
north  to  south,  and  even  under  the  equator, 
where,  upon  the  low  lands  the  most  intense 
heat  is  felt,  these  tall  mountains  elevate  their 
heads  into  the  region  of  intense  cold.  - Every- 
thing in  the  New  World  appears  to  be  of 
greater  magnitude  than  the  corresponding 
objects  in  the  Old.  The  lakes  are  vast  inland 
oceans,  exhibiting  in  storms  the  striking  and 
sublime  aspects  of  the  great  deep,  rolling  as 
mighty  waves,  and  shaken  by  an  equal  con- 
vulsion. The  rivers  are  of  prodigious  size, 
and  the  plains  of  extraordinary  extent.  Over 
those  of  South  and  North  America,  countless 
herds  of  wild  cattle  roam  at  will.  The  Amer- 
ican continent  stretches  from  the  icy  ocean  of 
the  north  to  the  cold  regions  of  the  south.  It 
is  composed  of  two  great  peninsulas  linked  by 
an  isthmus.  The  Atlantic  washes  its  eastern 
coast,  the  Pacific  its  western.  Its  length, 
from  80°  N.  lat.  to  55°  S.  lat.,  exceeds  9,000 
miles ; its  greatest  breadth  is  between  Cape 
St.  Roque  in  Brazil  and  Cape  Parma  in  Peru, 
where  it  is  upward  of  3,250  miles  wide.  The 


AME 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


51 


narrowest  part  is  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
which  divides  it  into  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica ; the  isthmus  is  only  twenty-eight  miles 
wide.  The  area  of  North  America,  not  includ- 
ing the  West  Indies,  may  be  estimated  at 
7,779,218  square  miles,  and  its  population  at 
35,774,498;  the  area  of  South  America  at 
6,199,080  square  miles,  and  its  population  at 
18,033,465.  About  half  the  population  of  the 
continent  are  whites ; the  other  half,  native 
Indians,  negroes,  and  mixed  races. 

The  New  World  was  inhabited  by  a race  of 
men  differing,  in  many  respects,  from  the  na- 
tives of  the  eastern  hemisphere.  The  Indians 
of  North  America  varied,  in  many  particulars, 
from  those  of  the  southern  portion  of  this  vast 
continent,  and  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of 
Mexico,  at  the  time  when  they  were  first  vis- 
ited by  the  Spaniards,  had  attained  a greater 
degree  of  refinement  than  was  found  by  the 
Europeans  in  any  other  quarter  of  the  New 
World.  Malte  Brun  has  thus  described  the 
general  personal  appearance  of  the  aborigines : 
“ The  natives  of  this  part  of  the  globe  are  in 
general  large,  of  a robust  frame,  well  propor- 
tioned, and  without  defects  of  conformation. 
They  have  a bronzed  or  coppery  red  complex- 
ion, as  it  were  ferruginous,  and  very  like  cin- 
namon or  tannin ; the  hair  black,  long,  coarse, 
shining,  and  scanty ; the  beard  thin,  growing 
in  tufts  ; the  forehead  short,  the  eyes  elonga- 
ted, and  having  the  corners  pointing  upward 
to  the  temples  ; the  eyebrows  high,  the  cheek 
bones  projecting,  the  nose  a little  flattened, 
but  marked ; the  lips  wide,  the  teeth  serrated 
and  sharp ; in  the  mouth  an  expression  of 
mildness,  which  is  contrasted  with  a sombre, 
and  severe,  and  even  hard  expression  of  coun- 
tenance; the  head  rather  square,  the  face 
large  without  being  flat,  but  diminishing  to- 
ward the  chin  ; the  features  taken  in  profile, 
projecting  and  strongly  marked;  the  belly 
high,  the  thighs  large,  the  legs  bowed,  the 
foot  large,  and  the  whole  body  squat.”  Such 
are  said  to  be  • the  general  characteristics  of 
the  aborigines  of  this  continent,  with  perhaps 
two  exceptions,  the  Esquimaux  at  the  north- 
ern extremity  and  the  Patagonians  at  the 
southern.  The  copper  or  bronze  hue  of  the 
skin  is,  with  some  slight  exceptions,  common 
to  almost  all  the  native  nations  of  America, 
whatever  the  climate,  the  situation,  or  the 
mode  of  living. 


In  regard  to  the  peopling  of  the  continent, 
various  conjectures  have  been  formed,  and  no- 
thing is  known.  Some  have  supposed  that 
the  lost  tribes  of  Israel  wandered  hither ; 
others  that  the  Mexicans  were  of  Egyptian 
ancestry ; some  that  the  Carthaginians,  and 
others  that  the  ancient  Celts,  made  expeditions 
to  America.  What  surmise  too  fanciful  to 
meet  with  supporters,  when  facts  are  few  and 
doubtful.  Perhaps  the  theory  of  the  Asiatic 
origin  of  the  Americans  has  been  most  gener- 
ally accepted.  The  question  is  buried  in  ob- 
scurity. The  great  number  of  separate  lan- 
guages goes  to  show  that  the  American  tribes 
must  have  long  existed  in  the  savage  solitude 
in  which  the  Europeans  found  them  plunged. 
There  are  scattered  over  the  continent  traces 
of  the  labor  of  man  that  belong  to  no  race 
known  since  its  discovery  by  Europeans.  The 
mounds  in  our  western  states,  overgrown  with 
primeval  trees ; the  teocallis  of  Mexico,  the 
strange  remains  of  Central  America,  and  the 
ruins  of  Peru ; these,  their  buried  trinkets 
and  utensils,  their  hieroglyphics,  idols,  orna- 
ments, and  sculpture,  speak  variously  of  arts, 
religions,  civilizations,  and  races  that  were 
above  the  savage,  and  were  gone  before  the 
European  came. 

North  America  is  politically  divided  into 
the  republics  of  the  United  States,  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  the  British  and  Russian 
possessions,  and  the  tracts  still  possessed  by 
native  tribes.  The  north-western  coast  has 
been  discovered  and  held  by  the  Russians. 
Greenland  is  subject  to  Denmark.  The  pop- 
ulation of  Danish  America  is  stated  at  10,000, 
that  of  Russian  America  at  66,000.  The  broad 
tract  called  British  America  comprises  (1870) 
the  Northwest,  population  102,000,  area  2,- 
750,000  sq.  miles,  British  Columbia,  pop.  52,- 
000,  area,  220,000  sq.  miles,  Ontario,  Quebec, 
New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland, 
and  Prince  Edwards  Island,  the  latter  prov- 
ince having  a pop.  of  97,246,  area  2,100  sq.  m. 
The  extent  of  British  North  America  is  3,- 
049,146  sq.  m.,  pop.  4,525,205.  [See  Canada, 
U.  States,  Mexico,  Central  America.] 
The  Bermudas  are  under  the  control  of  Eng- 
land, and  the  West  Indies  are  possessed  by  va- 
rious European  powers.  [Nee  West  Indies.] 


South  America  is  thus  divided.  The  north- 
ern portion,  formerly  Columbia,  is  now  cut 
into  the  three  republics  of  New  Grenada.  Ven- 

AME 


52 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ezuela,  and  Ecuador.  To  the  south  of  these 
on  the  western  coast,  lie  the  republics  of  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  Chili.  The  states  of  the  Argen- 
tine Confederation,  formerly  known  as  the 
United  Provinces  of  La  Plata,  lie  between  the 
two  last-mentioned  states  and  the  Atlantic. 
Buenos  Ayres  once  belonged  to  this  confeder- 
acy, but  is  now  a distinct  republic.  The  em- 
pire of  Brazil  is  the  largest  of  South  American 
states.  South  of  it  lies  the  republic  of  Uru- 
guay. Paraguay  lies  south-west  of  Brazil, 
between  the  rivers  Paraguay  and  Parana. 
Guiana  is  a tract  on  the  north-eastern  coast 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Amazon  and  the 
Orinoco.  The  southern  part  of  the  continent 
is  called  Patagonia.  Further  information 
concerning  the  countries  of  America  will  be 
found  under  the  articles  devoted  to  them  sep- 
arately. 

AMERICUS  VESPUCCIUS,  a Florentine 
navigator,  of  an  ancient  family,  born  1451. 
His  first  voyage  to  America  was  made  under 
Ojeda,  a year  after  its  discovery  by  Columbus, 
and  yet  the  vast  continent  bears  his  name, 
while  that  of  the  great  discoverer  is  applied  to 
it  only  by  poetical  courtesy.  In  the  glowing 
narrative  which  he  wrote,  he  appropriated  the 
laurels  of  Columbus  to  his  own  brow,  and 
strengthened  his  claims  by  a tale  of  a voyage 
made  before  that  in  which  Columbus  touched 
South  America.  This  was  afterward  proved 
a falsehood,  but  the  old  world  had  already 
named  its  new-born  sister  America.  Ves- 
pucci died  in  Spain  in  1512  or  1514. 

AMES,  Fisheii,  was  born  in  Dedham,  Mass., 
April  9th,  1758.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
College,  which  he  left  with  high  character. 
After  instructing  a school  for  some  years,  in 
1781  he  commenced  the  practice  of  law,  and 
becoming  distinguished  for  his  oratorical 
powers,  and  his  success  as  a political  essayist, 
was  chosen  member  of  the  legislature.  He 
was  the  first  representative  of  the  Suffolk  dis- 
trict in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  in 
which  he  remained  during  Washington’s  ad- 
ministration. On  the  retirement  of  W ashing- 
tonA  Mr.  Ames,  whose  health  had  been  im- 
paired, occupied  himself  in  farming  at  Ded- 
ham, and  practicing  law.  But  although  his 
voice  was  unheard  in  public,  his  pen  was  not 
inactive,  and  the  publication  of  various  essays 
proved  the  interest  which  he  continued  to 
take  in  politics  until  the  time  of  his  death, 


July  4th,  1808.  Fisher  Ames  had  fine  fea- 
tures, and  a commanding  person,  and  his 
manner  in  speaking  was  expressive,  although 
not  characterized  by  studied  grace.  His  con- 
versational abilities  are  said  to  have  been  of 
the  highest  order.  His  father,  Nathaniel, 
was  a physician,  and  well  versed  in  astronomy. 

AMHERST,  Jeffery,  Lord,  was  born  in 
1717.  lie  commenced  his  military  career  in 
1731,  and  regularly  rose  to  the  rank  of  field- 
marshal.  He  was  at  Dettingen,  Fontenoy, 
Rocoux,  commanded  at  the  siege  of  Louis- 
burg,  and  reduced  the  Canadas.  He  was 
successively  governor  of  Virginia,  and  of  the 
isle  of  Jersey,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  army.  He  died  in  1798. 

AMIENS,  an  ancient  city  of  the  old  prov- 
ince of  Picardy  in  France,  ninety-two  miles 
north  of  Paris,  having  a population  of  52,000. 
Its  cathedral  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
Gothic  edifices  in  the  world.  Here,  March 
27th,  1802,  peace  was  concluded  between 
Great  Britain,  Holland,  France,  and  Spain. 

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL,  established 
at  Thermopylae  by  Amphictyon,  for  the  man- 
agement of  all  affairs  relative  to  Greece,  1498 
b.c.  It  consisted  of  twelve  delegates.  Other 
cities  in  process  of  time  sent  also  some  of  their 
wisest  and  most  virtuous  men,  till  the  num- 
ber was  increased  to  thirty.  This  is  the  first 
instance  on  record,  of  a free  representation  of 
independent  states,  meeting  to  deliberate  and 
settle  their  concerns  by  the  force  of  reason,  in 
place  of  arms. 

ANABAPTISTS,  a fanatical  sect  which 
arose  about  1525  in  Germany.  They  taught 
that  infant  baptism  was  a contrivance  of  the 
devil,  that  there  is  no  original  sin,  and  that 
men  have  a free  will  in  spiritual  things. 
Munster  in  Westphalia  they  called  Mount 
Zion,  and  one  Mathias  a baker  was  declared 
to  be  the  king  of  Zion.  Their  enthusiasm  led 
them  to  the  maddest  practices,  and  at  length 
they  rose  in  arms  under  pretense  of  gospel 
liberty.  Their  fanatical  leader,  John  of  Ley- 
den, a tailor,  defended  himself  in  Munster  for 
a whole  year.  After  this,  the  execution  of 
the  leaders  quelled  the  insurrection.  Munster 
was  taken,  June  24th,  1535. 

ANACREON,  a Greek  lyric  poet  of  Teos, 
in  Ionia,  who  flourished  in  the  sixth  century 
b.c.  Poly  crates,  King  of  Samos,  was  his  pat- 
ron until  his  death.  At  Athens  he  was  en- 


ANA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


53 


couraged  by  Hipparchus,  but  the  fall  of  the 
latter  drove  him  from  Athens,  and  he  passed 
an  old  age  of  gayety  at  Abdera,  where  he  was 
choked  by  a grape-stone  in  his  eighty-fifth 
year.  He  was  the  poet  of  love  and  wine, 
practiced  what  he  praised,  and  was  much 
honored  by  the  Greeks.  Verse  of  a jovial  or 
bacchanalian  strain  is  called  Anacreontic. 

ANAXAGORAS,  one  of  the  Ionic  philoso- 
phers, born  at  Clazomene,  in  Ionia,  500  b.c. 
died  at  Lampsacus  at  the  age  of  seventy-two. 
Anaxagoras  is  celebrated  as  the  friend  of  Per- 
icles, and  for  his  trial  and  condemnation  art 
Athens  for  alleged  impiety  and  a suspicion  of 
favoring  the  interests  of  Persia.  The  inter- 
cession of  Pericles  softened  his  sentence  from 
death  into  banishment.  The  researches  of 
the  Ionic  school  were  confined  to  the  nature 
and  laws  of  physical  phenomena,  and  Anaxa- 
goras in  his  investigations  groped  near  the 
thought  of  a great  First  Cause. 

ANAXIMANDER,  a disciple  of  Thales, 
whose  chief  study  was  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy, born  at  Miletus,  610  b.c.,  died  546 
B.c.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
constructed  maps  and  spheres. 

ANDRE,  John.  Among  the  various  events 
which  contributed  to  give  a distinctive  char- 
acter to  the  war  of  our  Revolution,  the  fate  of 
Major  Andre,  a young  English  officer,  can 
never  be  forgotten,  nor  the  sad  story  of  the 
close  of  his  life  ever  read  without  a deep  and 
painful  interest.  This  young  man  was  hand- 
some, talented,  brave,  enthusiastic,  generous, 
and  accomplished,  beloved  by  all  his  acquaint- 
ance, without  distinction  of  country.  He 
was  born  in  England  in  1749,  entered  the 
royal  army  with  high  hopes  in  1771,  and  was 
well  fitted  to  adorn  an  elevated  station.  His 
history  is  connected  with  that  of  the  worst 
traitor  who  ever  disgraced  the  name  of  Amer- 
ica. This  man  was  Benedict  Arnold.  His 
unrepressed  extravagance  had  led  him  to  incur 
heavy  debts  which  he  saw  no  means  of  dis- 
charging but  by  accepting  the  gold  of  the 
British  as  the  price  of  treason  to  his  country. 
In  September,  1780,  Arnold  was  in  command 
of  West  Point,  a post  on  the  Hudson,  of  vast 
importance  to  the  Americans.  Arnold  had 
selected  for  betrayal  this  fortress,  which  was 
almost  impregnable  from  natural  defenses, 
and  from  fortifications  on  which  no  care  or 
expense  had  been  spared.  Arnold  had  opened 


a correspondence  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
under  fictitious  names  and  the  pretense  of 
mercantile  business,  through  Major  Andre, 
then  holding  the  rank  of  adjutant-general. 
The  young  officer  was  conveyed  up  the  river 
in  the  Vulture  sloop-of-war,  and,  under  a pass 
for  John  Anderson,  came  on  shore  in  the 
night,  and  had  an  interview  with  Arnold. 
Morning  surprised  them  before  their  business 
was  transacted,  and,  as  it  was  impossible  for 
Andre  to  get  on  board  the  Vulture  by  day- 
light, he  consented  to  remain  hidden  till  the 
next  night.  In  the  course  of  the  day,  the 
Vulture  altered  her  position,  in  consequence 
of  a gun  being  brought  to  bear  upon  her,  and 
the  boatmen,  at  night,  refused  to  take  Andre 
on  board. 

The  young  officer  found  himself  compelled 
to  attempt  to  get  to  New  York  by  land.  Ar- 
nold gave  him  a pass,  granting  permission  to 
John  Anderson  “to  go  to  the  lines  of  White 
Plains,  or  lower  if  he  thought  proper,  he  being 
on  public  business.”  Changing  his  uniform, 
which  he  had  previously  worn  under  a sur- 
tout,  for  a plain  coat,  he  mounted  a horse, 
passed  the  American  guards  in  safety,  and 
was  congratulating  himself  on  his  escape, 
when  three  militia  men,  suddenly  appearing, 
seized  his  bridle-rein,  and  demanded  his  busi- 
ness. Surprised,  and  off  his  guard,  he  did 
not  produce  his  pass,  but  hastily  asked  the 
men  where  they  belonged.  “ Down  below,” 
was  the  answer.  “So  do  I,”  replied  Andre, 
rejoiced  to  find  them  friends.  But  he  was 
mistaken,  and  being  pressed,  he  finally  de- 
clared that  he  was  a British  officer.  He  beg- 
ged them  to  suffer  him  to  pursue  his  way, 
offering  them  gold,  and  a watch  of  great  value. 
John  Paulding,  David  Williams,  and  Isaac 
Van  Wert  were  poor  men;  their  dress  be- 
spoke it ; but  they  loved  their  country,  and 
despised  a bribe.  They  might  have  answered 
Andre,  in  the  words  of  another  American,  on 
another  occasion,  “Your  king  has  not  gold 
enough  to  buy  us.”  They  carried  Andre  be- 
fore Lieutenant-Colonel  Jameson,  who  com- 
manded the  troops  on  the  lines.  The  captors 
of  Andre  were  rewarded  by  Congress  with 
an  annual  pension  of  two  hundred  dollars 
each,  and  a silver  medal  bearing  on  one  side 
a shield  inscribed  “Fidelity;”  and  on  the 
other  the  motto  “ Amor  Patriae.” 

Andre  still  passed  as  John  Anderson.  He 


AND 


54 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


generously  wished  to  save  Arnold,  and  asked 
permission  to  write  to  him.  This  the  com- 
manding officer  incautiously  permitted,  al- 
though in  Andre’s  boots  there  had  been  found, 
in  the  handwriting  of  Arnold,  returns  of  the 
state  of  the  forces, ’and  the  condition  of  West 
Point,  with  other  important  papers.  Arnold 
was  at  dinner  when  the  letter  arrived.  Ab- 
ruptly leaving  the  table,  he  ran  down  a steep 
bank,  threw  himself  into  a boat,  and  was 
rowed  to  the  Vulture,  which  immediately  got 
under  sail,  and  carried  the  traitor  to  New 
York.  Gen.  Washington  was  soon  apprised 
of  the  circumstances,  and  the  same  express 
which  conveyed  the  intelligence,  carried  a let- 
ter from  the  prisoner,  frankly  avowing  his 
name  and  the  circumstances  under  which  he 
had  been  forced  to  appear  as  an  impostor. 
All  the  American  officers  who  saw  Andre, 
were  struck  with  his  candor  and  manliness, 
and  there  was  not  one  who  did  not  feel  for 
his  situation. 

The  consideration  of  his  case  was  referred 
by  Gen.  Washington  to  a board  of  fourteen 
general  officers,  of  which  Gen.  Green  was 
president,  and  Steuben,  Knox,  and  La  Fayette 
were  members.  It  was  decided  that  he  ought 
to  be  regarded  as  a spy,  and  the  stern  rules 
of  war,  and  the  necessity  of  an  example,  re- 
quired that  he  should  die  upon  the  gibbet. 
He  begged  of  Washington  to  be  allowed  to 
die  as  a soldier,  but  the  patriotism  of  the  gen- 
eral refused  what  his  feelings  would  have 
granted.  Led  to  the  place  of  execution,  An- 
dre, surveying  the  instrument  of  his  fate, 
asked  with  concern,  “ Must  I die  by  this  V I 
am  reconciled  to  my  death,  but  oh ! not  to 
the  mode.”  Recovering  his  composure,  he 
added,  “It  will  be  but  a momentary  pang.” 
His  countenance  was  unruffled  and  calm,  to 
the  very  last  moment  of  his  life ; the  instant 
before  he  was  launched  into  eternity,  it  ex- 
hibited a sunny  serenity  and  high  magnanim- 
ity which  touched  the  hearts  of  all ! At  the 
last  moment  he  was  asked  if  he  wished  to  say 
anything.  “ But  this,”  he  replied : “ You 
will  witness  to  the  world,  that  I die  like  a 
brave  man.” 

The  kindest  attentions  were  bestowed  on 
Andre  by  the  American  officers,  particularly 
by  Alexander  Hamilton,  who  did  all  in  his 
power  to  soothe  him.  Far  different  was  the 
treatment  of  the  pious  and  patriotic  Captain 


Hale,  a young  American  officer,  who  was 
taken  as  a spy,  and  ordered  to  be  executed 
the  next  morning.  He  begged  the  use  of  a 
Bible,  which  was  refused;  to  be  allowed  to 
write  a letter  to  his  mother,  which  poor  priv- 
ilege was  also  denied  him.  “ The  Americans,” 
said  the  British  commander,  “ shall  not  know 
that  they  have  a rebel  in  their  army  who  can 
die  with  so  much  firmness.”  On  the  occasion 
of  the  capture  of  some  young  American  offi- 
cers upon  Long  Island,  they  were  brought  be- 
fore Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  thus  addressed 
them : “ Gentlemen,  do  you  know  that  I can 
hang  every  man  of  you  as  rebels,  taken  in 
arms  against  the  king.”  “ Hang  and  be 
hanged!”  bluntly  exclaimed  Lieut.  Dunscomb, 
with  the  energy  of  a rough  soldier ; “I  have 
lived  for  my  country,  and  I am  not  afraid  to 
die  for  her.” 

Andre’s  ashes,  several  years  ago,  were  se- 
cured by  the  British,  and  conveyed  to  Eng- 
land, where  a monument  was  erected  to  him 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

ANDROCLUS,  a Dacian  slave,  of  whom  a 
story  is  told  that  he  was  exposed  in  the  arena 
of  a Roman  circus,  to  fight  a lion ; but  the 
animal  forbore  to  injure  him,  because  he  had 
formerly  extracted  a thorn  from  his  foot  while 
in  the  Dacian  wilds.  Androclus  was  released, 
and  used  to  lead  the  friendly  lion  about  the 
city. 

ANDROMACHE,  the  faithful  and  affection- 
ate wife  of  Hector,  prince  of  Troy,  of  whom 
she  was  so  fond,  as  to  feed  his  horses  with 
her  own  hands.  After  his  death,  she  was 
married  to  Neoptolemus,  to  whose  share  the 
lovely  captive  fell,  and  afterward  to  Helenus, 
son  of  Priam. 

ANDROMEDA,  daughter  of  Cepheus,  king 
of  Ethiopia,  by  Cassiopeia.  She  is  fabled  to 
have  been  exposed  by  Neptune  to  a sea-mon- 
ster, from  which  she  was  delivered  by  Perse- 
us. An  explanation  of  the  fable  is  offered  in 
the  supposition  that  she  was  courted  by  the 
captain  of  a ship,  who  attempted  to  carry  her 
away,  but  was  baffled  by  the  enterprise  and 
activity  of  a more  faithful  lover. 

ANDROS,  Sir  Edmund,  royal  governor  of 
New  York  from  1674  to  1682,  of  New  England 
from  1686  to  1689,  and  of  Virginia  from  1692 
to  1698.  His  tyrannical  administration  in 
New  England  rendered  his  name  obnoxious. 
His  failure  to  seize  the  charter  of  Connecticut 


AND 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


55 


is  told  in  another  place.  [See  Charter  Oak.] 
In  April,  1689,  the  people  of  Massachusetts, 
irritated  by  his  exactions,  deposed  Andros, 
put  him  in  prison,  and  declared  for  William 
a nd  Mary.  The  subsequent  career  of  Andros 
in  Virginia  was  more  moderate.  He  died  in 
England  in  1714. 

ANGLES,  a tribe  which  occupied  the  coun- 
try between  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe,  now  a 
part  of  Prussia.  In  the  fifth  century,  uniting 
with  the  Saxons,  their  powerful  neighbors  of 
the  north,  under  the  name  of  Anglo-Saxons, 
they  effected  the  conquest  of  England.  A 
small  tract  of  land  near  the  Danish  peninsula, 
where  some  of  them  remained,  is  called  at  the 
present  day  Angeln.' 

ANGLESEY,  Henry  William  Paget, 
Marquis  of,  was  born  May  17th,  1768,  the  eld- 
est son  of  the  Earl  of  Uxbridge.  . At  an  early 
age  he  entered  the  army,  and  his  first  active 
service  was  in  Flanders  under  the  Duke  of  York 
in  1794.  Toward  the  close  of  the  year  1808, 
having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  a major- 
general,  he  joined  Sir  John  Moore,  and  took 
a brilliant  share  in  the  Peninsular  campaign. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  was  a member 
of  the  Commons  from  1806  to  1812.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  in  the  latter  year,  he  took 
his  seat  in  the  upper  house,  as  Lord  Uxbridge. 
When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  Lord 
Uxbridge  was  given  the  command  of  the 
British  cavalry  in  Flanders,  and  fought  with 
great  gallantry  at  Waterloo,  where  he  lost 
a leg.  Five  days  after  the  battle  he  was 
created  Marquis  of  Anglesey.  During  the 
trial  of  Queen  Caroline,  the  wife  of  George 
IV.,  he  took  the  unpopular  side  in  favor 
of  the  king,  and  when  he  was  surrounded 
by  a crowd  who  insisted  upon  his  hurrah- 
ing for  the  queen,  he  cried  out  at  last,  “Well 
then,  the  queen ! may  all  your  wives  be  like 
her ! ” In  April,  1827,  he  held  office  under 
Canning,  and  in  1828  was  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland  under  W ellington.  Having  expressed 
a strong  sympathy  with  Catholic  emanci- 
pation, he  was  recalled  from  Ireland  and 
resumed  his  place  in  parliament,  where  he 
continued  to  advocate  the  Irish  cause.  The 
bill  of  Catholic  emancipation  having  passed, 
Lord  Anglesey  was  restored  to  the  lord-lieu- 
tenancy of  Ireland,  and  continued  at  that 
post  until  his  resignation  in  1838.  He  died 
in  1854. 


ANHALT  was  an  ancient  principality  in 
the  north  of  Germany.  The  house  of  Anhalt 
traced  their  origin  to  Ascanius,  grandson  of 
Japhet  the  son  of  Noah ! whose  descendants 
were  reputed  to  have  migrated  from  the 
marshes  of  Ascania  in  Bithynia,  and  at  last  to 
have  settled  among  the  forests  of  Germany. 
Whether  this  somewhat  lengthy  pedigree  be 
correct  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  no  family  in 
Germany  has  produced  a greater  number  of 
brave  and  skillful  warriors  than  the  house  of 
Anhalt;  beginning  with  Bernhard,  who  de- 
clined the  imperial  sceptre  in  1198,  because 
he  deemed  himself  “too  corpulent”  for  such 
a dignity;  or  from  Wolfgang,  one  of  the 
staunchest  soldiers  of  the  Reformation,  who 
on  being  reinstated  in  his  possessions  ex- 
claimed, “Old  and  poor  as  I am,  I would 
give  a thousand  florins  could  I gibbet  a 
pope;”  down  to  Leopold,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  who  led  the  Branden- 
burg troops  to  victory  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries and  Italy,  created  the  Prussian  infantry, 
and  invented  the  iron  ramrod.  The  prin- 
cipality is  now  divided  into  three  duchies, 
the  former  two  of  which  are  under  the  same 
monarch:  Anhalt-Dessau,  area  360  square 
miles,  Anhalt  Kothen,  area  318  square 
miles,  population,  of  the  united  duchies  in 
1855,  114,850;  Anhalt-Bernburg,  area  339 
square  miles,  population  in  1855,  53,475. 

ANNA,  a heathen  goddess,  in  whose  honor 
the  Romans  instituted  festivals.  Several 
fabulous  explanations  of  the  origin  of  these 
celebrations  have  been  given,  but  the  most 
probable  is  the  least  poetic ; that  Anna  was  an 
industrious  old  lady  of  Bovillas,  and  her  apo- 
theosis the  reward  of  her  kindness  in  daily  sup- 
plying the  Romans  at  Mount  Sacer  with  cakes. 

ANNA  COMNENA,  daughter  of  Alexis  I., 
Emperor  of  the  East,  celebrated  for  her  beauty 
and  acquirements,  born  in  1083.  Being  de- 
feated in  a conspiracy  for  placing  the  crown 
on  the  head  of  her  husband,  she  devoted  her 
life  to  letters,  and  wrote  the  history  of  her 
father’s  reign.  She  died  in  1148. 

ANNE  of  Austria,  was  daughter  of  Philip 
III.,  of  Spain,  and  was  born  in  1602.  She 
became  the  wife  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  in 
1615,  but  lived  upon  bad  terms  with  him. 
On  the  death  of  Louis,  she  became  sole  regent 
during  the  minority  of  her  son,  Louis  XIV., 
but  made  herself  unpopular  among  her  sub 


ANN 


56 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


jects  by  reposing  unbounded  confidence  in 
Cardinal  Mazarin.  Affairs  assumed  so  threat- 
ening an  aspect,  that  she  was  compelled  to 
leave  Paris.  Tranquillity  was  restored  at 
length,  and  when  her  son  assumed  the  reins 
of  power,  in  1661,  she  went  into  retirement, 
in  which  she  lived  till  her  death,  in  1666. 

ANNE,  daughter  of  John  III.,  Duke  of 
Cleves,  was  married  in  1540,  to  Henry  VIII. 
of  England,  who  had  fallen  in  love  with  her 
picture.  He  was  soon,-  however,  disgusted 
with  the  Flanders  mare,  as  he  coarsely  termed 
her,  and  she  quietly  returned  to  her  native 
land,  where  she  died  in  1557,  happy  in  escap- 
ing the  dangers  by  which  Henry’s  queens 
were  beset. 

A^NE,  Queen  of  England.  [ See  Stuart.] 

ANSON,  George,  Lord,  was  born  in  1697, 
in  Staffordshire,  and  entered  the  navy  at  an 
early  age.  In  his  twenty-seventh  year  he 
gained  the  rank  of  post-captain,  and  when, 
in  1739,  a war  with  Spain  appeared  inevitable, 
he  was  made  commander  of  a squadron  for 
the  South  Pacific.  He  sailed  Sept.  18th, 
1740,  but  encountering  a violent  storm,  was 
prevented,  for  three  months,  from  doubling 
Cape  Horn,  and  was  rejoined  at  Juan  Fer- 
nandez, by  only  three  of  his  eight  vessels,  in 
a wretched  condition.  He  sailed  for  the  coast 
of  Peru,  made  some  prizes,  and  burned  the 
town  of  Paita,  but  found  himself  compelled 
to  destroy  all  his  disabled  vessels  but  one. 
Having  equipped  this  one,  the  Centurion, 
he  retreated  to  Tinian,  one  of  the  Ladrone 
Islands.  He  refitted  at  Macao,  and  there 
formed  the  plan  of  taking  the  Acapulco  gal- 
leon, which  brought  every  year  treasure  from 
Mexico  to  exchange  for  goods  at  Manilla. 
To  accomplish  this  bold  purpose,  he  gave  out 
that  he  had  returned  to  England.  Mean- 
while, he  directed  his  course  to  the  Philip- 
pines, cruising  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Espir 
itu  Santo.  After  about  a month,  the  long 
expected  galleon  appeared,  and,  confident  in 
her  superior  strength,  eagerly  commenced  the 
fight.  The  British  fought  with  cool,  daunt- 
less valor,  and  succeeded  in  making  a prize  of 
the  galleon,  whose  gold  and  precious  wares 
some  have  estimated  at  the  worth  of  a million 
sterling.  The  whole  amount  of  the  booty 
previously  taken  was  £600,000.  Anson  then 
returned  to  Macao,  where  he  disposed  of  his 
prize.  The  Chinese  were  inclined  to  insult 


his  flag,  but  he  maintained  his  rights  with  his 
characteristic  pertinacity.  From  Macao,  he 
sailed  for  England,  which  he  reached  June 
15th,  1744,  having  escaped  the  French  fleet 
which  lay  in  the  channel.  Anson’s  perilous 
voyage  threw  new  light  upon  the  geography 
and  navigation  of  the  southern  ocean. 

He  was  liberally  rewarded  for  his  bravery 
and  perseverance,  being  made,  soon  after  his 
return,  rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  at  no  great 
distance  from  that  period,  rear-admiral  of  the 
white.  In  1 747,  he  gained  a brilliant  victory 
over  the  French  under  Admiral  Jonquiere,  oft 
Cape  Finisterre,  and  was  consequently  raised 
to  the  peerage  with  the  title  of  Baron  Anson 
of  Soberto'n.  L’ln vincible  and  La  Gloire,  two 
French  vessels,  were  taken  by  Anson  on  this 
occasion,  and  the  captain  of  the  former,  on 
surrendering  his  sword,  said,  “Monsieur,  you 
have  conquered  the  Invincible,  and  Glory 
follows  you.” 

Lord  Anson  was  made  first  lord  of  the  ad- 
miralty, four  years  after  his  elevation  to  the 
peerage.  In  1758,  he  commanded  the  fleet 
before  Brest,  protecting  the  landing  of  the 
English,  and  receiving  them  after  their  re- 
pulse. He  died  in  1762. 

ANTiEUS,  the  fabulous  son  of  Neptune 
and  Terra  (the  Earth),  of  a gigantic  stature. 
He  resided  in  Libya,  where  he  challenged 
every  stranger  to  single  combat.  What  made 
him  peculiarly  formidable,  was  the  circum- 
stance of  the  renewal  of  his  strength  by  his 
mother,  every  time  he  was  thrown  to  the 
earth.  Hercules,  having  found  out  the  secret 
of  his  prowess,  overcame  him  by  lifting  him 
in  the  air,  and  crushing  him  in  his  iron  grasp. 
The  dwelling  of  this  monster  was  adorned 
with  the  skulls  of  his  vanquished  adversaries. 

ANTARCTIC  OCEAN,  a name  properly 
applied  to  the  seas  between  the  Antarctic  Cir- 
cle and  the  South  Pole,  and  used  to  denote 
generally  those  cold  oceanic  regions  without 
strict  regard  to  the  limits  of  the  Antartie 
Circle.  It  was  long  considered  beyond  the 
pale  of  navigation  because  of  the  ice,  which 
extends  much  farther  than  in  the  polar  re- 
gions of  the  north.  During  the  present 
century  important  discoveries  have  been 
made  in  these  high  southern  latitudes.  The 
South  Shetland  and  the  South  Orkneys  were 
discovered,  and  various  navigators  saw  bits 
of  apparent  coast.  The  expedition  under 


ANT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


57 


Capt.  Wilkes,  sent  out  by  the  United  States 
in  1839,  found  a coast  line  in  154°  27'  E. 
long.,  and  in  a westward  course  as  far  as  97° 
30'  E.  long.,  had  either  always  a coast  in 
sight  or  unequivocal  indications  that  land  was 
not  far.  The  same  year  (1840),  a French 
expedition  under  d’Urville  reached  this  coast 
in  140°  41'  E.  long.,  traced  it  to  130°  E.  long., 
and  called  it  AdHie  Land.  This  coast,  as 
well  as  Trinity  Land,  Palmer’s  Land,  Gra- 
ham’s Land,  and  Alexander’s  Land,  points 
previously  seen  between  36°  and  70°  W.  long., 
and  Enderby’s  Land  (between  49°  and  51°  E. 
long.),  all  lie  close  upon  the  Antarctic  Circle. 
In  January,  1841,  Sir  James  Clarke  Ross 
discovered  a mountainous  coast,  on  which  he 
landed,  trending  to  the  southward,  near  70° 
41'  S.  lat.  and  170°  36'  E.  long.  He  traced  a 
continuous  shore  over  six  hundred  miles  as 
far  as  78°  S.  lat.  To  this  tract  he  gave  the 
name  of  Victoria  Land,  and  he  supposed  it 
to  be  a continent.  In  77°  30'  S.  lat.  and 
167°  E.  long.,  he  placed  Mount  Erebus,  an 
active  volcano,  about  12,400  feet  high,  and  an 
extinct  crater  of  somewhat  less  elevation, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Mount  Ter- 
ror. A main  object  of  his  expedition  was 
to  seek  the  position  of  the  south  magnetic 
pole.  This  he  found  to  be  75°  5'  S.  lat., 
154°  8'  E.  long.  No  traces  of  vegetation 
have  been  observed  on  these  far  southern 
coasts,  and  no  quadrupeds.  Some  birds, 
whales,  and  seals  are  found. 

ANTHONY,  St.,  the  Great,  first  institutor 
of  the  monastic  life.  His  native  place  was 
Coma,  a town  of  Upper  Egypt,  where  he  was 
born,  a.d.  251.  In  285,  he  retired  into  solir 
tude  from  a devotional  spirit,  and  in  305, 
established  the  first  community  of  monks. 
Being  disappointed  in  his  attempts  to  gain 
the  honor  of  martyrdom  at  Alexandria,  he 
left  the  cottages  of  his  monks  to  the  car.e  of 
his  pupil  Pachomius,  and,  in  company  with 
two  of  the  brethren,  retired  to  a very  remote 
desert,  where  he  died,  a.d.  356.  The  disease, 
called  from  him  St.  Anthony’s  fire,  is  a mal- 
ady of  peculiar  violence  with  frightful  accom- 
paniments, in  which  every  limb  attacked, 
becomes  withered,  shrunk,  and  blackened,  as 
if  under  the  influence  of  flame.  The  life  of 
St.  Anthony  in  the  wilderness,  was  believed 
to  have  been  fearfully  eventful,  in  combats 
with  devils. 


ANTIGONE,  a daughter  of  (Edipus,  king 
of  Thebes,  by  his  incestuous  connection 
with  Jocasta.  Antigone  was  the  faithful 
guide  of  GEdipus,  after  his  loss  of  sight; 
having  buried  the  corpse  of  her  brother 
Polynices,  against  the  express  commands  of 
Creon,  the  tyrant  ordered  her  to  be  buried 
alive,  but  she  killed  herself  before  the  execu- 
tion of  the  sentence.  [See  (Edipus.] 

ANTIGONUS,  ‘ the  Cyclops,’  one  of  the 
generals  of  Alexander  the  Great,  after  whose 
death  he  attempted  to  gain  the  sovereignty 
of  Asia,  but  was  defeated  by  Seleucus,  Ptol- 
emy, Lysimachus,  and  Cassander,  at  Ipsus, 
301  b.c.  In  this  battle  Antigonus  fell.  The 
first  profile  on  record  is  that  of  this  Anti- 
gonus, whose  likeness  was  thus  taken  because 
of  the  loss  of  one  of  his  eyes. 

ANTINOUS,  a Bithynian  youth,  of  whom 
the  Emperor  Adrian  was  excessively  fond. 
When  the  latter  was  on  his  travels,  Antinous 
threw  himself  into  the  Nile  and  was  drowned, 
a.d.  132,  but  whether  the  act  was  committed 
with  the  intention  of  saving  the  life  of  the 
emperor,  or  from  weariness  of  existence,  has 
not  yet  been  decided.  The  grief  of  Adrian 
was  intense,  and  the  honors  of  divinity  were, 
by  his  command,  paid  to  his  young  and 
unfortunate  favorite.  He  named  a newly 
discovered  star  Antinous,  and  gave  this  name 
to  cities,  while  various  images  of  the  lost 
youth  emanated  from  the  hands  of  different 
artists.  Those  which  have  come  down  to  us 
bearing  the  name  of  Antinous,  are  distin- 
guished for  a languid  loveliness,  and  a round- 
ness of  contour,  which  resemble  the  traits  of 
female  rather  than  manly  beauty. 

ANTIOCHUS.  Several  distinguished  kings 
of  Syria  bore  this  name.  [ See  Syria.]  The 
first  was  the  general  of  king  Philip,  a Mace- 
donian by  birth,  -whose  fame  was  eclipsed  by 
that  of  his  son  Seleucus.  Antiochus  Soter, 
the  son  of  Seleucus,  was  unsuccessful  in 
-war,  but  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  his  pas- 
sion for  his  step-mother,  the  beautiful  Strat- 
onice.  His  struggles  to  quell  his  misplaced 
affection,  threw  him  into  a lingering  disorder, 
the  cause  of  which  he  was  unwilling  to 
divulge.  Erasistratus,  the  king’s  physician, 
penetrated  his  secret  in  the  following  man- 
ner. As  he  was  holding  the  hand  of  his 
patient,  he  perceived  by  the  accelerated 
motion  of  his  pulse  on  the  entrance  of  Strat- 


ANT 


58 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


onice,  that  love  for  her  was  the  cause  of  his 
disorder.  The  king,  to  save  the  life  of  his 
son,  relinquished  to  him  his  young  and  lovely 
bride.  Antiochus  the  Great  succeeded 
his  brother,  Seleucus  Ceraunus,  223  b.c. 
Molo,  governor  of  Media,  felt  the  power  of 
his  arms,  and  Ptolemy  Philopater  was  by 
him  compelled  to  give  up  the  whole  of  Syria. 
Over  the  Parthians,  also,  he  was  completely 
triumphant,  and  favoring  the  cause  of  Hanni- 
bal, he  made  war  upon  the  Romans.  He  was, 
however,  dispirited  by  ill  success  in  the  com- 
mencement of  this  contest,  and  not  fully 
comprehending  or  seconding  the  views  of  the 
Carthaginian  general,  was  several  times  de- 
feated, but  signally  at  Magnesia,  the  conse- 
quence of  which  was  the  conclusion  of  a 
peace  disgraceful  to  the  Syrian  monarch. 
He  was  killed  in  an  attempt  to  plunder  a 
temple  of  Jupiter. 

ANTIOCHUS  EPIPHANES,  second  son 
of  Antiochus  the  Great,  oppressed  the  Jews 
cruelly  and  laid  siege  to  Alexandria.  He 
was  compelled  to  desist  by  the  interference 
of  the  Romans  in  behalf  of  their  ally  Ptolemy. 
Nothing  can  show  in  a more  striking  light  the 
terror  of  the  Roman  name,  than  the  follow- 
ing anecdote.  When  Antiochus  was  on  the 
point  of  marching  against  Ptolemy,  Popilius 
Lagnas  arrived  at  his  court  as  ambassador 
from  the  Roman  senate.  He  was  instructed 
to  command  Antiochus  to  relinquish  his  hos- 
tile project.  Any  other  but  a Roman  citizen 
would  have  been  awed  at  the  presence  of  the 
courtiers  and  army  of  the  king,  sitting  as  he 
was,  surrounded  by  all  the  imposing  splen- 
dors of  a regal  camp.  But  Popilius  sternly 
delivered  the  message  of  the  senate,  and  with 
such  an  air  of  haughty  authority,  that  Anti- 
ochus was  embarrassed.  He  endeavored, 
however,  to  satisfy  the  ambassador  with  an 
evftisive  answer ; but  Popilius,  with  his  staff, 
drew  a circle  around  the  king’s  seat,  and  said 
sternly,  “Pass  not  that  boundary,  I command 
you,  0 king,  until  you  have  given  a plain 
answer  to  the  senate’s  demand.”  The  king 
overawed  by  this  boldness,  promised  to 
sacrifice  his  project  to  the  wishes  of  the 
Romans. 

ANTIPATER,  a Macedonian,  the  faithful 
minister  of  Philip  and  Alexander,  and  pupil 
of  Aristotle.  He  obtained  the  European 
provinces  on  the  death  of  Alexander.  His 


war  with  the  states  of  Greece  terminated 
successfully.  He  died,  b.c.  317. 

ANTISTHENES,  founder  of  the  sect  of  the 
Cynics,  was  born  at  Athens  between  424  and 
421  b.c.  From  Socrates  he  imbibed  an 
enthusiastic  love  of  virtue.  He  thought  that 
virtue  consisted  in  independence  of  circum- 
stances, and  to  maintain  this,  he  thought  it 
requisite  that  our  wants  should  be  reduced 
to  the  smallest  number.  He  affected  a con- 
tempt for  wealth,  honor,  the  delights  of 
the  senses,  and  knowledge,  and  sturdily 
walked  the  streets,  in  the  ragged  garb  of  a 
beggar.  Plato  was  one  of  the  first  to  pene- 
trate his  whims,  and  guess  at  their  design, 
and  his  brilliant  remark  to  the  Cynic,  has 
not  escaped  oblivion:  “ I see  your  vanity,” 
said  the  sage,  “through  the  holes  of  your 
coat.”  Antisthenes  is  worthy  of  high  praise, 
if  it  be  true  that  he  attacked  the  accusers  of 
Socrates*  and  by  his  perseverance  obtained 
the  banishment  of  one,  and  the  death  of 
another. 

ANTIUM,  a city  of  the  Yolsci  on  the  Tuscan 
Sea,  traces  of  which  are  still  visible  in  Porto 
d’Anzo.  Camillus  took  it,  b.c.  337,  and  car- 
rying the  beaks  of  the  vessels  to  Rome, 
employed  them  in  ornamenting  a tribunal  in 
the  forum,  thence  called  the  Rostra  (beaks). 
The  city  was  dedicated  to  the  goddess  of  For- 
tune, whose  statue  nodded  answers,  when 
consulted  as  an  oracle,  being  probably  formed 
upon  some  simple  mechanical  principle.  In 
Antium  Coriolanus  sought  refuge.  It  be- 
came a favorite  residence  for  the  opulent 
Romans.  Cicero  • had  a*  splendid  villa  here, 
Augustus  a palace,  and  here  Caligula  and 
Nero  were  born.  In  the  excavations  made 
among  the  ruins  of  the  imperial  villa,  two  of 
tne  noblest  works  of  ancient  sculpture  were 
found,  the  Apollo  Belvidere  and  the  Fighting 
Gladiator. 

ANTONINUS,  Annius  Verus,  best  known 
by  the  name  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  born  a.d. 
121,  assumed  the  imperial  dignity,  a.d.  161, 
on  the  death  of  Antoninus  Pius.  He  chose 
for  his  colleague,  Lucius  Verus,  but  the  latter, 
dying  a few  years  after,  left  the  govern- 
ment solely  in  the  hands  of  Antoninus.  In 
the  prosecution  of  the  war  against  the  Quadi. 
his  army  was  on  the  point  of  perishing  of 
thirst,  when  there  fell  an  abundant  shower 
of  rain,  which  was  attributed  to  the  praj'ers 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


59 


of  the  tenth  (a  Christian)  legion,  and  they 
were  thenceforth  termed  the  ‘ thundering 
legion.’  Though  justly  celebrated  for  benefi- 
cence and  equity,  Antoninus  was  not  free 
from  religious  fanaticism,  and  authorized  a 
persecution  of  the  Christians  in  Gaul.  His 
want  of  foresight  in  introducing  the  profligate 
Commodus,  his  son,  into  the  government,  was 
productive  of  most  unhappy  consequences. 
After  his  death,  which  took  place  in  the  fifty- 
ninth  year  of  his  age,  and  the  nineteenth  of 
his  reign,  he  was  deified  by  the  Romans. 

ANTONINUS  PIUS,  Titus  Aurelius  Ful- 
vius,  originally  of  a Gallic  family,  was  born 
near  Rome,  a.d.  86.  He  succeeded  to  the 
consulate  in  a.d.  120,  and  was  adopted  by, 
and  succeeded  Adrian  in  138.  He  was  toler- 
ant to  the  Christians,  humane,  dignified,  and 
just,  and  his  reign  was  one  of  undisturbed 
tranquillity.  He  was  wont  to  say,  with 
Scipio,  “ I had  rather  save  the  life  of  a single 
citizen,  than  destroy  a thousand  of  my 
enemies.  He  died  a.d.  161. 

ANTONY,  Mark  (Marcus  Antonius),  the 
triumvir,  was  bora  86  b.c.  He  attracted 
notice  at  an  early  age  by  his  bravery  and 
dissipation.  He  attached  himself  to  the  party 
of  Caesar,  whose  favor  he  gained  by  the  em- 
ployment of  all  the  arts  of  which  he  was 
master,  and  was  appointed  by  Caesar  his 
colleague  in  the  consulship,  b.c.  44.  After 
the  fall  of  Caesar,  Antony  obtained  from  the 
senate  a confirmation  of  the  acts  of  his  col- 
league, and  a public  funeral,  at  which  he 
delivered  an  harangue  so  eloquent  and  stir- 
ring that  he  roused  the  indignation  of  the 
people,  and  forced  Brutus  and  Cassius  to  fly. 
Octavius,  the  heir  of  Caesar,  was  supported 
by  the  enemies  of  Antony,  who  wished  to 
curtail  the  authority  of  this  ambitious  man, 
but  Antony,  uniting  with  Lepidus  and  Octa- 
vius, formed  the  triumvirate,  which  speed- 
ily manifested  the  most  sanguinary  designs. 
Each  of  the  triumvirs  agreed  to  sacrifice  his 
friends,  and  their  alliance  was  cemented  by 
the  blood  of  Rome’s  bravest  and  best  citizens. 
Antony  affixed  the  head  and  hand  of  Cicero 
to  the  rostrum  dignified  by  his  eloquence. 
Brutus  and  Cassius  being  defeated  at  Philippi, 
Antony  went  to  the  East,  and  surrounded  by 
Asiatic  luxuries,  forgot  the  manliness  he  had 
once  possessed.  Captivated  by  Cleopatra, 
his  ambition  was  lost  in  the  indulgence  of  his 


passions.  Fulvia,  his  wife,  having  taken  up 
arms  against  Octavius,  the  latter  quarreled 
with  Antony,  but  a reconciliation  was  effected, 
and  Antony,  on  the  death  of  his  wife,  mar- 
ried Octavia,  the  sister  of  his  colleague,  to 
strengthen  the  bonds  which  united  them. 
His  renewal  of  the  amour  with  Cleopatra 
drew  down  upon  him  the  vengeance  of  Octa- 
vius, and  war  was  declared  against  Egypt  by 
the  Romans.  How  Antony  fought  and  fled 
at  Actium  has  been  described.  [ See  Actium.] 
Finding  himself  deserted  on  all  sides,  and 
hearing  of  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  Antony 
desired  his  slave  Eros  to  slay  him.  This 
humble  friend,  affecting  to  consent,  requested 
his  master  to  turn  away  his  face,  and  then 
falling  on  Antony’s  sword,  died  at  his  feet. 
Antony,  touched  at  this  heroism,  snatched 
the  weapon,  and  gave  himself  a mortal  wound, 
but  had  strength  enough  left  to  be  carried 
into  the  presence  of  Cleopatra,  in  whose  arms 
he  died,  b.c.  30. 

APELLES,  a celebrated  painter  of  anti- 
quity, was  born  about  365  b.c.  at  Cos,  or  at 
Colophon  in  Ionia.  The  date  of  his  death  is 
unknown.  He  seems  to  have  earned  skill 
and  reputation  by  his  unflagging  industry, 
which  became  proverbial  among  the  Romans, 
and  their  saying,  Nulla  dies  sine  linea,  “no 
day  without  a line,”  is  reported  to  have  had 
its  origin  with  Apelles.  His  most  celebrated 
work  was  “Venus  Anadyomene,”  (Venus 
rising  out  of  the  ocean),  wffiich  centuries 
after  was  such  a favorite  with  the  Romans, 
that  Ovid  says  but  for  this  picture,  Venus 
would  still  have  remained  buried  beneath 
the  waves  of  the  sea.  He  received  the  patron- 
age of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  for  a paint- 
ing representing  the  Macedonian  monarch  as 
Jupiter  hurling  his  thunderbolts,  he  is  said 
to  have  received  twenty  talents  of  gold,  about 
$250,000.  Having  limned  Campaspe,  a beau- 
tiful slave  and  favorite  of  Alexander,  he  had 
her  in  recompense  for  the  picture.  The  pic- 
tures of  Apelles  were  probably  mostly  painted 
upon  panels  of  larch,  in  distemper.  They 
were  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  the  horses 
introduced  in  them.  It  is  said  that  he  had 
painted  a horse  which  was  severely  criticised 
by  a person  who  examined  it,  and  in  such 
a manner  that  the  pride  of  the  artist  was 
wounded.  Resolved  to  put  his  performance 
to  the  test,  he  had  a horse  led  into  his  paint- 


APE 


60 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ing-room,  where  the  animal,  on  beholding 
the  picture,  neighed,  and  thus  secured  the 
triumph  of  Apelles. 

APOLLO,  the  fabled  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Latona,  and  twin  brother  of  Diana,  born  on 
the  island  of  Delos.  He  was  the  god  of 
all  the  fine  arts,  of  medicine,  music,  poetry, 
and  eloquence,  and  considered  by  physi- 
cians, shepherds,  and  founders  of  cities, 
as  their  patron.  A few  days  after  his  birth, 
he  killed  the  serpent  Python  with  an  arrow, 
and  is  generally  represented  with  a bow  and 
quiver.  lie  fought  bravely  against  the  Ti- 
tans, under  Jupiter.  When  his  son  JEscu- 
lapius  was  killed  by  Jove’s  thunder-bolt, 
Apollo  slew  the  Cyclops,  who  forged  the 
ihunderer’s  weapons.  Having  conquered  the 
satyr  Marsyas,  in  a musical  dispute,  Apollo 
fiayed  him  alive.  Pan  having  disputed  the 
superiority  of  Apollo  in  music,  a day  was 
appointed  for  deciding  their  merits,  and 
Timolus  and  Midas  were  judges.  The  lat- 
ter, denying  the  merit  of  Apollo,  was  pun- 
ished by  having  a pair  of  ass’s  ears  affixed 
to  his  head.  When  he  built  the  walls  of 
Megara,  he  laid  his  lute  upon  a stone,  which 
ever  afterward  sent  forth  a strain  of  music 
upon  being  touched.  The  Romans  celebrated 
games  in  his  honor  which  were  called  Apol- 
linaria,  and  consisted  of  bull-fights,  contests 
of  athletae,  and  theatrical  shows.  Temples 
and  statues  were  erected  to  him  in  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Italy.  The  most  splendid  shrine 
of  Apollo  was  at  Delphi,  built  1263  b.c. 
The  laurel  was  sacred  to  Apollo,  and  from 
the  earliest  times  was  used  for  crowning’ 
successful  poets  and  victorious  generals. 

APOLLODORUS,  of  Damascus,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  architects  of  antiquity,  built 
the  forum  and  column  of  Trajan  at  Rome,  of 
which  there  are  still  magnificent  remains, 
a.d.  113.  His  most  remarkable  work,  how- 
ever, was  the  great  bridge  over  the  Danube 
in  Bulgaria.  It  stood  on  twenty  piers,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  high  above  the  founda- 
tions, sixty  feet  wide,  and  one  hundred  and 
seventy  feet  apart.  It  was  built  for  the 
emperor  Trajan ; the  bridge  was  of  wood,  the 
piers  of  stone.  The  woodwork  was  after- 
ward destroyed  by  Hadrian,  as  it  gave  the 
barbarians  too  great  facilities  for  crossing  the 
Danube.  Remains  of  the  piers  are  still  stand- 
ing. Apollodorus  is  said  to  have  fallen  a 


victim  to  the  jealousy  of  Hadrian,  who  dab- 
bled in  architecture  as  well  as  in  other  arts. 

APPIUS  CLAUDIUS  CRASSINUS,  the 
profligate  decemvir,  who  attempted  to  destroy 
the  virtue  of  Virginia.  His  conduct  pro- 
duced a revolution,  and  he  killed  himself  in 
prison,  according  to  Livy.  He  was  at  the 
height  of  his  power  about  450  b.c. 

AQUINAS,  Thomas  (often  called  the  An- 
gelic Doctor),  was  a younger  son  of  the  Count 
of  Aquino,  and  was  born  at  the  castle  of  Rocca 
Sicca  in  Italy,  in  1227.  From  his  earliest 
years  he  was  smitten  with  a love  for  solitary 
study.  Force  was  used  to  prevent  his  be- 
coming a monk,  but  in  vain ; he  entered  the 
Dominican  order  when  a very  young  man. 
So  much  was  the  youthful  scholar  wrapt  up 
in  his  own  cogitations,  that  when  he  studied 
under  Albertus  Magnus  at  Cologne,  his  fellow- 
pupils  nicknamed  him  Bos  Hutus  (mute  ox) 
on  account  of-  his  taciturnity  and  apparent 
stupidity.  He  received  a doctorate  in  theol- 
ogy from  the  university  of  Paris  in  1255,  and 
lectured  with  brilliant  success  in  Paris,  in 
several  Italian  universities,  and  afterward  at 
Naples.  Being  summoned  by  the  pope  to  at- 
tend a general  council  at  Lyons  in  1274,  he 
died  at  Merracina  on  his  way  thither.  He 
was  canonized  by  Pope  John  XXII.  in  1323. 
His  works  are  numerous,  but  his  mental  vigor 
surpassed  even  his  amazing  industry.  He  is 
the  most  famous  of  the  medieval  schoolmen 
and  divines. 

ARABIA  has  an  area  about  four  times  that 
of  France.  It  presents  the  form  of  a vast  pe- 
ninsula, lying  between  12°  and  30°  N.  lat., 
and  32°  and  59°  E.  long.,  partly  within  and 
partly  north  of  the  tropical  region.  Arabia 
is  mostly  populated  by  independent  tribes 
each  governed  by  its  own  sheikha  Muscat  or 
Oman  is  quite  an  important  state.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  other  principal  divisions  now 
generally  adopted:  Yemen , bordering  upon 
the  Red  Sea  and  upon  the  territories  of  Hejaz, 
Nejd,  and  Hadramaut.  It  includes  the  towns 
of  Sana,  Mocha,  and  Aden,  which  is  now  in 
the  hands  of  the  British  as  a depot  for  the 
overland  mail  to  India.  Hadramaut , on  the 
southern  coast,  a country  once  famous  for  its 
trade  in  frankincense.  Hejaz  is  the  holy  land 
of  the  Mohammedans,  and  contains  the  cities 
of  Mecca  and  Medina  [which  see].  The  greater 
portion  of  Arabia  is  occupied  by  long,  dreary 


ARA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


61 


deserts  of  sand ; while,  in  some  parts,  as  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Arabian  desert,  the 
soil  is  rendered  fertile  by  the  irrigation  of 
rivulets,  and  various  flowers,  both  indigenous, 
and  transplanted  from  India,  spring  up,  bud, 
and  blossom,  filling  the  air  with  their  ravish- 
ing perfume.  Some  precious  stones  are  found 
in  Arabia,  but  its  principal  riches  are  flocks 
and  herds.  Of  the  natural  history  of  Arabia 
we  can  say  but  little.  Ferocious  animals 
pursue  their  prey  in  the  deserts,  which  they 
render  terrific  by  their  presence  and  ferocity, 
while  the  mountains  produce  animals  yielding 
many  and  great  advantages  to  commerce.  Of 
these  we  may  mention  the  civet-cat,  the  be- 
zoar-goat,  the  musk-rat,  and  others  of  domes- 
tic habits  and  importance. 

Concerning  the  old  Arabians,  who  are  now 
destroyed,  or  merged  and  lost  in  other  tribes, 
there  is  no  distinct  history  extant.  Kahtan 
or  Joktan,  son  of  Eber,  and  Adnan,  the  direct 
descendent  of  Ishmacl,  were  the  ancestors  of 
the  present  races,  of  Arabians.  The  posterity 
of  Joktan  are  termed  genuine  or  pure  Arabs, 
that  of  Ishmael,  naturalized  Arabs,  or  Mosta- 
rabi.  More  than  thirty-six  hundred  years 
ago,  Yarab,  Joktan’ s eldest  son,  is  said  to  have 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  kingdom  of  Yemen, 
while  Jorham,  the  younger,  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Hejaz,  which  his  posterity  possessed 
until  the  time  of  Ishmael.  In  the  time  of  Al- 
exander the  Great,  the  inundation  of  Arem 
overwhelmed  with  misery  the  tribes  settled  in 
Yemen,  eight  of  which  were  forced  to  fly  their 
dwellings  and  migrate  to  other  lands.  Ish- 
mael, marrying  the  daughter  of  Modab,  one 
of  the  princes  of  Hejaz,  had  twelve  sons.  The 
descendants  of  Ishmael,  driving  out  the  Jor- 
hamites,  took  possession  of  their  country. 
The  government  appears  to  have  been  in  the 
hands  not  of  one  ruler,  but  of  the  leaders  of 
the  different  tribes.  An  aristocracy  prevailed 
at  Mecca  until  the  time  of  Mahomet.  Sesos- 
tris,  of  whom  Josephus  speaks  under  the 
name  of  Sesac,  conquered  Arabia.  Yet  this 
conquest  was  but  in  name,  for  the  Arabs  were 
too  proud  and  independent  to  bow  their  necks 
beneath  the  tread  of  the  conqueror,  and  sub- 
sequent events  show,  that  even  during  his 
reign,  they  made  themselves  formidable  to  the 
Egyptians,  and  Sesostris  was  forced  to  erect 
a wall  between  Heliopolis  and  Pelusium,  to 
guard  his  native  subjects  against  the  attacks 


of  the  Arabs.  Although  he  had  a powerful 
fleet  upon  the  Red  Sea,  he  did  no  more  than 
skirt  the  shores  of  Arabia  Felix,  or  at  most, 
take  possession  of  some  of  its  maritime  prov- 
inces. It  may  safely  be  asserted  that  the 
whole  peninsula  of  Arabia  never  was,  or  at 
least  never  for  any  length  of  time,  subjected 
to  the  Egyptians. 

The  Ilycsos  or  Shepherd  Kings,  who  in- 
vaded Egypt,  and  for  a long  time  held  undis- 
puted sway  in  that  country,  were  Arabians. 
Neither  the  Assyrians,  the  Medes,  nor  the 
Persians,  ever  obtained  firm  footing  in  Arabia. 
The  Persian  monarchs  wrere  regarded  by  the 
Arab  chiefs  in  the  light  of  friends,  and  received 
annually  a voluntary  present  of  frankincense 
as  a tribute  of  respect,  but  other  ties  than 
those  of  the  heart  never  bound  the  free  dwell- 
ers of  Arabia  to  the  proud  potentates  of  Persia. 
Cambyses,  when  flushed  with  ambitious  pride, 
and  rushing  forward  to  the  conquest  of  Egypt, 
paused  in  his  impetuous  career,  and  respect- 
fully asked  of  the  Arabians  permission  to  pass 
through  their  country.  The  Spartans,  war- 
like and  daring  as  they  were,  had  reason  to 
repent  of  an  incursion  which  they  made  upon 
the  Arabs.  Alexander  the  Great,  when  in- 
flated with  the  success  of  his  arms,  was  sur- 
prised to  find  that  the  Arabs  so  little  dreaded 
his  tremendous  power,  as  to  neglect  sending 
ambassadors  to  him.  This  gave  the  Macedo- 
nian a high  opinion  of  them  as  “warriors 
worthy  of  his  steel but  death  put  an  end  to 
his  hostile  proj  ects.  His  successors  attempted 
the  conquest  of  Arabia,  but  were  completely 
defeated.  The  Romans  made  different  incur- 
sions into  Arabia  with  but  partial  successes 
to  compensate  for  heavy  losses,  until  HHius 
Gallus,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  penetrated 
into  the  interior  of  the  country,  and  gained 
victories  which  the  deadly  heats  his  army  en- 
countered rendered  unavailing.  The  Arabs 
were  not  again  disturbed  by  the  Romans  until 
the  reign  of  Trajan.  The  north-western  part 
of  Arabia,  the  country  of  the  Nabachaei,  was 
called  Arabia  Petraea,  from  their  chief  town, 
Petra.  In  the  reign  of  Trajan  it  became  a 
Roman  province.  Petra  sunk  into  insignifi- 
cance ; its  dwellers  forsook  it  for  the  freedom 
of  the  deserts  ; even  its  site  was  forgotten  till 
Burckhardt  discovered  the  ruins  of  its  temple 
and  tombs  in  the  Wady  Musa. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  seventh  cen- 


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62 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tury  a few  small  provinces  in  the  north  were 
subject  to  the  Byzantine  empire,  while  those 
bordering  on  the  Euphrates  acknowledged 
Persian  supremacy,  and  an  Ethiopian  dynasty 
ruled  temporarily  at  Yemen.  This  latter  fact 
had  a melancholy  importance  for  the  world, 
through  the  small-pox  which  the  victors 
brought  into  Arabia  and  which,  by  the  con- 
quests of  the  Mohammedans,  was  soon  carried 
far  and  wide.  But  the  great  mass  of  the  land 
was  possessed  by  wandering  tribes  whose 
freedom,  even  of  each  other,  was  unbounded. 
The  union  of  these  tribes  into  a nation,  a na- 
tion which  conquered  old  empires  and  founded 
new,  dates  from  the  day  of  Mohammed.  Be- 
fore the  close  of  the  century  the  Saracens  had 
overcome  a large  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Af- 
rica. Disunion  had  heretofore  weakened  their 
forces,  but  now,  uniting,  they  showed  their 
power  was  indeed  formidable.  If  they  had  no 
knowledge  of  those  military  arts  by  which 
alone  the  strongholds  of  power  are  prostrated, 
they  possessed  that  wild  and  desperate  valor 
which  carried  them  triumphantly  through 
their  predatory  expeditions.  Mohammed,  and 
after  him  the  caliphs,  called  forth  the  energies 
of  the  Arabs  and  the  display  of  every  quality 
which  fitted  them  to  bear  arms,  but  that  of 
implicit  obedience.  The  Arabs  were  too  proud 
of  their  hereditary  independence  to  submit 
blindly  to  the  yoke  of  any  man  or  combination 
of  men,  and  they  accordingly,  for  the  most 
part,  acknowledged  only  the  spiritual  author- 
ity of  the  caliphate.  When  the  power  of  the 
Turks  gained  the  ascendant,  the  Arabs  shook 
themselves  free  from  fetters,  rejoicing  in  the 
chainless  spirit  of  liberty.  It  is  not  difficult 
to  conceive  the  wild  delight  of  roaming  the 
desert  on  a fleet  horse,  and  beholding  all 
around  a plain  which  seems  interminable,  and 
presents  to  the  Arab  horseman  the  idea  of 
solitary  existence  in  a world  of  his  own. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  during  the  war 
between  the  Turks  and  Portuguese,  Sctyman 
Pacha  seized  upon  all  the  towns  on  the  Ara- 
bian Gulf.  His  successors  also  were  victori- 
ous, and  almost  all  Arabia  became  subject  to 
the  Ottoman  empire.  These  events  occurred 
between  1538  and  1568.  Still  all  the  sheikhs 
and  princes  were  not  subdued,  but  many  of 
them,  remaining  independent,  continued  to 
harass  the  Turks,  until,  about  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  latter  were  forced 


to  relinquish  all  the  conquered  places  on  the 
coast  of  Arabia.  The  independent  spirit  of 
the  Arabs  has  gained  them  great  celebrity. 

Arabia  is  celebrated  as  being  the  scene  of 
many  of  those  wonderful  events  which  are 
commemorated  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It 
was  for  a long  time  the  dwelling-place  of  Mo- 
ses, who  married  the  daughter  of  Jethro  and 
fed  his  flocks  upon  Mount  Horeb.  The  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  under  the  guidance  of  the  Lord, 
passed  into  Arabia,  when  they  went  from  the 
grinding  bondage  of  the  Egyptians.  In  the 
desert  of  Sinai,  rises  that  lofty  mount  which 
was  clad  in  thunder  and  lightning,  when  God 
gave  his  commandments  to  the  people.  Mount 
Sinai  commands  a view  of  Mount  Horeb, 
where  again  the  Lord  appeared  in  the  burning 
bush  to  Moses.  There  is  still  to  be  seen  that 
rock,  which,  when  the  people  thirsted  for 
water,  Moses  smote;  where,  from  twelve 
mouths,  the  living  waters  gushed  profusely. 
Again,  when  they  were  in  want  of  water,  in 
the  wilderness  of  Paran,  Moses  smote  a rock 
twice  before  the  water  flowed.  That  rock  also 
remains  at  the  present  day,  an  impressive 
memorial  of  the  miracle,  exhibiting  the  vari- 
ous fissures  whence  the  clear  element  gushed 
forth,  cheering,  by  its  presence,  the  many 
hearts  of  those  who  had  panted  for  the  succor. 

The  Bedouin  Arabs,  although  possessed  of 
not  a few  good  qualities,  are  inveterate  rob- 
bers. When  a Bedouin  descries  a traveler  at 
a distance,  he  puts  his  horse  to  his  speed,  and 
rides  furiously  up,  exclaiming  loudly,  “Un- 
dress thyself,  thy  aunt  [my  wife]  is  without 
a garment.”  There  is  no  way  to  avoid  death 
in  this  case  but  submission,  as  the  possession 
of  the  meanest  article  of  wearing  apparel  is  an 
object  important  enough  to  warrant  the  shed- 
ding of  human  blood,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Arabs. 
There  arc  many  singular  contradictions  in  the 
character  of  these  wild  people.  A stranger 
who  confides  his  safety  to  their  honor  will  be 
treated  with  the  utmost  kindness,  and  share 
the  wealth  or  poverty  of  his  entertainer,  who 
bids  him  welcome  to  what  is  his.  The  patri- 
archal form  of  government  has  ever  subsisted 
among  the  Arabs.  The  dignity  of  grand 
sheikh  is  heredita^  in  certain  families,  but 
the  inferior  sheikhs  choose  a successor  out  of 
his  family,  on  the  death  of  a grand  sheikh. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  ill 
fed  and  clad,  simply  because  they  prefer  a 


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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


63 


wandering  life  of  freedom,  to  one  of  confine- 
ment and  restraint,  even  if  it  bring  the  great- 
est luxuries.  These  they  profess  to  despise. 
One  trait  in  their  character  is  highly  praise- 
worthy; their  extreme  kindness  to  the  do- 
mestic animals  to  which  they  owe  so  much. 
They  free  these  creatures  from  work  in  their 
old  age,  and  permit  them  to  die  a natural 
death.  The  Arab  horses  are  reared  with  ex- 
treme care ; spirited,  docile,  fleet,  handsome, 
and  hardy,  they  always  command  the  highest 
prices.  The  Arabs,  proud  of  the  antiquity  of 
their  own  origin,  are  no  less  careful  of  the 
fame  of  their  horses,  of  which  they  preserve 
authenticated  pedigreesw  For  chargers,  the 
Arab  horses  are  unrivaled.  A war-horse  of 
this  country  appears  delighted  with  the  din 
of  battle.  His  spirit  rises  with  the  ardor  of 
the  conflict,  and  he  dashes  into  the  “current 
of  a heady  fight,”  reckless  of  the  volleys  of 
musketry  and  cannon  pealing  around  him, 
even  when  struck  with  shot, 

“Staggering,  yet  stemming  all,  his  lord,  un- 
harmed he  bears.” 

He  will  watch  his  master  if  he  falls  from  his 
saddle  in  the  fight,  and  not  only  shield  him, 
but  neigh  for  assistance.  The  price  in  Eng- 
land for  an  Arabian  horse  has  been  1,000, 
2,000,  or  even  3,000  pounds  sterling.  Some- 
times even  the  poorest  Arabs  will  not  part 
with  their  faithful  chargers,  even  though  the 
most  tempting  offers  be  held  out.  “No,  my 
jewel,  was  the  affectionate  exclamation  ad- 
dressed to  his  mare  by  that  Arab  who,  after 
he  had  agreed  to  relinquish  the  beautiful  crea- 
ture to  grace  the  stud  of  the  King  of  France, 
at  an  enormous  price,  could  not  find  it  in  his 
heart  to  tear  himself  from  his  faithful  servant : 
“No,  my  jewel ! they  shall  never  part  us ! we 
have  lived  and  we  will  die  together.”  Sa}dng 
this  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  he  sprang  upon 
her  back,  and  rushed  back  to  the  desert,  happy 
in  having  escaped  the  temptation  and  the  sac- 
rifice. The  camel,  which  the  natives  call  the 
ship  of  the  desert,  is  also  an  invaluable  treas- 
ure. Like  the  Bedouins  themselves  it  learns 
from  early  youth  to  endure  hunger,  thirst, 
and  fatigue. 

ARAGO,  Francois  Dominique,  was  born  in 
Estagel,  in  the  south  of  France,  Feb.  26th, 
1786.  His  father  had  originally  intended 
him,  in  accordance  with  his  humble  position, 
for  a simple  agricultural  life.  But  the  taste 


and  aptitude  he  evinced  for  the  natural  sci- 
ences were  such,  that  he  was  presented  for 
admission  into  the  Polytechnic  school  of  Paris. 
His  examiner  sent  him  to  the  institution,  with 
high  compliments  of  his  ability  and  attain- 
ments. He  distinguished  himself  by  the  ardor 
and  success  of  his  studies  while  a student  of 
the  Polytechnic,  and  was  attached  to  the  ob- 
servatory of  Paris.  Such  was  the  rapid  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  ability,  that  in  1806  he 
received  the  appointment  of  assistant  to  M. 
Biot,  in  the  scientific  commission  for  the 
measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  in 
Spain.  While  Arago  was  at  Galazo  in  the 
island  of  Majorca,  engaged  in  this  scientific 
duty,  war  broke  out  between  France  and 
Spain.  The  fires  which  he  made,  to  aid  his 
observations,  excited  the  suspicions  of  the  ig- 
norant populace,  who,  fancying  them  beacons 
to  guide  the  French  in  their  march,  attempted 
to  seize  the  young  philosopher.  He  escaped 
to  the  coast  in  disguise,  could  not  get  off,  and 
sought  security  for  his  life  by  yielding  him- 
self to  the  authorities.  On  his  way  to  the 
prison  he  was  beset  by  a rabble,  and  his  life 
put  in  great  danger.  By  the  connivance  of 
the  Spanish  captain-general  he  escaped  to  Al- 
giers. There  he  embarked  on  an  Algerine 
vessel  for  Marseilles.  In  sight  of  that  port 
the  vessel  was  captured  by  a Spanish  priva- 
teer, and  Arago  was  thrown  into  prison  at 
Rosas.  An  attempt  was  made  to  frighten 
him,  by  the  show  of  preparation  for  his  exe- 
cution, into  a confession  that  he  was  a rene- 
gade Spaniard,  that  the  government  might 
confiscate  the  vessel.  He  lay  in  a loathsome 
dungeon,  overrun  with  vermin,  and  almost 
starved  to  death.  Two  lions  had  been  sent  by 
the  Dey  of  Algiers  as  a present  to  Napoleon, 
in  the  vessel  in  which  Arago  had  taken  pas- 
sage and  which  had  been  captured.  One  of 
these  animals  had  died,  and  Arago  bethought 
himself  of  writing  word  to  the  dey  that  it  had 
been  starved  to  death  by  the  Spaniards.  He 
succeeded  in  sending  off  a letter  to  that  pur- 
port, which  was  received  by  the  dey,  who, 
much  enraged  at  the  treatment  of  his  beast, 
called  the  Spanish  government  to  account, 
and  demanding  compensation  for  the  seizure 
of  the  vessel,  threatened  war  if  the  demand 
was  not  instantly  complied  with.  Arago  was 
now  permitted  to  set  sail  for  Marseilles,  but 
under  the  guidance  of  an  ignorant  pilot,  his 


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64 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


vessel  drifted  about  for  several  days,  until  by 
hazard  the  coast  of  Africa  was  made.  The 
vessel  had  been  so  much  damaged  that  it  was 
determined  to  abandon  her.  Arago  resolved 
to  make  his  way  to  Algiers  by  land,  and  dis- 
guising himself  as  an  Arab,  he  succeeded  in 
reaching  that  place  with  safety.  He  found 
that  the  dey  had  just  died,  and  a revolution 
resulted  in  the  death  of  the  legitimate  suc- 
cessor. The  usurper  made  a demand  upon 
France  for  a pretended  debt,  and  as  the  French 
government  positively  refused  compliance,  the 
names  of  the  French  residents  were  placed  on 
the  list  of  slaves.  The  galleys  threatened  the 
philosopher.  After  much  suffering  and  anx- 
iety, Arago,  in  1809,  obtained  permission  to 
leave  Algiers  with  a convoy  of  Algerine  ves- 
sels and  a corsair  of  that  nation,  in  which  he 
himself  embarked.  The  convoy  had  not  sailed 
Out  of  sight  of  Algiers  when  they  were 
pounced  upon  by  a brace  of  English  frigates. 
The  corsair,  on  board  of  which  Arago  had 
taken  passage,  succeeded  in  eluding  the  Eng- 
lish, and  landed  him  in  safety  on  the  French 
coast. 

On  his  arrival  at  Paris  he  was  welcomed 
with  great  enthusiasm  and  elected  with  ac- 
clamation a member  of  the  institute.  It  is 
impossible  here  to  enumerate  all  the  brilliant 
discoveries  with  which  Arago  has  illuminated 
natural  science.  The  determination  of  the 
diameters  of  the  planets,  the  discovery  of  col- 
ored polarization  of  light,  and  of  magnetism 
by  rotation,  are  among  the  most  remarkable. 
The  “Transactions  of  the  Academy  of  Scien- 
ces,” of  which  society  he  was  secretary,  are 
enriched  by  his  scientific  contributions  ; and 
various  published  memoirs  testify  to  his  in- 
dustry and  philosophical  genius.  Arago  al- 
ways advocated  the  cause  of  progress,  and  in 
the  revolution  of  1830  he  boldly  presented 
himself  as  a champion  of  democracy.  During 
the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  he  wgs  a member 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies  and  sat  on  the  ex- 
treme left.  His  interest  in  politics  was  never 
allowed  to  interfere  with  his  philosophic  pur- 
suits. He  was  appointed  head  of  the  Paris 
observatory,  and  directed  with  undiminished 
ardor  its  astronomical  observations.  In  the 
provisional  government  of  1848  he  held  the 
office  of  minister  of  marine,  and  fulfilled  its 
duties  to  the  manifest  advantage  of  the  repub- 
lic, of  which  he  was  an  ardent  supporter.  On 


the  violent  accession  of  Louis  Napoleon  to  the 
imperial  throne,  Arago  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  usurper,  but  in  con- 
sequence of  his  fame  and  the  glory  he  had 
shed  over  his  country,  he  was  left  undisturbed 
in  his  position  at  the  head  of  the  observatory, 
and  continued  to  devote  himself  with  exclusive 
ardor  to  his  scientific  pursuits  until  his  death 
in  the  year  1853. 

ARAM,  Eugene,  whose  erudition  and  fate 
have  rendered  him  remarkable,  was  born  in 
Yorkshire,  England,  in  the  year  1704.  His 
father  was  forced  to  contend  with  depressing 
poverty.  Eugene  was  sent  to  school,  and- 
learned  to  read  the  New  Testament  in  English ; 
but  from  that  period,  with  the  exception  of  a 
month’s  tuition  from  a clergyman,  Aram  owed 
nothing  to  teachers,  all  his  learning  being 
self-acquired.  His  father  was  gardener  to  Sir 
Edward  Blackett,  at  Newby  ; and,  when  about 
thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age,  Aram  joined 
him.  In  the  house  of  the  baronet,  Eugene 
first  displayed  his  love  of  literature  and  sci- 
ence. Apart  from  the  bustle  and  turmoil  of 
the  world,  he  passed  his  solitary  hours  in  in- 
cessant study.  Mathematics  early  engaged 
his  attention,  and  he  became  a proficient  in 
the  exact  sciences ; indeed,  his  fondness  for 
mathematics  recommended  him  to  Mr.  Chris- 
topher Blackett,  of  London,  whom  he  served 
for  some  time  in  the  capacity  of  book-keeper, 
commencing  his  London  life  at  sixteen  years 
of  age.  After  residing  with  Mr.  Blackett  for 
a year  and  a half,  he  was  taken  with  the 
small-pox,  and  suffered  greatly  from  the  ter- 
rible disorder. 

He  afterward  returned  to  Yorkshire,  where 
he  pursued  his  studies  with  increasing  avidity, 
but  with  altered  views,  having  discovered  that 
polite  literature  possessed  greater  charms  for 
him  than  mathematics.  He  made  himself  ac- 
quainted with  the  works  of  the  most  celebra- 
ted poets,  and  went  through  a course  of  his- 
torical reading.  He  went  to  Netherdale  for 
the  purpose  of  engaging  in  teaching,  and  here, 
considering  himself  satisfactorily  settled,  he 
married.  His  marriage  proved  unhappy,  and 
to  his  matrimonial  connection  he  afterward 
attributed  the  evils  which  befell  him,  and  the 
crime  which  he  committed.  Finding  himself 
deficient  in  classical  learning,  he  resolved  to 
master  the  learned  languages  and  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  Latin  and  Greek 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


65 


grammars  with  great  spirit.  He  soon  perused 
the  Latin  classics,  poets,  and  historians.  He 
next  read  the  Greek  Testament,  and  finished 
his  course  with  Hesiod,  Homer,  Theocritus, 
Herodotus,  and  Thucydides,  with  the  Greek 
tragic  poets. 

At  the  seat  of  his  friend,  William  Norton, 
Esq.,  of  Knaresborough,  he  learned  the  He- 
brew language,  and  read  the  Pentateuch,  in 
1734.  In  1744,  he  was  engaged  in  London, 
as  usher,  and  gave  instruction  in  Latin  and 
writing.  Here  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  French  language.  Afterward,'  he  was 
employed  as  usher  and  tutor  in  various  semi- 
naries in  England,  and  never  suffered  a single 
opportunity  of  making  new  acquisitions  to 
escape.  He  was  acquainted  with  the  volum- 
inous and  quaint  details  of  heraldry,  and  with 
the  gentle  lore  of  flowers.  He  acquired  the 
Chaldee  and  Arabic  languages,  and  investi- 
gated the  Celtic  dialects.  Having  discovered 
an  affinity  between  the  Celtic,  English,  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew  tongues,  he  was  employed 
upon  a comparative  lexicon  of  these  languages, 
when  a frightful  event  arrested  his  literary 
progress.  Aram  was  accused  of  having  mur- 
dered Daniel  Clark,  a shoemaker.  The  mur- 
der had  been  concealed  for  nearly  fourteen 
years,  when  the  discovery  of  a skeleton,  at 
first  supposed  to  be  that  of  Clark,  set  on  foot 
investigations  which  resulted  in  the  arrest  of 
Aram.  At  the  time  of  his  being  taken  into 
custody,  he  was  usher  of  a school  at  Lynn,  in 
Norfolk.  The  murder  was  committed  on  the 
8th  of  December,  1744-5.  Its  object  was  a 
little  paltry  gain,  although  the  murderer  as- 
signed jealousy  as  the  motive.  Remorse  had 
preyed  upon  the  spirits  of  Aram  from  the  time 
of  the  commission  of  the  deed,  and  he  is  said 
to  have  conversed  with  the  boys  at  Lynn  on 
the  subject  of  murder,  and  related  to  them 
tales  of  murders,  commencing  with  the  crime 
of  Cain. 

Upon  his  trial  at  York  assizes,  on  the  3d  of 
August,  1759,  he  displayed  great  calmness 
and  self-possession.  The  principal  evidence 
against  him  was  his  wife,  from  whom  he  had 
been  a long  time  separated.  Circumstantial 
evidence,  in  addition  to  that  of  Richard  House- 
man, helped  to  convict  him.  His  defense  dis- 
played talent  and  consummate  address  ac- 
knowledged by  the  judges.  He  was  found 

5 A 


guilty.  He  subsequently  confessed  his  crime, 
and  acknowledged  the  justice  of  his  sentence. 
While  in  prison,  he  attempted  to  commit  sui- 
cide by  opening  his  arm  in  two  places  with  a 
knife  which  he  had  concealed  for  the  purpose. 
He  almost  succeeded,  and  was  in  a state  of 
excessive  weakness,  when  conducted  to  the 
scaffold.  Standing  beneath  the  fatal  tree,  he 
was  asked  if  he  had  anything  to  say,  but  he 
silently  shook  his  head.  He  was  instantly 
executed,  and  his  body  hung  in  chains  in 
Knaresborough  forest. 

ARARAT,  a mountain  in  Armenia,*  where 
it  is  supposed  Noah’s  ark  rested.  It  rises 
majestically  from  a fertile  plain  in  two  conical 
peaks,  one  of  which  rises  far  above  the  limits 
of  perpetual  snow,  and  is  the  highest  point  in 
western  Asia.  The  whole  country  is  full  of 
traditions  about  the  ark  and  the  flood.  Vari- 
ous attempts  have  been  made  to  gain  the  top 
of  Ararat ; none  of  which  were  successful  till 
July,  1856,  when  the  toilsome  and  perilous 
ascent  was  achieved  by  five  Englishmen.  The 
dwellers  about  its  base  regard  the  snowy 
summit  with  mingled  awe  and  veneration,  and 
as  a spot  not  to  be  profaned  by  the  impious 
tread  of  man.  None  had  stood  there  since 
the  days  of  Noah.  Ararat  shows  traces  that 
at  some  period  it  has  been  subjected  to  violent 
volcanic  action.  Major  Stuart,  one  of  the 
party  mentioned  above,  pronounces  the  sum- 
mit an  extinct  crater  filled  with  snow.  The 
highest  peak  of  Ararat  is  17,323  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  14,300  feet  above  the  table-land 
on  which  it  stands. 

ARCADIA,  a mountain  country  in  the 
heart  of  the  Peloponnesus.  Originally  called 
Pelasgia,  from  the  Pelasgi,  its  first  inhabit- 
ants, it  received  its  name  of  Arcadia,  from 
Areas,  grandson  of  Lycaon.  The  shepherds 
inhabiting  the  sequestered  valleys  were  for  a 
long  time  rude  and  uncivilized,  but  when  they 
cultivated  the  arts  of  agriculture,  and  sweet- 
ened their  labors  by  occasional  intervals  of 
relaxation,  in  which  they  occupied  themselves 
with  music  and  dancing,  they  became  famous 
in  song,  and  Arcadian  felicity  was  a phrase 
expressive  of  unalloyed  enjoyment.  But  Ar- 
cadia was  far  from  being  a paradise,  and  its 
inhabitants  were  not  so  devoted  to  pastoral 
pursuits,  that  they  forgot  the  excitements  of 
war.  On  the  contrary,  when  no  quarrels  of 


66 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


MOUNT  ARARAT. 


their  awn  occupied  them,  they  engaged  in  the 
service  of  other  states.  It  was  finally  united 
to  the  Achaian  league. 

ARCHIMEDES,  the  most  celebrated  geom- 
etrician of  antiquity,  born  at  Syracuse,  287 
b.c.  He  was  famed  for  the  mechanical  con- 
trivances which  he  employed  to  defend  his 
native  city,  when  besieged  by  the  Romans 
(212  b.c.),  whose  fleet,  Lucian  says,  he  set  on 
fire  with  burning-glasses.  Marcellus,  who 
took  the  city,  wished  to  spare  the  life  of  Ar- 
chimedes. When  the  Romans  entered  the 
city,  Archimedes  was  found  by  a soldier, 
poring  over  some  figures  which  he  had  drawn 
in  the  sand.  He  begged  the  Roman  to  spare 
his  circle,  but  the  man  heedless  of  his  re- 
quest, rushed  forward  and  killed  him  with  a 
blow.  He  was  then  seventy-five  years  old. 
He  is  said  to  have  declared  that  he  could 
move  the  globe,  if  he  only  had  a place  to 
stand  upon.  To  Archimedes  we  ascribe  the 
discovery  of  the  fundamental  properties  of 
the  lever,  inclined  plane,  and  pulley,  of  the 
screw  for  raising  water,  which  yet  bears  his 
name,  and  much  advancement  in  geometry 
and  mensuration. 

ARCOLA,  Battle  of.  Between  the  French 
under  Bonaparte,  and  the  Austrians  under 
Marshal  Alvinzy,  fought  Nov.  19th,  1796. 
This  bloody  conflict  continued  eight  success- 
ive days  and  resulted  in  a disastrous  defeat 
to  the  Austrians,  who  at  the  outset  had  the 
advantage. 


ARGENTINE  CONFEDERATION,  com- 
prises  an  area  of  927,000  square  miles,  and 
has  a population  of  800,000.  This  estimate 
does  not  include  Buenos  Ayres,  which  is  now 
a distinct  republic.  [See  Buenos  Ayres.] 
The  population  consists  of  descendants  of 
Spaniards  and  wandering  tribes  of  Indians. 
There  are  twelve  states  in  the  confederacy, 
Santa  Fe,  Entre  Rios,  Corrientes,  Cordova, 
Santiago,  Tucuman,  Salta,  Catamarea,  La  Ri- 
oja, San  Luis,  Mendoza,  and  San  Juan.  Diaz 
de  Solis  visited  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata  in 
1512,  but  formed  no  settlement.  Before  the 
end  of  the  century  the  Spaniards  founded  the 
towns  of  Salta,  Tucuman,  Cordova,  Buenos 
Ayres,  &c.  These  regions  formed  a part  of 
the  viceroyalty  of  Peru  till  1777,  when  they 
were  made  into  the  separate  viceroyalty  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  Like  the  other  colonies  of 
Spain  in  South  America,  these  provinces  did 
not  submit  to  the  authority  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte, and  in  1810  they  organized  an  inde- 
pendent government  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand 
VII.  In  1816  they  threw  off  Spanish  domin- 
ion altogether.  Since  then,  they  have  been 
torn  by  intestine  commotions.  Rosas  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  affairs  in  1835.  His 
commercial  policy  had  for  its  object  to  secure 
Buenos  Ayres  the  monopoly  of  the  trade  of 
the  Plata ; his  political  policy  was  to  obtain 
a similar  superiority.  His  sway  was  marked 
by  cruelty  and  despotism,  and  his  ambitious 
designs  against  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  and  Bra- 


ARG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


67 


zil,  interfering  with  commerce  and  the  rights 
of  European  merchants,  caused  the  interposi- 
tion of  England  and  France.  Buenos  Ayres 
was  blockaded  by  their  fleets  from  1845  to 
1847,  and  the  free  navigation  of  the  Parana 
thus  maintained.  Rosas  was  at  last  deposed 
in  1851,  and  fled  to  Europe.  Civil  war  con- 
tinued between  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  other 
states,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment,  in 
1856,  of  the  Argentine  Confederation  and  the 
distinct  republic  of  Buenos  Ayres.  In  1865 
the  Confederation  under  President  Mitre, 
took  sides  with  Brazil  and  Buenos  Ayres, 
against  Paraguay,  after  having  long  endeav- 
ored to  remain  neutral.  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment for  the  confederation  is  Parana,  the  cap- 
ital of  Entre  Rios,  population,  6,000, 

ARGOLIS  lay  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Achaia 
and  Corinth,  on  the  north-east  by  the  Sar- 
onic gulf,  and  on  the  west  by  Arcadia,  and 
on  the  south  by  Laconia.  The  Argolic  gulf 
lies  upon  the  south-west.  Fertile  plains  and 
swelling  hills  vary  the  surface  of  this  region. 
Pelops,  who  reigned  over  Argos,  gave  his 
name  to  the  peninsula.  It  was  the  kingdom 
of  Atreusand  Agamemnon,  Adrastus,  Eurys- 
theus,  and  Diomedes,  the  birth-place  of 
Hercules,  and  the  scene  of  his  victory  over 
the  Lerngean  Hydra.  The  fine  arts,  and 
music  in  particular,  were  successfully  cul- 
tivated by  the  Argives.  The  modern  Ar- 
golis  is  but  a shadow  of  the  ancient  city. 
Argos  was  anciently  divided  into  small,  inde- 
pendent states.  These  were  Argos,  Mycenae, 
Tirynthus,  Troezen  (now  Damala),  Hermione 
(now  Castri),  and  Epidaurus. 

ARGONAUTS.  The  story  of  the  expe- 
dition of  Jason  and  his  adventurous  compan- 
ions, to  procure  the  golden  fleece  of  Colchis, 
is  chiefly  fabulous,  and  has  probably  little 
connection  with  any  known  facts.  Jason  was 
not  permitted  to  ascend  the  throne  of  his 
father  by  Pelias,  who  filled  it,  except  on  con- 
dition of  bringing  from  Colchis  the  golden 
fleece  of  the  ram,  which  bore  Phryxus  and 
Helle  away  from  their  cruel  step-mother, 
Ino.  Most  of  the  heroes  of  Greece  embarked 
with  Jason  in  the  Argo,  a splendid  vessel 
built  for  the  adventure,  and  superior  to  any 
which  had  previously  floated  on  the  waves. 
After  encountering  many  vicissitudes,  they 
came  to  the  country  of  iEetes.  This  monarch, 


whose  life  depended  on  the  preservation  of 
the  golden  fleece,  without  refusing  to  surren- 
der it,  first  imposed  upon  Jason  three  labors 
which  he  hoped  would  destroy  him.  He  was 
to  yoke  the  bulls  of  Vulcan  to  a plough  of 
adamant,  and  turn  up  a field  consecrated  to 
Mars,  which  had  never  been  opened ; in  the 
furrows  thus  formed,  he  was  to  sow  the 
serpent’s  teeth  of  Cadmus,  which  would  in- 
stantly start  forth  as  armed  men,  whom  he 
was  to  slay  ; and  finally,  he  was  to  kill  the 
dragon  that  was  the  watchful  guardian  of 
the  golden  fleece.  The  magical  arts  of  Me- 
dea, who  had  fallen  in  love  with  the  young 
hero,  assisted  him  to  achieve  these  enter- 
prises with  success,  and  when  the  king  deter- 
mined on  the  murder  of  the  Argonauts, 
enabled  him  to  possess  himself  of  the  fleece, 
and  escape  with  the  enamored  lady  and  all 
his  companions.  The  king  soon  missing  the 
fleece  and  the  fleet,  pursued  and  came  in 
sight  of  them ; Medea  then  murdered  her 
brother  Absyrtus,  wrhose  limbs  she  strewed 
upon  her  father’s  path.  The  afflicted  old 
man,  by  staying  to  collect  them,  gave  the 
fugitives  time  to  escape.  After  many  adven- 
tures, the  Argo  returned  safely.  The  time 
of  the  undertaking  is  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century  b.c. 

ARGUS,  the  fabled  son  of  Arestor,  whose 
hundred  eyes  caused  him  to  be  selected  by 
Juno  as  the  keeper  of  Io.  Having  been  slain 
by  Mercury,  he  was  changed  into  a peacock, 
and  his  eyes  were  placed  in  his  tail. 

ARION,  a musician  and  poet,  born  at  Me- 
thymna,  in  Lesbos,  and  flourished  b.c.  625. 
His  fabulous  fate  has  been  often  celebrated. 
When  at  sea  with  all  his  treasures,  the  mar- 
iners sought  his  life ; but  he  leaped  overboard, 
and  it  is  related  that  a dolphin,  charmed  with 
his  music,  carried  him  safe  to  land. 

ARIOSTO,  Ludovico,  the  author  of  the 
celebrated  “ Orlando  Furioso,”  was  born  at 
Reggio,  Sept.  8th,  1474,  and  died  at  Ferrara, 
in  1533.  Having  lost  the  favor  of  Cardinal 
d’Este,  he  entered  the  service  of  Duke  Al- 
fonso of  Ferrara,  whose  rewards,  how- 
ever, were  but  trifling.  He  experienced 
many  vicissitudes.  His  minor  works  alone 
would  entitle  him  to  high  rank  in  Italian 
literature. 

ARISTIDES,  son  of  Lysimachus,  a noble 
Athenian,  surnamed,  from  his  high  integrity, 


ARI 


68 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  Just.  He  was  instrumental  in  gaining 
the  battle  of  Marathon.  There  were  ten 
generals,  of  whom  he  was  one,  each  having 
the  command  of  the  army  for  one  day. 
Thinking  this  arrangement  injurious  to  the 
troops,  Aristides  prevailed  on  the  other  gen- 
erals to  give  up  their  days  of  command  to 
Miltiades,  and  this  measure  secured  the 
triumph  of  the  Greeks.  Becoming  obnox- 
ious to  the  party  of  Themistocles,  he  was 
banished  by  ostracism.  Each  person  wrote 
the  name  of  the  man  he  wished  banished,  on 
a shell  (ostralcori)  ; these  were  then  counted, 
and  the  person  whose  name  occurred  most 
frequently  was  banished.  An  ignorant  fel- 
low, in  the  public  assembly,  not  knowing 
him,  turned  to  Aristides,  and  asked  him  to 
write  Aristides.  “What  reason  have  you 
for  disliking  him  ? ” asked  Aristides.  “ Oh,” 
replied  the  fellow,  “ I am  tired  of  hearing 
him  called  the  Just.”  When  the  Athenians 
were  alarmed  by  the  approach  of  Xerxes, 
they  recalled  Aristides,  who,  casting  away 
the  remembrance  of  former  wrongs,  assisted 
Themistocles  in  the  public  cause.  At  the 
battle  of  Salamis  his  services  were  eminent. 
Aristides  refused  to  countenance  the  banish- 
ment of  Themistocles,  when  he  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  his  countrymen.  Nothing  dis- 
plays more  clearly  the  reputation  of  Aristides, 
than  his  being  appointed  to  apportion  the 
contributions  to  be  paid  by  the  several  states 
of  Greece  toward  the  expenses  of  the  war. 
This  delicate  duty  he  discharged  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  all.  He  died  poor  about  467 
b.c.  His  countrymen  bestowed  a magnifi- 
cent funeral  upon  him,  pensioned  his  son, 
and  portioned  his  two  daughters. 

ARISTIPPUS  of  Cyrene,  a pupil  of  So- 
crates and  founder  of  the  Cyrenaici,  392  b.c. 
This  sect,  which  flourished  for  several  ages, 
maintained  that  the  supreme  good  of  man  in 
this  life  is  sensual  pleasure,  and  that  virtue 
ought  to  be  commended  only  so  far  as  it  con- 
duced to  delight.  He  had  no  sternness. 
Gay,  brilliant,  careless,  and  enjoying,  Aris- 
tippus became  the  ornament  and  delight  of 
the  court  of  Dionysius,  already  made  illus- 
trious by  the  splendid  genius  of  Plato  and  the 
rigid  abstinence  of  Diogenes.  The  grave 
deportment  of  Plato  and  the  savage  virtue 
of  Diogenes  had  less  charms  for  the  tyrant 
than  the  easy  graces  of  Aristippus,  whose 


very  vices  were  elegant.  His  ready  wit 
was  often  put  to  the  test.  On  one  occasion 
three  hetmree  were  presented  for  him  to  make 
a choice:  he  took  them  all  three,  observing 
that  it  had  been  fatal  even  to  Paris  to  make 
a choice.  On  another  occasion,  in  a dispute 
with  iEschines,  who  was  becoming  violent, 
he  said,  “Let  us  give  over;  we  have  quar- 
reled, it  is  true ; but  I,  as  your  senior,  have 
a right  to  claim  the  precedency  in  the  recon- 
ciliation.” Scinus,  the  treasurer  of  Diony- 
sius, a man  of  low  character,  but  immense 
wealth,  once  showed  Aristippus  over  his 
house.  While  he  was  expatiating  on  the 
splendor  of  every  part,  even  to  the  floors,  the 
philosopher  spat  in  his  face.  Scinus  was 
furious.-  “Pardon  me,”  exclaimed  Aristip- 
pus, “ there  was  no  other  place  where  I could 
have  spat  with  decency.”  One  day,  when 
interceding  with  the  t}rrant  for  a friend,  he 
threw  himself  on  his  knees.  Being  reproach- 
ed for  such  a want  of  dignity,  he  answered, 
“ Is  it  my  fault  if  Dionysius  has  his  ears  in 
his  feet  ? ” 

ARISTOGITON,  and  Harmodius,  two  of 
the  most  famous  patriots  of  Athens ; finding 
their  country  oppressed  by  Hipparchus  and 
Hippias,  sons  of  Pisistratus,  they  formed  a 
conspiracy  against  them.  Hipparchus  was 
slain  514  b.c.,  but  owing  to  the  backward- 
ness of  the  people,  Harmodius  was  killed  by 
the  guards,  and  Aristogiton  seized.  Being 
tortured  to  make  him  disclose  the  names  of 
his  accomplices,  he  named  the  friends  of  the 
tyrant,  and  they  were  put  to  death  in  rapid 
succession.  “Now,”  said  Aristogiton  to 
Hippias,  “ there  only  remains  yourself  worthy 
of  death.”  Hippias  was  expelled  three  3’ears 
afterward,  and  the  Athenians  paid  the  greatest 
honors  to  the  memory  of  the  two  friends. 
Praxiteles  executed  their  statues,  winch 
were  erected  in  the  forum,  their  praise  was 
sung  in  hymns,  and  it  was  forbidden  to  give 
the  name  of  either  to  a slave. 

ARISTOPHANES,  a celebrated  Greek 
dramatist,  author  of  numerous  comedies 
equally  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their 
composition  and  their  pungent  satire,  flour- 
ished in  the  fifth  century  b.c.  But  little  is 
known  of  his  life.  Out  of  fort}r-four  compo- 
sitions of  his,  only  eleven  are  extant. 

ARISTOTLE,  the  most  famous  philosopher 
of  Greece,  founder  of  the  Peripatetic  sect,  was 


ARI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


69 


born  at  Stagira,  a city  of  Thrace,  384  b.c. 
He  died  322  b.c.,  having  taken  poison  to 
avoid  the  persecution  of  his  enemies.  He 
enjoyed  the  instructions  of  Plato.  He  was 
selected  by  Philip  of  Macedon  as  the  pre- 
ceptor of  Alexander.  When  the  latter  went 
forth  on  his  Asiatic  campaign,  Aristotle  re- 
paired to  Athens.  There  in  the  charming 
retreat  of  the  Lyceum,  he  delivered  his  teach- 
ings to  a throng  of  pupils,  while  walking 
amid  the  groves  and  fountains.  Envy  of  his 
fame  rankled  into  persecution,  and  he  was 
forced  to  flee  to  Chalcis,  where  he  died.  He 
is  considered  the  founder  of  the  philosophy 
of  botany;  he  was  the  first  to  write  of 
mechanics;  and  with  him  the  term  ‘meta- 
physics’ originated.  His  writings,  on  various 
branches  of  science,  have  been  of  great  value 
to  the  world,  although  much  of  his  philoso- 
phy has  been  supplanted  in  the  progress  of 
truth. 

ARIUS,  the  noted  schismatic,  was  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  His 
entire  life  was  embroiled  with  disputes,  prin- 
cipally with  Bishop  Alexander  and  with 
Athanasius,  on  the  divinity  of  Christ.  He 
held  that  God  created  the  Son,  that  the  Son 
had  not  existed  from  eternity,  and  was  not 
in  dignity  and  essence  equal  with  the  Father. 
This  doctrine  was  condemned  by  the  great 
council  which  met  at  Nice  in  325.  After 
numerous  vicissitudes,  intrigues,  and  strifes, 
Arius  was  in  the  act  of  celebrating  a triumph 


at  Constantinople,  and  suddenly  died  at  a 
ver)7-  advanced  age. 

ARKANSAS  derives  its  name  from  a tribe 
of  Indians  now  extinct.  It  is  between  33° 
and  36°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  89°  4(V  and  94°  40' 
W.  long.,  having  an  area  of  52,198  square 
miles.  By  the  U.  S.  census  of  1870,  the  state 
had  a population  of  362,115  whites,  4,212 
colored,  98  Chinese,  and  89  Indians,  in  all 
484,471.  There  has  been  a rapid  increase 
within  twenty  years.  In  1850,  the  whole  pop- 
ulation was  209,897.  The  land  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  from  forty  to  fifty  miles  back  from 
it,  is  low,  interspersed  with  lakes  and  swamps, 
and,  with  few  exceptions,  annually  overflowed 
by  that  river  and  its  tributaries.  West  of 
this  tract,  the  ground  rises,  and  near  the 
centre  of  the  state,  becomes  hilly,  and  farther 
west,  mountainous.  Its  rivers  are  the  Ar- 
kansas, which  has  a course  of  2,000  miles  and 
traverses  the  whole  state,  the  Mississippi, 
which  washes  its  eastern  side,  the  Red  River, 
which  furnishes  steamboat  transportation  to 
the  southern  section,  the  St.  Francis,  the 
White  River,  and  the  Washita. 

The  Ozark  Mountains  run  through  the 
western  part  of  the  state.  The  soil  on  the 
river  bottoms  is  fertile,  the  other  parts  gen- 
erally are  sterile.  Cotton  and  Indian  corn 
are  the  staple  productions.  Wild  fowls  and 
animals  are  abundant.  A variety  of  mine- 
rals are  found  in  the  state,  such  as  iron, 
gypsum,  coal.  Some  salt  is  obtained.  The 


70 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


country  is  well  adapted  for  raising  horses 
and  cattle.  Considerable  quantities  of  wheat, 
oats,  sweet  potatoes,  and  tobacco  are  raised. 
The  peach  is  cultivated  with  success,  but  the 
apple  does  not  flourish. 

Arkansas  was  included  in  the  Louisiana 
territory  purchased  from  France  in  1803. 
Settlements  were  made  within  its  limits  by 
French  adventurers  as  early  as  1685.  It  was 
organized  as  a territory  in  1819,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  in  1836. 

Arkansas  seceded  March  20,  1861,  and 
was  during  the  rebellion  more  or  less  pene- 
trated by  Union  troops,  several  desperate  bat- 
tles having  been  fought  in  the  rugged,  moun- 
tainous country  in  the  north-west  corner  of 
the  state,  the  north-eastern  part  having  been 
long  held  by  the  Union  forces,  apd  the  Union 
navy  controlling  the  chief  rivers  and  their 
banks.  The  state  returned  to  the  Union  ap- 
parently with  readier  and  kinder  feelings  than 
most  of  the  seceding  states.  A loyal  state 
government  was  early  organized  with  Isaac 
Murphy  at  its  head,  and  at  an  election  held 
March  16,  1864,  this  government  was  con- 
firmed and  a new  constitution  adopted  abol- 
ishing and  prohibiting  slavery.  Tracts  of  land 
have  been  set  apart  for  school  purposes,  but 
an  indifference  on  the  subject  of  education 
has  pervaded  the  public  mind.  The  prevail- 
ing religious  denominations  in  Arkansas  are 
Methodists  and  Baptists,  while  there  are  also 
considerable  bodies  of  Episcopalians,  Presby- 
terians, and  Roman  Catholics. 

Little  Rock,  the  seat  of  government,  is  on 
the  Arkansas,  about  a hundred  and  fifty  miles 
from  its  confluence  with  the  Mississippi. 
The  river  is  navigable  for  steamers  to  this 
point  at  all  stages  of  water.  The  rocky  bluff 
on  which  the  town  stands  is  the  first  stone 
met  on  the  Arkansas  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1820,  and  in  1850 
had  2,167  inhabitants.  None  of  the  other 
towns  are  very  populous.  Among  the  chief 
are  Fulton,  on  the  Red  River,  Helena,  on  the 
Mississippi,  and  Fort  Smith,  a government 
post  on  the  western  frontier. 

ARKWRIGHT,  Sir  Richard,  was  born  in 
Preston  in  1732,  and  in  early  life  was  a 
barber.  He  became  interested  in  machinery 
for  spinning  cotton,  and  in  1769  obtained  a 
patent  for  an  improvement  upon  Hargreaves’ 
spinning-jenny.  Combinations  were  formed 


against  him,  and  his  patent  was  set  aside  in 
1785.  His  business  energy  was  equal  to  his 
mechanical  skill ; he  could  not  be  crushed. 
When  he  died  in  1792,  he  had  accumulated  a 
property  of  £500,000,  which  his  heirs,  in 
their  generation,  increased  to  one  of  the  most 
colossal  fortunes  ever  realized  in  the  king- 
dom. 

ARMADA,  the  Invincible,  a famous  ar- 
mament fitted  out  against  England  in  the 
time  of  Elizabeth  (1588),  by  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  It  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
large  ships,  with  20,000  soldiers,  8,250  sea- 
men, and  2,000  volunteers,  under  the  Duke  of 
Medina  Sidonia.  The  number  of  guns  the 
ships  bore  was  2,650,  some  of  them  of  extra- 
ordinary calibre.  The  English  navy  at  that 
time  consisted  of  but  thirty  ships  of  war. 
It  was  reinforced,  however,  by  volunteers. 
The  proud  armament  was  shattered  by  storms. 
The  size  of  the  Spanish  vessels  prevented 
them  from  acting  with  advantage  on  the  seas 
in  which  they  were  engaged.  Admiral  How- 
ard, ably  seconded  by  the  officers  under  him, 
attacked  and  beat  the  fleet  for  several  days, 
and  very  few  of  the  Spanish  vessels  entered 
port  again.  Sir  Francis  Drake,  Captain 
Hawkins,  and  others,  greatly  distinguished 
themselves  at  this  time.  The  preparations 
on  land,  superintended  by  the  queen  herself, 
were  fully  commensurate  to  those  at  sea. 

ARMENIA,  a country  of  western  Asia, 
lying  south  of  the  Caucasus,  in  ancient 
times  a powerful  kingdom.  The  name  lingers 
merely  in  geography ; the  greater  portion  of 
the  territory  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  the 
eastern  part  belongs  to  Persia,  the  northern 
to  Russia.  The  early  history  of  Armenia  is 
not  well  known.  The  Assyrians,  Medes, 
Persians,  and  Macedonians  by  turns  pos- 
sessed it.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  it 
was  united  to  Syria,  of  which  it  formed  a 
part  until  it  revolted  from  Antiochus  the 
Great,  when  it  was  possessed  by  two  different 
rulers  and  divided  into  Armenia  Major  and 
Minor.  Tigranes,  king  of  the  former  in  95 
b.c.,  reduced  Armenia  Minor,  and  other  prov- 
inces, and  united  the  two  countries.  Under 
him  it  became  tributary  to  Rome,  in  63  b.c., 
and  Trajan  made  it  a Roman  province  in 
106.  After  Sapor  of  Persia  vainly  attempted 
its  conquest  from  the  Romans,  it  was  gov- 
erned by  native  princes,  until  the  Arabians 


ARM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


71 


conquered  it  in  about  650.  It  was  conquered 
by  the  Seljukian  Turks  about  1046,  after 
which  it  suffered  many  changes,  till  it  was 
reduced  by  the  prince  of  Kharasm  in  1201, 
who  was  driven  out  of  it  by  Genghis  Khan  in 
1218.  In  1335,  the  Ilkanian  dynasty  began 
here,  and  continued  till  1385,  when  Armenia 
was  conquered  by  Tamerlane,  from  whom  it 
was  soon  after  recovered  by  the  Ilkanian 
princes.  On  the  death  of  Ahmed  Jalayr,  the 
last  of  the  line,  in  1405,  Kara  Yusef,  the 
chief  of  the  Turcomans,  got  possession  of  it. 
This  dynasty  had  the  name  of  the  Black 
Sheep,  and  in  1488,  it  fell  by  conquest  to  the 
family  of  the  White  Sheep.  In  1500,  it 
was  conquered  by  Ishmael  Sosi,  and  reduced 
by  Selim  I.  in  1514.  During  the  late  war 
between  Russia,  and  England,  France,  and 
Turkey,  Armenia  was  a seat  of  hostilities, 
and  the  siege  of  Kars  attracted  much  interest. 
The  population  is  scanty,  considering  the 
extent  of  the  country,  and  consists  of  Arme- 
nians, Turks,  and  the  wild  Kurds.  Oppres- 
sion has  driven  the  Armenians  somewhat 
widely  from  the  land  of  their  fathers.  They 
have  much  aptitude  for  business,  and  Arme- 
nian merchants  are  now  established  in  nearly 
all  the  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia.  At 
almost  every  great  fair  or  mart,  from  Leip- 
zig and  London  to  Bombay  and  Calcutta, 
they  are  to  be  seen.  Originally  the  Arme- 
nians were  worshipers  of  fire,  but  toward 
the* close  of  the  third  century  they  became 
converts  to  Christianity.  To  their  fidelity 
to  their  faith  they  owe  their  existence  as  a 
separate  people  through  long  centuries  of 
servitude.  The  Armenian  church  is  a cor- 
rupt form  of  the  Roman  Catholic.  It  does 
not  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  pope, 
and  is  governed  by  patriarchs. 

ARMINIUS  (Van  Harmine)  was  born  at 
Oudewater,  South  Holland,  in  1560.  After 
studying  at  Leyden,  he  went  to  Geneva  and 
enjoyed  the  prelections  of  Beza.  His.  mind 
seems  to  have  had  an  early  itching  to  oppose 
established  forms  of  thought  and  belief,  and 
he  became  a romantic  supporter  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  Peter  Ramus.  At  twenty-six  he 
was  ordained  minister  of  one  of  the  churches 
in  Amsterdam,  and  there  preached  with  great 
acceptance.  He  was  soon  entangled  in  con- 
troversy. In  1603  he  succeeded  Junius  in  the 
chair  of  theology  at  Leyden.  There  he 


attacked  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  and 
based  it  upon  foreknowledge  of  faith  and 
merit.  From  this  a hot  theological  war 
grew.  Arminius  died  in  1609.  His  candor 
is  unimpeached  and  his  ability  undoubted. 
The  system  that  bears  his  name,  was  elab- 
orated after  his  death,  several  of  its  distinct- 
ive tenets  not  being  held  by  Arminius. 

ARMSTRONG,  John,  a native  of  Penn- 
sylvania, was  a brigadier-general  in  the 
Continental  army,  and  fought  well  at  Fort 
Moultrie,  Germantown,  and  Brandywine. 
Piqued  at  certain  promotions,  he  resigned 
his  commission  in  1777,  and  afterward  sat  in 
Congress.  He  died  in  1795. 

ARMSTRONG,  John,  son  of  the  former, 
was  the  author  of  the  celebrated  “ Newburgh 
Addresses.”  He  was  aid-de-camp  to  Gates. 
He  was  United  States  senator  from  New 
York,  and  minister  to  France  from  1804  to 
1811.  Mr.  Madison  made  him  secretary  of 
war.  The  capture  of  Washington  by  the 
British,  led  to  his  retirement  from  office. 
He  died  in  1843,  in  his  eighty -fifth  year. 

ARNE,  Thomas  Augustine,  was  the  son  of 
an  upholsterer,  and  born  in  London  in  1710. 
His  father  educated  him  at  Eton  and  placed 
him  iri  an  attorney’s  office ; but  such  was  his 
love  for  music,  that  he  had  no  relish  for  the 
quiddities  of  law.  After  a few  lessons  from  a 
German  violinist,  he  made  such  progress  with 
the  bow,  that  he  left  his  master  the  attorney, 
and  took  music  for  a profession.  His  father 
happening  accidentally  to  call  at  the  house  of 
a neighboring  gentleman,  was  amazed  and 
consternated  to  find  his  Thomas  Augustine 
playing  the  leading  violin.  But  the  old  gen- 
tleman acquiesced.  The  world  gained  an  ex- 
cellent musician  and  lost  a discontented  pet- 
tifogger. Arne  became  a popular  lyrical 
composer,  writing  several  pleasing  operas, 
many  charming  songs,  besides  a large  number 
of  fine  glees,  catches,  and  canons.  His  song 
and  chorus,  “Rule  Britannia,”  has  been  said 
“ to  have  wafted  his  name  over  the  greater 
half  of  the  habitable  world.”  In  1769,  the 
university  of  Oxford  conferred  upon  Arne  the 
degree  of  doctor  in  music.  He  died  March 
5th,  1778.  His  last  moments  were  cheered 
by  a Hallelujah  sung  by  himself. 

ARNOLD,  Benedict,  was  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  Jan.  3d,  1740,  and  before  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  was  a druggist  and  book- 


ARN 


72 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


seller  in  New  Haven.  He  engaged  early  in 
the  struggle  between  the  colonies  and  the 
mother  country,  espousing  the  cause  of  the 
former.  His  reckless  bravery  gained  him 
general  applause.  He  was  at  the  taking  of 
Ticonderoga,  and  his  expedition  to  Canada 
has  been  celebrated  as  a great  military  enter- 
prise. The  troops  marched  to  Canada  by  the 
way  of  Maine,  encountering  the  severity  of 
midwinter,  threading  tangled  forests,  and  suf- 
fering every  hardship.  In  1777,  Arnold  dis- 
played great  gallantry,  and  bore  a conspicuous 
part  in  those  efforts  which  led  to  the  capitula- 
tion of  Burgoyne.  Being  unfitted  for  active 
service  by  a severe  wound  received  in  the 
battle  of  Stillwater,  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  Philadelphia.  He  plunged  into  expensive 
pleasures,  soon  became  involved  in  debt,  and 
saw  no  means  of  escaping  from  his  embarrass- 
ments, but  by  flying  into  the  arms  of  the 
British,  and  earning  their  gold- by  treason  to 
his  country.  Having  been  reprimanded  by 
Washington  for  misbehavior,  he  solicited  and 
obtained  the  command  of  W est  Point,  for  the 
basest  of  purposes.  The  ill  success  of  his 
traitorous  scheme  to  yield  this  important  for- 
tress to  the  British  has  been  told  in  our  sketch 
of  Andre.  Arnold  escaped  to  the  British 
camp.  After  joining  the  enemy,  he  published 
two  manifestoes,  in  which  he  attributed  the 
change  in  his  opinions  to  the  declaration  of 
independence,  and  the  alliance  of  America 
with  France,  although  long  after  the  adoption 
of  these  measures,  he  had  fought  beneath  the 
colonial  colors,  had  been  wounded  at  Quebec, 
and  was  pledged  to  support  the  cause  of  his 
country.  A large  sum  of  money,  and  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the  British  army, 
were  the  rewards  of  his  apostasy.  After  his 
treason,  he  made  war  upon  his  former  friends 
more  after  the  manner  of  a bandit  chieftain, 
than  that  of  a high-souled  warrior.  Upon  the 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States,  Arnold  retired  to  England,  where  he 
died  in  June,  1801.  In  the  country  for  which 
he  had  given  up  his  own,  his  reception  was 
anything  but  flattering.  On  one  occasion 
the  British  monarch  desired  to  make  Arnold 
known  to  the  high-minded  Earl  of  Balcarras. 
After  the  usual  form  of  introduction,  Arnold 
extended  his  hand  to  the  earl.  “ What,  sir ! ” 
said  the  latter  to  the  king,  drawing  himself  up 


to  his  proudest  height ; “is  this  the  traitor 
Arnold  ? ” He  walked  haughtily  away. 

“The  hand  of  Douglas  was  his  own.” 
Arnold  challenged  the  earl.  They  met, 
and  Arnold  missed  his  antagonist.  The  proud 
nobleman,  instead  of  discharging  his  pistol, 
dashed  it  to  the  ground.  “Stay,  my  lord,” 
exclaimed  Arnold,  “you  have  not  had  your 
shot!”  “No,”  replied  the  earl  indignantly, 
“I  leave  you  to  the  hangman.” 

ARNOLD,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  was  born  at 
West  Cowes  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,.  June  13th, 
1795.  After  completing  his  collegiate  studies 
at  Oxford,  and  receiving  deacon’s  orders,  he 
was  for  nine  years  the  principal  of  a private 
school  of  high  repute,  at  Laleham  near  Staines. 
His  success  as  a Christian  teacher  caused  him 
to  be  chosen  head-master  of  Rugby  school  in 
1827.  It  was  Dr.  Arnold’s  aim  to  combine 
Christian  with  secular  instruction. 

He  taught  the  upper  classes,  governed  and 
guided  the  whole  great  school,  edited  classics 
and  wrote  histories,  and  yet  found  time  to 
watch  over  the  careers  of  all  his  pupils,  with- 
out taking  the  least  credit  to  himself,  or  seem- 
ing to  know,  or  let  any  one  else  know,  that 
he  ever  thought  particularly  of  any  boy  at  all. 
It  is  related  by  an  old  Rugby  pupil  that  one 
of  the  boys  died,  on  a bright  Saturday  after- 
noon, while  the  cricket  was  going  on  as  usual. 
The  doctor  coming  from  the  death-bed,  passed 
the  merry  crew  cheerfully,  and  no  one  knew 
what  had  happened  till  the  next  day.  His 
allusion,  in  the  afternoon  discourse,  to  the  fact 
that  while  they  were  at  their  sports,  their 
playmate  was  dying,  was  at  once  cheerful, 
grand,  and  impressive.  “ When  I came  yes- 
terday from  visiting  all  but  the  very  death-bed 
of  him  who  has  been  taken  from  us,  and 
looked  around  upon  all  familiar  objects  and 
scenes  within  our  own  ground,  where  your 
common  amusements  were  going  on,  with 
your  common  cheerfulness  and  activity,  I felt 
there  was  nothing  painful  in  witnessing  that ; 
it  did  not  seem  in  any  way  shocking  or  out  of 
tune  with  those  feelings  which  the  sight  of  a 
dying  Christian  must  be  supposed  to  awaken. 
The  unsuitableness  in  point  of  natural  feeling 
between  scenes  of  mourning  and  scenes  of 
liveliness  did  not  at  all  present  itself.  But  I 
did  feel  that  if  at  that  moment  any  of  those 
faults  had  been  brought  before  me  which 


ARN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


73 


sometimes  occur  amongst  us ; had  I heard 
that  any  among  you  had  been  guilty  of  false- 
hood, of  drunkenness,  or  of  any  such  sin ; 
had  I heard  from  any  quarter  the  language  of 
profaneness,  or  of  unkindness,  or  of  indecen- 
cy; had  I heard  or  seen  any  signs  of  that 
wretched  folly,  which  courts  the  laugh  of  fools 
by  affecting  not  to  dread  evil  and  not  to  care 
for  good,  then  the  unsuitableness  of  any  of 
these  things  with  the  scene  I had  just  quitted 
would  indeed  have  been  most  intensely  pain- 
ful. And  why  ? Not  because  such  things 
would  really  have  been  worse  than  at  any 
other  time,  but  because  at  such  a moment  the 
eyes  are  opened  really  to  know  good  and  evil, 
because  we  then  feel  what  it  is  so  to  live  that 
death  becomes  an  infinite  blessing.” 

He  is  known  as  an  author  by  several  vol- 
umes of  discourses  and  by  a “History  of 
Rome”  written  on  Niebuhr’s  plan.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  modern  history  at 
Oxford ; but  he  had  only  given  his  inaugural 
lecture,  when  a spasmodic  affection  of  the 
heart  cut  him  off  suddenly  at  Rugby,  June 
12th,  1842. 

ARTHUR,  a mythical  prince  of  ancient 
Britain,  whose  story  Hume  thinks  has  some 
foundation  in  fact.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
born  about  501,  and  died  542.  The  institution 
of  an  order  of  chivalry,  called  the  Knights  of 
the  Round  Table,  is  attributed  to  him,  and 
also  the  establishment  of  Christianity  at  York. 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES,  containing  a 
chronology  of  ancient  history  from  1582  to 
355  b.c.,  and  said  to  have  been  sculptured 
2G4  b.c.  They  consist  of  thirty-seven  statues 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  busts,  with 
two  hundred  and  fifty  inscriptions  in  Greek 
characters.  They  were  found  in  the  isle  of 
Paros  about  1610,  purchased  by  the  Earl  of 
Arundel,  and  given  to  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford, 1627. 

ARUSPICES,  or  Haruspices,  priests  among 
the  Romans  who  foretold  future  events  by 
observing  the  entrails  of  the  animals  sacri- 
ficed, and  the  manner  in  which  the  victim 
behaved.  They  existed  from  the  time  of 
Romulus  to  that  of  Constantine  (337  a.d.), 
when  all  soothsaying  was  prohibited  on  pain 
of  death.  Their  number  at  this  time  was 
seventy. 

ASBURY,  Francis,  a Methodist  preacher 
who  came  hither  from  England  in  1771,  and 


was  one  of  the  first  bishops  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  in  the  United  States.  His 
labors  were  crowned  with  great  good.  He 
died  suddenly  at  Spottsylvania,  Va.,  March 
31st,  1816,  aged  seventy. 

ASCALON.  In  this  battle,  Sept.  7th,  1191, 
Richard  I.  of  England,  commanding  the  cru- 
saders, reduced  to  30,000,  defeated  ten  times 
that  number  of  Saracens  under  Saladin.  It 
is  said  that  30,000  of  the  paynim  foe  were  left 
dead  on  the  field  of  battle. 

ASHANTEE,  a nation  of  negroes,  on  and 
near  the  Gold  Coast  of  Guinea.  They  are  in 
the  vicinity  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  the  British 
settlement  at  Sierra  Leone.  W arlike  and  un- 
yielding, they  carried  on  a bloody  war  with 
the  English  from  1807  to  1826.  The  kingdom 
of  the  Ashantees  has  been  in  existence  more 
than  a hundred  years.  The  king  has  a band 
of  devoted  attendants,  one  hundred  in  number, 
who  are  slain  upon  his  tomb,  that  he  may  be 
properly  accompanied  on  his  arrival  in  the  in- 
fernal regions.  His  3,333  wives  are  regarded 
with  reverence,  and  on  that  mystical  number 
the  safety  of  the  state  depends.  The  empire 
of  Ashantee,  consisting  of  several  conquered 
states,  has  a population  of  three  million  souls. 
The  Ashantees  display  some  ingenuity  and 
taste  in  their  architecture,  and  manufacture 
cloths  which  are  skillfully  dyed  in  brilliant 
colors.  Coomassie,  the  residence  of  the  king, 
has  been  forcibly  described  by  an  intelligent 
traveler.  “A  prospect  of  the  capital  (if  such 
it  may  be  called)  at  last  opened  in  front  of  us  ; 
it  was  a partial  glimpse,  at  the  distance  of 
twenty  or  thirty  paces,  of  a few  mud-built 
hovels,  surrounded  in  part  by  plantations, 
and  some  straggling  walls  of  the  same  mate- 
rial, covering  a contracted  space  gained  from 
the  surrounding  waste.” 

ASIA  is  the  largest  of  the  great  divisions  of 
the  earth.  Hesiod  and  Herodotus  give  a 
mythical  origin  of  the  name  from  the  nymph 
Asia,  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Zethys,  and 
mother  or  wife  of  Prometheus.  Strabo  pre- 
serves an  old  statement  that  Asia  was  the 
original  name  of  Lydia.  Orientalists  hare 
concluded  that  the  root-syllable  in  ‘Asia’ 
means  the  ‘ Sun,’  especially  as  an  object  of 
religious  worship ; that  the  Asians  are  ‘ the 
people  of  the  Sun,’  or  ‘ the  people  from  the 
east ;’  and  that  ‘ Asia  ’ is  thus  the  correlative 
of  ‘Europa,’  which  is  derived  from  the  Phoe- 


ASI 


74 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


nician  or  Hebrew  word  ‘Ereb’  or  ‘Oreb,’ 
signifying  ‘evening,’  ‘sunset,’  and  hence  the 
‘West.’  The  ancient  Greeks  were  acquaint- 
ed with  little  more  than  Asia  Minor.  The 
establishment  of  the  Persian  empire,  b.c.  550, 
advanced  geographical  knowledge,  because 
many  nations  and  extensive  regions  being 
gathered  under  one  rule,  the  intercourse  be- 
tween them,  which  before  had  been  difficult, 
was  much  facilitated.  The  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander brought  still  farther  advance.  He  had 
almost  reached  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  when 
a mutiny  in  his  wearied  army  forced  him  to 
give  over  his  scheme  of  penetrating  India. 
He  founded  the  city  of  Alexandria  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nile ; the  commerce  of  Tyre  and 
the  Phoenicians  was  diverted  thither;  and 
Egyptian  vessels  pushed  from  the  Red  Sea  as 
far  as  the  shores  of  Malabar  and  the  isle  of 
Ceylon.  The  extreme  eastern  boundary  of 
the  Roman  empire  was  formed  by  the  Tigris, 
the  Euphrates,  and  the  mountains  of  Armenia. 
In  one  instance  their  armies  passed  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  known  world.  When  war- 
ring with  Mithridates  they  arrived  at  Mount 
Caucasus,  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  they  learned  of  a commercial  road  through 
Bactria,  by  which  an  active  traffic  was  had 
with  India.  Shortly  after  another  route  was 
discovered,  leading  over  the  high  table-land 
of  upper  Asia  to  the  Seres,  or  Chinese ; prob- 
ably the  road  which  still  passes  through  the 
town  of  Kashghar.  Though  the  Roman  eagles 
did  not  swoop  in  victory  over  these  regions  of 
the  remote  East,  the  wealth  of  the  imperial 
city  caused  a demand  for  the  productions  and 
the  luxuries  of  the  orient ; so  that  these  newly 
discovered  paths  were  much  frequented  by 
merchants,  while  the  maritime  trade  was  also 
duly  enhanced.  The  dominion  of  the  Saracens 
cut  off  the  intercourse  of  Europe  with  Asia, 
and  till  the  time  of  the  crusades  no  new 
knowledge  was  gained  by  Europeans  of  its 
geography.  The  Arabians,  however,  began 
to  nourish  geography  among  other  sciences. 
To  them  we  owe  its  establishment  upon  math- 
ematical and  astronomical  principles.  They 
renewed  trading  intercourse  with  India,  and 
extended  it  to  the  Chinese  seas.  Zeal  for 
propagating  their  creed  inspired  them,  as  well 
as  the  love  of  gain. 

In  the  thirteenth  century,  Genoa,  Venice, 
and  Florence  commenced  their  lucrative  trade 


with  the  East.  In  this  century  too,  the  Mon- 
gols under  Genghis  Khan  crossed  the  Volga, 
subjected  Russia,  and  laid  prostrate  the  power 
of  Poland.  .All  Europe  trembled,  but  the 
death  of  Genghis  stayed  the  Tartars  in  their 
western  march.  The  policy  of  Innocent  IV. 
and  of  Louis  IX.  of  France  suggested  the  plan 
of  turning  the  Mongols  against  the  Saracens. 
For  this  it  seemed  necessary  to  convert  the 
barbarians  to  the  Christian  faith.  Friars  were 
accordingly  sent  among  them.  They  did  not 
succeed  in  their  mission,  but  their  journeyings 
made  Europeans  for  the  first  time  acquainted 
with  the  immense  extent  of  those  regions 
vaguely  known  as  Scythia,  which  thenceforth 
were  called  Mongolia  or  Tartary.  Genghis 
Khan  had  extended  his  dominion  over  all  in- 
land Asia,  from  the  boundary  of  Siberia  to 
that  of  India  and  Thibet.  After  his  death  the 
Mongols  continued  in  their  career  of  victory, 
and  at  length  in  the  reign  of  his  most  able 
successor,  Kublai  Khan  (1259-1294),  China 
came  under  their  sway.  At  the  court  of  this 
monarch  at  Pekin,  Marco  Polo . dwelt  from 
1275  to  1292,  and  under  his  favor  had  the  best 
opportunities  for  visiting  the  wide  Mongol 
realm.  The  account  which  he  published  of 
his  travels  added  more  to  geographical  knowl- 
edge of  Asia  than  all  that  was  previously 
known.  It  very  materially  influenced  the 
views  of  Columbus,  and  directed  the  course  of 
Vasco  de  Gama.  [See  Polo.] 

After  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  by 
Vasco  de  Gama  in  1498,  the  Portuguese  rap- 
idly explored  the  Indian  seas,  founded  many 
colonies,  and  carried  on  a rich  commerce.  At 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Portugal 
passed  under  the  yoke  of  Spain ; and  one 
result  of  the  struggle  of  the  Netherlands 
against  Philip  II.,  was  the  gradual  transfer 
of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  the  Indies 
into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch.  About  this 
time  Siberia  was  subjected  by  Russia,  and 
the  Jesuits  obtained  a footing  at  the  Chinese 
court  which  gained  them  considerable  knowl- 
edge of  that  vast  empire.  India  was  longer 
involved  in  obscurity  than  almost  any  part 
of  Asia.  The  progress  of  the  East  India 
Company  of  England  during  the  last  two 
centuries,  has  rapidly  opened  its  recesses. 

Yet  this  quarter  of  the  world,  concerning 
which  modern  civilization  has  so  slowly  and 
imperfectly  gained  any  information,  was  the 


ASI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


75 


first  peopled ; here  the  law  of  God  was  first 
promulgated ; here  many  of  the  greatest 
monarchies  of  the  world  have  had  their  rise ; 
and  hence  most  of  the  arts  and  sciences  have 
been  derived.  To  its  immensity  of  extent, 
the  importance  of  its  history,  and  the 
vastness  of  its  monumental  remains,  justly 
correspond.  It  has  been  the  theatre  of 
some  of  the  mQst  important  events  which 
history  records,  the  clime  of  wonders  and 
of  wealth,  the  chosen  region  of  romance.  If 
we  search  for  the  fate  of  proud  monarchies, 
for  the  tale  of  powerful  dynasties,  for  the 
doom  of  splendid  cities,  we  shall  find  the 
name  of  Asia  constantly  recurring,  and  the 
fame  of  Asia  the  theme  of  unfailing  wonder 
and  of  praise. 

Its  extent  is  estimated  at  17,500,000  square 
miles,  and  its  population  set  down  at  more 
than  600,000,000.  We  give  a summary  of 
the  principal  divisions  of  Asia.  More  detailed 
accounts  may  be  sought  in  the  appropriate 
place.  Siberia,  a division  of  the  Russian 
empire,  occupies  the  north.  The  Chinese 
empire  comprises  one-fourth  of  the  surface  of 
Asia,  and  one-half  the  inhabitants.  The  Brit- 
ish dominions  are  for  the  most  part  iq  India, 
the  peninsula  within  the  Ganges,  but  their 
rule  has  extended  over  a great  number  of 
dependent  native  sovereigns.  Nepaul  and 
Ava  are  the  only  important  states  of  India 
that  have  remained  independent  of  the  Brit- 
ish. The  Portuguese  have  saved  from  the 
wreck  of  their  once  mighty  possessions  little 
more  than  Goa  on  the  Malabar  coast,  Daman, 
a small  portion  of  the  peninsula  of  Guzerat, 
the  island  of  Macao  in  the  bay  of  Canton, 
and  some  districts  in  the  island  of  Timor. 
These  are  supposed  to  contain  about  60,000 
square  miles  and  600,000  inhabitans.  The 
French  have  a small  foothold  in  Asia  at  Pon- 
dicherry, at  Chandernagore  in  Bengal,  and  at 
Nahe  on  the  coast  of  Malabar.  The  Dutch 
have  been  driven  from  the  mainland.  Their 
power  begins  on  the  west  with  Sumatra,  and 
extends  beyond  Java  to  the  Moluccas  or  Spice 
Islands.  Their  possessions  are  roughly 
guessed  to  comprehend  about  612,000  square 
miles,  with  16,500,000  inhabitants.  In  the 
south-eastern  corner  of  Asia  lie  the  empires 
of  Birmah,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Siam  and 
Annam,  which  latter  comprehends  the  an- 
cient sovereignties  of  Camboja,  Cochin  China, 


and  Tonkin.  East  of  China  is  the  insular 
empire  of  Japan.  In  the  west  we  have  Af- 
ghanistan, Beloochistan,  Arabia,  Turkey  in 
Asia,  and  Persia.  The  tract  between  Persia 
and  China,  sometimes  called  Independent 
Tartary,  is  inhabited  mostly  by  nomadic 
tribes.  Here  are  the  states  of  Bokhara  and 
Khiva,  and  many  petty  sovereignties  in  the 
mountain  regions.  But  none  of  these  have 
any  fixed  government. 

The  islands  in  the  Asian  seas  are  many  and 
important.  Besides  those  belonging  to  Japan, 
the  larger  are  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes, 
the  Philippines,  the  Moluccas,  Ceylon,  and 
Formosa. 

ASPERNE,  Battle  of.  Between  the  Aus- 
trian army  under  the  Archduke  Charles,  and 
the  French;  fought  on  the  21st,  22d,  and 
23d  of  May,  1809.  In  this  very  sanguinary 
fight  the  loss  of  the  Austrians  exceeded 

20.000,  and  that  of  the  French  was  more  than 

30.000.  It  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Bonaparte, 
who  commanded  in  person,  and  was  the 
severest  check  that  he  had  yet  received. 
This  success,  however,  benefited  the  Aus- 
trians but  little  in  the  end. 

ASSASSINS,  the  followers  of  an  Arab 
chief  in  the  time  of  the  crusades,  who  pro- 
fessed a blind  devotion  to  his  will.  When 
Henry,  Count  of  Champagne,  was  passing 
through  the  dominions  of  their  chief,  Alo- 
addin,  the  “Old  Man  of  the  Mountains,”  he 
boasted  of  his  power  at  home.  “ Are  any  of 
your  vassals  as  devoted  as  my  followers?” 
asked  the  chieftain.  On  this  he  gave  a 
signal  to  ten  young  men,  clad  in  white, 
standing  on  the  top  of  a tall  tower,  and  they 
instantly  threw  themselves  from  it  and  were 
dashed  to  pieces ! To  the  stealth  with  which 
they  took  the  lives  of  those  they  hated,  the 
word  ‘assassin’  owes  its  adoption  and  its 
meaning  in  European  languages. 

ASSAYE.  The  British  army  under  Gen. 
Arthur  Wellesley  (afterward  the  Duke  of 
Wellington),  entered  the  Mahratta  states  on 
the  south,  took  the  fort  of  Ahmednugger 
Aug.  12th,  and  defeated  Scindiah  and  the 
Rajah  of  Berar  at  Assaye,  Sept.  23d,  1803. 
This  was  the  future  Wellington’s  first  great 
battle,  and  the  opposing  force  was  ten  times 
his  own.  The  enemy  retired  in  great  dis- 
order, forsaking  all  their  artillery,  ammunb 
tion,  and  stores. 


ASS 


76 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ASSYRIA,  a kingdom  of  Asia,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Asher,  whose  boundaries 
varied  greatly  at  different  times.  It  was 
anciently  bounded  as  follows : north  by  the 
mountains  Niphates,  and  Armenia  Major, 
east  by  Media,  south  by  Susiana,  and  west 
by  Mesopotamia.  Ninus,  tthe  son  of  Belus, 
(2069-2017),  subdued  the  Babylonians  and 
Medes,  and  Semiramis,  his  wife  and  successor, 
increased  the  fame  of  the  kingdom.  The 
kings  of  Assyria  degenerated  from  this  re- 
nown. Such  were  the  indolence  and  volup- 
tuousness of  Sardanapalus  as  to  encourage 
the  successful  revolt  of  Arbaces  the  Mede, 
and  Assyria  was  then  divided  into  the  Me- 
dian, Assyrian,  and  Babylonian  kingdoms. 
It  was  over  this  second  Assyrian  kingdom 
that  Sennacherib  reigned,  whose  great  army 
besieged  Jerusalem  and  was  swept  away  in  a 
single  night  by  the  angel  of  the  Lord.  Nin- 
eveh was  razed  by  the  Medes  and  Babylo- 
nians, 621  b.c.,  and  the  Assyrian  monarchy 
divided'  by  the  conquerors;  Through  the 
conquest  of  Cyrus  these  countries  became 
one  of  the  most  -important  satrapies  of  the 
Persian  empire,  sometimes  called  Babylonia 
and  sometimes  Assyria. 

ASTRONOMY.  The  history  of  the  science 
of  the  heavens  dates  backward  into  the 
morning  of  time.  Observations  oh.  the  appa- 
rent and  real  revolutions  of  the  stars  must 
have  been  made,  and  a really  great  advance 
attained  in  the  science,  long  before  any  form 
of  record  preserved  the  fruits  of  discovery. 
Some  of  the  principal  constellations,  as  they 
are  now  named,  are  mentioned  in  Job.  The 
earliest  accounts  we  have  of  the  science  are 
those  of  Babylon,  about  2234  b.c.  The  study 
of  astronomy  was  much  advanced  in  Chaldea 
under  Nabonassar.  It  was  known  to  the 
Chinese  about  1100  b.c.,  some  say  many 
centuries  before.  One  tradition  is  that  the 
Chinese  knew  the  periods  of  the  sun,  moon, 
and  planets,  and  were  acute  astronomers,  in 
the  reign  of  Jao,  which  is  set  down  2357  b.c. 
Lunar  eclipses  were  observed  at  Babylon 
with  exceeding  accuracy,  720  b.c.  Thales 
taught  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth,  and 
the  true  cause  of  lunar  eclipses,  640  b.c. 
Pythagoras,  who  made  further  discoveries, 
taught  nearly  the  true  doctrine  of  celestial 
motions  and  believed  in  a plurality  of  habit- 


able worlds,  500  b.c.  Hipparchus  began  his 
observations  at  Rhodes,  167  b.c.,  and  contin- 
ued them  thirty-four  years,  making  great 
advances.  He  began  his  new  lunar  cycles 
from  the  new  moon  of  Sept.  28th,  143  b.c. 
The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  was  con- 
firmed, and  the  places  and  distances  of  the 
planets  discovered,  by  Ptolemy,  a.d.  130. 
The  system  he  taught,  in  which  the  earth 
was  made  the  immovable  centre  of  the  uni- 
verse, remained  in  vogue  till  the  time  of 
Copernicus.  After  the  lapse  of  nearly  seven 
centuries,  during  which  astronomy  was  neg- 
lected, it  was  resumed  by  the  Arabs,  about 
800,  and  was  brought  into  Europe  by  the 
Moors  of  Barbary  and  Spain,  about  1200, 
geography  being  introduced  at  the  same  time. 
The  celebrated  tables  known  as  the  Alphon- 
sine,  were  composed  by  command,  and  under 
the  direction,  of  Alphonsus  X.  of  Castile,  at 
an  expense  of  four  hundred  thousand  crowns, 
in  1284.  Alphonsus  was  justly  surnamed 
the  Wise.  Clocks  were  first  used  in  astron- 
omy about  1500.  In  1530  Copernicus  com- 
pleted his  immortal  work,  “Astronomia 
Instaurata,”  although  it  was  not  published 
until  the  year  of  * his  death,  1543.  This 
treatise,  in  which  the  true  doctrine  of  the 
motions  of  the  planetary  bodies  was  revived, 
did  more  for  astronomy  than  was  ever  done 
for  any  other  science  by  a single  production. 
The  science  was  also  greatly  advanced  by 
Tycho  Brahe  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same 
century.  Kepler  discovered  the  true  laws  of 
the  planetary  motions  in  1619.  Nearly  a 
century  before  Copernicus  had  shown  that 
the  planets  moved  round  the  sun ; now  Kep- 
ler showed  in  what  manner  and  by  what 
laws  they  moved : it  was  left  for  Newton  to 
show  why  they  moved.  Kepler  had  before 
found  that  the  planetary  orbits  were  elliptical, 
and  had  demonstrated  the  equality  of  the 
spaces  described  by  the  radii  vectored  in 
equal  times ; and  now  he  enunciated  the  im- 
portant law  that  the  square  of  the  periodic 
times  of  the  planets’  revolutions  are  as  the 
cubes  of  their  distances.  Telescopes  and 
other  instruments  were  used  about  1627. 
The  discoveries  of  Galileo  were  made  about 
1631.  Horrox,  an  Englishman,  was  the  first 
who  ever  observed  a transit  of  Venus  over 
the  sun’s  disk,  Nov.  24th,  1639  (o.s.)  * Hor- 


AST 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


77 


rebow,  in  1659,  discovered  the  aberration  of 
the  light  of  the  fixed  stars.  Hevelius  con- 
structed a map  of  the  moon,  1670.  Halley 
demonstrated  the  motion  of  the  sun  round  its 
own  axis,  1676.  Huygens  discovered  the  rings 
of  Saturn,  1636.  In  1687  Newton’s  “Prin- 
cipia  ” was  published,  and  the  system  initiated 
by  Copernicus  and  confirmed  by  Kepler,  was 
incontrovertibly  established.  Flamstead  cat- 
alogued the  stars,  1688.  La  Grange  demon- 
strated the  harmony  of  the  perturbations  of 
the  solar  system,  1780.  Iderschel  discovered 
Uranus,  1781.  The  “ Mecanique  Celeste  ” of 
La  Place  was  published  in  1796.  Ceres  was 
discovered  in  1801  ; Pallas,  in  1802;  Juno, 
in  1804;  Yesta,  in  1807.  [For  the  several 
planets  recently  discovered,  see  Planets.] 

The  distance  of  the  nearest  fixed  stars  is 
supposed  to  be  about  two  hundred  thousand 
times  greater  than  the  distance  of  the  earth 
from  the  sun ; that  is  to  say,  twenty  millions 
of  millions  of  miles  ; so  that  a telegram  from 
the  earth  would  be  thirty  six  years  in  reach- 
ing one  of  them,  supposing  there  was  nothing 
to  hinder  its  free  transmission  thither.  As 
light  takes  about  eight  minutes  and  a quarter 
to  reach  us  from  the  sun,  it  would  be  three 
and  one-half  years  in  coming  from  one  of 
these  stars;  yet  the  calculations  of  later 
astronomers  prove  some  stars  to  be  so  distant, 
that  their  light  must  take  centuries  before  it 
can  reach  us,  and  the  light  by  which  we  now 
see  these  started  on  its  journey  three  or  four 
hundred  years  ago. 

ATHANASIUS,  a great  theological  cham- 
pion in  the  fourth  century,  was  born  about 
296.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Nice.  His  rising  fame  led  to  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  see  of  Alexandria,  upon  the  death 
of  his  patron,  Bishop  Alexander.  He  was 
immediately  involved  in  contests  with  the 
Arians  concerning  the  divinity  of  Christ,  that 
ended  only  with  his  life.  Deposed  most 
unjustly  in  335,  he  was  reinstated  in  338. 
Deposed  again  in  340,  he  was  reinstated  in 
342.  The  unscrupulous  charges  of  his  foes 
he  refuted  with  overwhelming  proof  and 
eloquence.  But  in  355  he  was  again  sen- 
tenced to  be  banished,  when  he  retired  to  the 
deserts,  till  again  he  was  welcomed  back  to 
the  Egyptian  capital.*  Once  more,  Julian  the 
apostate  exiled  him,  and  once  more  he  was 
restored.  A fifth  time  was  he  banished  by 


the  Emperor  Yalens,  who  soon  recalled  him, 
however,  and  Athanasius,  after  holding  the 
primacy  for  the  long  space  of  forty-six  years, 
passed  into  peace  in  373.  He  was  a man  of 
devout  life,  an  orator  of  ready  and  forcible 
eloquence,  and  a prelate  of  heroic  and  inde- 
fatigable activity. 

ATHENS.  The  early  period  of  Athenian 
history  is  so  far  beyond  our  ken. as  to  be  but 
dimly  discerned.  It  is  not  till  the  time  of 
Solon  that  the  story  becomes  definite.  Some- 
thing is  said  of  Ogyges,  who  reigned  in 
Boeotia,  and  was  master  of  Attica,  then 
called  Ionia.  In  his  reign  a deluge  took  place 
(by  some  supposed  to  be  no  other  than  the 
great  flood),  that  laid  waste  the  land,  and  so 
it  remained  until  the  arrival  .of  Cecrops  and 
his  colony,  by  whom  it  was  peopled,  1556 
b.c.  Originally  Athens  was  called  from  its 
founder,  Cecropia,  but  in  time  his  name  was 
only  retained  by  the  citadel,  the  Acropolis, 
while  the  Greek  name  of  Minerva  (Athena) 
was  applied  to  the  city.  The  position  of 
Athens  is  peculiar,  and  the  surrounding 
scenery  luxuriant  and  interesting.  The  blue 
Saronic  Gulf,  so  often  swept  by  victorious 
navies,  the  opposite  shore  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, the  rocky  steep  of  the  Acropolis,  and 
the  beauty  of  the  surrounding  plains,  are 
prominent  features  in  a landscape  which 
antiquity  has  made  interesting,  and  fame 
immortal.  Nor  were  the  natural  beauties  of 
the  scene  its  chief  recommendation.  Art 
here  successfully  vied  with  nature,  and  erec- 
tion of  most  noble  edifices  bore  witness  to 
the  taste,  industry,  skill,  and  public  spirit  of 
the  Athenians.  Cecrops,  the  founder  of 
Athens,  was  an  Egyptian,  skilled  in  the  arts 
of  his  countrymen,  and  possessing  more  than 
their  customary  enterprise;  he  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Athens,  dividing  the  country  into 
twelve  districts,  over  which  he  ruled  for  a 
long  time  with  the  title  of  king.  He  insti- 
tuted the  senate  called  the  Areopagus,  which 
met  upon  a hill  in  the  vicinity  of  the  citadel, 
dedicated  to  Mars.  This  court  acquired  an 
active  influence  in  the  affairs  of  government. 
To  it  the  examination  of  the  laws  and  state 
of  public  morals  was  committed,  while  crimes 
against  religion  and  the  state,  required  its 
peculiar  attention.  In  1498  b.c.,  Amphic- 
tyon,  one  of  the  successors  of  Cecrops, 
established  the  Amphictyonic  council,  an 


ATH 


78 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


THE  HILL  OF  THE  AREOPAGUS. 


assembly  which  ultimately  attained  a high 
degree  of  celebrity.  At  first  they  assembled 
at  Delphi,  where  was  the  oracle  of  Apollo, 
but  finally  at  Anthela,  a village  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  famous  Thermopylae. 

To  both  of  these  monarchs  the  Athenians 
owed  much.  If  Cecrops  softened  the  man- 
ners of  the  inhabitants  of  Attica,  taught  them 
how  to  clothe  their  lands  with  the  verdure  of 
the  olive  and  the  vine,  and  instructed  them  in 
the  love  of  order,  the  worship  of  the  gods, 
the  rites  of  Hymen,  and  those  of  sepulture, 
Amphictyon  strengthened  and  secured  the 
advantages  which  his  subjects  had  begun  to 
reap.  No  longer  they  feared  the  incursions 
of  predatory  neighbors,  but  sat  in  the  shade 
of  their  vineyards,  enjoying  the  happiness 
which  security  and  peace  bestow.  Theseus 
was  the  greatest  warrior  among  these  early 
kings  of  Athens.  He  is  said  to  have  united 
in  one  confederation  the  hitherto  independ- 
ent twelve  states  of  Attica  founded  by  Ce- 
crops. Codrus  was  the  last  of  the  line.  In 
a battle  with  the  Hcraclidae,  1068  b.c.,  he 
sought  and  found  death,  for  the  oracle  had 
promised  that  victory  should  rest  with  the 
side  whose  leader  was  slain.  The  govern- 
ment assumed  a republican  form.  The 


change  was  but  in#name,  for  the  archon  had 
nearly  all  the  power  of  the  king,  whose 
place  in  the  state  he  filled.  The  archon  was 
orginally  chosen  for  life.  After  a lapse  of  little 
more  than  three  centuries,  the  term  of  office 
was  curtailed  to  ten  years,  and  less  than  a 
century  afterward,  the  number  of  archons 
was  increased  to  nine,  and  they  served  for  a 
term  of  one  year  only. 

Originally  all  the  Grecian  states  had  a 
regal  government,  which  was  abolished  in 
consequence  of  the  tyranny  of  the  various 
princes,  and  supplanted  by  republican  forms. 
Recovering  their  liberty  at  an  early  period, 
the  Greeks  acquired  that  love  of  freedom 
which  characterized  them  throughout  their 
long  career,  and  it  was  only  when  luxury 
and  wealth  had  banished  the  temperate  and 
unostentatious  life  of  their  ancestors,  that 
the  Greeks  found  themselves  unable  to  con- 
tend against  the  encroachments  of  hostile 
power,  and  fell  beneath  the  arnis  of  more 
enterprising  rivals.  The  rivalry  of  Athens 
and  Sparta  produced,  together  with  much 
good,  an  infinity  of  evil.  The  Spartans  were 
of  a sterner  cast  than  the  Athenians,  and 
even  more  distinguished  for  their  love  of 
freedom  and  their  invincible  courage.  They 


ATH 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


79 


despised  those  triumphs  of  the  arts  which 
the  Athenians  made  their  glory,  and  relied 
for  fame  on  stern  contempt  of  the  elegan- 
ces and  the  common  comforts  of  life. 

What  their  Lycurgus  was  to  them,  Solon 
was  to  the  Athenians.  Solon  was  one  of 
those  great  characters  whom  their  country- 
men regard  with  veneration  for  ages,  and 
whose  memory  they  recall  even  in  the  midst 
of  oppression,  and  the  darkness  of  disgrace ; 
one  of  those  rare  spirits  whose  virtues  and 
self-possession  are  most  conspicuous  when 
most  needed,  and  whose  knowledge,  like  the 
lamp  of  the  glow-worm,  shines  brightest 
when  the  darkness  is  most  heavy.  At  a 
time  (b.c.  594-578)  when  the  turbulence  and 
ambition  of  the  archons  threatened  the  Athe- 
nians with  a multitude  of  evils,  all  eyes 
were  turned  upon  Solon,  as  the  pilot  who 
alone  could  guide  the  vessel  of  state  through 
the  rocks  and  surges  that  surrounded  it.  He 
was  at  once  created  archon  extraordinary 
with  unlimited  power,  for  his  high  character 
and  calm  demeanor  inspired  confidence  among 
the  people  he  was  destined  to  assist.  Solon 
introduced  a mild  code  of  laws,  in  opposi- 
tion to  that  of  Draco,  his  predecessor  in  legis- 
lation, whose  appalling  severity  had  raised 
him  many  enemies.  The  government  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  a senate  of  four  hun- 
dred members  chosen  by  the  people.  After 
an  acquittal  of  their  debts,  the  people  were 
divided  into  four  classes.  The  members  of 
the  three  first  classes  were  eligible  to  office, 
while  those  of  the  fourth,  whose  poverty  was 
thought  to  incapacitate  them  from  serving, 
were  yet  allowed  the  privilege  of  voting  in 
the  popular  assemblies.  The  power  of  the 
commonwealth  was  vested  in  these  assem- 
blies, but  there  was  a restrictive  influence  in 
the  senate. 

Whatever  merit  we  may  be  disposed  to 
allow  the  constitution  of  Solon,  framed  as  it 
was  at  a very  early  period,  it  was  much 
too  artificial  to  be  permanently  successful. 
Solon  lived  to  see  this.  During  his  retire- 
ment from  Athens,  factions  disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  people,  and  Solon,  after  having 
vainly  endeavored  to  stem  the  current,  re- 
tired to  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  where  he  died, 
b.c.  560.  A change  of  government  was 
effected  by  Pisistratus,  a popular  but  am- 
bitious man,  who  headed  the  poorer  class  of 


people  (a  class  who  considered  themselves 
peculiarly  oppressed  by  the  constitution  of 
Solon)  and  gamed  possession  of  the  supreme 
power.  The  plans  of  the  usurper  possessed 
plausibility  and  brilliancy.  His  benevolence 
was  undoubted;  he  governed  with  equity 
and  moderation.  At  his  death  Pisistratus 
bequeathed  his  power  to  his  two  sons,  Hip- 
parchus and  Kippias,  who,  for  a long  time, 
by  a liberal  patronage  of  the  arts  and  of 
learned  men,  gave  a brilliancy  to  their  admin- 
istration which  was  unhappily  not  destined  to 
endure.  Among  the  most  brilliant  ornaments 
of  the  court  was  Anacreon,  the  elegant  though 
effeminate  poet  of  love  and  wine.  The  cru- 
elty of  Hippias  at  length  roused  the  spirit  of 
the  Athenians,  who  broke  forth  into  an  open 
revolt,  in  which  Hipparchus  was  slain,  and 
Hippias  banished.  Pisistratus  and  his  sons 
governed  under  the  title  of  tyrants,  a term 
at  that  time  not  necessarily  implying  an 
abuse  of  power.  They  held  the  tyranny  for 
thirty-six  years,  during  which  time  we  may 
naturally  infer  that  all  tendency  toward  a 
democratical  form  of  government  was  sup- 
pressed, but  under  their  rule  the  arts  began 
to  flourish.  Upon  the  downfall  of  Hippias, 
two  factions  contended  for  the  mastery  in 
Athens;  the  one  headed  by  Cleisthenes,  of 
the  aristocratical  family  of  the  Alcmseonidae, 
the  other  by  Isagoras,  son  of  Tisander.  Cle- 
isthenes effected  some  changes  in  the  laws  of 
Solon,  increasing  the  number  of  the  divis- 
ions of  the  people  to  ten,  and  of  the  members 
of  the  senate  to  five  hundred,  and  by  these 
and  other  measures  he  gained  the  favor  of  the 
Athenians.  His  rival  called  in  the  aid  of 
Cleomenes,  the  mad  king  of  Lacedaemon. 
But  Cleomenes  was  baffled,  his  allies  the 
Boeotians  and  Chalcidians  defeated  by  the 
Athenians,  and  the  territory  of  Chalcis  in  the 
fertile  isle  of  Euboea  colonized  by  four  thou- 
sand Athenians.  Athens  lent  some  aid  to 
the  Ionian  Greeks,  who  were  in  revolt  against 
Darius.  Hippias  had  finally  sought  refuge 
at  the  Persian  court,  and  when  the  Athenian 
force  burned  Sardis  he  easily  excited  the 
hostility  of  Darius  against  the  city  of  his 
former  rule.  But  the  bravery  of  the  Athe- 
nians was  not  wasted  in  words,  and  they 
joined  against  the  invaders  with  heart  and 
hand.  When  the  heralds  of  Darius  came 
with  the  insolent  demand  of  earth  and  water, 


ATH 


80 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  usual  signs  of  submission,  they  were 
seized  and  thrown,  the  one  into  a ditch  and 
the  other  into  a well,  whence  they  were  con- 
temptuously told  to  satisfy  their  wants.  The 
troops  of  Darius  entered  Attica,  encamping 
at  Marathon,  a small  town  unon  the  sea-coast. 
Against  an  army  of  500,000  horse  and  foot, 
the  brave  Miltiades  led  forth  a band  of  10,000 
Athenians,  who  were  victorious  in  the  most 
sacred  of  causes,  490  b.c.  Ten  years  after- 
ward when  Xerxes  poured  his  forces  into 
Greece,  the  Athenians,  under  Themistocles, 
were  triumphant,  and  the  victory  of  Salamis 
bore  witness  to  the  terrible  energy  and  roused 
spirit  of  freemen.  Yet  it  is  painful  to  mark  the 
fickleness  and  ingratitude  of  the  Athenians. 
One  would  think  that  while  Marathon  was 
remembered,  the  services  of  Miltiades  could 
not  be  forgotten.  Yet  the  noble  Athenian,  in 
consequence  of  misfortune,  was  thrown  into 
a prison  where  he  perished.  Aristides,  whose 
virtue  procured  him  the  surname  of  “the 
just,”  wTas  banished  by  ostracism,  without 
any  adequate  cause.  The  practice  of  ostra- 
cism was  so  called,  because  the  citizens  wrote 
upon  a tile  or  shell  (ostrakori)  the  names  of 
those  who  were  obnoxious  to  them.  The 
shells  being  counted,  the  person  whose  name 
occurred  most  frequently,  was  banished. 
Themistocles  was  also  persecuted  and  forced 
to  seek  refuge  at  the  Persian  court ; yet  so 
fond  was  he  of  his  ungrateful  country,  that 
rather  than  serve  against  her,  he  killed  him- 
self. It  was  men  like  these  who  reflected  a 
lustre  on  the  Athenian  name. 

Xerxes  in  his  march  through  Attica  had 
entered  Athens.  After  his  defeat  at  Salamis 
he  hastily  retreated  into  Asia,  leaving  his 
general  Mardonius  with  300,000  men.  Mar- 
donius  re-entered  Athens,  applied  the  torch, 
and  reduced  the  city  almost  utterly  to  ruins. 
His  defeat  at  Plataea,  b.c.  479,  by  the  com- 
bined Greeks,  rid  the  land  of  its  invaders. 

When  the  Persians,  humbled  to  the  dust, 
no  longer  had  the  audacity  to  threaten  Greece, 
the  glory  of  the  Athenians  brightened,  day 
by  day.  The  people  saw  with  delight  the 
extension  of  their  privileges.  All  orders, 
feeling  the  benefit  of  equal  institutions,  lab- 
ored in  common  for  the  aggrandizement  of 
their  country.  Members  of  all  classes  were 
now  made  eligible  to  office,  and  the  poor  felt 
that  they  stood  upon  an  equal  footing  with 


the  rich,  and  rpight,  by  exertion,  rise  superior 
to  them.  The  period  from  the  close  of  the 
Persian  war,  b.c.  479,  to  the  time  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian war,  b.c.  431,  includes  days  of  un- 
common splendor  in  the  history  of  Athens. 
The  naval  supremacy  of  Attica  arose.  Cimon 
and  Pericles  introduced  elegance  into  Athens, 
and  the  age  of  the  latter  is  commonly  quoted 
as  the  golden  era  of  the  country.  The  arts 
under  his  liberal  patronage,  flourished  to  a 
great  degree.  In  his  time,  that  glorious  tem- 
ple to  Minerva,  the  most  perfect  example  of 
Grecian  art,  the  Parthenon,  was  erected. 
Magnificent  temples  sprang  up  in  every  direc- 
tion, the  marble  breathed,  the  pencil  glowed, 
and  the  lips  of  the  orator  and  poet  were  gifted 
with  kindling  eloquence.  To  this  age  belong 
the  tragic  verse  of  iEschylus,  the  lofty  dramas 
of  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  and  the  biting 
satire  of  Aristophanes.  In  this  time,  too, 
Herodotus  read  his  history  publicly  in  the 
Athenian  council.  Yet,  in  the  midst  of  much 
apparent  prosperity,  the  foundation  of  mis- 
fortune was  laid.  The  abundance  of  wealth 
was  not  without  deteriorating  influence,  and 
the  Athenians  became  so  enamored  of  the 
elegances  of  life,  that  they  began  to  prefer 
them  to  manliness  and  independence.  Peri- 
cles was  at  the  zenith  of  his  greatness  b.c. 
444.  He  engaged  in  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
b.c.  431,  the  end  of  which,  after  twenty-seven 
years,  was  that  the  Lacedaemonians,  ever 
more  hardy  if  not  more  brave  than  the  ele- 
gant Athenians,  made  themselves  masters  of 
Athens,  and  granted  peace  to  the  vanquished 
on  the  most  humiliating  conditions.  For 
eight  months  the  Athenians  groaned  under 
the  yoke  of  the  thirty  magistrates,  or,  as 
they  were  called,  the  thirty  tyrants,  whom 
the  Lacedaemonians  imposed  upon  them,  and 
kept  under  the  protection  of  their  garrison. 
The  man  who  led  to  the  overthrow  of  this 
oppression,  was  Thrasybulus.  Again  the 
star  of  Athens  rose  to  the  zenith,  bright  as 
if  no  cloud  had  ever  covered  it  and  hid  its 
silvery  brilliancy  beneath  a veil.  The  Athe- 
nians joined  the  Thebans  against  Sparta  and 
were  successful.  They  were  yet  to  feel, 
however,  the  importance  of  a power  hitherto 
unacknowledged  or  despised.  Philip  of  Mac- 
edon  descended  from  the  north.  In  vain  did 
Demosthenes  urge  the  Athenians  to  die  in 
defense  of  their  liberty.  In  vain  did  this 


ATH 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


81 


extraordinary  man  hurl  his  tremendous  anath- 
emas against  Philip.  He  was  doomed  to  see 
the  subjugation  of  his  countrymen.  Philip 
was  neither  daunted  by  eloquence,  nor  re- 
pulsed by  bravery.  The  battle  of  Cheronaea, 
b.c.  338,  struck  a death-blow  to  Grecian 
liberty.  Athens  remained,  with  the  other 
states  of  Greece,  dependent  upon  the  Mace- 
donian power  for  existence.  She  did  not 
sink  without  a struggle,  but  all  her  struggles 
were  of  no  avail  against  the  giant  power 
which  had  prostrated  her,  and  fettered  her 
with  bonds  of  adamant. 

When  Athens  was  taken  by  Cassander 
(b.c.  317),  the  oligarchy  was  restored,  and 
Demetrius  Phalerius,  upheld  by  a Macedo- 
nian garrison,  enjoyed  the  office  of  governor 
of  the  state  for  ten  years.  The  Athenians 
entreated  the  assistance  of  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes,  who,  having  taken  the  city,  restored 
the  form  of  the  ancient  constitution.  To  this 
dissolute  ruler  the  corrupt  Athenians  paid 
the  honors  due  only  to  the  gods ; temples  were 
erected  to  his  mistresses ; nor  did  the  abode 
of  the  Virgin  Goddess  herself,  on  the  Acrop- 
olis, escape  desecration  from  the  unbridled 
licentiousness  of  the  time.  Demetrius  was 
overthrown,  287  b.c.  Antigonus  Gonatas  of 
Macedon  conquered  the  Athenians,  268  b.c. 
After  twelve  years  under  his  yoke  they  were 
delivered  by  Aratus,  and  joined  the  Achaean 
league.  The  Romans  gladly  availed  them- 
selves of  the  co-operation  of  the  Athenians 
against  the  last  Philip  of  Macedon.  After 
having  drawn  down  upon  themselves  the 
vengeance  of  Rome  by  espousing  the  side  of 
Mithridates,  88  b.c.,  the  Athenians  trembled 
for  the  consequences.  Sylla  took  their  city, 
b.c.  86,  and  the  show  of  liberty  which  it  after- 
ward retained,  was  but  a bitter  mockery. 
Yet  under  the  Romans,  Athens  continued  to 
be  the  centre  of  the  arts,  of  philosophy,  and 
of  all  the  learning  of  the  time.  Vespasian 
made  Athens  a Roman  province,  and  it  was 
included  in  the  empire  of  the  east,  after  the 
division  of  the  Roman  empire.  But  it  was 
destined  to  feel  the  terror  of  that  power 
beneath  which  the  queen  of  cities  was  pros- 
trated to  the  dust.  Alaric  the  Goth,  a.d. 
396,  conquered  and  devastated  the  country. 
From  this  period,  the  liberty  of  Athens  ex- 
isted but  in  the  recollection  of  the  past.  In 
420,  paganism  was  abolished  in  Athens,  and 
6 


the  Parthenon  converted  into  a church  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  In  1456,  the  Turks  gained 
possession  of  the  city.  A black  eunuch  held 
the  place  which  Pericles  once  adorned,  and 
the  Parthenon,  no  longer  a Christian  church, 
was  forced  to  answer  as  a mosque.  In  1687, 
the  Venetians  besieged  Athens,  and  some  of 
the  works  of  the  immortal  Phidias,  the  sculp- 
tor, were  destroyed  by  the  explosion  of  a 
magazine,  fired  by'  a bomb  thrown  into  the 
Parthenon  by  the  besiegers.  On  the  29tA 
of  September,  Athens  came  into  the  hands  oi 
the  Venetians,  after  its  inhabitants  had  suf- 
fered severely  from  the  siege,  but  was  again 
relinquished  to  the  Turks  in  1688.  From  the 
erection  of  many  barbaric  structures,  some 
of  the  most  valuable  remains  of  antiquity 
have  been  covered  and  concealed,  to  be 
brought  to  light  by  the  researches  of  the 
curious  of  later  days.  From  the  Turks, 
the  Greeks  of  Athens  experienced  a milder 
treatment  than  many  of  their  brethren,  and 
were  permitted  to  retain  many  of  their  an- 
cient observances.  In  1822,  the  Acropolis 
sustained  a long  siege,  which  was  terminated 
by  its  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  patriots. 
News  of  this  was  heard  with  delight  by  all 
the  Greeks,  who  loved  their  country,  and 
rejoiced  to  behold 

“ The  flag  of  freedom  wave  once  more 

Above  the  lofty  Parthenon.” 

When  at  last  Grecian  independence  was 
established,  Athens  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  new  kingdom. 

ATHOS,  a mountain  of  ancient  Macedonia, 
now  Agion-oros,  or  Monte  Santo,  in  the  Turk- 
ish province  of  Saloniki.  On  its  sides  are 
many  hermitages,  and  twenty  monasteries, 
with  over  eight  thousand  monks,  chiefly  Rus- 
sians and  Greeks,  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil. 
No  female,  even  of  the  animal  kind,  is  allowed 
to  enter  the  peninsula  on  which  the  holy 
mountain  stands.  Some  of  the  monasteries 
are  said  to  contain  very  ancient  and  valuable 
manuscripts.  Not  long  since,  a manuscript 
of  the  eighth  century,  a translation  of  the  Bi- 
ble into  the  Georgian  language  by  St.  Euphe- 
mius,  was  discovered  here.  The  summit  of 
this  mountain  is  about  6,350  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  At  the  foot  of  it,  Xerxes 
caused  a trench  a mile  and  a half  long,  to  be 
cut  and  filled  with  sea-water.  This  was  for 


ATH 


82 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


* 


the  passage  of  his  fleet,  and  of  such  width  that 
two  ships  could  sail  abreast. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN.  There  is  not  in  the 
multitude  of  natural  wonders,  a more  sublime 
spoctacle  than  that  afforded  by  the  world  of 
waters,  under  whatever  view  it  is  contempla- 
ted. Impressive  and:  beautiful  it  is,  when 
stretched  out  in  the  tranquil  repose  of  an  un- 
broken calm,  reflecting  the  still  splendor  of 
the  heavens  by  day,  or  their  diamond  bril- 
liancy by  night.  Far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
there  is  hardly  a ripple  on  the  wave,  and  at 
the  horizon,  the  azure  of  the  air  and  that  of 
the  ocean  join  in  the  bridal  of  the  sea  and  sky. 
Yet  more  impressive  is  the  aspect  of  the  deep 
sea  in  a tempest;  when  the  elements  are 
awakened  from  their  slumber,  and  abroad  in 
their  terrible  strength,  and  the  wild  winds  of 
heaven  sport  with  gigantic  mountains  of  wa- 
ter, heaving  them  to  and  fro,  with  the  ease  of 
zephyrs  sporting  with  dew-drops. 

The  formation  of  the  bed  of  the  Atlantic, 
from  latitude  20°  S.,  up  to  the  north  pole, 
has  been  ascribed  to  the  concussion  of  im- 
mense masses  of  water,  produced  by  the  del- 
uge, when,  it  is  conceived,  the  waters  of  the 
great  southern  ocean  below  the  equator, 
rushed  upon  the  northern  hemisphere.  From 
Cape  Frio  to  the  river  of  the  Amazons,  in 
South  America,  there  is  a vast  protuberance 
answering  to  the  incurvation  of  the  African 
shore  from  the  river  of  Congo  to  Cape  Palmas ; 
while,  from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  Cape 
Palmas,  there  is  an  immense  protuberance, 
corresponding  to  the  incurvation  between 
New  York  and  Cape  St.  Roque.  This  con- 
jecture is  thought  probable,  since  the  depres- 
sion caused  by  such  an  immense  body  of  wa- 
ter could  not  be  otherwise  than  enormous, 
considering  the  shock  and  weight  of  the  op- 
posing bod}r. 

Until  the  successful  issue  of  the  voyages  of 
Columbus,  it  was  imagined  that  there  was 
one  unbroken  extent  of  water  between  the 
western  shores  of  Europe  and  Africa,  and  the 
East  Indies ; and  the  great  navigator  himself 
imagined  that  he  had  reached  the  Indian 
realms,  by  a shorter  route  than  that  pursued 
by  the  Portuguese.  The  name  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  is  connected  with  a tradition  which  is 
lost  in  the  night  of  antiquity,  and  which, 
reaching  the  Greeks  from  the  Egyptians,  has 
been  commemorated  by  Plato.  It  was  said 


that  there  originally  existed  an  isle  called  At- 
lantis, which  rose  from  the  bosom  of  the 
ocean,  and  surpassed  in  extent  Asia  and  Libya 
together.  Plato’s  testimony  has  caused  a 
controversy  among  modern  authors  respecting 
the  situation  and  nature  of  Atlantis.  Of 
course,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  situ- 
ation of  an  isle  which  existed  before  the  ages 
of  history,  but  still  shall  we  disregard  the 
truth  of  the  tale?  What  interest  had  the 
Greeks  in  imagining  a fable,  which  bore  no 
relation  to  their  history,  and  which  was  not 
calculated  to  affect  their  religious  belief? 
Why  should  the  Greeks  have  adopted  it? 
“ The  islanders,”  says  Plato,  “ subdued  Libya, 
Egypt,  and  Europe,  as  far  as  Asia  Minor ; at 
last,  Atlantis  was  swallowed  by  the  waters, 
and  for  a long  time  afterward,  the  sea  was 
full  of  earth  and  sand-banks,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  place  which  the  island  had  occupied.” 
This  last  passage  proves  the  existence  of  a 
tradition  of  a terrible  outbreak  of  the  waters 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  overwhelmed 
Atlantis. 

The  depth  of  the  Atlantic  is  various,  being 
in  some  parts  unfathomable.  Its  saltness  and 
specific  gravity  diminish  gradually  from  the 
equator  to  the  poles.  Near  the  British  islands, 
the  salt  is  said  to  be  one  thirty-eighth  of  the 
weight  of  the  water.  The  temperature  of  the 
Atlantic  is  influenced,  considerably,  by  the 
masses  of  ice  which  float  from  the  northward 
toward  the  equator,  reaching  frequently  the 
fortieth  degree  of  latitude.  Dangerous  as  are 
these  icebergs  to  the  mariner,  they  yet  pre- 
sent a splendid  appearance  as  they  float  on- 
ward to  southern  latitudes,  gleaming  in  the 
sunbeams,  which,  while  they  impart  dazzling 
brilliancy,  hasten  the  dissolutionof  thefloating 
masses.  The  continual  melting  gives  a very 
fanciful  appearance  to  the  icebergs,  which  is 
heightened  by  the  rivulets  pouring  from  point 
to  point,  like  the  streams  trickling  down  a 
cavern  of  stalactites.  Passages  between  North 
America  and  Europe  ir\  the  months  of  June 
and  July,  are  sometimes  rendered  perilous  by 
the  frequency  of  icebergs  from  the  northward. 

Much  important  information  concerning  the 
currents  and  winds  of  the  Atlantic  has  been 
gained  by  the  observations  planned  and  di- 
rected by  Lieut.  Maury.  The  waters  of  the 
tropical  seas  have  a westward  motion,  known 
as  the  equatorial  current.  This  oceanic  stream 


ATL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


83 


flows  from  the  African  coast  to  Cape  St.  Roque, 
where  dividing,  one  branch  sets  southward 
along  the  coast  of  Brazil,  while  the  larger 
branch  rushes  impetuously  along  the  shore 
of  Guiana,  and  through  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
The  Gulf  Stream,  the  most  famous  of  all  the 
Atlantic  currents,  is  described  in  a separate 
article.  A powerful  current  takes  its  start 
from  the  sea  between  Ireland  and  Spain,  and 
sweeps  down  the  African  coast  as  far  as  the 
shores  of  Guinea.  The  Arctic  current  has  its 
origin  in  the  polar  seas  of  the  north,  skirts 
the  coasts  of  Greenland  and  Labrador,  and  off 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland  is  bifurcated  by 
the  Gulf  Stream.  The  forks  continue  south- 
ward in  deep  submarine  currents.  These 
are  the  great  arteries  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
heart  of  the  ocean  never  ceases  to  beat.  A 
strong  current,  far  down  in  the  depths  of  the 
sea,  is  supposed  to  flow  from  the  Atlantic  into 
the  Arctic  seas.  Lieut.  Maury  tells  us  of  a 
Grassy  (Sargasso)  Sea,  midway  the  Atlantic, 
in  the  triangular  space  between  the  Azores, 
Canaries,  and  Cape  Y erde  Islands.  Covering 
an  area  equal  in  extent  to  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley, it  is  so  thickly  matted  over  with  gulf- 
weed  that  the  speed  of  vessels  passing  through 
it  is  often  much  retarded.  The  comrades  of 
Columbus  thought  it  marked  the  limits  of 
navigation,  and  were  much  alarmed.  Patches 
of  the  weed  are  always  to  be  seen  floating 
along  the  Gulf  Stream.  Now,  if  bits  of  cork 
be  put  into  a basin,  and  a circular  motion 
given  to  the  water,  they  will  be  found  crowding 
near  the  centre  of  the  pool,  where  there  is 
the  least  motion.  Such  a basin  is  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  the  Sargasso  Sea  is 
the  centre  of  the  whirl.  Columbus  found  this 
grassy  sea,  and  there  it  is  at  this  day. 

The  steady  easterly  breezes  that  prevail 
within  the  tropics  are  known  as  trade-winds. 
Without  this  region  the  winds  are  variable, 
but  generally  westerly.  In  the  latitude  of 
the  equator  and  of  the  two  tropics,  calms  pre- 
vail. Those  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer  have  long 
been  known  as  the  ‘horse  latitudes,’  from 
the  fact  that  vessels  carrying  horses  from  New 
England  to  the  West  Indies  were  often  be- 
calmed here  till  their  water  was  almost  ex- 
hausted, and  some  of  the  cargo  must  be  thrown 
overboard,  to  save  the  remainder.  By  taking 
advantage  of  the  prevailing  winds  and  cur- 
rents, voyages  have  been  almost  incredibly 


shortened,  and  the  old  adage  made  true,  that 
“ the  longest  way  round  is  the  shortest  way 
home.” 

ATLAS  is  the  historical  and  geographical 
name  of  the  extensive  mountain  system  whose 
ranges,  branches,  and  table-lands  cover  the 
north-west  of  Africa,  and  form  a barrier  be- 
tween the  Barbary  states  and  the  sands  of  the 
Sahara. 

ATTERBURY,  Francis,  Bishop  of  Roches- 
ter, an  eloquent  English  preacher,  born  in 
1662,  arrested  on  a charge  of  conspiracy  in 
favor  of  the  Stuarts,  1722 ; died  in  exile,  1732. 

ATTICA,  a country  of  ancient  Greece,  is  a 
peninsula,  united  with  Boeotia  toward  the 
north,  and  partially  with  Megaris  on  the  west. 
At  Cape  Sunium  (now  Colonna),  it  projects 
far  into  the  ^Egean  Sea.  [Nee  Athens.]  At- 
tica was  once  famous  for  its  gold  and  silver 
mines,  which  constituted  the  best  part  of  the 
public  revenues,  and  were  worked  by  twenty 
thousand  men.  The  inhabitants  were  num- 
bered, in  the  sixteenth  Olympiad,  at  31,000 
citizens,  and  400,000  slaves,  in  a hundred  and 
seventy-four  villages,  some  of  which  were 
considerable  towns.  The  fragrance  and  abun- 
dance of  flowers  in  Attica  made  the  mountain 
slopes  of  Hymettus  famous  for  their  honey. 

ATTILA,  king  of  the  Huns,  ravaged  Europe 
between  434  and  453.  He  rendered  the  Greek 
empire  tributary,  and  invaded  Gaul,  but  was 
defeated  on  the  Maine.  He  threatened  Rome, 
but  was  induced  by  a vast  ransom  to  retire. 
Attila  was  given  to  excess,  and  died  from  the 
bursting  of  a blood-vessel  on  the  night  of  his 
nuptials  with  the  beautiful  Ildico,  453.  His 
body  was  put  in  three  coffins,  the  outer  of 
iron,  the  next  of  silver,  and  the  inner  one  of 
gold.  His  personal  appearance  has  been  de- 
scribed by  Jornandes.  He  had  a large  head, 
a flat  nose,  broad  shoulders,  and  a short,  mis-  * 
shapen  body.  The  dread  inspired  by  this 
fierce  warrior,  at  the  head  of  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  barbarians,  gained  him  the  sur- 
names of  the  ‘ terror  of  the  world  ’ and  the 
‘ scourge  of  God.’ 

AUDUBON,  John  James,  born  in  Louisiana 
1782,  died  Jan.*  27th,  1851.  His  life  was  de- 
voted to  ornithology,  and  his  great  work, 

“ The  Birds  of  America,”  was  pronounced  by 
Cuvier,  “ the  most  gigantic  and  most  magnif- 
icent monument  ever  erected  to  Nature.” 
His  parentage  was  French,  and  in  youth  he 


AUD 


84 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


enjoyed  the  tuition  of  the  great  painter  David. 
His  love  of  nature  led  him  to  the  forest,  and 
he  had  crowded  portfolios  with  drawings  of 
birds  long  before  he  had  any  thought  of  pub- 
lishing. “ The  Birds  of  America  ” was  a costly 
publication.  There  were  one  hundred  and 
seventy -five  subscriptions  of  a thousand  dol- 
lars each,  eighty  of  which  were  obtained  in 
this  country,  and  the  remainder  in  Europe. 
The  work  was  issued  in  Edinburgh. 

AUERSTADT.  In  this  bloody  conflict  be- 
tween the  French  and  Prussian  armies,  Oct. 
14th,  1806,  they  were  commanded  by  their 
respective  sovereigns,  and  Napoleon  gained  a 
decisive  victory.  The  Prussians,  routed  on 
every  side,  lost  two  hundred  pieces  of  cannon, 
thirty  standards,  and  28,000  prisoners,  leaving 
80,000  slain  upon  the  field.  Napoleon  at  once 
entered  Berlin. 

AUGEREAU,  Pierre  Francois  Charles, 
Duke  of  Castiglione,  was  one  of  those  men 
who  emerged  from  obscurity,  and  obtained  a 
high  rank  among  the  officers  that  surrounded 
Napoleon,  giving  such  unrivaled  brilliancy  to 
his  court  and  camp.  Augereau  was  the  son 
of  a fruit-merchant,  and  was  born  at  Paris, 
1757 ; serving,  as  soon  as  he  was  able,  as  a 
carbineer  in  the  French  army.  Having  sub- 
sequently entered  the  Neapolitan  service,  he 
was  banished  from  Naples,  in  1792.  He  then 
served  as  a volunteer  in  the  army  of  Italy, 
and  attracted  attention  by  his  bravery  and 
military  talent.  In  1794,  we  find  him  a gen- 
eral of  brigade,  and,  in  1796,  general  of  divis- 
ion. He  distinguished  himself,  at  the  pass 
of  Millesimo,  at  Lodi,  at  Castiglione,  at  Ar- 
eola, &c.  In  1799,  he  was  chosen  member  of 
the  council  of  five  hundred.  He  was  intrusted 
by  Bonaparte  with  the  command  of  the  army 
in  Holland,  joined  Moreau,  and  fought  with 
varying  fortune,  until  the  campaign  was  ended 
by  the  battle  of  Ilohenlinden.  In  1803,  he 
was  appointed  to  head  the  expedition  against 
Portugal,  which  enterprise  failed.  Returning 
to  Paris,  he  was  named,  in  1804,  marshal  of 
the  empire,  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor  and  the  next  year,  Duke  of  Castiglione. 
In  1805,  he  was  in  Germany,  contributing  to 
the  successes  of  the  French.  Wounded  in 
the  battle  of  Eylau,  he  was  forced  to  return 
to  France.  In  1811,  he  had  a command  in 
Spain.  Tn  1813,  he  was  engaged  in  the  battle 
of  Leipsic.  After  the  success  of  the  allies, 


Louis  XVIII.  named  him  a peer.  In  conse- 
quence of  his  speaking  disrespectfully  of  Na- 
poleon after  his  fall,  the  latter,  on  his  return 
from  Elba,  declared  him  a traitor,  although 
Augereau  had  again  acknowledged  him  as 
emperor.  Augereau  took  no  active  part  in 
affairs  until  the  return  of  the  king,  when  he 
resumed  his  seat  in  the  chamber  of  peers.  He 
died  of  the  dropsy,  June  11th,  1816. 

AUGSBURG,  Battle  of.  Between  the 
Austrians  and  the  French,  the  latter  com- 
manded by  Moreau,  who  gained  a victory  so 
decisive,  that  Augsburg  and  Munich  were 
opened  to  him ; fought  Aug.  24th,  1796.  Mo- 
reau, Sept.  2d,  again  defeated  the  Austrians 
on  the  Inn,  and  again  Sept.  7th,  at  Mainburg. 

AUGUSTINE,  Bishop  of  Hippo,  eminent 
among  the  church  fathers,  was  born  in  Nu- 
midia,  a.d.  354.  In  early  life  he  was  loose, 
roving,  and  sensual,  but  he  was  rescued  for 
a higher  existence  by  the  influence  of  his 
mother,  Monica,  and  the  preaching  of  St.  Am- 
brose. When  Hippo  was  menaced  by  the 
Vandals,  the  good  bishop  died  in  the  third 
month  of  the  siege,  at  the  ripe  age  of  seventy- 
six. 

AUGUSTIN,  or  Austin,  St.,  has  been  sur- 
named  the  Apostle  of  the  English.  The 
time  at  which  he  flourished,  was  the  reign  of 
Ethelbert,  toward  the  close  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. Ethelbert  was  then  seated  on  the 
throne  of  Kent,  to  which  he  had  succeeded  on 
the  death  of  his  father  Hermenric,  about  560. 
After  a determined  struggle,  he  had  mastered 
all  the  states  of  the  heptarchy,  with  the 
exception  of  Northumberland.  Ethelbert 
formed  a matrimonial  alliance  with  France, 
claiming  in  marriage  the  hand  of  Bertha,  a 
Christian  princess,  from  her  father,  Caribert, 
king  of  Paris.  The  princess,  distinguished 
for  her  piety  and  virtue,  exacted  a promise 
from  her  husband  that  she  should  not  be 
molested  in  the  enjoyment  of  her  religion, 
and  that,  on  the  contrary,  she  should  be  per- 
mitted to  bring  over  to  England  with  her  a 
French  bishop.  Ethelbert,  who  was  tenderly 
attached  to  her,  made  no  objections,  and 
the  French  bishop  was  received  with  every 
mark  of  respect.  The  conduct  of  the  queen 
was  such  as  to  reflect  honor  on  herself  and 
the  court  of  her  husband,  and  excited  the 
admiration  of  Ethelbert  and  his  subjects. 
The  king  could  not  but  perceive  the  salutary 


AUG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


85 


influence  of  Christianity,  and  was  strongly 
prepossessed  in  its  favor.  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great  received  the  intelligence  of  the 
favorable  disposition  of  the  king  with  un- 
feigned gladness,  and  dispatched  a mission  of 
forty  monks,  headed  by  Augustin,  a.d.  596. 

Augustin  found  the  king  ready  to  lend  a 
willing  ear  to  his  arguments,  and  displayed 
in  a striking  and  happy  light  the  truth  and 
beauty  of  the  gospel.  The  king  was  not 
long  in  avowing  his  belief  in  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity.  With  his  subjects,  Augustin 
was  no  less  successful ; they  embraced  the 
true  religion  with  readiness,  and  crowded  to 
baptism.  It  is  said  that  Augustin  baptized 
no  fewer  than  ten  thousand  in  one  day.  He 
desired  to  be  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
with  supreme  authority  over  all  the  churches 
in  England.  The  pope  was  by  no  means  dis- 
posed to  refuse  any  of  his  requests,  consider- 
ing that  he  had  fairly  earned  any  distinction 
which  it  was  in  papal  power  to  bestow.  The 
archiepiscopal  pall  was  granted  him,  with 
permission  to  establish  twelve  sees  in  the 
province.  The  British  bishops  in  Wales 
refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  under  whose  jurisdiction 
they  had  never  placed  themselves.  They 
were  descendants  of  the  British  converts 
of  the  second  century,  and  sternly  resolved 
to  maintain  their  independence.  Augustin 
urged,  then  threatened.  The  bishops  were 
neither  pliant  nor  timid,  and  adhered  to  their 
original  determination.  A dreadful  tragedy 
was  acted,  twelve  hundred  Welsh  monks 
being  ruthlessly  put  to  the  sword.  Augus- 
tin was  suspected  not  only  of  having  sanc- 
tioned, but  of  having  instigated  the  massacre. 
He  had  been  irritated  by  the  refusal  of  the 
Welsh  ecclesiastics  to  unite  with  the  English 
church,  and  he  thought  their  contumacy  de- 
serving of  the  severest  punishment.  He  died 
in  604  or  614,  and  his  relics  were  deposited 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Canterbury. 

AUGUSTUS,  Caius  Julius  Oesar  Octa- 
vius, son  of  Caius  Octavius  and  Accia,  niece 
of  Julius  Caesar,  was  born  during  the  consul- 
ate of  Cicero,  63  years  b.c.  His  education 
was  carefully  attended  to,  and  he  was  adopted 
by  Julius  Caesar.  He  was  studying  eloquence 
at  Apollonia,  when  his  grand-uncle  was  assas- 
sinated, and  at  nineteen  years  of  age,  placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  veterans,  he 


marched  to  Rome,  which  he  found  distracted 
by  the  republicans  and  the  followers  of  Antony 
and  Lepidus.  Here  he  announced  publicly 
his  adoption,  and  took  his  uncle’s  name.  An- 
tony treated  him  with  a contempt  which  the 
magistrates  and  leading  men  were  far  from 
feeling,  and  Octavius  joined  the  army  that 
was  sent  against  Antony  after  his  proscrip- 
tion. Thinking  it  politic,  however,  to  con- 
ciliate him,  he  joined  Antony,  and  they  with 
Lepidus  formed  the  triumvirate,  which  was 
to  last  for  five  years,  each  enjoying  an  equal 
share  of  authority.  Octavius  sacrified  Cicero 
to  the  malice  of  his  associates,  and  Rome  be- 
came the  theatre  of  the  most  sanguinary 
tragedies.  Brutus  and  Cassius  having  been 
defeated,  a new  partition  of  spoils  took  place, 
Octavius  and  Antony  obtaining  the  Roman 
empire,  while  Lepidus  was  forced  to  content 
himself  with  the  African  provinces,  and  was 
finally  deposed.  Octavius  gave  his  sister 
Octavia  in  marriage  to  Antony.  The  con- 
duct and  fate  of  Antony  have  been  related. 
[See  Antony.]  Octavius  was  soon  firmly 
established  in  the  empire.  The  senate  gave 
him  the  title  of  Augustus,  and,  finding  his 
po  wer  confirmed,  he  seems  to  have  endeavored 
strenuously  to  render  his  conduct  worthy  of 
his  dignity.  He  made  regulations  for  the 
safe  conduct  of  the  government;  reducing 
the  number  of  senators  from  a thousand  to 
six  hundred,  and  raising  the  degree  of  wealth 
which  was  to  qualify  them  for  a seat.  He 
set  about  the  reform  of  the  public  manners 
and  morals,  and  carried  his  arms  successfully 
into  Gaul,  Germany,  and  the  east.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign,  however,  he  met  with 
severe  losses  in  Germany,  when  Hermann 
roused  his  enthralled  countrymen  to  arms. 

He  died  at  Nola,  a.d.  14,  in  the  seventy- 
sixth  year  of  his  age,  and  forty-first  of  his 
reign.  On  the  approach  of  death,  he  called 
for  a mirror,  and  arranged  his  hair.  He  then 
asked  those  about  him,  if  he  had  played  his 
part  well  ? On  their  answering  in  the  affirm- 
ative, he  said,  after  the  manner  of  the  actors, 
“ Then  farewell — and  applaud ! ” He  greatly 
improved  the  appearance  of  the  capital,  and 
it  was  said,  that  “ he  had  found  Rome  brick, 
and  had  left  it  marble.”  He  liberally  patron- 
ized men  of  letters,  and  ‘ Augustan  age  ’ is 
a phrase  applied  to  any  era  distinguished  for 
literature  and  the  arts.  Yirgil  and  Horace 


AUG 


86 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


were  among  the  brightest  ornaments  of  his 
reign.  Two  conspiracies  formed  against  him 
miscarried,  Cinna,  the  leader  of  one,  being 
generously  pardoned.  The  emperor’s  private 
griefs  were  heavy,  and  he  suffered  great 
misery  from  the  debauchery  of  his  daughter 
J ulia. 

AURELIAN,  Lucius  Domitius,  emperor  of 
Rome,  distinguished  for  his  military  talents 
and  severity,  was  the  son  of  a peasant  of 
Illyricum,  born  a.d.  212,  and  having  served 
with  distinction  under  Valerian  II.  and  Clau- 
dius II.,  was  recommended  as  his  successor 
by  the  latter,  and  raised  to  the  throne  to  the 
satisfaction  of  all.  He  subdued  Zenobia, 
queen  of  Palmyra,  erected  a new  wall  round 
Rome,  and  was  assassinated,  a.d.  275. 

AURENG-ZEBE  (‘  ornament  of  the  throne  ’) 
was  born  October  20th,  1619.  His  father, 
Shah  Jehan,  succeeded  to  the  Mogul  throne 
when  Aureng-zebe  was  in  his  ninth  year. 
In  youth,  he  was  distinguished  by  his  great 
sanctity  of  appearance,  and  he  used  the  arts 
of  hypocrisy  to  cloak  his  designs.  He  looked 
forward  to  the  possession  of  the  throne  of 
Hindostan,  in  the  life-time  of  his  father.  In 
1658,  he  seized  Agra,  and  imprisoned  his 
father.  Having  murdered  his  relatives  in 
succession,  he  ascended  the  throne  in  1659, 
and  took  the  name  of  Aalem  Guyr.  Not- 
withstanding his  crimes  in  gaining  the  throne, 
he  governed  with  ability  and  success.  He 
greatly  enlarged  his  dominions,  and  became 
so  formidable,  that  all  the  eastern  princes 
sent  him  ambassadors.  He  died  at  the  age 
of  eighty-nine,  bequeathing  his  possessions 
to  his  sons.  Wars  broke  out  immediately 
after  his  decease,  and  many  of  the  conquered 
provinces  sought  their  former  independence. 

AUSTERLITZ,  a town  of  Moravia,  in  the 
circle  of  Brunn,  has  been  rendered  famous 
by  the  battle  fought  in  its  neighborhood,  on 
the  2d  of  December,  1805,  in  which  the  troops 
of  France,  under  the  command  of  Napoleon, 
defeated  the  combined  forces  of  Russia  and 
Austria,  headed  by  their  respective  emperors. 
The  combined  troops  amounted  to  100,000 
men,  of  wrhom  one-fourth  were  Austrians; 
while  Napoleon  had  but  80,000,  twrenty  bat- 
talions of  which,  with  forty  pieces  of  artillery, 
he  kept  back  as  a reserve.  At  sunrise  the 
battle  began,  and  shortly  afterward,  a most 
furious  cannonade  wrapped  the  combatants 


in  fire  and  smoke.  Two  hundred  pieces  of 
cannon  created  an  appalling  uproar.  At  one 
o’clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  French  were  vic- 
torious, and  the  Russians  and  Austrians 
retreated.  The  French  found  themselves  in 
possession  of  forty  stands  of  colors,  and  a 
hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon,  while 
twenty  generals,  and  upward  of  30,000  pris- 
oners were  taken. 

An  artillery  officer  of  the  Russian  imperial 
guard,  having  just  lost  his  guns,  met  Napo- 
leon: “Sire,”  said  he,  “order  me  to  be  shot, 
fori  have  lost  my  pieces.”  “Young  man,” 
replied  the  emperor,  “ I appreciate  your  tears ; 
but  you  may  have  been  defeated  by  my  army 
and  yet  have  indisputable  claims  to  glory.” 
The  French  artillery  caused  a heavy  loss  to 
the  enemy,  and  Napoleon  in  noticing  their 
exploits,  said,  “Your  success  has  given  me 
great  pleasure,  for  I do  not  forget  that  in 
your  ranks  I commenced  my  military  career.” 
The  soldiers  called  this  battle  the  day  of  the 
three  emperors,  while  Napoleon  named  it  the 
day  of  Austerlitz.  The  commencement  of 
the  action  was  striking.  The  French  empe- 
ror, surrounded  by  his  marshals,  in  brilliant 
uniforms,  refrained  from  giving  his  orders 
until  the  first  rays  of  the  sun  shot  a splendor 
on  the  scene,  and  the  horizon  became  illumi- 
nated. He  then  issued  his  orders  distinctly 
but  rapidly,  and  the  marshals  parted  at  full 
gallop,  each  to  his  corps.  The  emperor, 
passing  in  front  of  several  regiments,  thus 
addressed  them : “ Soldiers ! we  must  finish 
this  campaign  by  a thunder-clap,  which  will 
astound  our  enemies  and  crush  their  pride ! ” 
Thousands  of  hats  waved  on  bayonets,  and 
cries  of  “ Long  live  the  emperor,”  w ere  the 
signals  of  attack.  “Never,”  said  Napoleon, 
“wras  field  of  battle  more  dreadful.” 

On  the  4th  of  December,  Napoleon  had  an 
interview  with  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  in 
w hich  an  armistice  and  the  principal  condi- 
tions of  peace  wrere  agreed  upon.  Meanwhile, 
the  French  troops  having  nearly  surrounded 
the  retreating  Russians,  Savary,  Napoleon’s 
aid-de-camp,  wras  dispatched  to  the  Emperor 
of  Russia,  to  inform  him  that  he  could  retire 
in  safety  if  he  adhered  to  the  capitulation, 
retreating  by  stages  regulated  by  Napoleon, 
and  would  evacuate  Germany  and  Poland. 
“On  this  condition,”  added  Savary,  “lam 
commanded  by  the  emperor  to  repair  to  our 


AUS 


I1 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


PLACE  WHERE  GOLD  WAS  FIRST  DISCOVERED  IN  AUSTRALIA. 


87 


advanced  posts,  which  have  already  turned 
you,  and  give  them  his  orders  to  protect 
your  retreat,  the  emperor  wishing  to  respect 
the  friend  of  the  first  consul.”  “ What  guar- 
antee must  I give  you  ? ” “ Sire,  your  word.” 

“ I give  it.”  Orders  were  accordingly  given, 
and  the  retreat  of  the  Russians  protected. 

This  decisive  battle  led  to  the  treaty  of 
Presburg,  b}7"  which  Austria  confirmed  the 
independence  of  the  Helvetic  republic,  aban- 
doned the  Venetian  territories  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy,  and  renounced  her  possessions 
in  the  Tyrol  and  Suabia.  The  latter,  Napo- 
leon transferred  to  the  sovereigns  of  Bava- 
ria, Wurtemburg,  and  Baden,  in  reward  for 
their  aid. 

AUSTRALIA  is  the  present  name  of  a 
large  island  formerly  known  as  New  Holland, 
lying  south-east  of  Asia.  The  Dutch  discov- 
ered it  in  1606.  The  British  began  the 
transportation  of  convicts  to  Botany  Bay  in 
1787,  and  abandoned  it  in  1853.  The  dis- 
covery of  gold  has  worked  a startling  revul- 


sion in  the  condition  of  Australia.  As  early 
as  1841  Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  called  attention 
to  the  similarity  of  the  geological  formations 
of  the  mountains  of  Australia  to  those  of  the 
Ural  range  in  Russia,  and  asserted  his  belief 
that  gold  must  exist  in  Australia.  In  1849, 
a Mr.  Smith  informed  the  colonial  govern- 
ment that  he  had  found  gold,  and  offered  to 
make  known  the  locality  for  a certain  reward. 
Smith  and  the  government  could  not  agree 
upon  the  amount  of  bonus,  and  the  matter 
dropped  till  1851,  when  Mr.  Hargraves,  who 
had  come  from  gold-digging  in  California, 
also  found  gold,  and  disclosed  the  places.* 
The  colony  was  seized  with  a frenzy,  and 
almost  the  entire  population  sought  the  golden 
realm.  An  immense  emigration  from  Great 
Britain  ensued,  and  has  steadily  continued. 
The  precious  metal  has  been  found  in  profu- 
sion, and  to  all  appearance  this  golden  garner 
of  ages  will  not  be  exhausted  for  years  to 
come.  Copper,  iron,  lead,  and  coal  have  also 
been  found  in  abundance. 


AUS 


83 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Australia  is  divided  into  the  colonies  of 
New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australia, 
Western  Australia,  and  the  district  of  North 
Australia.  By  the  immigration  rapidly  pour- 
ing in,  and  the  consequent  swift  development 
of  its  resources,  Australia  is  in  a transition 
state  which  precludes  a detailed  description. 
The  truth  to-day  is  far  outstripped  to- 
morrow. New  South  Wales,  occupying  the 
south-eastern  portion,  is  the  oldest  colony. 
Sydney,  its  capital,  a city  on  the  south  shore 
of  Port  Jackson,  had  a population  of  50,000 
in  1851.  Bathurst,  two  hundred  miles  north- 
west, is  a thriving  town.  Victoria,  or  Port 
Phillip,  the  most  prosperous  of  the  Australian 
colonies,  lies  between  New  South  Wales  and 
South  Australia,  and  was  first  settled  in 
1885.  Melbourne,  its  capital,  is  on  the  Yar- 
ra-Yarra  River,  near  the  head  of  Port  Phillip 
Bay.  It  is  a spacious  city,  the  seat  of  ex- 
tensive commerce,  and  had  a population  of 
100,000  in  1852.  Geelong  is  an  important 
port  on  the  south-western  shore  of  Port 
Phillip.  The  discovery  of  the  gold-fields  of 
New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  checked  for  a 
while  the  growth  of  South  Australia,  but 
could  not  destroy  its  prosperity.  Adelaide  is' 
its  capital.  W estern  Australia,  or  Swan 

River  Settlement,  is  the  least  of  the  colonies. 
Perth  is  its  seat  of  government. 

We  have  mentioned  only  the  principal 
towns  of  Australia.  Myriads  of  villages  and 
settlements  are  springing  from  the  wilderness. 
Railroads  are  being  constructed.  The  com- 
merce is  an  important  item  in  the  merchandis- 
ing of  the  mother  country.  From  the  fertile 
soil  excellent  crops  of  all  the  common  grains 
are  gained.  Sheep  and  cattle  are  largely  bred. 
Nearly  all  the  vegetables  of  Europe  are  culti- 
vated. Australia  was  destitute  of  indigenous 
edible  fruits,  but  those  of  almost  every  land 
and  clime  are  successfully  raised,  and  the 
grape  and  olive  bid  fair  to  take  rank  among 
the  most  valuable  productions.  The  most 
unfavorable  characteristics  of  the  climate  are 
the  long  droughts  that  prevail,  apparently 
every  ten  or  a dozen  years,  and  the  sudden 
transitions  from  heat  to  cold.  In  spite  of 
these,  the  climate  in  the  settled  parts  is  com- 
monly delightful,  and  not  unhealthy. 

AUSTRIA.  The  Austrian  empire  occupies 
nearly  a twelfth  of  the  surface  of  Europe.  In 
its  dominions  are  comprised,  the  archduchy 


of  Austria  and  circle  of  Salzburg ; the  duchy 
of  Styria ; ,the  earldom  of  the  Tyrol  and  ter- 
ritory of  Voralberg;  the  kingdom  of  Bohe- 
mia ; the  margraviate  of  Moravia  and  Austrian 
Silesia;  the  kingdom  of  Illyria,  comprising 
Carinthia,  Carniola,  Trieste,  and  circle  of 
Carlstadt ; the  kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodo- 
meria,  including  the  duchy  of  Aufschwitz 
and  Zator  and  the  Buckowine ; the  kingdom 
of  Hungary,  with  Sclavonia,  Croatia,  and  the 
military  frontier ; the  principality  of  Transsyl- 
vania  with  the  military  frontier ; the  kingdom 
of  Dalmatia ; the  kingdom  of  Lombardy  and 
Venice ; and  the  territory  of  Cracow.  These 
have  an  area  of  255,722  square  miles,  and  had 
in  1854  a population  of  39,411,309.  The  only 
sea-coast  which  this  great  empire  possesses  is 
on  the  Adriatic,  so  that  its  commerce  is  re- 
stricted. Vienna,  on  the  Danube,  is  the  capi- 
tal of  the  empire,  and  the  principal  seat  of 
trade  and  manufactures.  [See  Vienna.] 

The  house  of  Hapsburg  has  been  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  families  in  Europe.  Hapsburg 
was  an  ancient  castle  of  Switzerland,  on  a 
lofty  eminence  in  the  canton  of  Berne.  This 
castle  was  the  cradle  as  it  were  of  the  imperial 
line  of  Austria,  whose  ancestors  may  be  traced 
back  to  the  thirteenth  century,  when  Rodolph, 
Count  of  Hapsburg,  was  chosen  to  wear  the 
imperial  diadem  of  Germany.  He  wrested 
the  Austrian  duchy  from  Bohemia,  and  confer- 
red its  sovereignty  upon  his  son  Albert,  as  an 
appendage  to  the  Hapsburg  possessions.  The 
house  thus  founded  was  much  indebted  for 
its  rise  to  power,  to  the  good  fortune  of  suc- 
cessive marriages  and  the  beauty  of  its  daugh- 
ters ; whence  it  came  to  be  a common  saying, 
that  “Venus  was  more  favorable  to  it  than 
Mars.”  Albert  succeeded  to  the  imperial 
crown.  This  monarch  deputed  harsh  and  ty- 
rannical governors  to  rule  the  Swiss,  and,  in 
consequence  of  continued  oppression,  that 
brave  people  revolted  in  1307,  headed  by  the 
famous  Tell.  Frederick,  son  of  Albert,  found 
himself  forced  to  relinquish  the  empire  into 
the  hands  of  Louis  of  Bavaria.  The  crowns 
of  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia,  were 
united  in  the  person  of  Albert  II.,  Duke  of 
Austria,  who  ascended  the  throne,  a.d.  1438. 
Hungary  and  Bohemia  were  his  by  inherit- 
ance, and  the  empire  by  universal  suffrage. 

The  Emperor  Maximilian,  grandfather  rf 
Charles  V.,  married  the  heiress  of  Burgundy, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


89 


in  consequence  of  which  alliance,  the  Nether- 
lands were  subjected  to  Austria  in  1477.  In 
1496,  the  marriage  of  his  son  Philip  to  the 
heiress  of  Castile  and  Arragon,  led  to  the 
junction  of  the  broad  domains  of  Spain  with 
the  already  ample  territories  of  Austria. 
Charles  V.,  desirous  of  retiring  from  public 
life  and  passing  his  days  in  gloomy  seclusion, 
resigned  the  crown  in  1556 ; Philip  II.,  his 
son,  gained  possession  of  Spain  and  the  Neth- 
erlands ; Ferdinand,  his  brother,  received 
Austria,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary,  and  was  also 
chosen  Emperor  of  Germany.  The  house  of 
Austria  was  noted  for  its  bigotry  and  cruel 
intolerance.  In  1570,  Maximilian  granted 
liberty  of  conscience  (a  great  grant  in  a mon- 
arch !)  to  the  Protestants  of  Austria,  but 
those  in  other  portions  of  his  dominions,  par- 
ticularly in  Bohemia,  were  most  cruelly  per- 
secuted. In  their  distress  the  Protestant  Ger- 
man princes  finally  sought  the  assistance  of 
the  famous  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Swe- 
den. This  famous  warrior,  the  “Lion  of  the 
North,”  as  he  was  called,  broke  upon  the  em- 
pire like  a whirlwind,  and  its  very  foundations 
tottered  beneath  the  shock.  France,  espous- 
ing the  cause  of  the  Protestants,  hoped  thus 
to  weaken  the  power  of  Austria,  and  the  coun- 
try experienced  no  release  from  the  tumults 
and  horrors  of  war,  until  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia was  signed  in  1648. 

The  sword  was  idle  for  a time,  but  the  war 
with  France  broke  out  afresh  during  the  reign 
of  Leopold  I.,  and  was  continued  under  his 
successor.  The  Turks,  emboldened  by  suc- 
cess, in  1688,  pushed  their  arms  into  the  heart 
of  the  empire,  and  the  walls  of  Vienna  echoed 
back  the  clangor  of  the  oriental  cymbals.  The 
siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Turks,  is  a memorable 
and  impressive  event.  In  the  war  of  the  allies 
with  France,  Joseph  I.,  son  of  Leopold,  joined 
with  heart  and  hand,  and  acquired  a share  of 
their  good  fortune.  His  queen  was  a daugh- 
ter of  John  Frederick,  Duke  of  Hanover. 
Charles  VI.  dying  without  issue,  on  the  20th 
of  October,  1740,  the  extinction  of  the  male 
line  of  the  house  of  Austria  was  the  signal  for 
the  movement  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  to 
contest  the  succession.  He  seized  the  king- 
dom of  Bohemia,  was  elected  emperor  in  1742, 
and  died  in  1745.  Francis  of  Lorraine  suc- 
ceeded to  the  Austrian  dominions  in  right  of 
his  queen,  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  Charles 


VI.  The  throne  is  still  occupied  by  his  de- 
scendants. He  was  elected  Emperor  of 
Germany  in  1745,  and  the  crown,  though 
nominally  elective,  descended  to  his  suc- 
cessors with  the  regularity  of  an  hereditary 
sovereignty. 

Francis  II.  was  crowned  emperor  in  1792. 
In  1795,  when  the  second  division  of  Poland 
took  place,  Austria  received  an  immense  ac- 
cession of  territory.  In  1 797,  she  relinquished 
to  France  her  possessions  in  the  Netherlands, 
as  well  as  the  duchies  of  Milan  and  Mantua. 
To  compensate  for  this,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Venetian  states  was  transferred  to  Austria. 
The  military  power  of  France  was  so  formid- 
able, that  even  the  strongest  sovereignties  of 
Europe  feared  they  should  be  unable  to  resist 
its  encroachments.  The  French  threatened 
to  attain  the  empire  of  the  world  by  rapid 
strides.  Involved  in  the  wars  of  1799  and 
1805,  Austria  met  with  repeated  defeats  and 
continued  discomfiture.  After  she  had  lost 
the  great  battles  of  Marengo  and  Hohenlinden, 
Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  her  Venetian  possessions, 
the  Tyrol,  and  other  territories  were  wrested 
from  her  grasp.  In  1809,  Austria  took  the 
field  against  Napoleon,  but  having  to  contend, 
not  only  against  the  French,  but  against  Rus- 
sia, and  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  found 
herself  defeated,  and  when  Bonaparte  entered 
the  capital,  she  was  compelled  to  relinquish 
again  immense  territories.  After  a hopeless 
inaction  of  some  years,  the  failure  of  Napole- 
on’s Russian  expedition  roused  the  Austrians 
to  arms,  and  the  subsequent  success  of  the 
allied  powers  restored  the  power  and  splendor 
of  the  Austrian  empire,  which  gained  the  ad- 
dition of  some  Italian  territories.  Of  the  sub- 
ject kingdoms  and  states  of  Austria,  Hungary 
since  1563  has  continued  an  appanage  of  the 
house  of  Austria;  Transsylvania  came  into 
possession  of  the  Austrians  in  1699  ; Croatia, 
anciently  a part  of  Illyricum,  was  annexed  to 
Austria  in  1540 ; Sclavonia,  also  anciently  a 
part  of  Illyricum,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Austrians  in  1687 ; the  crown  of  Bohemia 
passed  to  the  house  of  Austria  in  1526. 

In  the  eventful  year  of  1848,  revolutions 
broke  out  in  Lombardy  and  Venice,  in  Hun- 
gary, and  in  Austria  proper.  At  first  they 
were  everywhere  successful : the  Austrian 
troops  were  driven  back  from  Hungary  and 
Italy,  and  the  insurgents  held  Vienna.  Hun- 


AUS 


90 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


gary  asserted  its  independence  ; Venice  united 
itself  to  Sardinia ; and  this  vast  empire  seemed 
rapidly  falling  to  piecos.  Ferdinand  abdicated 
in  favor  of  his  nephew  Francis  Joseph  ; a lib- 
eral constitution  was  proclaimed  for  a sop,  in 
March,  1849,  and  the  German  subjects  were 
satisfied  or  silenced.  Radetzky  conquered 
obedience  in  Italy,  and  with  the  assistance  of 
Russia  Hungary  was  crushed.  In  1852  the 
constitution  of  1849  was  revoked,  and  the 
emperor  now  wields  an  absolute  power. 

The  early  sovereigns  of  Austria  will  be 
found  in  the  list  of  emperors  of  Germany. 
Francis  II.  surrendered  the  dignity  of  the 
empire,  Aug.  11,  1804,  and  took  the  title  of 
Francis  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria.  The  Austrian 
emperor  was  one  of  the  six  leading  members 
of  the  German  confederation,  by  virtue  of  his 
sovereignty  over  certain  states  of  Germany. 

This  Confederation  after  half  a century 
ceased  to  exist  on  the  14th  of  June,  1866. 
Early  in  the  year  trouble  began  between 
Austria  and  Prussia  respecting  the  Danish 
Duchies,  which  Prussia  desired  for  the  devel- 
opment of  her  naval  force.  Austrian  influ- 
ence prevailing  in  the  German  Diet  it  au- 
thorized overt  measures  against  Prussia.  The 
very  next  day,  June  15th,  Prussia,  who 
had  been  girding  herself  for  war,  invaded 
Saxony.  Austria  counted  upon  her  foe  being 
as  slow  as  herself,  and  relying  upon  her  mili- 
tary resources,  thought  hers  would  be  an 
easy  victory.  Her  General  Benedek  arro- 
gantly cast  disdain  upon  the  soldiery  and 
military  science  of  Prussia.  The  armies, 
after  several  small  affairs,  met  at  Gitschin  on 
the  24th  of  June,  and  at  Sadowa  July  3d,  in 
decisive  conflict.  The  Austrians  were  thor- 
oughly routed.  The  battle  of  Sadowa  will 
rank  among  the  greatest  of  battles,  there 
being  195,000  Austrians  and  Saxons,  and  250,- 
000  Prussians  engaged.  And  thus,  in  19 
days,  Austria  was  so  thoroughly  broken  and 
humbled  by  her  foe  that  she  surrendered  Von- 
etia,  lost  her  place  and  provinces  in  Germa- 
ny, and  her  position  as  one  of  the  leading 
continental  governments.  Peace  negotia- 
tions were  concluded  August  23d,  just  70 
days  after  the  decision  of  the  Diet. 

EMPERORS  OF  AUSTRIA. 

1804.  Francis  I. : died  March  2d,  1835. 

1835.  Ferdinand,  his  son  March  2d:  abdicated 


AZORES,  or  Western  Islands,  a group  of 
nine  islands,  lying  in  the  Atlantic,  about  800 
miles  west  of  Portugal.  Population  in  1843, 
214,300.  They  were  discovered  by  the  Por- 
tuguese, prior  to  1439,  and  have  ever  since 
belonged  to  that  nation.  The  name  wTas 
given  from  the  abundance  of  falcons  ( azores ) 
found  here.  When  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese they  were  void  of  inhabitants.  In 
1466  these  islands  were  presented  to  the 
Duchess  of  Burgundy,  by  her  brother,  the 
King  of  Portugal.  They  were  colonized  by 
Germans  and  Flemings,  who  appear,  however, 
always  to  have  acknowledged  the  sovereignty 
of  Portugal.  The  Azores  are  recognized  at 
sea  from  a great  distance,  by  Pico,  a tall 
mountain,  which,  like  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe, 
towers  far  above  the  deep,  and  stands  a last- 
ing landmark  to  mariners.  The  islands  are 
subject  to  earthquakes  and  volcanic  erup- 
tion, and,  in  1574,  St.  George’s,  Pico,  Fayal, 
and  Terceira,  although  detached  and  distant 
from  each  other,  were  violently  convulsed. 
The  ocean  overflowed  from  the  shock,  which 
produced  eighteen  little  islands.  A similar 
convulsion  of  nature  occurred  in  July,  1638. 
And  after  a commotion  of  six  weeks,  an  island 
of  nearly  six  miles  in  circumference,  arose 
near  St.  Michael’s,  but  was  subsequently  ab- 
sorbed. In  1720,  the  most  horrible  and  tu- 
multuous scenes  occurred,  and,  amidst  an 
almost  unequaled  combination  of  horrors, 
causing  the  death  of  many  persons  from 
fright,  an  island  nearly  as  large  as  that  of 
1638,  emerged  from  its  submarine  birth-place. 
The  islands  are  supposed  to  rest  on  volcanic 
foundations,  which  extend  to  the  western 
shores  of  Portugal,  though  the  communica- 
tion may  be  in  many  parts  obstructed.  In 
1811  a volcano  appeared  in  the  sea  near  St. 
Michael’s,  where  the  water  was  eighty  fath- 
oms deep,  throwing  up  an  island  a mile  in 
circumference.  This  new  isle  wTas  called  Sa- 
brina. It  gradually  disappeared.  Fayal  is 
frequently  visited  by  American  and  European 
ships  for  provisions  or  refitting. 

• AZTECS,  a race  supposed  to  have  migrated 
from  the  region  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Califor- 
nia, to  Mexico,  where  they  founded  the  ex- 
tensive empire  which  was  conquered  by  the 
Spaniards.  They  were  possessed  of  knowl- 
edge in  astronomy,  architecture,  sculpture, 
and  other  arts  of  social  life,  and  their  antiq- 
uities have  been  a puzzle  for  the  learned. 


in  favor  of  his  nephew,  Dec.  2d,  1848. 
1848.  Francis  Joseph,  Dec.  2d. 

AZT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


91 


BAALBEC,  a ruined  city  in  Syria,  forty- 
two  miles  east-north-east  of  Beirut.  The 
name  signifies  ‘ the  city  of  the  sun ; ’ and 
accordingly  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  it 
was  called  Heliopolis.  Its  origin  and  history 
are  obscure.  By  some  it  is  conjectured  to  be 
the  Baalath  reared  by  Solomon  in  Lebanon, 
as  mentioned  in  the  eighth  chapter  of  the 
second  book  of  Chronicles.  Its  ruins  are 
magnificent. 

BABYLON^  a famous  city  of  Assyria,  and 
once  the  greatest  in  the  world.  Its  ruins 
still  exist  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
near  Ilillah.  Herodotus  tells  us  that  its 
walls,  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  and 
eighty -seven  feet  thick,  were  cemented  with 
bitumen,  and  were  more  than  sixty  miles  in 
circuit.  They  had  a hundred  brazen  gates, 
and  two  hundred  and  fifty  towers.  Nothing 
is  left  of  this  mighty  town  but  rubbish  and 
desolation,  among  which  the  recent  excava- 
tions of  Mr.  Layard,  Col.  llawlinson,  and  M. 
Botta,  have  brought  to  light  many  relics  of 
interest.  According  to  the  Mosaic  record, 
the  Babylonian  empire  was  founded  by  Nim- 
rod, supposed  to  be  the  Belus  of  profane 
history,  2245  b.c.  After  the  destruction  of 
Nineveh,  b.c.  G04,  Babylon  was  the  metropolis 
of  the  east.  To  this  period  is  assigned  the 
reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  under  whom  the 
power  of  Babylon  was  extended  over  all  the 
lands  between  Persia  and  Egypt.  The  great 
city  was  taken  by  Cyrus,  b.c.  538,  and  Baby- 
lonia became  a Persian  province.  Alexander 
the  Great  intended  to  make  Babylon  the  cap- 
ital of  the  vast  empire  which  he  had  won  in 
war.  Death  forbade  him,  and  the  city  never 
again  regained  its  prosperity. 

BACIIAUMONT,  Francois  le  Coigneux 
de,  born  at  Paris,  1624,  died  in  the  same 
city,  1702.  He  was  a counselor  of  parlia- 
ment, and  opposed  to  the  court  party  in 
the  disturbances  of  1648.  He  said  that  the 
members  of  the  parliament  put  him  in  mind 
of  the  little  boys  that  played  with  slings  in 
the  street,  who  dispersed  on  the  appearance 
of  a police  officer,  but  collected  as  soon  as  he 
was  out  of  sight.  Pleased  with  this  compar- 
ison, the  enemies  of  Mazarin  adopted  hat- 
bands in  the  form  of  a sling  ( fronde ),  and 
.hence  were  denominated  F rondeurs. 


BACIIE,  Alexander  Dallas,  an  Amer- 
ican philosopher,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July 
19th,  1806.  lie  was  educated  at  West  Point, 
and  was  graduated  with  the  highest  honors. 
In  1825  he  was  made  lieutenant  of  topograph- 
ical engineers,  and  in  1827,  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  which  appointment  lie  held 
until  elected  president  of  Girard  College. 
He  then  visited  Europe  for  the  purpose  ot 
visiting  the  various  Universities  abroad,  but 
upon  his  return  the  college  net  having  opened, 
he  accepted  the  position  of  principal  ot  the 
Philadelphia  High  School.  In  1843,  he  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  coast 
survey.  Under  his  charge  this  project  has 
been  carried  on,  and  its  results  have  proved! 
of  great  advantage  to  navigators.  Papers 
upon  the  coast  survey  contributed  by  Prof. 
Baclie,  may  be  found  in  the  proceedings  oi  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science.  He  died  February  17th,  1867, 
aged  61  years. 

BACON,  Francis,  son  of  Sir  Nicholas  Ba- 
con, lord-keeper  of  the  great  seal,  was  born 
in  London,  Jan.  22d,  1561,  and  died  in  1626. 
He  was  entered  in  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, in  his  thirteenth  year,  and  distin- 
guished himself  for  his  early  proficiency  in 
the  sciences.  At  sixteen  he  wrote  against 
the  Aristotelian  philosophy,  and  at  nineteen 
his  work  “ Of  the  State  of  Europe,”  the  fruit 
of  a journey  in  France,  attracted  general 
attention  from  the  clearness  of  perception  and 
maturity  of  judgment  which  it  displayed. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-eight,  his  legal  reputa- 
tion was  such  that  he  was  appointed  counsel 
extraordinary  to  the  queen,  a post  of  more 
honor  than  profit.  Three  years  afterward  he 
sat  in  parliament.  Ben  Jonson  highly  extols 
him  as  an  orator.  Bacon  at  first  crouched  for 
the  favor  of  the  Cecils,  till  disregarded  by  them, 
he  attached  himself  to  their  rival,  the  Earl  of 
Essex,  who  with  generous  ardor  strove  in 
1594  to  procure  him  the  vacant  office  of  attor- 
ney-general. Being  unsuccessful,  he  soothed 
Bacon’s  regret  with  a gift  of  a fine  estate. 
Yet  when  Essex  sank  into  disfavor,  Bacon 
not  only  abandoned  him,  but  unnecessarily 
appeared  as  counsel  against  him,  and  with 


BAC 


92 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


barbarous  ingenuity  aided  greatly  in  bringing 
the  unfortunate  nobleman  to  the  scaffold. 
Similar  baseness  stains  all  his  public  career. 
When  first  in  parliament  he  made  show  of 
maintaining  popular  rights  against  exactions 
of  the  court.  Royal  frowns  soon  brought 
him  to  his  knees,  and  he  disgraced  himself 
by  servility  that  was  unmanly  for  even  a 
courtier.  He  stood  high  in  the  good  graces 
of  James  I.,  and  was  knighted  by  him  in 
1603.  His  marriage  was  fortunate,  and  he 
at  length  saw  himself  free  from  those  pecu- 
niary embarrassments  by  which  he  had  been 
so  long  shackled. 

In  1613  he  reached  the  attorney-general- 
ship.  Here  he  lent  himself  to  the  most  arbi- 
trary measures  of  the  court,  and  even  as- 
sisted in  an  attempt  to*  extort  from  an  old 
clergyman,  of  the  name  of  Peachham,  a con- 
fession of  treason,  by  torturing  him  on  the 
rack. 

In  1617  he  was  made  lord-keeper  of  the 
seals;  in  1619,  lord  high  chancellor  of  En- 
gland, and  Baron  Verulam,  and  not  long 
afterward,  Viscount  of  St.  Albans.  He  had 
not  now  the  poor  plea  of  necessity  for  mak- 
ing offices  and  privileges  venal,  yet  he 
was  charged  with  receiving  bribes  for  his 
decisions.  Rather  than  submit  to  a trial 
which  would  stamp  his  name  with  indelible 
disgrace,  he  confessed  his  guilt,  supplicated 
the  lenity  of  his  peers,  and  begged  to  be  dis- 
missed with  the  loss  of  his  office.  His  sen- 
tence was  severe  but  just.  He  was  sentenced 
to  pay  a fine  of  £40,000,  to  be  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower  as  long  as  the  king  should  choose, 
declared  incapable  of  office,  forbidden  to  take 
his  seat  in  parliament,  or  to  show  himself 
within  the  verge  of  the  court.  He  was  soon 
released  from  the  Tower,  but  did  not  long 
survive  his  fall.  His  errors  sprang  more 
from  weakness  than  from  avarice  or  want  of 
principle,  for  he  displayed  through  life  a 
strong  sympathy  for  Virtue,  if  he  did  not 
have  firmness  enough  to  be  faithful  to  her 
cause. 

It  is  as  a writer  and  philosopher  that  Lord 
Bacon  is  illustrious.  Walpole  called  him  the 
prophet  of  art.  He  examined  the  whole 
circle  of  the  sciences.  In  so  masterly  a way 
did  he  expound  the  inductive  method  of 
philosophizing,  that  posterity  has  called  him 
the  father  of  experimental  science.  His 


prose  is  among  the  foremost  in  our  tongue. 

He  died  in  1626.  In  his  will  this  passage 
was  found:  “My  name  and  memory  I be- 
queath to  foreign  nations,  and  to  mine  own 
country  after  some  time  be  passed  over.” 
BACON,  Roger,  an  English  monk,  born 
at  Ilchester  in  1214.  He  made  many  discov- 
eries in  the  sciences,  which  caused  him  to  be 
regarded  as  a sorcerer  by  the  common  people, 
whose  prejudices  were  espoused  by  the  clergy, 
against  whom  Bacon  had  openly  spoken. 

He  was  imprisoned  in  consequence  of  their 
denunciations,  and  at  one  time,  kept  in  com 
finement  for  ten  years.  He  died  in  1292. 

He  had  an  idea  of  gunpowder,  for  he  dis- 
tinctly says  in  one  of  his  works  that  thunder 
and  lightning  could  be  imitated  by  means  of 
charcoal,  sulphur,  and  saltpetre.  Like  all 
philosophers  of  that  day  he  dabbled  in  astrol- 
ogy ; he  discovered  the  polarity  of  the  load- 
stone ; he  invented  the  camera-obscura  and 
the  magic  lantern ; and  he  foreshadowed  the 
invention  of  telescopes  and  spectacles,  even 
if  he  did  not  really  construct  the  latter.  He 
was  well  versed  in  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  and 
Latin  languages,  the  last  of  which  he  wrote 
with  facility  and  elegance,  and  although  not 
free  from  many  of  the  prejudices  of  his  age, 
was  altogether  a very  extraordinary  man. 
Many  of  the  old  English  ballads  and  romances 
contain  accounts  of  the  wonderful  exploits 
of  Friar  Bacon,  who  is  gifted  with  magical 
arts  of  the  most  tremendous  nature.  The 
“Famous  Historie  of  Fryer  Bacon,”  toward 
the  conclusion,  informs  us  that  Friar  Bacon 
broke  his  magic  glass,  burned  his  books  of 
the  ‘ black  art,’  devoted  himself  to  theological 
studies,  and  lived  in  a cell  which  he  had 
excavated  in  a church  wall.  “Thus lived  he 
two  yeeres  space  in  that  cell,  never  coming 
forth : his  meat  and  drink  he  received  in  at  4 
a window,  and  at  that  window  he  did  dis- 
course with  those  that  came  to  him;  his 
grave  he  digged  with  his  own  nayles,  and  was 
laid  there  when  he  died.”  “He  lived  most 
part  of  his  life  a magician,  and  died  a true 
Penitent  Sinner,  and  an  Anchorite.” 

BACTRIANA,  or  Bactria,  before  the  time 
of  Cyrus  was  a powerful  kingdom,  and  gave 
to  the  Persians  their  mythology  and  archi- 
tecture. It  lay  between  the  Oxus,  Scythia, 
Mount  Paropamisus,  and  Margiana.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  Persian  monarchy, 


BAG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


93 


it  was  held  by  the  Parthians  and  Scythians, 
until  they  were  expelled  by  the  Huns. 

BADAJOZ,  the  Pax  Augusta  of  the  Ho- 
mans, a ’fortified  city  of  Spain,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Guadiana,  contains  about  12,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  220  miles  south-west 
of  Madrid.  This  important  barrier  fortress 
was  besieged  without  success  by  the  French 
under  Kellerman  and  Victor,  in  1808  and 
1809.  It  surrendered  to  Soult  March  11th, 
1811.  It  was  invested  by  Wellington  March 
16th,  1812,  and  taken  by  storm  on  the  night 
of  the  6th  of  April.  The  carnage  was  terri- 
ble. For  two  days  and  nights  the  city  was 
sacked,  British  generals  endeavoring  in  vain 
to  check  the  atrocities  of  the  infuriated  sol- 
diers. The  fall  of  Badajoz  forced  the  French 
to  a precipitate  retreat  from  Portugal. 

BADEN,  a grand-duchy  in  the  south-west 
of  Germany,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
was  erected  into  a grand-duchy  in  1806.  In 
1855  it  had  a population  of  1,314,837,  upon 
an  area  of  5,712  square  miles.  The  surface 
of  Baden  is  mountainous,  arid  it  contains  the 
elevated  range  of  the  Black  Forest,  which 
derives  its  name  from  the  dark  tint  of  its 
foliage.  The  capital  of  the  duchy  is  Karls- 
ruhe, population  23,219.  Freiburg  has  a 
population  of  about  16,000.  Its  cathedral, 
built  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  is 
perhaps  the  most  beautiful  and  perfect  spe- 
cimen of  Gothic  architecture  in  Germany. 
The  university  of  Freiburg,  founded  in  1454, 
is  famous  as  a school  of  Catholic  theology. 
Mannheim,  at  the  junction  of  the  Neckarand 
the  Rhine,  has  25,000  inhabitants.  The  an- 
cient city  of  Heidelberg  stands  on  a narrow 
ledge  between  wooded  vine-clad  hills  and  the 
left  bank  of  the  Neckar,  having  about  16,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  famous  for  its  Protestant 
university,  founded  in  1386,  and  the  oldest 
in  Germany,  except  that  of  Prague.  In  1850 
there  were  seventy-one  professors  and  teach- 
ers, and  six  hundred  and  three  students.  On 
a hill  overlooking  the  town  is  the  vast  ruin 
of  the  castle  where  once  the  electors  palatine 
held  their  court.  Here  in  a damp  vault 
moulders  the  great  tun  that  once  was  kept 
full  with  eight  hundred  hogsheads  of  best 
Rhenish  wine.  In  a picturesque  valley, 
twenty-three  miles  south-west  of  Karlsruhe, 
lies  Baden-Baden ; population  6,000.  These 
springs  wore  a resort  for  the  Romans.  In 


[ some  late  years  the  number  of  visitors  has 
exceeded  14,000.  The  well  known  gaming 
tables  of  this  glittering  haunt  are  farmed  by 
the  grand-duke,  and  thence  he  derives  a 
handsome  slice  of  his  income. 

The  Catholic  and  Protestant  faiths  are 
each  sanctioned  by  the  state,  and  full  liberty 
of  conscience  and  private  worship  prevails. 
The  sovereign  must  be  a Protestant.  Ex- 
ecutive and  judicial  powers  are  vested  in  the 
grand-duke  and  a ministry  of  state ; the  legis- 
lative powers  are  shared  by  tho  sovereign 
with  an  upper  and  lower  chamber.  In  1848 
Hecker  and  Struve  headed  an  attempt  to 
establish  a republic  in  Baden.  The  grand- 
duke  fled  from  his  throne,  but  was  restored 
by  Prussian  bayonets  in  1849. 

BAERT,  or  Barth,  John,  was  bom  at  Dun- 
kirk, 1651.  He  was  the  son  of  a poor  fisher- 
man, but.  his  bravery  and  talents  raised  him 
to  the  rank  of  commodore  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  XI Y.,  whose  navy  he  greatly  improved. 
The  Dutch,  English,  and  Spanish  called  him 
the  French  devil.  “I  have  made  you  a com- 
modore,*’ was  the  king’s  annunciation  of  hB 
promotion  to  Jean  Baert,  at  Versailles. 
“Your  majesty  has  done  well,”  replied  tho 
sturdy  seaman-  The  courtiers  tittered.  “ B 
is  the  reply,”  said  Louis,  “of  a man  whc» 
knows  his  own  worth-”  He  received  a patent 
of  nobility  for  one  of  hB  naval  exploits,  and 
died  in  1702. 

BAFFIN,  William,  an  English  navigator 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  first  to 
determine  longitude  at  sea  by  observations  of 
the  heavenly  bodies.  In  1616  he  discovered 
and  explored  the  bay  which  bears  his  name. 
He  was  killed  near  Ormuz  in  1621,  while  en- 
gaged in  an  expedition  against  the  Portuguese. 

BAGDAD,  a large  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
contains  about  60,000  inhabitants.  It  lies  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  over  which  a 
bridge  is  thrown.  The  city  is  surrounded  by 
a brick  wall ; the  houses  are  of  brick,  and 
but  one  story  high,  and  the  unpaved  streets 
so  narrow  as  to  admit  of  two  horsemen 
abreast  with  difficulty.  The  palace  of  the 
pacha  forms  a contrast  to  the  other  buildings 
of  the  city,  being  spacious  and  splendid.  Eu- 
ropean manufactures,  as  well  as  the  produc- 
tions of  India,  Arabia,  and  Persia,  find  a sale 
here,  and  the  thronged  bazaars  present  a brill- 
iant and  animated  appearance.  From  Bag- 


BAG 


94 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


dad,  East  Indian  goods  were  formerly  supplied 
to  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  part  of  Europe,  but 
of  late  its  traffic  has  declined.  The  popula- 
tion consists  of  Turks,  Persians,  Armenians, 
and  a small  number  of  Christians  and  Jews. 
The  ancient  city,  founded  in  762,  by  the  Ca- 
liph Abu  Giafar  Almanzor,  once  the  residence 
of  the  caliphs,  and  containing  2,000,000  in- 
habitants, is  now  in  ruins.  The  prosperity  of 
this  city  completed  the  ruin  of  the  neighboring 
city  of  Babylon.  It  was  twice  taken  by  the 
Turks  and  Tartars,  and  nearly  destroyed.  In 
1638,  it  was  taken  by  Amurath  IV:,  after  a 
memorable  siege,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
inhabitants  were  butchered  in  cold  blood.  In 
the  eighteenth  century,  Nadir  Shah  was  de- 
feated in  an  attempt  to  take  it. 

BAHAMAS,  or  Lucaya  Islands,  are  near 
the  coast  of  Florida,  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  soil  of  the  islands  is  rich,  but  thin,  and 
soon  exhausted.  A large  portion  of  the  resi- 
dents are  descendants  of  the  loyalists  who 
emigrated  from  Carolina  and  Georgia  when 
the  royal  cause  was  lost  in  America.  The 
wreckers,  a large  class  of  the  population,  are 
hardy  mariners,  employed  in  assisting  ship- 
wrecked vessels.  They  display  admirable 
skill  and  courage  in  the  working  of  their 
small  flat-bottomed  sloops,  in  which  they  fre- 
quent the  most  dangerous  places,  receiving 
legal  salvage  on  all  rescued  property.  They 
are  licensed  by  the  government.  These 
islands  were  discovered  by  Columbus,  Oct. 
12th,  1492,  St.  Salvador  being  the  first  land 
he  saw.  In  1667,  Charles  II.  of  England 
granted  the  Bahamas  to  the  Duke  of  Albe- 
marle and  others.  The  first  settlement  was 
made  on  New  Providence,  one  of  the  largest 
of  the  group.  The  settlers  suffered  severely 
from  the  ravages  of  pirates  and  the  inroads 
of  the  Spaniards.  Black-beard,  the  noted 
leader  of  the  buccaneers,  was  killed  off  here 
in  1718.  The  town  of  Nassau  on  New  Prov- 
idence was  fortified  in  1740.  Nassau  was 
taken  by  the  Americans  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, but  was-  soon  abandoned.  Afterward 
the  whole  group  was  held  by  the  Spaniards, 
but  was  regained  by  the  English. 

Turk’s  Islands  are  well  known  for  their 
salt.  The  entire  population  of  the  Bahamas 
in  1845  was  26,500:  deducting  Caicos  and 
Turk’s  Islands  (since  set  off  under  a separate 


i 


I 


government),  it  was  22,841,  which  in  1857 
had  increased  to  27,519. 

BALE,  a town  of  Campania,  a favorite  re- 
sort of  the  ancient  Romans,  many  of  whom 
had  country-seats  here.  Its  sheltered  bay, 
breezy  hills,  and  baths  gave  it  a high  reputa- 
tion, but  the  dissoluteness  practiced  here  was 
so  notorious  and  infamous,  that  Cicero,  in  his 
defense  of  M.  Coelius,  thought  it  necessary  to 
apologize  for  defending  a young  man  who  had 
lived  at  Bake. 

BAILLIE,  Joanna,  born  in  1762,  was  the 
daughter  of  the  parish  minister  of  Bothwell  in 
Lanarkshire,  Scotland.  Her  mother  was  sis- 
ter of  John  Hunter,  the  great  anatomist.  Her 
brother,  who  became  Sir  Matthew  Baillie, 
having  settled  as  a physician  in  London,  she 
removed  thither  at  an  early  age,  and  resided 
either  in  London  or  its  vicinage,  till  her  death 
in  1851.  She  published  several  volumes  of 
dramas  and  minor  poems. 

BAINBRIDGE,  William,  a distinguished 
commodore  in  the  American  navy,  was  born 
at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  on  the  7th  of  May,  1774. 
He  died  at  Philadelphia,  July  27th,  1833. 

BAJAZET  I..  Sultan  of  the  Turks,  son  of 
Amurath,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1389.  By 
strangling  his  brother  and  rival,  Jacob,  he 
established  a precedent  which  has  since  been 
frequently  followed  by  the  Turkish  court. 
The  rapidity  of  his  conquests  gained  him  the 
name  of  Ilderim,  ‘ lightning.’  He  carried  his 
conquering  arms  far  into  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  on  the  28th  of  September,  1395,  defeated 
the  army  of  Hungarians,  Poles,  and  French, 
who  were  headed  by  Sigismund,  King  of 
Hungary.  In  1402,  he  was  defeated  near 
Ancyra,  m Galatia,  by  Tamerlane,  and  was 
himself  taken  prisoner,  and  treated  with  great 
courtesy  by  the  conqueror.  The  story  of  his 
being  confined  and  carried  about  in  an  iron 
cage,  is  deemed  unworthy  of  belief.  He  died 
in  the  camp  of  Tamerlane  in  1403. 

BAJAZET  II.,  son  of  Mohammed  II.,  Sul- 
tan of  the  Turks,  succeeded  his  father  in  1481. 
He  extended  his  empire,  gained  some  Grecian 
towns  from  the  Venetians,  and  by  ravaging 
Christian  states,  sought  to  avenge  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Moors  by  the  Spaniards.  He  fi- 
nally resigned  his  throne  to  his  rebellious  son 
Selim,  by  whose  order,  it  is  supposed,  he  was 
murdered  in  1512. 


BAJ 


9 


HISTORY  AN! 

BALBOA,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  was  bom  in 
1475.  He  was  one  of  the  numerous  adven- 
turers who  sought  to  retrieve  their  fortunes, 
by  following  up  in  the  New  World  the  discov- 
eries which  Columbus  had  commenced.  He 
formed  a colony  on  the  isthmus  of  Darien. 
An  Indian,  who  was  the  scornful  witness  of 
a dispute  between  two  of  Balboa’s  companions 
about  some  gold,  agreed  to  show  him  a coun- 
try where  the  precious  metals. might  be  ob- 
tained in  abundance.  He  led  Balboa  to  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  pointed  the  path  to 
Peru.  Considering  his  force  of  a hundred 
and  fifty  men  too  feeble  to  attempt  the  con- 
quest, Balboa  took  possession  of  the  vast  ocean 
that  rolled  before  him  in  the  name  of  the 
Spanish  king,  and  after  an  absence  of  four 
months  led  back  his  followers  to  the  colony, 
enriched  wi  th  gold  and  pearls.  Here  he  was 
required  to  obey  a new  governor,  Pendrarias 
Davila,  who  held  a royal  commission.  He 
was  appointed,  the  ensuing  year,  viceroy  of 
the  South  Sea,  but  seized  by  Davila,  on  pre- 
text of  neglect  of  duty,  tried,  condemned,  and 
beheaded  in  1517. 

BALAKLAVA,  a small  town  in  the  Cri- 
mea, with  a fine  harbor,  ten  miles  south-east 
from  Sebastopol.  After  the  battle  of  the  Alma, 
the  allies  advanced  upon  this  place,  Sept.  26th, 

1854.  Oct.  25th  following,  12,000  Russians, 
commanded  by  Gen.  Liprandi,  captured  some 
redoubts  in  the  vicinity,  which  had  been  in- 
trusted to  a scanty  force  of  Turks.  They 
next  assaulted  the  English,  by  whose  heavy 
cavalry  they  were  compelled  to  retire.  After 
this,  from  a disastrous  misconception  of  Lord 
Raglan’s  order,  Lord  Lucan  ordered  the  Earl 
of  Cardigan  with  the  light  brigade  to  charge 
upon  the  Russians,  who  had  formed  again  on 
their  own  ground  with  their  artillery  in  front. 
This  desperate  gallop  into  the  jaws  of  death 
was  at  once  made,  and  great  havoc  dealt  upon 
the  enemy ; but  out  of  607  British  horsemen 
only  198  returned.  A sortie  from  the  garri- 
son of  Sebastopol  led  to  another  desperate  en- 
gagement here  on  the  night  of  March  22d, 

1855,  in  which  the  Russians  were  repulsed 
with  a loss  of  2,000  killed  and  wounded,  the 
allies  losing  about  600. 

BALDWIN.  There  were  five  kings  of  Je- 
rusalem of  this  name.  Baldwin  I.  succeeded 
his  brother  Godfrey  Bouillon,  1100,  and  died 
1118.  The  second  reigned  from  1118  till  his 


BIOGRAPHY.  95 

death  in  1131.  He  founded  the  order  of 
Templars.  Baldwin  III.,  king  from  1143  to 
1162,  was  one  of  the  bravest  and  most  honor- 
able of  the  crusaders.  The  Christians  pos- 
sessed territories  of  vast  extent,  but  the  vas- 
sals of  Baldwin  were  divided  by  dissensions 
among  themselves  this  was  also  the  case 
with  their  adversaries,  although  the  latter 
warred  with  more  success.  The  reign  of 
Baldwin  was  unhappy,  and  convinced  the 
Christians  of  the  impossibility  of  establishing 
Christian  chivalry  in  the  east.  When  Nou- 
reddin,  his  valiant  and  proud  opponent,  was 
counseled  to  fall  upon  the  Christians  during 
the  funeral  of  their  leader,  he  answered: 
“No!  Let  us  respect  their  grief,  for  they 
have  lost  a king  whose  like  is  rarely  to  be 
met  with.” 

BALIOL,  John,  was  a claimant  for  the 
Scottish  crown  on  the  death  of  Queen  Marga- 
ret. Edward  III.,  being  made  arbiter,  award- 
ed it  to  Baliol  against  Robert  Bruce.  Baliol 
afterward  allied  himself  with  France,  and  took 
up  arms  in  consequence  of  the  interference  of 
the  English  king  in  his  government,  but  was 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Dunbar,  andconsigned 
to  the  Tower,  whence  he  was  liberated  by  the 
intercession  of  the  pope.  He  died  on  his  es- 
tate in  France,  1314.  His  son  Edward  after- 
ward gained  the  crown,  but  finally  resigned 
it  to  Edward  III.  of  England. 

BALK,  or  Balkan,  anciently  Haemus,  a 
chain  of  rugged  mountains,  extending  from 
the  Black  Sea,  in  European  Turkey,  to  the 
Adriatic.  The  summit  of  Orbelus,  the  high- 
est peak,  is  9,000  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
sea.  The  passage  of  the  Balkan  by  a hostile 
army  was  deemed  impracticable  till  effected 
by  the  Russians  under  Diebitsch,  whose  march 
through  the  mountains  in  July,  1829,  was  a 
memorable  achievement  in  the  war  then  pend- 
ing between  Russia  and  Turkey.  Its  conse- 
quence was  an  armistice,  and  this  was  followed 
by  a treaty  of  peace  in  September. 

BALLOONS.  From  the  earliest  ages  men 
have  longed  to  mount  into  the  air  and  rival 
the  easy  flight  of  the  birds.  The  first  balloons 
on  record  were  made  in  France  by  the  broth- 
ers Montgolfier,  and  the  first  ascent  made  by 
M.  Rozier  and  the  Marquis  d’Arlandes  at  Pa- 
ris, Nov.  23d,  1782.  The  elevating  power  of 
the  Montgolfier  balloon  was  air  rarefied  by 
fire.  M.  Rozier  and  M.  Romain  perished  in 


* 


96 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


THE  BALLOON. 


an  attempted  voyage  from  Boulogne  k)  Eng- 
land, the  balloon  having  taken  fire,  June  14th, 
1785.  Hydrogen  balloons  were  successfully 
used  soon  after  the  Montgolfier.  The  para- 
chute was  invented  by  Blanchard,  in  1784. 
At  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  June  17th,  1794,  the 
French  used  a balloon  to  reconnoitre  the  op- 
posing army.  In  1802,  Garnerin  ascended  in 
a balloon  to  the  height  of  four  thousand  feet, 
and  descended  safely  by  a parachute.  Gay 
Lussac  ascended  at  Paris  to  the  height  of 
twenty-three  thousand  feet,  Sept.  21st,  1802. 
The  first  ascent  in  England  was  by  Sig.  Lu- 
nardi,  from  Moorfields,  Sept.  15th,  1784. 
Blanchard  and  Jeffries  crossed  from  Dover  to 
Calais  in  1785.  The  first  experiments  with 
balloons  in  this  country,  were  made  b}^  Dr. 
Rittenhouse  and  Francis  Hopkinson,  in  De- 
cember, 1783.  They  connected  several  small 
balloons  together,  and  thus  enabled  a man  to 
ascend  to  the  height  of  one  hundred  feet,  and 
to  float  to  a considerable  distance.  Afterward 
an  ascent  was  made  by  Blanchard,  at  Phila- 
delphia, January  9th,  1793. 


Attempts  to  steer  the  balloon  have  proved 
futile,  and  it  is  now  a mere  toy.  Its  history 
is  darkly  marked  with  risk  and  loss  of  life. 
Madame  Blanchard  ascended  from  Tivoli  at 
night  in  the  midst  of  fireworks,  from  which 
her  balloon  caught  fire,  and  she  was  dashed 
to  the  ground  and  killed,  July  6th,  1819.  An 
Italian  aeronaut  ascended  from  Copenhagen, 
Sept.  14th,  1851 ; his  shattered  corpse  was 
found  on  the  shore  of  a contiguous  island. 
Mr.  Arnold  ascended  near  London,  and  was 
ducked  in  the  Thames ; Major  Money  went  up 
from  Norwich  and  fell  into  the  North  Sea,  but 
was  saved  by  a revenue  cutter.  During  the 
siege  of  Paris  by  the  Prussians,  in  1870-71, 
balloons  were  used  to  great  advantage  by  the 
Parisians,  and  were  employed  principally  for 
the  transmission  of  letters  and  dispatches  from 
the  beleaguered  city,  and  for  the  conveyance 
of  the  agents  of  the  government  to  points  be- 
yond the  Prussian  line. 

The  navigation  of  the  air  has  ever  been  a 
favorite  scheme,  and  artificial  flying  has  been 
attempted  in  all  ages.  The  fable  of  the  waxen 


BAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


97 


wings  of  Daedalus  and  his  unlucky  son  Icarus, 
is  familiar  to  all.  Its  interpretation  ;'s  found 
in  the  tradition  that  Daedalus  invented  sails 
for  ships.  Friar  Roger  Bacon  maintained  the 
possibility  of  the  art  of  flying,  and  predicted 
it  would  be  a general  practice.  Dr.  Wilkins 
(brother-in-law  of  Cromwell,  and  Bishop  of 
Chester),  amused  himself  with  dreaming  of  a 
voyage  to  the  moon,  and  said  it  would  yet  be 
as  usual  to  hear  a man  call  for  his  wings  when 
he  is  going  on  a journey,  as  it  is  now  to  hear 
him  call  for  his  boots. 

BALZAC,  Honore  de,  a brilliant  French 
novelist,  born  at  Tours  about  1799,  and  died 
at  Paris,  in  August,  1850. 

BANC  A,  an  island  off  the  north  coast  of 
Sumatra ; area  7,533  square  miles ; population 
in  1849,  43,000  ; since  1816  in  the  possession 
of  the  Dutch.  Tin  mines  were  discovered 
here  in  1810,  and  their  stores  of  ore  seem  in- 
exhaustible. 

BANKS.  The  first  bankers  were  the 
Lombard  Jews  in  Italy  about  808,  of  whom 
some  settled  in  Lombard  street,  London, 
where  many  bankers  now  do  business.  The 
mint  in  the  Tower  of  London  was  used  by 
merchants  to  lodge  their  money  in,  till 
Charles  I.  made  free  with  it  in  1 640 ; after 
which  they  trusted  to  servants,  till  too  many 
of  these  ran  to  the  army ; they  then  lodged 
it  with  the  goldsmiths  in  Lombard  street, 
whose  business  it  was  to  buy  and  sell  plate, 
and  foreign  coins.  These  at  first  paid  four- 
pence  per  cent,  per  diem,  but  lent  it  to  others 
at  a higher  interest,  and  so  became  the  first 
bankers  in  England,  1645. 

The  Bank  of  England  was  first  incorpo- 
rated in  1694,  in  consideration  of  £1,200,000, 
then  the  amount  of  its  capital,  being  lent  to 
the  government.  It  suspended  specie  pay- 
ments from  1797  to  1817. 

In  the  United  States,  banks  were  com- 
menced in  the  early  part  of  the  Revolution- 
ary war ; the  first  by  a number  of  gentlemen 
in  Philadelphia,  June  17th,  1780,  with  a cap- 
ital of  $839,160;  instituted  for  the  purpose 
of  supplying  the  American  army  with  pro- 
visions. Bank  of  North  America,  at  Phila- 
delphia, incorporated  by  Congress,  Dec.  31st, 
1781 ; the  Massachusetts  Bank,  the  first  at 
Boston,  began  in  1784,  and  the  Bank  of 
New  York  commenced  the  same  year. 

The  Bank  of  the  United  States  was  in- 

7 B7 


corporated  March  2d,  1791,  with  a cap- 
ital of  $10,000,000,  the  government  holding 
$2,000,000.  Its  charter  expired  March  lltL, 
1811,  and  was  not  renewed;  but  the  finan- 
cial burdens  of  the  ensuing  war  with  Great 
Britain,  induced  the  creation  of  a similar  in- 
stitution, the  United  States  Bank,  with  a 
capital  of  $35,000,000.  This  was  chartered 
for  twenty  years  in  April,  1816,  with  power 
to  form  branches,  and  went  into  operation  at 
Philadelphia,  Jan.  1st,  1817.  The  United 
States  deposites,  $9,868,435,  were  removed 
from  it  by  Gen.  Jackson,  at  the  close  of  1833, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  the  charter  in  1836, 
Congress  declined  to  renew  it.  A bank 
under  the  same  name  and  with  the  same 
amount  of  capital  was  chartered  by  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  continued  in  operation  several 
years. 

BANKS,  Sir  Joseph,  bart.,  a celebrated 
botanist  and  traveler,  was  born  in  London  in 
1743,  and  died  in  1820.  Inheriting  at  an 
early  age  an  ample  fortune,  his  love  of  botany 
led  him  to  visit  lands  at  that  time  little  known 
to  naturalists.  He  made  a voyage  to  New- 
foundland and  the  coast  of  Labrador;  he 
accompanied  Capt.  Cook  to  the  South  Seas ; 
he  visited  the  coasts  of  Scotland,  and  spent 
some  time  in  Iceland.  He  made  a vast  col- 
lection of  objects  in  natural  science,  and 
introduced  many  valuable  species  of  plants 
and  trees  into  Britain.  In  1771  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  over 
which  he  presided  till  his  death.  Soon  after- 
ward he  was  created  a baronet.  With  George 
III.,  who  was  fond  of  botany  and  agriculture, 
he  was  a great  favorite.  He  was  a generous 
patron  of  science  and  scientific  men,  both  in 
England  and  abroad. 

BANNOCKBURN,  a village  in  Scotland 
about  three  miles  south-east  from  Stirling, 
Here  was  the  field  where  the  king  of  England 
had  to  flee  before  peasants  ennobled  by  the 
struggle  for  freedom.  The  battle  was  fought 
June  24th,  1314.  The  English  army  consisted 
of  100,000  men  under  Edward  II.,  52,000 
of  whom  were  archers,  and  the  Scottish  army 
ofonfy  30,000,  commanded  by  Robert  Bruce. 
The  Scottish  leader  had  selected  the  ground 
of  Bannockburn  to  meet  his  enemies,  because 
on  its  rugged  and  broken  surface  his  light- 
armed troops  could  better  encounter  the  heavy 
men-at-arms  of  the  English.  He  strength- 


93 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


cued  his  position  among  the  morasses  that 
lined  the  burn  of  Bannock  by  digging  pits 
close  together.  These  were  slightly  covered 
with  brush  and  sods,  so  as  not  to  be  seen  by 
an  impetuous  enemy.  The  English  floun- 
dered into  them,  and  while  they  were  in 
confusion,  the  trembling  scale  of  battle  was 
turned  by  the  sudden  appearance  of  Bruce’s 
camp-followers,  on  an  upland  behind  the 
Scottish  force.  The  wavering  English,  think- 
ing them  an  army  of  reserve,  fled  in  utter 
rout.  Edward  barely  escaped  capture.  Ilis 
loss  is  estimated  at  upward  of  30,000  men, 
and  700  barons  and  knights. 

When  the  son  of  James  III.  (afterward  the 
clever  and  popular  James  IV.,  who  fell  at 
Flodden),  was  in  rebellion,  a fight  occurred 
between  the  king’s  forces  and  those  of  the 
insurgent  son,  about  a mile  from  Bannock- 
burn. King  James,  who  was  a weak  man, 
was  bade  by  some  of  his  followers  to  see  to 
his  own  safety,  and  all  clad  in  burnished 
armor  he  galloped  along  an  unfrequented 
road.  The  mill  still  stands  whence  issued  a 
woman  to  draw  water.  Alarmed  by  the 
startling  apparition  of  a knight  in  full  armor, 
she  dropped  her  pitcher  and  fled  into  the 
mill.  She,  in  turn,  had  scared  the  king’s 
horse,,  which  fell,  and  smothered  in  his  heavy 
armor  the  bruised  monarch  lay  as  if  dead. 
He  was  carried  into  the  mill,  and  put  upon  a 
bed.  Abjectly  depressed  and  fearing  imme- 
diate death,  he  told  the  people  of  the  mill  that 
he  was  the  king,  and  prayed  for  a confessor. 
Thereupon  a woman  ran  abroad,  calling  fran- 
tically for  a priest  to  come  and  shrive  the 
king.  Friends  and  enemies  soon  gathered 
round.  A man  clothed  in  a dark  mantle, 
like  an  ecclesiastic,  said,  “I  am  a priest,”  and 
followed  the  woman  into  the  house.  Bend- 
ing down  over  the  king  as  if  to  receive  the 
whispered  confession,  he  stabbed  him  over 
and  over  again,  and  vanished  as  mysteriously 
as  ho  had  come.  The  people  of  the  mill  had 
only  the  -word  of  the  man  killed  on  their  bed 
that  he  was  their  king.  There  was  a mystery 
over  the  whole  affair,  and  all  that  is  abso- 
lutely known  is  that  James  III.  was  ft  ever 
seen  again.  The  miller,  apparently  not  know- 
ing what  to  do  with  the  bodjq  cast  it  forth  by 
the  wayside.  Thence  it  was  borne  to  the 
gray  abbey  of  Cambusker.neth,  -whose  monks 
bestowed  upon  it  royal  obsequies. 


BANQUO,  Thane  of  Lochaber,  from  whom 
the  royal  house  of  Stuart  was  descended.  He 
was  murdered  by  Macbeth  about  1046. 

BARBADOES,  the  most  eastern  of  the 
Caribbean  Islands,  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese,  but  belongs  to  the  English,  who 
planted  here  their  first  settlement  in  these 
seas,  in  1605.  Longitude  59°  41'  W.,  lat.  1C<> 
5'  N.  It  is  fifteen  miles  long,  and  ten  broad, 
containing  an  area  of  106,500  acres.  Popula- 
tion, 135,939.  The  climate  is  hot,  but  the 
air  uncommonly  salubrious ; though  hurri- 
canes are  unhappily  not  unfrequent.  The 
soil  is  various  and  fertile,  and  greatly  undu- 
lating. Bridgetown  is  the  capital  of  the 
island.  Barbadoes  has  often  been  sorely 
visited  by  tremendous  hurricanes  and  sweep- 
ing conflagrations,  and  in  1854  the  cholera 
carried  off  nearly  seventeen  thousand  persons. 

BARBARY  STATES,  are  Tripoli,  Tunis, 
Algiers,  and  Morocco,  and  lie  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa,  extending  westerly  from 
Egypt  to  the  Atlantic.  The  snow-capped 
Atlas  range  intersects  them  almost  from  east 
to  west.  The  tract  south  of  the  mountains 
extending  to  the  great  desert,  is  sandy  and 
unproductive  of  any  fruit  but  dates.  Be- 
tween the  mountains  and  the  Mediterranean 
he  fertile  tracts,  of  which  the  climate  is 
salubrious,  the  sea  air  tempering  the  heat, 
which  is,  however,  of  a degree  to  permit  the 
growth  of  vegetation  in  April  and  May.  Bar- 
ley, wheat,  figs,  grapes,  olives,  oranges, 
pomegranates,  melons,  cypress,  cedar,  and 
almond  trees,  spring  from  the  luxuriant  soil. 
The  sugar-cane,  palm-tree,  and  lotus  are 
abundant ; and,  in  the  early  part  of  the  spring, 
the  country  is  bright  and  fragrant  with  roses, 
from  which  the  purest  attar  is  obtained. 
The  domestic  animals  are  valuable,  and  wild 
ones  are  found  in  abundance.  Among  the 
minerals  of  the  mountains,  are  silver,  copper, 
iron,  lead,  and  antimony.  Salt  is  abundant. 
The  commerce  between  these  and  The  Euro- 
pean states  on  the  Mediterranean,  is  by  no 
means  inconsiderable.  In  antiquity,  the 
countries  now  composing  the  Barbary  States, 
were  distinguished  for  the  activity  of  the 
inhabitants  in  commercial  pursuits.  The 
Carthaginians  were  the  most  wealthy  and 
enterprising  of  the  possessors  of  these  places, 
but  the  Romans,  Vandals,  and  Saracens  did 
not  permit  commerce  to  be  prostrated.  Now, 


BAR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


99 


a country  capable  of  sixty  millions  of  inhab- 
itants, contains  barely  ten  millions  and  a half. 
The  patriotism  of  the  Carthaginians  induced 
them  to  labor  for  the  promotion  of  the  best 
interests  of  their  country,  but  their  power 
could  not  stand  against  that  of  a nation  of 
victorious  and  hardy  warriors.  The  Romans 
endeavored  to  make  the  most  of  their  con- 
quered provinces,  and  the  vast  influx  of 
wealth,  which  conquest  poured  in  upon  them, 
subdued  that  stern  spirit  of  temperance 
which  had  carried  their  banners  in  triumph 
through  the  troubled  tide  of  war.  Then 
came  the  Vandals  and  Saracens,  who  endeav- 
ored to  render  the  possessions  they  wrested 
from  the  Romans  as  available  as  possible. 

The  present  population  of  the  Barbary 
States,  is  composed  of  Moors,  Jews,  who  carry 
on  the  greater  part  of  the  business  done  here, 
Turks,  and  Arabs.  The  last  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Saracenic  conquerors  of  the  coun- 
try. Their  habits  are  migratory,  and  they 
dwell  in  tents,  ten  or  a hundred  families 
gathering  together,  each  family  being  under 
the  government  of  a sheikh.  They  are  gen- 
erally at  war  with  the  Berbers,  the  descend- 
ants of  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country. 
On  these,  and  on  the  Turkish  collectors  of 
tribute,  the  Arabs  wage  war,  and,  when  their 
hands  are  not  full  of  personal  quarrels,  enter 
the  service  of  any  chieftain  who  may  require 
them.  The  Moors  are  Moslems,  indolent, 
unsociable,  luxurious,  superstitious,  and  un- 
cultivated. They  treat  the  Jews,  whom  they 
despise  and  hate,  with  great  harshness.  In 
addition  to  the  races  above  enumerated,  there 
are  many  negroes  in  Barbary. 

BARCELONA,  capital  of  Catalonia,  and 
one  of  the  largest  cities  in  Spain,  contains 
140,000  inhabitants.  It  is  built  in  the  form 
of  a crescent,  and  stands  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  harbor  is  commodious, 
but  rather  difficult  of  access.  In  the  middle 
ages,  Barcelona  was  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing ports  of  Europe ; its  trade  has  dwindled 
to  a trifle.  Its  citadel,  built  in  1714,  has  a 
secret  connection  with  the  fort  of  San  Carlos  ; 
and  it  may  be  considered  as  a strongly  forti- 
fied place.  Until  the  twelfth  century,  Barce- 
lona was  under  the  government  of  its  own 
counts,  afterward  united  with  the  kingdom 
of  Arragon,  but  withdrew  and  united  to  the 
French  crown  in  1040.  In  1652,  it  again 


submitted  to  the  Spanish  government,  but 
was  taken  by  the  French  in  1697.  Its  resto- 
ration was  made  at  the  peace  of  Ryswick. 
In  the  war  of  succession  Barcelona  adhered 
to  the  Archduke  of  Austria.  It  is  famous  for 
the  resolute,  but  unavailing  defense  it  made 
against  the  troops  of  Philip  V.,  under  the 
cemmand  of  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  in  1714. 
when  the  sufferings  of  the  inhabitants  were 
unparalleled.  In  1809,  it  was  taken  by  the 
French,  and  remained  in  their  power  until 
1814.  In  1821,  the  yellow  fever  committed 
great  ravages  in  it.  The  candor  of  a Barce- 
lona galley-slave,  is  brought  to  remembrance 
on  seeing  the  name  of  this  city.  The  Duke 
of  Ossuna,  as  he  passed  by  Barcelona,  having 
obtained  leave  from  the  king  to  release  some 
slaves,  went  on  board  the  galley,  and,  pass- 
ing through  the  benches  of  slaves  at  the  oar, 
asked  several  of  them  what  their  offenses 
were.  Every  one  excused  himself;  one  say- 
ing he  was  put  there  out  of  malice ; another 
by  the  bribery  of  the  judge;  but  all  of  them 
unjustly.  Among  the  rest  was  a little  sturdy 
fellow ; and  the  duke  asked  him  what  he  was 
there  for?  “Sir,”  said  he,  “I  can  not  deny 
thsV  I am  justly  sent  here ; for  I wanted 
money,  and  so  I took  a purse  from  the  high- 
way to  keep  me  from  starving.”  Upon  this, 
the  duke  struck  him  gently  with  a little 
stick  he  had  in  his  hand,  saying,  “You 
rogue,  what  do  you  do  among  so  many  honest 
men  ? Get  you  gone  out  of  their  company.” 
BARCLAY,  Robert  (the  celebrated  Apolo- 
gist for  the  Quakers),  was  born  in  1648,  at 
Gordonstown,  county  of  Moray,  Scotland,  of 
an  ancient  and  honorable  family.  The  unset- 
tled state  of  affairs  induced  his  father  to  send 
him  abroad,  and  he  received  the  greater  part 
of  his  education  at  Paris,  under  the  guidance 
of  his  uncle,  who  was  rector  in  the  Scots 
college.  His  parents,  fearful  lest  he  might 
be  perverted  to  Romanism,  called  him  home. 
An  accomplished  scholar,  and  of  great  natu- 
ral abilities,  he  rapidly  ro&e  to  distinction. 
His  family  having  become  Quakers,  he  did 
likewise,  and  valiantly  combated  the  violent 
prejudices  against  the  sect,  by  several  trea- 
tises in  defense  of  its  tenets.  He  was  enthu- 
siastic in  his  faith,  and  in  1776  accompanied 
William  Penn  in  a tour  of  propagandism 
through  England,  Holland,  and  Germany. 
While  at  Amsterdam,  he  published  his  great 


100 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


work  on  which  he  had  been  long  engaged : 
'*  An  Apology  for  the  true  Christian  Divinity, 
as  the  same  is  preached  and  held  forth  by 
the  people  in  scorn  called  Quakers.”  The 
original  was  in  Latin,  but  it  was  speedily 
translated  into  most  of  the  languages  of 
Europe,  and  widely  spread  the  author’s  rep- 
utation. On  his  return  to  Scotland  he  suf- 
fered severely  from  the  cruelties  practiced 
on  the  nonconformists.  Latterly  he  was 
smiled  on  by  Charles  II.  and  James  II. 
Through  the  royal  favor  he  received  a com- 
mission as  governor  of  East  Jersey,  America, 
for  life.  On  a visit  to  his  native  land  in  1690, 
he  was  seized  with  fever,  and  died  among  his 
kinsmen  at  Ury  in  Aberdeenshire. 

BARCLAY  DE  TOLLY,  field-marshal  of 
Russia,  born  1755  ; director  of  the  war  against 
Napoleon  in  1810 ; commander  of  the  Rus- 
sians at  the  battle  of  Leipzig  1812,  and  in 
France  1815  ; died  1818. 

BARDS.  The  Bards,  among  Celtic  nations, 
in  battle,  raised  the  war-cry  of  their  people, 
and  in  peace,  sang  the  exploits  of  their  war- 
riors. They  appear  to  have  acted,  as  the 
heralds,  legislators,  and  priests  of  the  free 
Celtic  tribes  of  Europe,  until  the  gradual 
progress  of  southern  despotism  and  civiliza- 
tion drove  them  into  the  strongholds  of  the 
Welsh,  Irish,  and  Scotch  mountains,  which 
echoed  to  the  wild  notes  of  their  harps  and 
patriotic  songs.  Their  music  and  poetry  kept 
alive  the  spark  of  national  patriotism  and 
enthusiasm,  and  inspired  a stern  resistance 
to  the  attacks  of  despotism.  Hence  Edward 
I.  of  England  caused  the  Welsh  bards  to  be 
slain,  as  the  instigators  of  sedition.  Ossian 
flourished  in  the  Highlands  in  the  third  cen- 
tury ; Merlin  in  the  fifth.  The  poems  of 
Ossian  were  gathered  and  translated  by  Mac- 
pherson,  who  was  suspected  of  being  their 
author.  Of  these  poems,  Bonaparte  was 
passionately  fond,  and  the  influence  they  ex- 
erted upon  his  style,  may  be  traced  in  many 
of  his  declamatory  harangues. 

BAREBONES,  Piiaise  God,  a fanatical 
leather  seller,  by  whom  one  of  Cromwell's 
parliaments  gained  the  nickname  of  ‘Bare- 
boncs  Parliament.’ 

BARLOW,  Joel,  was  born  at  Reading, 
Conn.,  about  1755.  He  was  educated  at 
Dartmouth  and  Yale  Colleges,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  poetical  talent.  In 


the  college  vacations  he  served  as  a volunteer, 
and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  White  Plains. 
His  first  publication  was  a collection  of  minor 
pieces  called  “American  Poems.”  After 
leaving  college,  he  commenced  the  study  of 
law,  but  afterward  became  a chaplain  in  the 
American  army.  His  patriotic  lays  are  said 
to  have  exerted  an  animating  influence  upon 
his  countrymen.  His  “Vision  of  Columbus,” 
which  was  afterward  expanded  into  “The 
Columbiad,”  met  with  a flattering  reception, 
both  in  America  and  England.  The  first 
edition  was  printed  in  1787.  About  this 
time,  in  pursuance  of  the  request  of  the  gen- 
eral association  of  the  clergj^  of  Connecticut, 
he  revised  the  psalms  and  hymns  of  Dr.  Watts. 
To  further  the  sale  of  these  works,  he  be- 
came a bookseller,  at  Hartford,  but  soon 
quitted  the  business.  In  Europe,  whither  he 
went  to  effect  the  sale  of  lands  in  Ohio,  he 
made  himself  conspicuous  by  the  publication 
of  prose  and  poetical  works  of  a political 
nature.  He  was  in  France  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  revolution  and  was  intimate  with  the 
Girondist  leaders.  He  also  found  time  to 
write  a mock  heroic  poem,  in  three  cantos, 
called  “ Hasty  Pudding,”  doubtless  the  hap- 
piest of  his  efforts.  In  '1795,  he  wras  ap- 
pointed American  consul  at  Algiers,  con- 
cluded a treaty  of  peace  with  the  dey,  and 
procured  the  liberation  of  all  American  citi- 
zens who  wrere  held  as  slaves  within  that 
territory.  By  the  conclusion  of  a similar 
treaty  at  Tripoli,  he  was  enabled  to  redeem 
and  send  home  all  the  American  prisoners 
found  there.  In  1797,  he  returned  to  Pa- 
ris, wrhere,  by  commercial  speculations,  he 
amassed  a very  considerable  fortune.  In 
Paris,  he  lived  in  sumptuous  style,  and  lost 
no  opportunity  of  serving  his  countrymen. 
When  the  rupture  between  America  and 
France  took  place,  on  account  of  the  mari- 
time spoliations  of  the  latter,  he  endeavored 
to  adjust  the  differences  between  them.  After 
an  absence  of  nearly  seventeen  years,  he 
returned  to  his  country  early  in  the  year 
1805.  In  1808,  appeared  his  “Columbiad,” 
a splendid  volume,  ornamented  with  engrav- 
ings by  London  artists.  It  was  so  expensive 
a work  that  but  few'  copies  w^ere  sold.  In 

1811,  Barlow'  wras  appointed  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  the  French  government.  In 

1812,  while  repairing  to  Wilna,  in  order  to 


BAR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


101 


have  a conference  with  the  Emperor  Napo- 
leon, he  died  of  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
Dec.  22d,  at  Zarnawica,  an  obscure  Polish 
village,  near  Cracow. 

BARNEVELDT,  John  d’Olden,  grand- 
pensionary of  Holland,  born  1547,  became 
one  of  the  greatest  diplomatists  of  his  age, 
but  by  adopting  the  opinions  of  Arminius, 
was  involved  in  the  religious  controversies 
which  then  distracted  his  country.  By  his 
influence  in  great  part,  Spain,  in  1609,  ac- 
knowledged the  independence  of  the  seven 
united  provinces.  Under  frivolous  charges 
he  was  beheaded  in  1619. 

BARNEY,  Joshua,  was  born  at  Baltimore, 
July  6th,  1759.  He  was  put  into  a retail  shop 
at  an  early  age,  but  manifesting  a dislike  for 
that  employment,  went  to  sea.  At  sixteen 
years  of  age,  the  illness  of  the  captain  and 
discharge  of  the  mate  of  a vessel  on  board  of 
which  he  was,  put  him  in  command  of  her,  a 
station  which  he  retained  for  eight  months. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution,  he 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  and  was 
made  master’s-mate  on  board  the  Hornet  sloop- 
of-war,  Capt.  William  Stone.  In  1775,  the 
Hornet  was  concerned  with  Hopkins’  fleet,  in 
the  capture  of  New  Providence,  one  of  the 
Bahama  Islands.  In  1776,  in  consequence  of 
his  conduct  in  the  engagement  between  the 
American  schooner  Wasp  and  the  English 
brig  Tender,  which  was  captured  under  the 
guns  of  two  hostile  vessels,  he  was  presented 
with  a lieutenant’s  commission,  being  then 
not  seventeen  years  of  age.  Soon  afterward, 
he  became  lieutenant  of  the  Sachem,  and  as- 
sisted in  the  capture  of  an  English  brig,  after 
a severe  engagement.  Being  placed  on  board 
of  a captured  vessel  as  prize-master,  Barney 
was  taken,  on  his  return  from  the  West  In- 
dies, by  the  Perseus,  but  prisoners  were  ex- 
changed in  Charleston,  S.  C.  In  1777,  Bar- 
ney was  on  board  the  Andrew  Doria,  and  as- 
sisted in  the  defense  of  the  Delaware.  Having 
been  ordered  to  Baltimore,  to  join  the  Virginia 
frigate,  Capt.  Nicholson,  his  vessel  was  run 
ashore  by  the  pilot,  and  taken  by  the  British. 
Barney  was  exchanged  in  1778,  but  while 
commanding  a small  schooner,  was  again  taken 
in  Chesapeake  Bay.  In  November,  1778,  he 
sailed  with  Capt.  Robinson  in  a ship  from 
Alexandria,  with  a letter  of  marque.  They 


arrived  at  Bordeaux,  after  a warm  action  with 
the  Rosebud,  shipped  eighteen  guns  and  sev- 
enty men,  and  took  on  board  a cargo  of  brandy. 
On  their  return,  they  captured  a valuable 
prize.  Barney  reached  Philadelphia  in  Octo- 
ber, 1779.  In  the  following  year,  he  married 
Miss  Bedford,  and,  a month  afterward,  was 
robbed  of  his  whole  fortune,  on  the  road  to 
Baltimore.  Saying  nothing  of  his  misfortune, 
he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  served  on 
board  the  United  States  ship  Saratoga,  sixteen 
guns,  Capt.  Young.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
and  sent  to  England,  escaped,  was  retaken, 
again  escaped,  and  reached  Philadelphia, 
March,  1782. 

Soon  after,  he  received  from  the  state  of 
Pennsylvania  the  command  of  the  Hyder  Aly, 
a ship  of  sixteen  guns.  With  a loss  of  four 
killed  and  eleven  wounded,  the  Hyder  Aly 
captured  the  ship  General  Monk,  twenty  guns, 
after  an  action  of  twenty-six  minutes.  On 
board  the  captured  vessel  were  thirty  killed 
and  fifty -three  wounded,  fifteen  out  of  sixteen 
officers  being  either  killed  or  wounded.  For 
this  exploit  Barney  was  presented  with  a 
sword  by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  General  Monk  having  been  purchased  by 
the  United  States,  Barney  was  put  in  com- 
mand of  her,,  and  sailed  for  France  with  sealed 
dispatches  for  Doctor  Franklin,  in  November, 
1782.  He  returned  to  America,  after  having 
been  favorably  received  at  the  French  court, 
with  a large  loan  from  the  French  king,  a 
passport  from  the  king  of  England,  and  assur- 
ances that  the  preliminaries  of  peace  were 
signed.  Barney  then  served  in  the  French 
navy  from  1795  till  1800,  when,  resigning  the 
command  of  a French  squadron,  he  returned 
to  America.  In  1812,  on  the  breaking  out  of 
the  war  between  England  and  the  United 
States,  he  commanded  the  flotilla  designed  for 
the  defense  of  the  Chesapeake.  He  set  out 
for  Bladensburg,  with  a small  force  of  marines 
and  five  pieces  of  artillery,  in  July,  1814,  but 
found  the  Americans  in  full  retreat.  Notwith- 
standing, he  made  a most  gallant  opposition  to 
the  enemy,  was  wounded  in  the  thigh,  and 
taken  prisoner.  He  received  a sword  from 
the  corporation  of  Washington,  and  a vote  of 
thanks  from  the  legislature  of  Georgia  for  his 
gallant  conduct.  In  1815,  he  was  intrusted 
with  a mission  to  Europe.  Commodore  Bar 


BAR 


102 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


nej7-  died  at  Pittsburg,  in  1818,  while  on  his 
way  to  Kentucky,  whither  he  had  resolved  to 
emigrate. 

BAROMETERS.  Torricelli,  a Florentine, 
having  discovered  that  no  principle  of  suction 
existed,  and  that  water  did  not  rise  in  a pump 
because  nature  abhorred  a vacuum,  imitated 
the  action  of  a pump  with  mercury,  and  made 
the  first  barometer,  in  1643.  Descartes  ex- 
plained the  phenomena.  Wheel  barometers 
were  contrived  in  1668;  pendant  barometers 
in  1695 ; marine  in  1700;  aneroid  in  1840. 

BARR  AS,  Paul  Francis,  Count  de,  was 
born  about  1755,  of  a noble  family  of  Provence, 
of  whom  it  was  proverbial  to  say,  “Noble  as 
the  Barrases,  old  as  the  rocks.”  After  a some- 
what adventurous  youth  he  returned  from  the 
East  Indies  to  France,  dissipated  and  reckless, 
ready  to  share  in  the  troubles  of  1789.  He 
was  one  of  the  Jacobin  club ; and  as  a mem- 
ber of  the  convention  in  1792  he  voted  for  the 
king’s  death,  and  declared  against  the  Giron- 
dins.  In  1793,  he  was  sent  to  the  south  of 
France,  in  command  of  the  left  wing  of  the 
army  besieging  Toulon,  and  there  became  ac- 
quainted with  Napoleon,  then  a captain  of  ar- 
tillery. He  did  not  participate  in  the  savage 
excesses  of  the  revolutionists,  and  it  was  only 
his  popularity  that  saved  him  from  Robes- 
pierre. At  the  close  of  the  reign  of  terror  he 
was  foremost  in  effecting  Robespierre’s  down- 
fall. He  was  appointed  general-in-chief,  called 
in  Bonaparte  to  suppress  revolt,  and  when 
the  directory  was  established,  Barras  was  a 
. member  of  it.  For  a while  he  had  great 
power,  but  the  directory  waned,  and  was  sup- 
planted by  the  consulate.  Barras  died  in  re- 
tirement, Jan.  29th,  1829. 

BARR&RE  DE  VIEUZAC,  Bertrand 
(1755-1841),  styled  by  Burke,  “the  Anacreon 
of  the  guillotine,”  was  a conspicuous  character 
in  the  French  revolution,  and  a colleague  of 
Robespierre,  Danton,  &c.  He  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louis  XVI.,  saying,  “The  tree  of 
liberty  only  grows  when  watered  by  the  blood 
of  tyrants.” 

BARROSA,  or  Barossa,  Battle  of,  a long 
conflict  in  the  Peninsular  war,  between  the 
British  army  tinder  Major-General  Graham 
(afterward  Lord  Lynedoch)  and  the  French 
under  Marshal  Victor,  March  5th,  1811.  The 
British  at  last  forced  the  French  to  retreat, 


leaving  nearly  3,000  dead.  The  loss  of  the 
victors  was  1,169  killed  and  wounded. 

BARROW,  Isaac,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish divine  and  mathematician,  was  born  in 
London  in  1650,  and  died  in  1677.  He  was 
the  predecessor  of  Newton  as  Lucasian  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  a£  Cambridge.  His 
sermons  are  still  held  in  high  estimation. 
Charles  II.  called  him  “an  unfair  preacher, 
because  he  exhausted  every  subject  and  left 
nothing  for  others  to  say  after  him.” 

BxARRY,  John,  the  first  naval  officer  that 
held  the  rank  of  commodore  in  the  service  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  the  county  of 
Wexford,  Ireland,  in  1745.  His  father  was  a 
respectable  farmer,  and  made  no  opposition  to 
his  son’s  wish  to  lead  a seafaring  life.  Barry 
acquired  a good  practical  education,  and  was 
between  fourteen  and  fifteen  years  of  age, 
when  he  came  to  the  country  of  his  adoption. 
The  experience  which  he  had  gained  in  the 
merchant  service,  and  the  naval  skill  which 
he  displayed,  procured  for  him  a commission 
in  the  continental  navy  on  the  breaking  out 
of  hostilities  with  Great  Britain.  He  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  brig  Lexington, 
sixteen  guns,  in  February,  1776.  After  cruis- 
ing with  success,  he  was  transferred  in  the 
sanie  year,  to  the  frigate  Effingham,  at  Phila- 
delphia, but  the  ice  in  the  Delaware  preventing 
immediate  operations,  Barry  served  on  shore 
as  aid-de-camp  to  General  Cadvvalader,  and 
was  present  at  the  occurrences  near  Trenton. 
While  the  American  vessels  were  shut  up  near 
Whitehill,  he  conceived  the  daring  plan  of 
descending  the  river  in  boats  and  capturing 
the  supplies  sent  to  the  enemy.  He  succeeded 
in  taking  not  only  a valuable  stock  of  provi- 
sions, but  military  stores,  for  which  exploit 
he  received  the  thanks  of  Washington.  After 
the  loss  of  his  frigate,  he  was  appointee!  to 
command  the  Raleigh  of  thirty -two  guns,  but 
ran  her  on  shore  in  Penobscot  Bay,  on  being 
chased  by  a large  squadron.  In  February, 
1781,  h,e  was  in  command  of  the  Alliance,  a 
frigate  of  thirty -six  guns,  and  sailed  from  Bos- 
ton, for  L’ Orient  with  Colonel  Laurens  and 
suite,  on  an  embassy  of  importance  to  the 
court  of  Paris.  After  having  taken  several 
prizes,  he  was  severely  wounded  in  the  action 
with  the  ship  Atalanta,  and  her  consort  the 
brig  Trcpasa,  which  were  taken  after  an  en- 


BAR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


103 


gagement  of  several  hours.  Throughout  the 
war,  Commodore  Barry  behaved  with  gallant- 
ry, and  on  the  termination  of  hostilities  he 
was  appointed  to  superintend  the  building  of 
the  frigate  United  States,  which  he  was  to 
command.  In  the  short  naval  war  with 
France,  Barry  was.  of  great  service  to  this 
country,  and  he  remained  in  command  of  the 
United  States  till  she  was  laid  up  in  ordinary. 
He  died  Sept.  13th,  1803,  with  the  reputation 
of  a virtuous,  brave,  and  talented  man. 

BARRY,  Marie  Jeanne  de  Vaubernier, 
Countess  du,  was  in  early  life  a milliner,  then 
a courtesan,  and  in  1759  succeeded  Madame 
Pompadour  as  mistress  of  Louis  XV.  She 
was  corrupt,  even  for  that  age  of  harlotry. 
Louis  XVI.  sent  her  into  retirement.  She 
died  under  the  guillotine  in  1793,  at  the  age 
of  forty -nine,  uttering  on  her  way  to  the  scaf- 
fold piteous  cries  for  mercy. 

BARTHELEMY,  John  James,  an  eminent 
French  writer,  author  of  “The  Travels  of  the 
Younger  Anacharsis,”  born  at  Cassis  in  Pro- 
vence, 1716,  died  April  30th,  1795. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  St.,  martyred  Aug. 
24th,  a.d.  71.  The  festival  was  instituted  in 
1130.  The  horrid  massacre  of  Bartholomew’s 
day  was  perpetrated  on  the  Huguenots  of 
Paris,  by  the  Catholic  faction,  during  the  reign 
of  Charles  IX.,  in  1572,  according  to  secret 
orders  from  the  king  at  the  instigation  of 
Catherine  de  Medicis,  his  mother.  The  mas- 
sacre extended  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
the  victims  were  not  fewer  than  seventy  thou- 
sand. Women  and  infants  were  not  spared. 
At  Rome  the  news  was  received  with  every 
demonstration  of  joy,  salutes  of  cannon  were 
fired,  a procession  went  by  order  of  the  pope 
to  the  church  of  St.  Louis,  and  the  “Te  De- 
um”  was  chanted. 

BARTLETT,  Josiah,  was  born  in  Ames- 
bury,  Mass.,  in  1729.  He  commenced  the 
study  of  medicine  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty -one  the  practice  of  it,  in 
which  he  was  highly  successful.  In  1754,  he 
was  a representative  of  the  town  of  Kingston, 
N.  H.,  in  the  provincial  legislature,  where  he 
took  the  side  of  the  minority,  firmly  opposing 
all  violations  of  right.  In  1775  he  was  de- 
prived by  the  governor  of  his  commission  in 
the  army,  # and  of  that  of  justice  of  peace. 
From  the  provincial  congress,  however,  he 
received  a regiment,  and,  as  a delegate  to  the 


Continental  Congress,  was  the  second  signer 
of  the  declaration  of  independence.  In  1780 
he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  superior  court 
of  New  Hampshire,  and  chief  justice  in  1790. 
In  the  same  year  he  became  president  of  New 
Hampshire,  and  its  governor  in  1793.  He 
retired  from  office  in  1794,  and  died  in  1795. 

BARTON,  Bernard,  the  ‘Quaker  poet,’  a 
banker’s  clerk  in  England,  1784-1849. 

BARTON,  Elizabeth,  a country  girl  of  Ad- 
dington, in  Kent,  commonly  called  the  Holy 
Maid  of  Kent.  She  appeared  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII. , with  pretensions  to  miraculous 
powers,  and  was  executed  at  Tyburn,  April 
30th,  1534,  after  a full  confession  of  her  im- 
posture. It  was  at  the  time  that  the  king 
was  about  to  be  divorced  from  his  first  wife, 
and  the  English  church  separated  from  Rome, 
and  this  girl  was  deluded  by  priests  to  warn 
Henry  of  the  vengeance  of  Heaven  if  he  per- 
sisted. 

BARTON,  William,  lieutenant-colonel  in 
the  American  army  during  the  Revolution, 
was  a native  of  Providence,  R.  I.  He  headed 
the  party  which  seized  Gen.  Prescott  of  the 
British  army  near  Newport,  July  10th,  1777. 
For  this  bold  deed  Congress  gave  Barton  a 
sword  and  a large  grant  of  land  in  Vermont. 
Some  irregularity  in  the  transfer  of  this  land 
led  to  his  imprisonment  in  Vermont  for  many 
years.  La  Fayette,  on  his  visit  to  this  country 
in  1825,  heard  of  his  incarceration,  liquidated 
the  claim,  and  set  the  veteran  free.  He  died 
at  Providence  in  1831,  aged  eighty-four. 

BARTRAM,  William,  an  American  natu- 
ralist, born  in  Pennsylvania,  1739.  He  ac- 
companied his  father  (John,  also  a learned 
botanist)  on  an  expedition  to  explore  the  natu- 
ral productions  of  East  Florida,  and  in  1778 
commenced  an  examination  of  the  natural  pro- 
ductions of  the  Floridas,  and  the  western  parts 
of  Carolina  and  Georgia,  at  the  request  of  Dr. 
F othergill  of  London.  This  employment  lasted 
nearly  five  years.  In  1790  he  published  an 
account  of  his  travels  and  discoveries.  He 
belonged  to  many  learned  societies  in  Europe 
and  America.  He  assisted  Wilson  in  the  com- 
mencement of  his  “American  Ornithology.” 
On  the  22d  of  July,  1823,  a few  minutes  after 
writing  an  article  on  the  natural  history  of  a 
flower,  he  ruptured  a blood-vessel  and  died. 

BASHKIRS,  a tribe  of  Mongol  origin,  under 
Russian  rule.  They  are  Mohammedans,  but 


104 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


little  civilized,  and  live  by  hunting,  raising 
cattle  and  keeping  bees.  They  intoxicate 
themselves  on  a beverage  made  from  fermented 
mare’s  and  camel’s  milk.  They  dwell  about 
Orenburg  on  the  Ural. 

BASIL,  St.,  an  Eastern  patriarch,  called 
the  Great,  born  326,  and  made  Bishop  of 
Csesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  in  370.  Here  he 
died  in  379.  The  rules  for  the  regulation  of 
the  monastic  life,  which  he  prepared,  were 
followed  by  all  the  orders  in  Christendom. 

BASSOMPIERRE,  Francois  de,  Marshal 
of  France,  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Henry  IV.  and 
Louis  XIII.,  and  was  one  of  the  most  amiable 
and  accomplished  men  of  their  courts.  He 
was  bom  in  1579  and  died  in  1646.  He 
served  in  a military  and  civil  capacity.  Hav- 
ing become  enamored  of  the  charms  of  the 
daughter  of  the  Constable  de  Montmorency, 
he  relinquished  his  hopes  when  he  discovered 
that  he  was  the  rival  of  Henry  IY. 

BASTILE,  a royal  castle  commenced  by 
Charles  Y.  for  the  defense  of  Paris  against  the 
English,  and  completed  in  1383.  It  was  of 
great  strength.  It  was  afterward  used  as  a 
state  prison,  like  the  Tower  of  London,  and 
became  the  scene  of  deplorable  suffering  and 
frightful  crimes.  Prisoners  were  confined  by 
the  authority  of  lettres  de  cachet,  that  is, 
letters  of  arrest,  written  in  the  king’s  name, 
with  blanks  for  the  names  of  individuals, 
which  were  to  be  filled  up  by  the  ministers 
who  possessed  these  letters.  Heads  of  fami- 
lies among  the  nobility,  who  wished  to  confine 
any  unworthy  member  of  the  family,  claimed 
the  privilege  of  confinement  by  a lettre  de 
cachet,  and  this  privilege  was  next  claimed  by 
the  ministers  of  government,  to  be  used  for 
the  punishment  of  refractory  servants  and 
others.  It  will  easily  be  conjectured  that  it 
was  not  long  before  unprincipled  ministers 
abused  this  right  by  imprisoning  worthy  per- 
sons, who,  in  the  actual  discharge  of  their 
duties,  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  men  of 
power  by  thwarting  their  interests.  In  fact 
the  use  of  the  lettres  de  cachet  was  the  main- 
stay of  despotism,  and  used  not  merely  by  the 
throne,  but  by  many  of  its  satellites.  Men 
were  imprisoned  for  offenses  too  trifling  to  be 
registered,  and  remained  thirty  or  forty  years 
in  the  Bastile,  or  even  till  death,  without  any 
examination  into  the  charges  on  which  they 
were  imprisoned.  At  the  commencement  of 


the  French  revolution,  the  attention  of  the 
people  was  called  to  this  enormity.  In  July, 
1789,  they  assembled  in  force  and  attacked 
the  Bastile,  which  surrendered  after  a few 
hours.  The  governor  and  other  officers  were 
murdered.  The  prisoners  were  feasted  in 
Paris,  and  the  building  was  completely  de- 
molished. 

M.  Mercier  has  given  an  interesting  account 
of  a prisoner  who  wras  confined  for  some  ex- 
pressions of  disrespect  toward  Louis  XY.  He 
was  set  at  liberty  by  the  ministers  of  Louis 
XVI.  He  had  been  in  confinement  for  forty- 
seven  years,  and  had  borne  up  against  the 
horrors  of  his  prison-house  writh  a manly 
spirit.  His  thin,  white,  and  scattered  hairs, 
had  acquired  an  almost  iron  rigidity.  The 
day  of  his  liberation,  his  door  was  flung  wide 
open,  and  a strange  voice  announced  to  him 
his  freedom.  Hardly  comprehending  the 
meaning  of  the  wrords,  he  rose  and  tottered 
through  the  courts  and  halls  of  the  prison, 
which  appeared  to  him  interminable.  His 
eyes  by  degrees  became  accustomed  to  the 
light  of  day,  but  the  motion  of  the  carriage 
which  was  to  convey  him  to  his  former  abode 
appeared  unendurable.  At  length,  supported 
by  a friendly  arm,  he  reached  the  street  in 
wrhich  he  had  once  resided,  but  on  the  spot 
formerly  occupied  by  his  house,  stood  a public 
building,  and  nothing  remained  in  that  quar- 
ter that  he  recognized.  None  of  the  living 
beings  of  the  vast  city  knew  him  ; his  liberty 
was  a worthless  gift,  and  he  wept  for  the  sol- 
itude of  his  dungeon.  Accident  brought  in 
his  way  an  old  domestic,  a superannuated 
porter,  wdio  had  barely  strength  sufficient  to 
discharge  the  duties  of  his  office.  He  did  not 
recognize  his  master,  but  told  him  that  his 
wufe  had  died  of  grief  thirty  years  before,  that 
his  children  had  gone  abroad,  and  that  not 
one  of  his  relations  remained.  Overcome  by 
this  intelligence,  the  captive  supplicated  the 
minister  to  take  him  back  to  the  dungeon  from 
wrhich  he  had  been  liberated,  and  the  man  of 
office  was  moved  to  tears  by  his  misery.  The 
old  porter  became  his  companion,  as  he  w'as 
the  only  person  who  could  converse  to  him  of 
the  friends  he  had  lost,  but  so  wretched  was 
the  isolated  condition  of  the  victim  of  the  Bas- 
tile, that  he  died  not  long  after  hi§  liberation. 

BATH,  Order  of  the.  Its  origin  is  un- 
certain. The  ancient  Franks,  when  they 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


105 


conferred  knighthood,  bathed  before  the  y 
performed  their  vigils.  Henry  IV.  instituted 
a degree  of  knighthood  of  the  Bath,  and  on 
his  coronation  in  the  Tower,  he  conferred 
the  or.der  upon  forty-six  esquires,  who  had 
watched  the  night  before  and  had  bathed. 
To  each  of  these  he  gave  green  side-coats 
reaching  down  to  their  ankles,  with  straight 
sleeves,  and  furred  with  minever ; they  also 
wore  upon  their  left  shoulder  two  cordons  of 
white  silk,  with  tassels  hanging  down. 

It  was  usual  in  former  times  to  create 
knights  of  this  order  from  the  flower  of  the 
nobility,  who  had  not  previously  received  the 
order  of  knighthood,  at  the  coronation  of 
kings  and  queens,  and  at  their  marriages ; 
sometimes  also,  when  their  sons  were  in- 
vested Prince  of  Wales,  or  dukes,  or  when 
they  solemnly  received  the  cincture  or  mil- 
itary girdle  of  knighthood ; and  that  accom- 
panied with  many  ceremonies,  which  at 
present  are  for  the  most  part  disused.  After 
the  coronation  of  Charles  II.,  the  order  was 
neglected  until  1725,  when  it  was  revived  by 
George  I.,  who  fixed  the  number  of  knights 
at  thirty-eight,  the  sovereign  and  thirty- 
seven  knights-companions. 

By  statute,  January  2d,  1815,  it  was  or- 
dained that,  “for  the  purpose  of  commemo- 
rating the  auspicious  termination  of  the  long 
and  arduous  contest  in  which  this  empire 
[Great  Britain]  has  been  engaged,”  the  order 
should  be  composed  of  three  classes. 

First  class:  to  consist  of  Knights  Grand 
Crosses ; number  not  to  exceed  seventy-two, 
exclusive  of  the  sovereign  and  princes  of  the 
blood  royal,  one-sixth  of  which  may  be  ap- 
pointed for  civil  and  diplomatic  purposes. 
The  remainder  must  have  attained  the  rank 
of  major-general  in  the  army,  or  rear-admiral 
in  the  navy,  and  must  have  been  previously 
appointed  to  the  second  class. 

Second  class : Knights  Commanders  ; num- 
ber not  to  exceed,  upon  the  first  institution, 
one  hundred  and  eighty,  exclusive  of  foreign 
officers  holding  British  commissions,  of 
which  not  exceeding  ten  may  be  admitted  as 
honorary  knights  commanders.  In  the  event 
of  actions  of  signal  distinction,  or  future 
wars,  the  number  of  this  class  may  be  in- 
creased. To  be  entitled  to  the  distinctive 
appellation  of  knighthood ; to  have  the  same 
rights  and  privileges  as  knights  bachelors, 


but  to  take  precedence  of  them  ; to  wear  the 
badge,  &c.,  pendent  by  a ribbon  round  the 
neck,  the  star  embroidered  on  the  left  side. 
No  officer  can  be  nominated,  unless  he  shall 
have  received  a medal  or  other  badge  of 
honor,  or  shall  have  been  especially  men- 
tioned in  dispatches  in  the  London  Gazette,  as 
having  distinguished  himself  in  action.  No 
person  is  now  eligible  to  this  class  under 
the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  army,  or 
rear-admiral  of  the  navy. 

Third  class : Companions  of  the  Order ; 
not  limited  in  number ; they  are  to  take  pre- 
cedence of  esquires,  but  not  entitled  to  the 
appellation,  style,  &c.,  of  knights  bachelors. 
To  wear  the  badges  assigned  to  the  third 
class,  pendent  by  a narrow  red  ribbon  to  the 
button-hole. 

Motto  of  the  order,  Tria  juncta  in  uno — 
the  Trinity. 

BATTHYANY,  Count  Casimir  Stralt- 
man,  a Hungarian  revolutionist,  whose  large 
estates  were  confiscated.  He  died  in  exile  and 
poverty,  at  Paris,  July  12th,  1854. 

BATTHYANY,  Louis,  a Hungarian  noble- 
man, who  was  seized  by  the  Austrians,  sen- 
tenced to  death  by  an  unjust  court-martial, 
and  shot  Oct.  6th,  1848.  % 

BATUTA,  Ibn,  an  Arab  Moor  of  Tan- 
giers,  was  one  of  the  greatest  travelers  that 
ever  lived.  Between  1324  and  1354,  he  wan- 
dered from  his  native  place  to  Timbuctoo,  the 
Ural  Mountains,  Ceylon,  and  the  eastern 
coast  of  China,  visiting  all  the  countries 
between  these  extreme  points. 

BAUTZEN,  or  Budissin,  capital  of  Upper 
Lusatia,  situated  on  a height  washed  by  the 
Spree.  It  contains  about  12,000  inhabitants. 
The  Catholics  and  Lutherans  worship  to- 
gether in  the  large  cathedral,  divided  by  a 
screen  of  trellis-work,  the  former  possessing 
the  altar  and  the  latter  the  nave.  On  the 
20th  and  21st  of  May,  1813,  Napoleon  here 
defeated  an  army  of  Prussians  and  Russians, 
whose  masterly  retreat  left  him  but  little 
advantage.  In  the  evening  of  the  21st  the 
field  of  battle  presented  a grand  but  terrible 
spectacle,  more  than  sixteen  thousand  men 
being  stretched  in  their  last  sleep,  and  the 
scene  illuminated  by  the  red  glare  of  thirty 
burning  villages. 

BAVARIA,  a kingdom  of  Germany,  a 
waste  in  the  time  of  Caesar,  and  a Romap- 


106 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


province  (Yindelicia  and  Noricum)  under 
Augustus.  At  the  end  of  the  fifth  century, 
a confederacy  was  formed  by  several  German 
tribes,  under  the  came  of  Boioarians,  Ratis- 
bon  being  their  chief  seat.  Their  country 
was  called  Noricum,  and  was  never  subject 
to  the  Ostrogoths.  They  became  subject 
however  to  the  Franks,  when  the  latter  gained 
possession  of  Rhgetia.  Otho,  Count  of  Wit- 
telsbach,  who  after  the  death  of  Charlemagne, 
and  the  occurrence  of  convulsions  incident  to 
the  division  of  the  empire,  gained  possession 
of  Bavaria,  died  in  1183.  Louis  I.,  his  suc- 
cessor, enlarged  his  territories,  and  added  the 
palatinate  of  the  Rhine.  Bavaria  was  divided 
into  Upper  and  Lower,  in  1255 ; Maximilian 
I.,  a distinguished  leader  of  the  league  against 
the  Protestants,  gained  the  upper  palatinate 
in  1G23.  He  died  in  1651.  After  the  battle 
of  Blenheim,  the  emperor  treated  Bavaria  as 
a conquered  country.  Charles  Albert  of 
Bavaria  was  elected  emperor  of  Germany  in  ! 
1742,  but  in  1743  the  states  of  Bavaria  were 
constrained  to  swear  homage  to  Maria  The- 
resa, and  in  the  war,  Charles’s  fortunes  sank 
rapidly,  and  he  was  forced  to  abandon  Bava- 
ria. His  son  and  successor,  Maximilian 
Joseph  IH.,  assumed,  like  his  father,  the 
title  of  Archduke  of  Austria,  but  making 
peace  with  Austria,  in  1745,  received  from 
Francis  all  the  Bavarian  territories' which  had 
been  conquered  by  that  power.  Maximilian 
Joseph  devoted  himself  to  the  promotion  of 
the  interests  of  his  people,  and  favored  their 
industry  by  every  means  in  his  power ; the 
foundation  of  the  academy  of  sciences  at 
Munich  proves  his  liberality,  and  the  exten- 
sion of  his  views. 

By  the  treaties  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach, 
and  by  the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Westphalia, 
the  right  of  succession  reverted  to  the  palat- 
inate, on  the  extinction  of  the  Wittelsbach 
line  in  the  person  of  Maximilian  Joseph,  who 
died  30th  of  December,  1777,  but  the  claims 
of  Austria  to  Lower  Bavaria  were  enforced  by 
arms,  and  Charles  Theodore,  in  1778,  was 
persuaded  formalty  to  renounce  the  Bavarian 
succession.  The  Duke  of  Deux-Ponts,  how- 
ever, the  presumptive  heir,  relying  on  the  en- 
couragement afforded  b}^  Frederick  II.  of  Prus- 
sia, refused  to  acknowledge  the  surrender  of 
the  succession.  This  was  the  cause  of  the 
Bavarian  war  of  succession,  which  was  ter- 


minated by  a treaty  of  peace,  signed  May 
13th,  17,9,  in  consequence  of  war  being 
declared  again&t  Austria  by  Russia,  and 
Bavaria  was  secured  to  the  elector  palatine  of 
Bavaria.  The  Austrians  yet  coveted  the 
country,  and,  in  1784,  Joseph  II.  proposed  to 
exchange  the  Austrian  Netherlands  for  Bava- 
ria, with  the  sum  of  three  million  florins 
for  the  elector  and  the  Duke  of  DeuX-Ponts, 
and  the  title  of  King  of  Burgundy.  This, 
however,  was  formally  refused  by  the  Duke 
of  Deux-Ponts,  who  declared  he  would  never 
barter  away  the  inheritance  of  his  ancestors. 
Charles  Theodore  revived  the  order  of  Jesuits, 
and  restrained  the  freedom  of  the  press,  and 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  revolution, 
the  elector  sent  troops  to  aid  the  empire.  In 
1796  Bavaria  became  the  theatre  of  war. 
Maximilian  Joseph,  Duke  of  Deux-Ponts, 
now  came  into  possession  of  Bavaria.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  war  of  1805,  the  elector 
joined  the  French  with  30,000  troops,  and  at 
the  peace  of  Presburg  received  from  Napoleon 
a vast  addition  of  territory,  and  the  title  of 
king.  A matrimonial  alliance  connected  the 
interests  of  Bavaria  still  more  closely  with 
those  of  France.  Bavaria  took  part  against 
Prussia  and  Austria,  in  1806  and  1809.  In 
the  war  of  1812  between  France  and  Russia, 
Bavaria  brought  30,000  men  into  the  field, 
and  but  a few  fragments  of  her  fine  army 
survived  the  expedition  to  Moscow.  In 
1813,  the  King  of  Bavaria  abandoned  the 
confederation  of  the  Rhine  and  turned  his 
arms  against  Napoleon.  In  1825,  Louis 
Charles  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  reigned 
till  1848,  when  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
son  Maximilian  Joseph  II.  His  abdication 
was  mainly  caused  by  his  attachment  to 
the  celebrated  Lola  Montez,  whom  he  had 
created  Countess  of  Landsfelt.  She  was 
expelled  from  the  kingdom. 

The  kingdom  of  Bavaria  is  among  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  secondary  continental  powers. 
Bavaria,  exclusive  of  the  province  west  of  the 
Rhine,  is  bounded  north  by  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
Ilesse-Cassel,  and  Saxony;  east  and  south 
by  Austria,  and  west  by  Wurtemberg,  Baden, 
and  Hesse-Darmstadt.  The  kingdom  con- 
tains 28,435  square  miles,  and  had  in  1855, 
4,541,556  inhabitants.  It  is  a mountainous 
countrjq  having,  however,  many  extensive 
I plains  and  valleys  wide  and  fertile.  Agrh 


BAY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  107 


culture  is  the  chief  branch  of  industry.  The 
soil  is  mostly  owned  in  small  estates.  Bava- 
ria’s most  important  manufacture  is  beer,  of 
which  more  than  ninety-six  million  gallons 
are  yearly  brewed.  Coarse  linens  are. largely 
woven  by  the  country  women.  Marriage  is 
forbidden  without  permission  from  the  au- 
thorities, who  do  not  grant  it  unless,  there  is 
sufficient  probability  that  adequate  means  for 
maintaining  a family  will  be  possessed.  Lib- 
erty of  conscience,  and  equality  in  civil  rights, 
are  guaranteed  to  both  Protestant  and  Ro- 
manist. Education  is  supervised  by  the 
government,  and  no  children  are  excused 
attendance  at  the  schools,  except  such  as 
have  received  permission  for  private  tuition. 
No  printing-press  can  be  established  without 
the  previous  sanction  of  the  king.  The  gov- 
ernment is  a limited  monarchy.  There  are 
two  legislative, chambers.  Bavaria  has  a 
right  of  way  by  a military  road  through 
Baden,  which  gives  direct  access  to  its  domin- 
ions on  the  Rhine. 

Munich  (Munch en)  is  the  capital  of  Bava- 
ria, and  perhaps  the  handsomest  city  in  Ger- 
many. Its  population  in  1856  was  13  7,093. 
The  city  is  indebted  mostly  to  the  ex-king 
Louis  for  its  splendid  buildings  and  its  treas- 
ures of  ancient  and  modern  art.  It  has  a 
library  of  400,000  volumes  and  22,000  MSS. 
Here  lithography  was  invented  by  Senne- 
felder,  in  1796.  Fraunhofer’s  astronomical 
and  optical  instruments  are  unsurpassed. 
Munich  surrendered  to  the  Sw’edes  and  Ger- 
man Protestants,  under  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
in  1632  ; in  1704  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Austrians.  In  1741,  it  shared  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  war,  and  in  1796,  the  French 
army  under  Moreau  obliged  the  elector  to 
make  a separate  treaty.  In  1800,  Moreau 
again  occupied  Bavaria,  and  secured  his 
superiority  by  the  victory  of  Hohenlinden ; 
and  from  that  time,  to  1813,  Bavaria  re- 
mained in  alliance  with  the  French. 

Niirnberg  (incorrectly  called  Nuremberg), 
an  ancient  city  in  the  province  of  Franconia, 
once  a flourishing  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
league,  has  59,000  inhabitants.  This  “ quaint 
old  town  of  toil  and  traffic,  quaint  old  town 
of  art  and  song,”  was  in  the  olden  time  one 
of  the  chief  marts  of  Europe.  It  received  the 
rich  merchandise  of  Italy,  and  forwarded  it 


to  the  north.  Four  hundred  years,,  ago  its 
artisans  in  metals  wrere  famous. 

“ Here  when  Art  was  still  religion,  with  a simple 
reverent  heart, 

Lived  and  labored  Albrecht  Durer,  the  Evangel- 
ist of  Art.” 

Here  sang  Hans  Sach,  the  cobbler  bard. 
Here  were  invented  watches  (first  called 
Niirnberg  eggs),  the  air-gun,  the  clarionet, 
brass,  and  the  lock  for  fire-arms.  Niirnberg 
continued  a free  city  till  1803,  wrhen  it  was 
parceled  to  Bavaria. 

Augsburg,  population  38,000,  is  a town 
of  important  trade  and  manufactures.  Here 
dwelt  the  great  family  of  the  Fuggers.  In 
the  best  days  of  Augsburg,  the  front  of  every 
respectable  dwelling  shone  with  the  glories 
of  the  pencil,  and  the  whole  Scriptures  might 
be  studied  in  these  fresco  paintings  out  of 
doors.  The  first  tulip  known  in  the  west  of 
Europe,  was  brought  to  Augsburg  from  Con- 
stantinople in  1557.  Here  paper  was  made 
from  rags  as  early  as  1330.  Printing  was 
early  established  here,  and  is  now  largely 
carried  on.  The  Allgemeine  Zeitung , called 
also  the  Augsburg  Gazette , the  most  widely 
circulated  journal  in  Germany,  is  printed 
here.  Augsburg  was  a free  imperial  city 
from  1276  to  1806.  Melancthon  drew  up 
the  celebrated  confession  of  faith  protesting 
against  the  abuses  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
whence  the  Lutherans  were  called  Protest- 
ants. By  him  and  Luther,  in  1530,  it  was 
presented  to  the  Emperor  Charles  Y.  in  the 
palace  of  the  Bishop  of  Augsburg,  whence  it 
is  called  the  confession  of  Augsburg.  H&*e 
in  1555  was  signed  the  celebrated  treaty  by 
which  religious  liberty  was  secured  to  Ger- 
many. 

BAXTER,  Richard,  a noted  divine  among 
the  English  nonconformists,  was  born  at 
Rowton,  Shropshire,  November  12th,  1615. 
At  first  connected  with  the  established 
church,  he  beeame  a dissenting  minister. 
Though  he  sided  with  parliament  during  the 
civil  war,  he  did  not  approve  of  the  exe- 
cution of  the  king  and  other  extreme  action 
of  the  day.  During  the  persecution  of  the 
nonconformists  in  the  reign  of  James  II., 
Mr.  Baxter  was  tried  and  abused  by  the  in- 
famous Jeffreys,  but  the  king  remitted  the 
fine  imposed  upon  him.  He  was  a volumi- 


BAX 


108 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


nous  author  upon  theological  and  religious 
subjects.  “The  Saints’  Everlasting  Rest'5 
and  “A  Call  to  the  Unconverted”  are  still 
much  read.  He  died  in  1691. 

BAYARD,  James  A.,  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  politician,  born  at  Philadel- 
phia, in  1767.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton 
College.  He  represented  Delaware  in  both 
houses  of  Congress,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  patriotism  and  ability  in  debate. 
He  was  sent  to  Europe  as  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners to  treat  for  peace  in  1813,  but  after 
the  treaty  of  Ghent,  the  state  of  his  health 
induced  him  to  return  home  with  all  possible 
speed.  He  accordingly  embarked  at  Havre, 
in  May,  1815,  arrived  in  the  United  States, 
and  died  in  the  bosom  of  his  family. 

BAYARD,  John,  an  eminent  patriot  in  our 
Revolution,  born  in  Maryland,  1738,  died  in 
1807. 

BAYARD,  Pierre  du  Terr  ail,  Chevalier  de, 
called  Le  chevalier  sans  peur  etsans  reproche 
(the  knight  without  fear  and  without  re- 
proach,) was  born  near  Grenoble,  1476,  of  one 
of  the  most  ancient  families  in  Dauphiny.  Ed- 
ucated under  the  eye  of  his  uncle,  the  Bishop 
of  Grenoble,  he  early  displayed  those  traits 
for  which  he  was  afterward  so  much  beloved 
and  celebrated.  Modest,  pious,  affectionate, 
tender,  brave,  and  honorable,  all  who  beheld 
him  augured  well  of  his  future  career.  Charles 
VIII.,  who  saw  him  at  Lyons,  managing  a 
stately  steed  with  ease  and  grace,  begged  him 
of  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  whose  page  he  then 
was,  and  committed  him  to  the  care  of  Paul 
of  Luxemburg,  Count  de  Ligny.  He  won 
his  earliest  laurels  in  tournaments,  but  he  was. 
destined  to  shine  upon  redder  fields  of  glory, 
and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  accompanied 
Charles  VIII.  to  Italy,  and  took  a standard 
at  the  battle  of  Verona.  When,  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XII.,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  fol- 
lowing some  flying  adversaries  into  Milan, 
Ludovico  Sforza  generously  returned  him  his 
horse  and  arms,  and  dismissed  him  without 
ransom.  His  exploit  at  the  bridge  over  the 
Garigliano  was  worthy  of  a Roman  in  Rome’s 
• best  days,  for  like  Iloratius  Codes  he  gal- 
lantly defended  the  bridge  against  the  victo- 
rious Spaniards,  until  the  French  army  were 
safe.  On  account  of  this  action,  he  had  for 
his  coat  of  arms  a porcupine,  with  the  fol- 
lowing motto:  Vires  agminis  unus  hahet , 


‘alone  he  has  an  army’s  strength.’  When 
Julius  II.  declared  himself  against  France, 
Bayard  hastened  to  the  assistance  of  the  Duke 
of  Ferrara.  Defeated  in  his  attempt  to  take 
the  pope  prisoner,  he  yet  sternly  refused  to 
listen  to  an  offer  to  betray  him.  He  was 
wounded  in  the  assault  on  Brescia,  and  car- 
ried into  the  house  of  a nobleman  who  had 
fled,  leaving  his  wife  and  two  daughters  ex- 
posed to  the  brutal  insults  of  a licentious 
soldiery.  Bayard  protected  them  faithfully, 
refusing  their  offers  of  reward,  and  returning, 
as  soon  as  he  was  cured,  to  the  French  camp, 
whose  stay  and  hope,  Gaston  de  Foix,  had 
been  killed  in  consequence  of  neglecting  the 
advice  of  Bayard.  The  latter  received  a 
second  wound  in  the  retreat  from  Pavia, 
which  it  was  thought  would  prove  mortal. 
On  learning  this,  the  gallant  chevalier  said, 
in  the  true  spirit  of  a warrior,  “I  grieve  not 
to  die,  but  to  die  in  my  bed  like  a woman.” 
The  military  misfortunes  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.  did  not  cast  a 
shadow  on  the  glory  of  Bayard,  but  his 
personal  bravery  was  conspicuous  even  in 
reverse.  He  was  ever  the  foremost  in  the 
charge,  and  the  last  in  the  retreat.  Fran- 
cis I.  had  no  sooner  ascended  the  throne, 
than  he  gave  proof  of  the  confidence  he  re- 
posed in  Bayard,  by  sending  him  into  Dau- 
phiny to  open  a passage  for  his  army  over  the 
Alps,  and  through  Piedmont.  Ba}^ard  cap- 
tured Prosper  Colonna,  who  lay  in  wait  for 
him,  hoping  to  surprise  him.  Elated  with 
this  success,  in  the  battle  of  Marignano,  to 
which  it  was  a prelude,  he  performed  prodi- 
gies of  valor  by  the  side  of  the  king,  who 
emulated  the  bravery  of  the  gallant  chevalier. 
After  this  day  of  glor}'  Francis  received 
knighthood  from  the  sword  of  Ba}rard.  Bay- 
ard defended  the  town  of  Meziere,  when 
Charles  V.  invaded  Champagne,  with  such 
spirit  and  resolution,  that  at  Paris  he  was 
called  the  savior  of  his  country.  He  received 
from  the  hands  of  the  king  the  order  of  St. 
Michael,  and  a company  of  a hundred  men 
to  command  in  his  own  name,  an  honor 
never  before  conferred  but  on  princes  of  the 
blood.  Bayard  reduced  to  obedience  the 
revolted  Genoa,  but  the  fortunes  of  the  French 
changed,  and  they  were  obliged  to  retreat. 
Bonnivet  the  commander,  his  rear-guard  beat- 
en, and  himself  severely  wounded,  committed 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


109 


the  care  of  the  army  to  the  gallant  Bayard. 
Compelled  to  pass  Sesia  in  the  presence  of  a 
superior  force,  Bayard,  the  last  man  in  the 
retreat,  was  combating  the  Spaniards,  when 
a stone  from  a blunderbuss  shattered  his  back- 
bone, and  he  exclaimed,  “Jesus  Christ,  my 
God,  I am  a dead  man  ! ” He  was  removed 
at  his  request,  under  the  shadow  of  a tree ; 
“From  this  spot,”  said  he,  “I  can  behold  the 
enemy.”  He  confessed  his  sins  to  his  squire, 
and,  in  default  of  a crucifix,  kissed  the 
hilt  of  his  sword.  Bidding  a farewell  to  his 
friends,  his  king,  and  his  country,  he  died, 
surrounded  by  admiring  and  weeping  friends 
and  enemies,  April  30th,  1524.  His  enemies, 
who  retained  possession  of  the  body,  em- 
balmed it,  and  restored  it  to  his  countrymen, 
by  whom  it  was  consigned  to  a tomb  in  a 
church  of  the  Minorites,  near  Grenoble.  A 
simple  bust,  and  a Latin  inscription,  mark 
the  place  of  his  repose. 

BAYLE,  Pierre,  a French  writer,  born  at 
Carlat,  in  Languedoc,  in  1647.  He  died,  pen 
in  hand,  in  1706,  at  the  age  of  fifty-nine.  His 
“Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary”  is  a 
grand  monument  of  the  logic  and  learning 
for  which  the  author  is  so  celebrated.  He 
modestly  called  it  “an  ill-digested  compila- 
tion of  passages  tacked  together  by  the  ends.” 
Voltaire  calls  him  “the  first  of  logicians  and 
skeptics,”  but  adds,  that  his  warmest  apolo- 
gists can  not  deny,  that  there  is  not  a page 
in  his  controversial  writings,  which  does  not 
lead  the  reader  to  doubt,  and  often  to  skep- 
ticism. He  himself  says,  “ My  talent  consists 
in  raising  doubts ; but  they  are  only  doubts.” 

BAYONNE,  a fortified  city  in  France,  about 
two  miles  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Nive  and  Adour.  It  is  in  the 
department  of  the  Lower  Pyrenees,  and  was 
formerly  the  capital  of  a district  of  Gascony. 
Population,  1,900  Bayonne  has  consid- 
erable commerce  with  Spain,  and  is  much 
engaged  in  the  cod  and  whale  fishery.  Its 
hams,  wines,  brandies,  and  chocolate  are 
famous.  It  is  said  that  in  1564  Bayonne  was 
the  scene  of  an  interview  between  Catherine 
de  Medici  and  the  Duke  of  Alva,  at  which 
was  planned  the  murder  of  the  Huguenots, 
carried  into  effect  seven  years  afterward  on 
St.  Bartholomew’s  day.  When  the  massacre 
took  place,  however,  D’Orchez,  commandant 
of  Bayonne,  refused  to  execute  the  orders  of 


the  court,  returning  this  noble  answer : 
“Sire,  I have  communicated  your  majesty’s 
letter  to  the  garrison  and  inhabitants  of  this 
city.  I have  found  only  brave  soldiers  and 
good  citizens,  and  not  a single  executioner.” 
At  Bayonne,  in  1 >70,  the  bayonet  was  in- 
vented, whence  its  name.  Here  in  1808, 
Napoleon  met  the  King  of  Spain,  Charles  IV., 
and  his  son  Ferdinand,  Prince  of  Asturias, 
when  they  signed  an  agreement  by  which 
they  and  the  king’s  other  children  renounced 
their  rights  in  the  European  and  Indian  ter- 
ritories of  Spain,  in  favor  of  Bonaparte.  Dur- 
ing Wellington’s  invasion  of  France  from 
Spain,  the  neighborhood  of  Bayonne  was  the 
scene  of  desperate  fighting,  Dec.  10th,  11th, 
and  13th,  1813.  Soult  then  retired  within 
the  intrenchments  of  the  city,  and  it  was 
invested  by  Lieut. -Gen.  Sir  John  Hope,  Jan. 
14th,  1814.  On  the  morning  of  April  14th, 
Soult  made  a sortie  with  much  success, 
though  driven  back  in  the  end.  Sir  John 
Hope  was  wounded  and  made  prisoner. 
News  of  Napoleon’s  abdication  arrived  shortly 
after.  A treaty  was  signed  at  Bayonne,  Dec. 
2d,  1856,  establishing  the  frontier  line  be- 
tween France  and  Spain. 

BEATON,  David,  Archbishop  of  St.  An- 
drew’s in  Scotland,  and  cardinal,  born  in 
1494.  On  the  coronation  of  the  young  Queen 
Mary,  he  renewed  his  cruel  persecutions  of 
the  heretics,  and  among  others,  brought 
George  Wishart,  the  famous  Protestant 
preacher,  to  the  stake.  Seated  at  his  win- 
dow, he  beheld  with  fiendish  joy  the  cruel 
sufferings  of  this  estimable  man.  He  was 
openly  licentious,  and,  although  endowed 
with  some  good  qualities,  was  disgraced  by 
flagrant  vices.  He  was  murdered  in  his 
chamber,  May  29th,  1546. 

BEATTIE,  James,  a miscellaneous  writer, 
and  pleasing  poet,  born  at  Lawrencekirk,  in 
Kincardine  county,  Scotland,  in  1735,  died 
in  August,  1803.  The  poem  by  which  he 
will  be  remembered  as  a follower  of  the 
muses,  is  the  “Minstrel,”  the  first  book  of 
which  was  published  in  1771.  He  wrote  an 
“Essay  on  Truth,”  and  some  other  meta- 
physical works,  in  which,  however,  he  did 
not  shine  so  much  as  in  his  poems. 

BEAUFORT,  Henry,  cardinal,  half-brother 
of  Henry  TV.  of  England,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
afterward  of  Winchester,  and  chancellor  of 


BEA 


110 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  kingdom.  In  1431,  he  crowned  Henry 
VI.,  in  the  great  church  of  Paris.  He  is 
strongly  suspected  of  having  directed  the 
assassination  of  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester. He  was  one  of  the  judges  of  Joan  of 
Arc.  He  died  in  1447. 

BEAUHARNAIS,  Eugene  de,  son  of  Vis- 
count Beauharnais  and  Josephine,  born  1781. 

He  was  a general  under  Napoleon ; viceroy 
of  Northern  Italy,  1805 ; married  to  the 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  1806 ; made 
Duke  of  Leuchtenburg  by  his  father-in-law ; 
died  in  1824. 

BEAUHARNAIS,  Hortense  Eugenie  de, 
daughter  of  Josephine,  was  born  at  Paris 
1783,  and  married  to  Louis  Bonaparte  in 
1802.  This  forced  union  proved  unhappy  to 
both  husband  and  wife.  They  were  sepa- 
rated, after  Hortense  had  borne  three  sons, 
the  eldest  two  of  whom  died  early,  and  the 
other  has  become  famous  as  Louis  Napoleon. 
Hortense  joined  her  mother  in  retirement  at 
Malmaison,  but  the  speedy  fall  of  Napoleon 
left  her  a desolate  wanderer,  till  at  last  the 
Bavarian  king  gave  her  a refuge  at  Augsburg. 
She  died  Oct.  5th,  1837. 

BEAUMARCHAIS,  Pierre  Augustin  Ca- 
ron de,  artist,  politician,  projector,  painter, 
merchant,  and  dramatist,  was  the  son  of  a 
watchmaker,  and  born  at  Paris,  in  1732. 

He  was  teacher  of  the  harp  to  the  daughters 
of  Louis  XV.,  and  by  a wealthy  marriage, 
laid  the  foundation  of  his  immense  fortune. 

His  “Eugene,”  “Mere  Coupable,”  “Ma- 
nage de  Figaro,”  and  “Barbier  de  Seville,” 
keep  possession  of  the  stage  in  several  lan- 
guages. His  “Memoirs”  exhibit  Beaumar- 
chais in  his  true  character.  He  increased  his 
fortune  by  his  contract  to  supply  the  United 
States  with  military  stores,  during  the  Revo- 
lutionary war.  He  died  in  1799. 

BEAUMONT,  Francis,  and  FLETCHER, 
John,  two  English  dramatic  writers  of  great 
power,  who  united  their  interests  and  wrote 
conjointly.  Beaumont,  born  in  1585,  died  in 
1016;  Fletcher,  born  in  1576,  died  in  1625, 
of  the  plague,  in  London.  They  used  to  fre- 
quent ale-houses,  as  Shakspeare  is  said  to 
have  done,  for  the  sake  of  studying  human 
nature,  and  were  once  arrested  in  a very 
dramatic  manner.  They  were  disputing  in 
an  ale-house  about  the  fate  of  a king  in  one 
of  their  plays,  one  insisting  upon  his  assas- 

BEC 


sination,  the  other  on  his  preservation.  Some 
of  their  uninitiated  auditors  procured  their 
arrest,  imagining  that  a conspiracy  against 
the  reigning  sovereign  was  on  foot. 

BECCARIA,  Caesar,  Marquis  of  Bonesana, 
author  of  a celebrated  treatise  on  crimes 
and  punishments,  born  1720,  died  November, 
1794. 

BECKET,  Thomas  a,  a celebrated  prelate, 
was  born  in  London,  in  1117.  He  was  the 
son  of  a merchant  who,  while  a prisoner  in 
the  East,  is  said  to  have  engaged  the  affec- 
tions of  a Saracen  lady;  she  followed  the 
merchant  to  London,  where  he  married  her. 
Becket’s  advancement  was  rapid : he  was  a 
favorite  with  Henry  II.,  who  made  him  tutor 
to  his  son  in  1158,  and  heaped  spiritual  and 
temporal  honors  upon  him.  He  rivaled  roy- 
alty in  the  splendor  of  his  living.  On  his 
election  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  in  1162, 
he  resigned  the  office  of  chancellor,  and 
assuming  all  the  arrogance  of  a sovereign 
pontiff,  lent  himself  to  oppose  the  reforma- 
tion intended  by  the  king  among  the  clergy. 
Their  enormities  had  disgusted  the  whole 
kingdom;  and  the  archbishop  screened  the 
most  abandoned,  under  the  pretext  that  they 
were  not  amenable  to  the  civil  power.  After 
a series  of  hostilities  between  the  king  and 
Becket,  many  references  to  the  pope,  ex- 
communications  and  anathemas,  reconcilia- 
tions and  fresh  quarrels,  on  the  archbishop’s 
refusal  to  withdraw  his  excommunication  of 
some  bishops,  which  was  felt  to  lie  very  hard 
upon  them,  the  king,  in  a fit  of  passion,  re- 
proached his  courtiers  for  permitting  him  to 
be  so  long  and  so  ignobly  tormented.  On 
this,  four  knights  went  down  to  Canterbury, 
and  killed  Becket  before  the  altar  as  he  was 
at  the  vesper  service,  December  29th,  1170. 
The  perpetrators  of  this  deed  were  finally 
admitted  to  penance,  but  the  king  was  com- 
pelled to  expiate  his  guilt  at  the  tomb  of  the 
archbishop,  who  was  canonized  two  years 
after  his  death.  He  became  a popular  saint, 
and  miracles  were  abundant  at  his  tomb, 
which  was  much  visited  by  pilgrims  till  the 
reformation.  His  bones,  which  had  been 
enshrined  in  gold,  and  set  with  jewels,  in 
1220,  were  taken  up  and  burned  in  the  reign 
of  Henrv  VTTT.,  1539. 

BECKFORD,  William,  was  the  son  of  Al- 
I derman  Beckford,  the  lord  mayor  of  London 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


Ill 


who  bearded  George  III.  on  his  throne.  At 
nineteen  he  wrote  in  French  the  gorgeous 
romance  of  “Vathek.”  He  inherited  a 
princely  estate.  At  Cintra  in  Portugal  he 
reared  a palace  for  his  residence.  Abandon- 
ing this,  he  built  on  his  estate  in  Wiltshire, 
the  magnificent  Gothic  structure  of  Fonthill 
Abbey,  where  he  realized  those  lavish  splen- 
dors which  lie  had  imagined  in  his  oriental 
romance.  His  last  years  were  spent  at  Bath, 
where  he  died  in  1844,  in  his  eighty-fourth 
year. 

BEDE,  commonly  called  the  Venerable 
Bede,  was  born,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Wear- 
mouth,  in  the  year  672  or  673,  and  pursued 
his  studies  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter, 
Wearmouth.  He  died  in  May,  735.  His 
“English  Ecclesiastical  History,”  his  greatest 
and  most  popular  work,  was  translated  by 
Alfred  the  Great.  He  was  modest  and  mod- 
erate, and  although  a monk,  wished  to  have 
the  number  of  monasteries  lessened.  Bede 
led  a life  of  pious  and  studious  retirement, 
and  on  the  day  of  his  death,  he  was  dictating 
a translation  of  the  gospel  of  St.  John  to  his 
amanuensis.  “ Master,”  said  the  young  man, 
as  he  raised  his  eyes,  “ there  is  but  one  more 
sentence  wanting.”  Bede  bade  him  write 
rapidly,  and  when  the  scribe  said,  “It  is 
done,”  replied,  “It  is  indeed  done,”  and  ex- 
pired a few  minutes  afterward  in  the  act  of 
prayer. 

BEDFORD,  John,  Duke  of,  the  third  son 
of  Henry  IV.  of  England.  In  1422,  he  com- 
manded the  English  army  in  France,  and  the 
same-  year  was  named  regent  of  that  king- 
dom for  Henry  VI.,  whom  he  caused  to  be 
crowned  at  Paris.  He  defeated  the  French 
fleet  near  Southampton,  entered  Paris,  beat 
the  Duke  of  Alen^on,  and  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  France.  The  greatest  stain  upon  his 
character,  is  his  cruelty  to  the  Maid  of  Or- 
leans, whom  he  caused  to  be  burnt  in  the 
market-place  of  Rouen.  He  died  at  Rouen, 
in  1435. 

BEETHOVEN,  Ludwig  von,  was  born  at 
Bonn,  Dec.  17th,  1770.  His  musical  educa- 
tion began  at  the  age  of  five,  under  his 
father,  who  was  a tenor  singer  in  the  electoral 
chapel  of  Cologne.  While  yet  a youth,  his 
success  was  foretold  by  Mozart.  At  one  time 
he  enjoyed  the  instruction  of  Haydn.  The 
-ast  twenty  years  of  his  life  he  was  afflicted 


by  severe  deafness,  which  conspired  to  make 
him  distrustful  and  taciturn.  He  made  his 
residence  at  Vienna.  He  died  March  26th, 
1827.  His  musical  compositions  are  well 
known  and  very  beautiful. 

BEGUINES,  females  who  bound  themselves 
to  obey  the  rules  of  an  ecclesiastical  order, 
forming  societies  for  purposes  of  devotion  and 
charity,  living  together  in  beguinages,  without 
taking  the  monastic  vows.  They  originated 
in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  some  of  their  societies 
still  exist  in  the  Netherlands.  Some  of  these 
nuns  once  fell  into  the  error  that  they  could 
in  this  life  arrive  at  the  highest  moral  perfec- 
tion, even  to  impeccability. 

BEHRING,  Vitus,  a Dane  by  birth,  and 
captain  in  the  Russian  navy,  who  in  the  year 
1728,  explored  the  coasts  of  Kamtschatka, 
and  proved  that  Asia  was  disjoined  from 
America.  He  died  on  a desolate  island  of  the 
Aleutian  group,  during  a voyage  of  discovery, 
December  8th,  1741.  The  strait  between 
Asia  and  America,  has  received  the  name  of 
Behring’s  Straits  from  him.  The  uninhabited 
island  on  which  he  died,  is  called  Behring’s 
Island. 

BELGiE,  a collection  of  German  and  Celtic 
tribes,  who  inhabited  the  country  extending 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Rhine,  and  from  the 
Marne  and  Seine,  to  the  southern  mouth  of 
the  Rhine,  which  is  united  with  the  Meuse. 
Caesar  has  borne  witness  to  the  bravery  of 
the  Belgians,  particularly  of  those  who  resided 
on  the  northern  frontiers  of  Germany,  declar- 
ing that  they  were  the  most  valiant  of  the 
Gauls.  When  Caesar  invaded  Britain  he  found 
the  south  of  the  island  occupied  by  the  Belgae, 
who  had  crossed  over  and  driven  the  original 
inhabitants  into  the  interior. 

BELGIUM,  the  name  of  that  part  of  the 
Netherlands  which  formerly  belonged  to  Aus- 
tria. It  was  a part  of  the  kingdom  of  Holland 
till  1830,  when  the  Belgians  revolted,  and  it 
was  recognized  as  a separate  kingdom.  Prince 
Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg,  widower  of  Princess 
Charlotte  of  England,  and  uncle  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria, was  elected  to  the  crown,  which  had 
been  refused  by  Louis  Philippe  for  his  son, 
the  Duke  of  Nemours.  The  area  of  the  king- 
dom is  nearly  11,400  square  miles,  and  in 
1856  its  population  was  4,530,228.  It  com- 
prises the  provinces  of  Antwerp,  Brabant, 


BEL 


112 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


WestFlanders,  East  Flanders,  Hainault,  Liege, 
Limburg,  Luxemburg,  and  Namur.  It  is 
generally  a low  and  level  country,  and  its 
short  sea-coast  of  forty  miles  is  carefully  em- 
banked against  the  encroachments  of  the  sea. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Maas,  or  Meuse, 
and  the  Schelde.  It  has  not  such  a network 
of  canals  as  Holland,  but  there  are  many,  both 
for  draining  and  for  commercial  intercourse. 
The  country  is  everywhere  intersected  by 
wide  and  well-kept  main  roads,  either  paved 
or  macadamized,  having  commonly  a double 
row  of  lime-trees.  Belgium  was  the  first  of 
the  continental  states  to  adopt  a general  sys- 
tem of  railways.  Coal  and  iron  are  exten- 
sively mined.  The  grains  are  extensively 
grown,  and  Belgian  flax  is  of  high  repute. 
The  heavy  Flemish  horses  are  in  much  demand 
for  draught,  and  are  largely  exported.  The 
Flemings  were  once  great  weavers  in  woolens, 
but  the  tyranny  of  Spain  drove  the  artisans 
away.  Still,  woolens  are  an  important  branch 
of  industry.  Linens,  cottons,  and  silks  are 
made.  The  laces  of  Brussels  and  Mechlin  are 
famous.  'The  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
provinces  of  Belgium,  comprising  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  population  of  the  kingdom,  are 
mostly  Flemings,  speaking  the  Flemish  tongue. 
Those  of  the  southern  provinces  are  French, 
speaking  on  the  western  side  the  Picard  and 
on  the  eastern  the  Walloon  dialect  of  the 
French  language.  The  Belgians  are  mostly 
Catholics,  but  freedom  is  enjoyed  by  all  reli- 
gious persuasions,  and  the  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant clergy  are  both  supported  from  the 
public  treasury.  The  government  is  a limited 
constitutional  monarchy.  There  are  two  leg- 
islative chambers,  both  elective.  The  king 
may  confer  titles  of  nobility,  but  no  peculiar 
privileges  are  granted  thereby,  since  all  dis- 
tinction of  orders  is  expressly  repudiated  by 
the  constitution.  The  French  language  is 
used  in  all  public  affairs.  The  French  decimal 
system  is  also  adopted  for  money,  weights, 
and  measures. 

The  capital  is  Brussels  (Bruxelles)  ; popu- 
lation 210,400.  It  is  a miniature  of  Paris, 
and  one  of  the  best  built  cities  in  Europe.  Its 
laces  and  carpets  have  long  been  noted.  St. 
Gery,  Bishop  of  Cambray,  founded  it  in  the 
seventh  century.  In  1695,  during  its  memo- 
rable bombardment  by  Marshal  Villeroi,  four- 
teen churches  and  four  thousand  houses  were 


destroyed.  It  was  taken  by  Marshal  Saxe  in 
1746,  and  again  by  Dumouriez  in  1792.  Till 
1814  it  was  held  by  France.  The  Hotel  de 
Ville  of  Brussels  is  the  finest  of  all  municipal 
palaces.  Its  Gothic  tower,  three  hundred 
and  sixty-four  feet  high,  is  surmounted  by  a 
gilded  copper  statue  of  St.  Michael,  seventeen 
feet  tall,  which  serves  as  a weathercock. 

Antwerp  is  the  great  port  of  Belgium.  It 
is  strongly  fortified,  containing  several  beau- 
tiful public  buildings,  and  90,000  inhabitants. 
Its  manufactures  are  important,  especially  its 
black  silks  and  velvets,  and  recently  its  com- 
merce has  been  flourishing.  Antwerp  in  the 
eleventh  century  was  a small  republic.  The 
spirit  of  its  inhabitants  raised  it  to  the  rank 
of  the  first  commercial  city  in  Europe.  In 
1585  it  was  taken  by  the  Prince  of  Parma, 
after  a long  and  memorable  siege,  and  the  ex- 
actions of  Spain  drove  its  trade  to  Amsterdam. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  Schelde,  on  which  it  is  situated,  was 
crowded  with  vessels ; but  its  harbor  was 
closed  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648. 
This  completed  the  ruin  which  the  siege  under 
the  Prince  of  Parma  commenced.  When  Na- 
poleon declared  the  Austrian  Netherlands  free, 
he  prevented  the  revival  of  its  commerce  by 
making  Antwerp  a military  depot.  In  1814, 
Carnot  gallantly  defended  the  city  against  the 
English  and  Saxons.  In  1832,  the  Dutch 
garrison  under  General  Chasse,  held  out  for 
a long  time  against  the  French  and  Belgians 
under  Marechal  Gerard,  but  the  latter  were 
victorious.  Rubens  was  a native  of  Antwerp, 
and  here  are  preserved  his  finest  paintings,  as 
well  as  many  masterpieces  of  Vandyck  and 
other  Flemish  painters.  Ghent  (Gend)  the 
capital  of  East  Flanders,  is  a handsome  city 
of  115,000  inhabitants,  and  the  seat  of 
thriving  manufactures.  Its  origin  dates  to 
the  fifth  century.  Here  the  third  son  of  Ed- 
ward III.  of  England  was  born,  and  hence 
called  John  of  Gaunt.  Here  also  Charles  Y. 
of  Spain  was  born.  The  woolen  manufacture 
was  early  established  here.  W ith  wealth  and 
freedom  the  men  of  Ghent  waxed  turbulent, 
and  led  on  first  by  Jacques  van  Artevelde, 
and  afterward  by  his  son  Philip,  they  gave 
many  a proof  of  their  sturdy  valor  and  their 
strong  purses  in  brunts  with  the  counts  of 
Flanders  and  the  dukes  of  Burgundy. 
population  was  once  greater  than  now.  ^a‘ 


BEL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


113 


cification  of  Ghent,  signed  Nov.  8th,  1576. 
Peace  concluded  here  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  Dec.  24th,  1814. 
Liege,  on  the  Maas,  has  80,000  inhabitants. 
Its  staple  manufacture  is  that  of  fire-arms, 
and  it  owes  its  prosperity  to  the  valuable  coal 
fields  adjacent.  On  account  of  the  number  of 
its  churches  and  convents,  it  was  once  termed 
“the  paradise  of  priests,  the  purgatory  of 
men,  and  the  hell  of  women.”  Bruges,  the 
capital  of  YV est  Flanders,  has  a "population  of 
49,457.  It  was  to  commemorate  the  high 
perfection  which  the  woolen  manufacture  had 
reached  in  Bruges,  that  Philip  the  Good  in 
1430tinstituted  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 
While  under  the  dominion  of  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy,  Bruges  became  a principal  empo- 
rium of  the  commerce  of  Europe,  the  great 
centre  of  the  English  wool  trade,  and  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  Hanseatic  league 
and  the  rich  republics  of  Italy.  Then  it  had 
a population  of  200,000.  Bruges  was  famous 
for  its  carillons,  or  chimes,  as  early  as  1300. 
They  are  the  finest  in  Europe,  and  are  played 
by  machinery  every  quarter-hour. 

BELGRADE  (‘  white  city  ’),  an  important 
commercial  city  of  Servia,  with  50,000  inhab- 
itants, situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Save 
with  the  Danube.  It  is  well  fortified,  com- 
manding the  Danube,  and  is  at  present  occu- 
pied by  a Turkish  garrison.  It  has  been  an 
object  fur  the  attainment  of  which  the  hostile 
nations  have  struggled  during  the  various 
wars  between  Austria  and  Turkey.  At  dif- 
ferent times  it  has  been  possessed  by  Greeks, 
Hungarians,  Bulgarians,  Bosnians,  Servians, 
and  Austrians.  The  Turks  besieged  the  city 
in  1456,  and  a battle  was  fought  between  the 
German  and  Turkish  armies,  in  which  the 
latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  40,000 
men.  Belgrade  was  taken  by  Solyman,  1522, 
and  retaken  by  the  Imperialists  in  1688,  from 
whom  it  again  reverted  to  the  Turks  in  1690. 
A siege  of  it  was  undertaken  in  May,  1717, 
under  Prince  Eugene.  On  Aug.  5th  of  that 
year,  the  Turkish  army,  200,000  strong,  ap- 
proached to  relieve  it,  and  a sanguinary  battle 
was  fought,. in  which  the  Turks  lost  20,000 
men ; after  this  battle  Belgrade  surrendered. 
It  was  held  by  Austria  till  1739,  when  it  was 
ceded  to  the  Turks,  after  its  fine  fortifications 
had  been  demolished.  It  was  again  taken  in 
1789,  and  restored  at  the  peace  of  Reichen- 
8 


bach,  in  1790.  The  Servian  insurgents  had 
possession  of  it  in  1806. 

BELISARIUS,  general  of  the  armies  of  the 
Emperor  Justinian.  He  defeated  a superior 
force  of  Persians,  in  the  year  530,  and  in  the 
year  after  he  took  Carthage,  made  prisoner 
Gelimer,  king  of  the  Vandals,  and  entered 
Constantinople  in  triumph.  He  was  next  sent 
against  the  Goths  in  Italy,  and  arriving  on 
the  coasts  of  Sicily,  took  Catania,  Syracuse, 
Palermo,  and  other  places.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Naples,  which  he  took,  and  marched 
to  Rome.  After  this  he  conquered  Vitiges, 
king  of  the  Goths,  sent  him  to  Constantinople, 
and  refused  the  crown  which  was  offered  him 
by  the  Goths.  For  his  exploits  he  was  re- 
garded as  the  savior  of  the  empire,  and  med- 
als are  extant  with  this  inscription,  Belisarius 
Gloria  Romanorum,  ‘ Belisarius,  the  glory.of 
the  Romans.’  Having  fallen  under  suspicion 
of  Justinian,  he  was  deprived  of  his  property 
and  honors,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
he  was  subsequently  restored  to  them.  Mar- 
montel  in  his  romance,  adopts  a story  which 
is  related  by  no  contemporary  historian ; that 
Belisarius  was  deprived  of  his  eyes  by  his 
cruel  master,  and  forced  to  beg  his  bread  in 
the  streets  of  Constantinople.  Others  say  that 
he  was  imprisoned  in  a tower,  whence  he  used 
to  let  down  a bag  by  a rope,  addressing  the 
passengers  in  the  following  words : “ Give  an 
obolus  to  Belisarius,  whom  virtue  exalted, 
but  envy  crushed.”  He  died  in  565. 

BELKNAP,  Jeremy,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  June,  1744,  educated  at  Harvard 
College,  and  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in 
Dover,  N.  H.,  1767.  For  some  years  previous 
to  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1798,  he 
officiated  in  a church  in  Boston.  He  was  an 
easy  and  correct  writer,  and  his  reputation 
rests  on  his  “History  of  New  Hampshire,” 
and  two  volumes  of  his  unfinished  “ American 
Biography.”  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 

BELL,  Sir  Charles,  an  eminent  surgeon, 
born  at  Edinburgh,  1774,  died  in  1842.  He 
made  important  discoveries  respecting  the 
spinal  marrow  and  the  nerves. 

BELLAMY,  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Congregational  minister  in  Bethlem,  Conn. 
He  died  in  1790,  at  the  age  of  seventy-one. 


BELLINGHAM,  Richard,  deputy -governor 
and  governor  of  Massachusetts  colony  for 

BEL 


114 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


twenty-three  years,  came  to  America  in  1634, 
and  died  in  1072,  aged  eighty.  He  somewhat 
^nocked  the  old  Puritans  by  marrying  for  his 
econd  wife  a lady  affianced  to  another,  per- 
forming the  ceremony  himself  without  license. 

BELLINI,  Vincenzio,  was  born  at  Catania 
in  Sicily  in  1806.  He  received  his  musical 
education  from  Zingerelli  in  the  conservatorio 
of  Naples,  and  produced,  at  the  theatre  San 
Carlo,  in  that  city,  his  opera  “Bianco  e Fer- 
dinando,”  before  he  was  twenty  years  old. 
He  died  of  consumption  in  1835  at  Pavis. 
During  his  brief  life  he  composed  a num  >er 
of  operas,  the  most  of  which  are  yet  hig  tly 
popular:  “IlPirata,”  “La  Straniera,”  “La 
Sonnambula,”  “I  Capuletti  ed  i Montecchi,” 
“Norma,”  “I  Puritani,”  &c. 

BELLOT,  Lieut.,  a young  officer  of  promise 
in  the  French  navy,  who  volunteered  in  an 
expedition  dispatched  by  Lady  Franklin  to 
search  for  her  husband  Sir  John,  in  1851. 
He  was  of  much  service,  and  on  his  return  at 
once  entered  upon  a second  task  of  the  same 
nature.  On  the  21st  of  August,  1852,  while 
bearing  dispatches  to  Sir  Edward  Belcher 
across  the  ice,  he  was  overtaken  by  a storm, 
borne  by  a floe  out  to  sea,  and  drowned.  A 
monument  to  his  memory  stands  in  the  yard 
of  Greenwich  Hospital. 

BELLS  were  used  among  the  Jews,  Greeks, 
and  heathen.  The  responses  of  the  Dodonean 
oracle,  were  in  part  conveyed  by  bells.  Pliny 
tells  us  that  the  monument  of  Porsenna  was 
decorated  by  pinnacles,  each  surmounted  by 
bells.  They  were  introduced  by  Paulinus, 
Bishop  of  Nola,  in  Campagna,  about  400 ; 
first  known  in  France,  550 ; first  used  in  the 
Greek  empire,  864;  were  introduced  into 
monasteries  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  century. 
Pope  Stephen  III.  placed  three  bells  in  a tower 
on  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome.  In  the  churches  of 
Europe  they  were  introduced  in  900,  and  about 
this  time  they  were  used,  by  order  of  Pope 
John  IX.,  as  a defense,  by  ringing  them, 
against  thunder  and  lightning.  They  were 
first  introduced  into  Switzerland  1020.  The 
first  tunable  set  in  England  were  hung  up  in 
Croyland  Abbey,  in  Lincolnshire,  960 ; bap- 
tized in  churches,  1020.  Bells  of  the  church 
of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris  baptized  and  received 
the  names  of  Duke  and  Duchess  d’ Angouleme, 
the  Prince  de  Foix  and  Duchess  de  Damas 
being  proxies,  Nov.  15th,  1816. 


BELOOCHISTAN  extends  along  the  coast 
of  the  Indian  Ocean  from  the  Indus  nearly  to 
the  Persian  Gulf,  comprising  about  200,000 
square  miles.  It  is  a rough  region,  and  some 
of  the  mountains  are  of  great  height.  The 
heat  of  summer  is  intense,  and  water  scarce. 
The  desert  of  Beloochistan  is  three  hundred 
miles  long,  and  two  hundred  broad.  Among 
the  minerals  of  this  country,  are  gold,  silver, 
lead,  iron,  copper,  tin,  alum,  saltpetre,  sul- 
phur, rock  salt,  &c.  Cotton,  indigo,  grain, 
assafoetida,  and  madder  are  productions  of 
the  soil.  The  natives  are  divided  into  three 
tribes,  the  Belooches,  the  Dewars,  and  Bi  a 
hooes.  They  are  Mohammedans,  warlike, 
half-civilized,  and  pastoral  in  their  habits. 
Kelat  is  a place  of  considerable  strength,  and 
has  about  20,000  inhabitants.  The  Khan  of 
Kelat  has  only  a nominal  authority  over  the 
country. 

* BELZONI,  John  Baptist,  was  born  at  Pa- 
dua, and  educated  at  Rome,  being  destined 
for  a monastic  life.  Having  a taste,  however, 
for  an  active  life,  he  served  in  the  French  ar- 
mies, and  went  to  England  in  1803.  Here 
his  finances  were  probably  at  a low  ebb,  for 
he  was  reduced  to  exhibit  postures  at  Astley’s. 
From  London  he  afterward  went,  with  his 
wife,  to  Egypt,  passing  through  Portugal, 
Spain,  and  Malta.  Here  he  succeeded  in 
opening  the  pyramid  of  Cheops,  which  had 
defied  the  ingenuity  and  efforts  of  the  French, 
that  of  Cephrenes,  and  several  catacombs  nea* 
Thebes,  one  of  which  is  believed  to  have  been 
the  burial  place  of  Psammis,  who  died  400 
b.c.  He  exhibited  great  accuracy  and  skill 
in  the  drawings  which  he  took.  In  1816,  he 
accomplished  an  undertaking  of  great  diffi- 
culty, the  removal  of  the  enormous  bust  of 
Jupiter  Memnon,  and  a sarcophagus  of  ala- 
baster, from  Thebes  to  Alexandria,  whence 
they  were  shipped  for  England.  On  the  1st 
of  August,  1817,  he  opened  the  temple  of  Ip- 
sambul,  near  the  second  cataract  of  the  Nile, 
discovering  a subterranean  chapel  in  its  ruins. 
He  discovered  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Bere- 
nice, four  day’s  journey  from  the  spot  where 
Cailliaud  asserted  that  he  had  found  it.  Bel- 
zoni  died  on  his  way  to  Timbuctoo,  Dec.  3d. 
1823,  at  the  age  of  forty -five.  In  person  he 
was  tall  and  well-proportioned,  and  his  gigan- 
tic stature  protected  him  from  attack,  even 
when  alone  amidst  ferocious  barbarians.  His 


PEL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


115 


wife,  who  accompanied  him  to  Egypt,  dis- 
played great  intrepidity  amidst  the  dangers 
which  they  encountered. 

BEM,  Joseph,  was  a native  of  Gallicia,  and 
born  in  1795.  Bred  to  arms,  he  entered  the 
army  of  Napoleon,  and  served  in  the  divisions 
of  Davoust  and  Macdonald,  and,  after  peace 
was  concluded,  was  for  a while  an  officer  in 
the  Russian  service.  During  the  Polish  rev- 
olution he  commanded  the  artillery.  At  Os- 
trolenka  he  was  wounded,  but  as  he  lay  upon 
the  ground,  he  directed  the  movements  of  his 
guns.  When  the  cause  of  Poland  was  lost, 
he  sought  refuge  in  France,  and  there  and  in 
England  tasted  the  bitter  bread  of  poverty 
and  exile.  Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the 
revolutions  of  1848,  he  drew  his  sword  in  aid 
of  the  Hungarians,  and  as  a general  in  their 
army  brilliantly  combated  the  Austrians. 
When  Austria  and  Russia  triumphed,  Bern 
fled  to  Turkey,  where  he  embraced  Islamism. 
and  entered  the  Turkish  army  under  the 
name  of  Murad  Bey.  He  died  at  Aleppo  in 
December,  1850. 

BENAVIDES,  an  outlaw  and  pirate,  whose 
singular  perseverance  and  ferocity  rendered 
him  for  many  years  the  terror  of  the  southern 
parts  of  Chili.  Under  pretext  of  establishing 
a navy,  he  seized  upon  English  and  American 
vessels  that  stopped  for  refreshment  near  the 
town  of  Arauco,  the  centre  of  his  operations. 
In  1821,  the  Chilians  fitted  out  an  expedition, 
and  succeeded  in  breaking  up  his  stronghold, 
and  capturing  him.  He  was  condemned  and 
executed,  February  23d,  1822.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  career,  he  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  Chilians  against  Spain,  but  soon  deserted 
them,  and  having  been  taken  prisoner  in  the 
battle  of  Maypu,  1818,  he  was  sentenced  to  be 
shot,  and  actually  sustained  the  fire  of  a file 
of  soldiery.  He  was  covered  with  wounds 
and  believed  to  be  dead,  but  had  his  senses 
left  when  he  was  dragged  to  the  field  where 
the  bodies  of  criminals  were  exposed.  Here 
a man  who  had  owed  him  a grudge,  smote 
the  supposed  corpse  with  a sword,  and  such 
were  the  powers  of  endurance  possessed  by 
Benavides,  that  he  did  not  flinch  in  the  least, 
or  give  the  slightest  sign  of  vitality,  or  of  the 
agony  he  suffered.  As  soon  as  it  was  dark, 
he  crawled  away  to  the  house  of  a friend,  and 
had  his  wounds  dressed.  His  bravery  and 
fortitude  would  have  honored  a better  cause. 


BENBOW,  John,  an  English  admiral,  born 
in  1650.  His  gallantry  in  repelling  the  attack 
of  a Barbary  corsair,  when  in  the  merchant 
service,  procured  him  the  command  of  a ship 
of  war,  from  James  II.  Being  sent  by  William 
III.  to  the  West  Indies,  he  relieved  the  colo- 
nies, and  in  a subsequent  engagement  with 
the  French  fleet,  off  Carthagena,  Aug.  19th, 
1702,  a chain-shot  carried  off  one  of  his  legs. 
He  was  carried  below,  but,  as  soon  as  his 
wound  was  dressed,  brought  on  deck  again, 
and  persisted  in  continuing  the  action.  He 
was  abandoned  at  this  moment,  through  the 
cowardice  of  several  captains  under  his  com- 
mand, who  signed  a paper  expressing  their 
opinion  that  nothing  more  could  be  done,  and 
the  whole  fleet  of  the  enemy  was  suffered  -to 
escape.  Shortly  after  Benbow’s  arrival  at 
Jamaica,  where  he  died  of  his  wounds  and 
chagrin  in  the  following  October,  he  received 
a note  from  the  French  admiral,  of  which  the 
following  is  a literal  translation : 

“ Carthagena,  Aug.  22d,  1702. 

“Sir:  I had  little  hopes,  on  Monday  last, 
but  to  have  supped  in  your  cabin:  yet  it 
pleased  God  to  order  it  otherwise.  I am 
thankful  for  it.  As  for  those  cowardly  cap- 
tains who  deserted  you,  hang  them  up,  for  by 
G-d  they  deserve  it.  “Du  Casse.” 

Two  of  the  cowardly  captains  were  tried 
and  shot  upon  their  return  to  England. 

BENEDICT,  the  name  of  several  popes. 
Of  these,  Benedict  XIV.  (Prosper  Lamberti- 
ni)  was  the  most  noted.  When,  on  the  death 
of  Clement  XII.,  in  1740,  the  conclave  was 
divided,  and  the  cardinals  could  not  agree, 
Lambertini  said,  in  his  good-natured  way, 
“If  you  want  a saint,  take  Gotti;  if  a politi- 
cian, Aldobrandi ; if  a good  old  man,  take 
me.”  The  humorous  manner  in  which  this 
quaint  speech  was  delivered,  operated  like 
magic,  and  Lambertini  became  sovereign 
pontiff.  He  reformed  abuses,  introduced  good 
regulations,  cultivated  letters,  encouraged 
men  of  learning,  and  was  a patron  of  the  fine 
arts.  He  died  May  3d,  1758. 

BENEDICT,  St.  (480-543),  founded  the 
first  religious  order  of  the  west.  Besides  per- 
forming religious  duties,  the  monks  of  his  or- 
der gave  instructions  to  youth,  in  reading, 
writing,  ciphering,  religion,  and  manual  la- 
bors, including  all  the  mechanic  arts.  Bene- 
dict caused  the  aged  monks  to  copy  manu- 


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scripts,  and  thus  many  literary  works  of  great 
importance  were  preserved  from  ruin.  From 
the  sixth  to  the  tenth  century,  almost  all  the 
monks  in  the  west  were  Benedictines.  The 
rules  of  the  order  were  severe.  At  an  early 
period  the  dress  of  the  brethren  of  the  differ- 
ent monasteries  varied,  but  after  the  sixth 
century,  when  union  was  enjoined,  the  monks 
of  this  order  all  wore  black.  The  Cluniacs 
were  a branch  of  the  Benedictines,  proceeding 
from  the  convent  of  Clugny  in  Burgundy, 
founded  in  910.  Their  regulations  were  at 
first  strict,  but  in  the  twelfth  century,  when 
the  order  had  two  thousand  monasteries,  they 
declined,  from  the  excess  of  their  luxury. 

BENEZET,  Anthony,  was  born  at  St. 
Quentin,  in  France,  January,  1713.  His  pa- 
rents were  opulent,  and  his  descent  noble. 
The  confiscation  of  his  father’s  estates,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  having  joined  the  Protestants, 
in  1715,  drove  the  family  to  England,  where 
Anthony  was  educated.  Of  his  early  life  little 
is  known,  but  he  was  fourteen  years  of  age 
when  he  joined  the  society  of  Friends.  In 
1731,  he  came  to  Philadelphia  in  company 
with  his  parents.  His  first  employment  was 
that  of  instructor  in  a school  at  Germantown. 
About  1750,  being  struck  with  the  enormities 
of  the  slave-trade,  he  determined  to  employ 
all  his  energies  in  bettering  the  condition  of 
the  blacks.  He  established  an  evening  school 
for  them  in  Philadelphia,  and  taught  them 
gratuitously.  On  the  subject  of  negro  slavery 
he  published  numerous  short  essays  in  alma- 
nacs and  newspapers,  which  he  circulated 
with  unwearied  assiduity.  He  printed  and 
distributed  at  his  own  expense,  many  valuable 
tracts.  The  circulation  of  these  was  not  con- 
fined to  America ; in  Europe  they  procured 
Benezet  the  notice  and  correspondence  of  many 
eminent  men.  He  undoubtedly  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  the  measures  which  resulted  in  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade  in  the  United 
States.  His  philanthropy  was  unbounded; 
the  whole  human  race  were  his  brethren.  The 
wrongs  inflicted  on  the  aborigines  of  North 
America,  excited  his  strong  sympathy  about 
the  year  1763,  and  his  efforts  in  their  behalf 
excited  the  warmest  admiration  in  all  high- 
minded  observers  of  his  course.  In  1780,  he 
wrote  and  published  a “ Short  Account  of  the 
Religious  Society  of  Friends,  commonly  called 
Quakers,”  and  in  1782,  “A  Dissertation  on 


the  Plainness  and  Innocent  Simplicity  of  the 
Christian  Religion.”  He  also  published  and 
circulated  several  tracts  against  the  use  of  ar- 
dent spirits.  In  the  spring  of  1784,  he  was 
taken  ill ; after  his  case  was  pronounced  hope- 
less, he  conversed  intelligently  with  hundreds 
who  came  to  see  him.  He  died  on  the  5th  of 
May,  at  Philadelphia,  extensively  known  and 
beloved.  His  naturally  strong  understanding 
was  improved  by  extensive  reading.  His  pri- 
vate habits  endeared  him  to  his  friends,  and 
his  small  estate  was  devoted  to  the  furtherance 
of  his  benevolent  purposes. 

BENNINGTON,  a town  in  Vermont.  Here 
a battle  was  fought,  Aug.  16th,  1777,  between 
a detachment  of  Burgoyne’s  army,  under 
Lieut. -Col.  Baum,  and  a body  of  American 
militia  commanded  by  Gen.  Stark.  Baum 
was  mortally  wounded.  Seven  hundred  of 
the  enemy  were  captured,  and  two  hundred 
and  seven  killed.  The  loss  of  the  Americans 
was  about  one  hundred  dead,  and  as  many 
wounded.  A good  quantity  of  arms  and 
ammunition  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

BENTHAM,  Jeremy,  an  English  philoso- 
phizer upon  jurisprudence  and  morals,  born 
Feb.  6th,  1749.  He  was  entered  of  Queen’s 
College,  Oxford,  when  only  twelve  years  of 
age,  and  was  even  then  known  by  the  name  of 
‘the  philosopher.’  He  attained  the  ripe  age 
of  eighty-four.  This  eccentric  man,  who 
made  utility  the  basis  of  his  philosophy,  be- 
queathed his  body  to  the  dissectors,  in  order 
to  benefit  the  science  of  anatomy. 

BENTLEY,  Richard,  a celebrated  English 
divine  and  classical  scholar,  was  born  in  1662. 
His  father  was  a blacksmith,  and  he  received 
his  earliest  instruction  from  his  mother,  a 
woman  of  much  talent.  He  entered  St. 
John’s  College,  Cambridge,  at  the  age  of 
fourteen.  He  was  victorious  in  a controversy 
with  the  Hon.  Charles  Boyle,  afterward  Earl 
of  Orrery,  relating  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
Epistles  of  Phalaris.  Bentley  was  opposed 
by  a host  of  wits,  Pope,  Swift,  Garth,  Atter- 
bury,  Conyers,  Middleton,  &c.,  but  he  satis- 
factorily proved  that  the  Epistles  were  not 
the  production  of  the  tyrant  of  Agrigentum, 
who  lived  more  than  five  centuries  b.c.  ; but 
of  some  late  sophists,  who  borrowed  the  name 
of  Phalaris.  The  tyrant  Phalaris  had  a hol- 
low brazen  bull,  in  which,  when  hot,  he  used 
to  place  those  who  were  unfortunate  enough 


BEN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


117 


to  displease  him,  and  whose  cries  were  thus 
made  to  resemble  the  roarings  of  the  animal. 
Conyers  Middleton,  whose  enmity  to  Bent- 
ley arose  from  the  epithet  of  fiddling  Conyers, 
applied  to  him  while  an  university  student, 
was  suspected  of  being  the  author  of  a pun- 
ning caricature  representing  Bentley  on  the 
point  of  being  thrust  into  the  brazen  bull  of 
Phalaris,  and  exclaiming,  “ I had  rather  be 
roasted  than  Boyled.”  Bentley  was  presented 
by  the  crown  to  the  mastership  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  worth  nearly  £1,000  a 
year;  and,  in  1701,  he  was  called  to  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Ely.  Among  the  accusations 
brought  against  him,  as  head  of  the  college, 
he  was  accused  of  embezzling  money,  a charge 
which  occasioned  a lawsuit  that  was  termin- 
ated in  the  doctor’s  favor  near  twenty  years 
afterward.  He  was  appointed  Regius  professor 
of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  in  1716.  In  1726, 
he  published  his  edition  of  Terence  and  Phce- 
drus,  his  notes  to  which  brought  on  a dispute 
with  Bishop  Hare,  on  the  metres  of  Terence, 
when  Sir  Isaac  Newton  observed  that  “two 
dignified  clergymen,  instead  of  minding  their 
duty,  had  fallen  out  about  a play-book.” 
Bentley’s  edition  of  “Paradise  Lost,”  with 
conjectural  emendations,  his  last  work,  was  a 
decided  failure.  He  died,  July  14th,  1742. 

BENYOWSKY,  Maurice  Augustus,  Count 
of,  was  born  in  1741,  at  Werbowa,  in  Hun- 
gary. His  father  was  a general,  and  he 
himself  entered  the  Austrian  service,  and 
served  as  a lieutenant  in  the  seven  years’ 
war  till  1758.  Having  joined  the  Polish  con- 
federation against  Russia,  and  served  with  the 
rank  of  colonel,  commander  of  cavalry,  and 
quartermaster-general,  he  was  taken  by  the 
Russians  in  1769,  and  sent  to  Kamtschatka. 
On  his  voyage  thither,  he  saved  the  vessel 
during  a storm,  and  thus,  on  his  arrival, 
secured  a favorable  reception  from  the  gov- 
ernor, Niloff,  whose  family  he  instructed  in 
the  French  and  German  languages.  In  May, 
1771,  he  escaped  from  Kamtschatka,  accom- 
panied by  Aphanasia,  the  governor’s  daugh- 
ter, and  ninety-six  other  persons,  sailing  for 
Formosa,  whence  he  departed  for  Macao. 
Here  he  lost  many  of  his  companions,  and  the 
faithful  and  unfortunate  Aphanasia.  Arrived 
in  France,  he  was  commissioned  to  found  a 
colony  in  Madagascar,  where  he  arrived  in 
June,  1774.  He  was  not  long  in  gaining  the 


good  will  of  the  natives,  who  appointed  him 
their  king.  He  went  to  Europe  to  obtain 
recognition  as  an  independent  prince  in  Mad- 
agascar, but  was  forced  by  the  persecution  of 
the  French  ministry,  to  enter  the  Austrfan 
service.  In  the  battle  of  Habelschwerdt, 
1778,  he  commanded  against  the  Prussians. 
In  1784,  receiving  assistance  from  private 
persons  in  London  and  America,  he  set  out 
for  Madagascar,  and  arrived  in  1785.  Here 
he  commenced  hostilities  against  the  French, 
and  the  authorities  of  the  Isle  of  France  sent 
a force  against  him ; in  contending  against 
which  he  was  wounded  mortally,  May  23d, 
1786.  The  fate  of  Benyowsky’s  only  son 
was  singular:  he  is  said  to  have  been  de- 
voured by  the  rats  of  Madagascar. 

BER ANGER,  Pierre  Jean  de,  was  born 
in  Paris,  Aug.  19th,  1780.  During  the  storm 
of  the  revolution  he  dwelt  with  an  aunt  at 
Peronne,  and  there  became  apprentice  to  a 
printer.  This  vocation  led  him  to  study,  and 
he  determined  to  be  a poet,  a vocation  the 
adoption  of  which  naturally  included  poverty. 
It  was  such  extreme  poverty  that  he  thought 
of  suicide.  The  kind  aid  of  Lucien  Bona- 
parte rescued  him  from  this  wretchedness. 
Beranger  was  a warm  admirer  of  Napoleon, 
and  deeply  deplored  his  fall.  The  unequaled 
political  songs  of  Beranger,  for  which  at  times 
he  was  incarcerated  or  mulcted,  helped  to 
make  the  Bourbons  unpopular  and  bring  on 
the  overturn  of  1830.  One  of  his  fines  was 
paid  by  a national  subscription  opened  by 
his  friend  Lafitte,  the  banker.  “ Beranger,” 
said  Benjamin  Constant,  “writes  sublime 
odes  when  he  imagines  he  is  only  composing 
simple  songs.”  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of 
Chateaubriand,  Victor  Hugo,  Lamartine,  and 
Dumas.  Adversity  visited  Beranger  late  in 
life.  His  publisher  failed,  and  he  was  me- 
naced with  losing  the  eighteen  or  twenty 
thousand  francs  he  had  in  the  bankrupt’s 
hands,  all  he  had  in  the  world.  Lafitte  knew 
very  well  it  would  be  lost  time  to  persuade  the 
poet  to  accept  money.  He  sent  for  M.  Hector 
Bossange,  the  well  known  publisher,  and  said 
to  him,  as  he  placed  eighteen  bank  notes  of  a 
thousand  francs  in  his  hands,  “ Go  and  see  Be- 
ranger, M.  Bossange.  Propose  to  him  to 
become  the  publisher  of  his  works  for  the 
next  three  years.  Offer  to  take  them  at  six 
thousand  francs  a year  certain,  and  such  a 


BER 


118 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


percentage  on  all  sales  over  that  amount,  and 
give  him  these  eighteen  thousand  francs.  You 
will  pay  me  when  you  clear  thirty -six  thou- 
sand francs  yourself.”  M.  Bossange  called 
instantly  on  Beranger  and  made  him  these 
propositions.  Beranger  accepted  them  with 
delight,  and  expressed  warm  gratitude  to  M. 
Bossange.  The  latter,  embarrassed  at  re- 
ceiving thanks  not  his  due,  revealed  the  secret 
he  had  been  charged  to  keep  inviolate.  Ber- 
anger’s  manner  changed  instantly,  and  he 
refused  to  take  the  money.  Foiled  in  this 
way,  Lafitte  took  the  affairs  of  the  ruined 
publisher  in  hand,  and  managed  them  so 
well  that  the  creditors  were  paid  in  full,  Ber- 
anger among  the  rest. 

When  the  revolution  to  which  the  lyrics 
of  Beranger  had  aided,  happened  in  July, 
1830,  he  did  not  salute  it  with  any  paeans. 
Nevertheless  his  popularity  at  this  time  was 
unbounded.  On  the  stages  of  every  theatre 
in  France,  his  bust  was  crowned  by  the  favor- 
ite actress.  The  orchestra  would  play  his 
airs,  and  the  audience  would  sing  the  words. 
He  fled  from  all  this  boisterous  popularity, 
and,  what  vexed  him  even  more,  the  annoy- 
ing visits  of  office  seekers,  anxious  to  procure 
his  recommendation.  The  last  years  of  his 
life  were  spent  quietly  in  Paris,  where  he 
died,  July  16th,  1857.  He  had  published 
nothing  since  1838.  His  decease  caused  all 
France  to  mourn.  He  was  buried  by  the 
French  government  the  day  after  his  death, 
and  great  precautions  were  taken  to  avoid  a 
popular  outbreak  at  his  funeral. 

BERCHTOLD,  Leopold,  Count,  born  in 
1758.  He  was  a distinguished  philanthro- 
pist, and  spent  thirteen  years  in  traveling 
through  Europe,  and  four  in  Asia  and  Africa, 
to  relieve  the  distresses  of  humanity.  He 
died  July  26th,  1809,  on  his  estate  at  Buch- 
lan  in  Moravia,  where  he  had  fitted  up  an 
hospital  for  sick  and  wounded  Austrian  sol- 
diers. 

BERESFORD,  William,  Baron,  Duke  of 
Elvas,  and  Marquis  of  Campo  Mayo,  a dis- 
tinguished British  general.  In  1810  he 
defeated  Soult  at  Albuera.  In  1812,  having 
a command  under  Wellington,  he  shared  in 
the  dangers  and  glory  of  the  battles  of  Vit- 
toria,  Bayonne,  and  Toulouse.  He  died  in 
1854,  at  the  age  of  eighty-six. 

BERESINA,  a river  in  the  west  of  Russia, 


famous  for  the  passage  of  the  French  army 
under  Napoleon  on  the  disastrous  retreat 
from  Moscow,  Nov.  26th  and  27th,  1812. 
The  ice  with  which  the  morasses  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  were  covered,  was  not  strong 
enough  to  bear.  The  Russian  army  were 
threatening  the  fugitives,  whose  discipline 
was  lost,  and  who,  despairing  of  escaping  by 
means  of  the  two  crowded  bridges,  trusted 
themselves  to  floating  masses  of  ice  and  were 
lost.  Seventy -five  hundred  men  and  five  gen- 
erals, according  to  the  Russian  account,  were 
taken,  and  twice  as  many  more  lost  their  lives. 

BERGHEM,  Nicholas,  a famous  painter, 
bom  at  Harlem  in  1624,  died  in  1683.  His 
landscapes  and  representations  of  animals  are 
much  valued.  Once,  when  pursued  by  his 
father,  he  fled  for  safety  to  the  workshop 
of  Van  Goyen,  who  shouted  to  his  pupils, 
“ Berg  hem”  (hide  him);  and  this  expres- 
sion was  adopted  as  his  name. 

BERKELEY,  George,  Bishop  of  Cloyne 
in  Ireland,  famous  for  his  ideal  theory,  that 
there  is  nothing  material,  and  that  objects 
which  are  called  sensible  material  objects, 
are  not  external,  but  only  impressions  made 
upon  the  mind  by  an  act  of  God,  according 
to  certain  laws  of  nature,  which  are  invaria- 
ble. Lord  Byron  says : 

“ When  Bishop  Berkeley  said  there  was  no  mat- 
ter, 

And  proved  it,  ’twas  no  matter  what  he  said.” 

He  was  born  at  Kilcrin,  Ireland,  1684.  In 
furtherance  of  his  project  for  converting  the 
American  savages  to  Christianity,  by  the 
establishment  of  a college  in  the  Bermuda 
Islands,  he  considerably  impaired  his  fortune. 
He  resided  some  time  in  Rhode  Island.  His 
estate  at  Newport  he  gave  to  Yale  College, 
by  which  it  is  still  held.  Pope,  who  was 
much  attached  to  him,  says  that  he  had 
“every  virtue  under  heaven.”  It  was  when 
inspired  by  liis  transatlantic  scheme  that  he 
penned  those  fine  moral  verses,  the  last  stan- 
za of  which  seems  almost  prophetic : 

“Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way; 

The  first  four  acts  already  past, 

A fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day; 

Time’s  noblest  offspring  is  the  last.” 

He  died  in  1753,  expiring  without  a groan 
or  sigh  in  the  midst  of  his  family,  just  as  he 
had  concluded  a commentary  on  that  beau- 
tiful and  consoling  portion  of  Holy  Writ,  the 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


119 


fifteenth  chapter  of  the  first  epistle  to  the 
Corinthians. 

BERKELEY,  William,  governor  of  Vir- 
ginia under  Charles  I.  and  II.  He  was  a-  hot 
royalist,  and  on  the  death  of  Matthews,  whom 
Cromwell  had  made  governor  in  his  stead, 
being  asked  by  the  people  to  resume  the  exec- 
utive, would  only  do  so  on  condition  that 
Charles  II.  should  be  proclaimed  king.  The 
consequences  of  this  bold  step  might  have 
been  serious,  had  not  Cromwell’s  death  soon 
followed.  During  the  latter  part  of  Berkeley’s 
term,  the  colony  was  convulsed  by  Bacon’s 
rebellion,  and  the  governor’s  severity  caused 
Charles  II.  to  complain  that  “the  old  fool 
shed  more  blood  in  that  naked  country  than 
he  had  done  for  the  murder  of  his  father.” 
Berkeley  died  in  England  in  1077. 

BERLICHINGEN,  Goetz,  or  Godfrey  yon, 

4 with  the  iron  hand,’  a brave  and  honorable 
knight  of  the  middle  ages,  who  headed  the 
rebellious  peasants  of  Bavaria,  against  their 
oppressors.  Before  this  time,  having  lost  his 
right  hand,  he  had  substituted  one  made  of 
iron.  He  died  July  23d,  1562. 

BERLIN  DECREE,  a memorable  inter- 
dict launched  by  Napoleon  against  the  com- 
merce of  England.  It  declared  the  British 
islands  to  be  in  a state  of  blockade,  and  all 
Englishmen  found  in  countries  occupied  by 
French  troops  were  to  be  treated  as  prisoners 
of  war.  The  whole  world,  in  fact,  was  to 
cease  from  any  communication  with  Great 
Britain.  It  w'as  issued  from  the  palace  at 
Berlin,  Nov.  21st,  1806,  shortly  after  the 
battle  of  Jena. 

BERMUDAS,  or  Sommers’  Islands,  a clus- 
ter of  about  three  hundred  small  islands  in 
the  Atlantic.  They  were  discovered  by  Juan 
Bermudas,  a Spaniard,  in  1522.  In  1609,  Sir 
George  Sommers,  an  Englishman,  who  was 
wrecked  here,  founded  the  first  settlement. 
Many  are  so  unimportant  as  to  have  no  name, 
but  the  principal  islands  are  St.  George, 
St.  David,  Cooper,  Ireland,  Somerset,  Long 
Island,  Bird  Island,  and  Nonesuch.  The  air 
is  healthy  and  invigorating  to  invalids,  the 
winter  being  hardly  apparent.  The  islands, 
however,  are  subject  to  frequent  storms. 
The  soil  is  generally  rich  and  fertile.  Ship- 
building is  the  principal  occupation  of  the 
islanders.  The  whole  shore  is  surrounded 
by  rocks,  dry  at  low  water,  but  covered  at 


high  tide.  The  Bermudas  lie  about  five 
hundred  and  thirty  miles  easterly  from  Cape 
Hatteras.  They  are  a British  colony,  and 
have  a population  of  14,000.  A small  con- 
vict station  is  maintained  here.  During  the 
wars  between  parliament  and  the  crown, 
many  Englishmen  of  character  and  opu- 
lence sought  refuge  in  the  “ still  vexed  Ber- 
moothes;”  among  others  the  poet  Waller, 
who  sang  of  their  beauty  in  “ The  Battle  of 
the  Summer  Islands.” 

BERNADOTTE,  Charles  John,  was  born 
1764.  From  a sergeantcy  in  the  French  army 
he  rose  under  Napoleon  to  the  rank  of  mar- 
shal of  the  empire  and  Prince  of  Ponte 
Corvo.  In  1810  he  was  chosen  crown-prince 
of  Sweden.  Sweden  joined  the  allies  against 
France,  and  Bernadotte  led  her  forces  against 
his  former  master.  He  defeated  Ney  at  Den- 
newitz  in  1813.  In  1818  he  ascended  the 
Swedish  throne,  whereon  he  reigned  till  his 
death  in  1844.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Oscar.  Bernadotte  had  a singular  aver- 
sion to  dogs,  and  could  not  bear  the  smell  of 
tobacco. 

BERNARD,  St.,  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  born 
of  noble  family  at  Fontaines,  in  Burgundy, 
1091.  He  was  austere,  eloquent,  and  bold, 
and  had  the  reputation  of  being  a prophet. 
He  was  called  a honeyed  teacher.  Bernard 
was  the  principal  promoter  of  the  crusade  of 
1146.  Luther  says  of  him,  “If  there  ever 
has  been  a pious  monk  who  feared  God,  it 
was  St.  Bernard;  whom  I hold  in  much 
higher  esteem  than  I do  all  other  monks  and 
priests  throughout  the  globe.”  Bernard  died 
in  1153,  and  was  canonized  in  1174. 

BERNARD,  Great  St.,  a mountain  of  the 
Alps,  11,006  feet  high,  between  the  Swiss 
Valais  and  the  valley  of  Aosta,  in  Piedmont. 
The  two  hospices,  on  the  Great  and  Little 
St.  Bernard  were  built  by  Bernard  de  Men- 
thon,  a pious  Savoyard  nobleman,  in  962. 
They  were  under  the  care  of  Augustine 
monks,  indefatigable  in  the  discharge  of  their 
hospitality  to  wayfarers.  The  monks  were 
assisted  in  their  search  for  lost  travelers,  by 
great  dogs,  of  whom  many  interesting  tales 
are  told.  Owing  to  the  severity  of  the 
weather,  the  dead  bodies  in  the  vault  de- 
cayed so  slowly,  that  their  features  were 
frequently  recognized  by  friends,  after  *the 
lapse  of  years.  The  monastery  of  Great  St. 


BER 


120 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


Bernard  is  the  most  elevated  fixed  habita- 
tion in  Europe,  and  close  upon  the  limits  of 
perpetual  snow.  After  the  revolution  of  1847 
in  Switzerland,  the  monks  were  expelled  from 
these  hospices,  and  they  are  now  managed 
by  the  government.  It  was  by  the  pass  of 
the  Great  St.  Bernard  that  Hannibal  crossed 
the  Alps,  and  that  Napoleon  led  his*troops  to 
the  plains  of  Lombardy  and  the  contest  of 
Marengo.  Charlemagne  and  Barbarossa  also 
led  armies  over  the  Alps  by  this  pass.  In 
the  chapel  of  the  hospice  of  Great  St.  Ber- 
nard, is  the  monument  of  General  Desaix, 
who  fell  at  Marengo.  He  was  embalmed  by 
order  of  the  first  consul.  The  sculptor  has 
represented  the  warrior  wounded,  and  sink- 
ing from  his  horse  into  the  arms  of  his  aid. 
On  the  stairs  of  the  convent  stands  the  statue 
of  Desaix  in  marble. 

BERNINI,  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  born  at 
Naples,  in  1598.  He  has  been  called  another 
Michael  Angelo,  on  account  of  his  success  as 
a painter,  statuary,  and  architect.  He  was 
patronized  by  several  popes,  and  died,  ex- 
hausted by  his  labors,  November  28th,  1680. 
He  left  a fortune  of  about  3,300,000  francs 
to  his  children.  So  early  did  his  talents 
shine  forth,  that  at  the  age  of  eight  years, 
he  executed  the  head  of  a child  in  marble, 
which  was  thought  a fine  production.  He 
was  not  eighteen  years  old  when  he  completed 
his  “Apollo  and  Daphne,”  a work  which  he 
examined  at  the  close  of  life,  and  declared 
that  he  had  made  little  progress  since  that 
time.  So  true  it  is  that  genuine  enthusiasm 
often  supplies  the  place  of  experience. 

BERRI,  Charles  Ferdinand,  Duke  of, 
second  son  of  Charles  X.  of  France,  born  at 
Versailles,  Jan.  24th,  1778.  Fie  fled  from 
the  revolutionary  tempest,  but  was  actively 
engaged  in  the  scenes  at  Paris,  in  1814,  on 
the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  and  vainly  en- 
deavored to  secure  the  fidelity  of  the  troops 
in  and  about  Paris,  when  Napoleon  returned 
from  Elba.  He  was  assassinated  in  1820,  by 
Louvel,  who  had  long  sought  to  extirpate  the 
house  of  Bourbon,  and  met  his  death  with 
.great  firmness.  Fie  was- father  of  the  Duke 
of  Bordeaux,  one  of  the  claimants  of  the 
French  crown. 

BERRY,  Mary,  died  in  1854,  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  almost  ninety.  She  and  her 
sister,  whose  death  preceded  hers  by  eighteen 


months,  were  known  in  the  literary  circles  of 
London,  from  the  time  of  Dr.  Johnson  to  that 
of  Macaula}7-.  They  had  read  Miss  Burney’s 
“Evelina”  when  fresh  from  the  press,  and 
lived  to  weep  in  sympathy  with  the  world 
over  Dickens’s  pathetic  story  of  Little  Nell 
The  two  sisters  were  left,  with  their  father, 
the  literary  executors  of  Horace  Walpole. 
Both  of  them  had  received  the  offer  of  the 
hand  of  that  male  gossip.  Both  had  re- 
jected it. 

BERSERKER,  in  Scandinavian  mythol- 
ogy, a descendant  of  the  eight-handed  Star- 
kader  and  the  beautiful  Alfhilde.  Dis- 
daining the  protection  of  mail  in  battle, 
he  obtained  his  name,  which  signifies  4 the 
armorless.’  In  battle,  his  rage  was  un- 
governable. He  married  the  daughter  of 
Swafurlam,  whom  he  had  slain,  and  had 
twelve  sons  who  equaled  him  in  fierce- 
ness. 

BERTIFIER,  Alexander,  Prince  of  Neuf- 
chatel  and  Wagram,  marshal,  vice-constable 
of  France,  &c.,  born  at  Paris,  1753.  At  an 
early  age,  he  served  under  La  Fayette,  in 
America.  He  was  a great  favorite  of  Napo- 
leon, under  whom  he  acted  as  chief  of  his 
staff,  assisting  in  those  great  victories  which 
made  France  master  of  Italy,  Germany,  and 
Prussia.  At  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  in 
1814,  Berthier  professed  allegiance  to  the 
Bourbons,  showing  more  zeal  for  them  than 
became  the  favored  friend  and  well  paid  serv- 
ant of  the  fallen  emperor.  When  Napoleon 
returned  from  Elba,  Berthier  left  France  with 
the  Bourbon  princes,  and  soon  ended  his  life 
by  suicide. 

BERTHOLLET,  Claude  Louis,  born  in 
Savoy,  December  9th,  1748,  died  at  Paris, 
November  6th,  1822,  one  of  the  most  illustri- 
ous of  chemists.  He  wrote  a valuable  work 
on  dyeing,  was  the  first  to  use  in  bleaching 
the  decolorizing  properties  of  chlorine  gas, 
and  discovered  the  chlorate  of  potash,  a salt 
which  not  only,  as  an  indispensable  ingredient 
in  the  lucifer  match,  administers  to  the  con- 
venience of  every  one,  but  enables  many  a 
shivering  outcast  to  supply  his  daily  wants. 
He  was  aided  by  the  friendship  of  Napoleon. 
Upon  the  restoration  he  fell  into  reduced  cir- 
cumstances. 

BERTRAND,  Henri  Gratien,  count,  gen- 
eral of  division,  aid-de-camp  of  Napoleon, 


BER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


121 


grand  marshal  of  the  palace,  &c.  He  early- 
distinguished  himself  in  the  engineer  corps. 
He  served  near  the  person  of  Napoleon,  par- 
ticularly at  Austerlitz,  where  he  was  the  em- 
peror’s aid-de-camp.  He  and  his  family 
shared  the  last  residence  of  Napoleon,  after 
his  fall.  He  died  in  1844,  aged  seventy -four. 

BERWICK,  James  Fitz-James,  Duke  of, 
was  born  in  1670.  He  distinguished  himself 
as  a general  in  the  Bourbon  cause  in  Spain, 
where  he  won  the  battle  of  Almansa,  and 


Testament  was  divided  into  twenty-two  books 
by  the  Jews,  according  to  the  number  of  let- 
ters in  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  The  Christians 
divided  it  into  thirty -nine.  The  Hebrew  di- 
vision into  chapters  was  made  by  the  Rabbi 
Nathan,  about  1445.  Our  Bible  was  divided 
into  chapters,  and  partly  into  verses,  by  Arch- 
bishop Langton,  who  died  1228  ; and  the  latter 
division  was  perfected  by  Robert  Stephens, 
the  eminent  French  printer,  about  1534.  The 
following  are  curious  computations : 


captured  Barcelona,  after  a resistance,  by  the 
citizens,  of  fifteen  months.  He  was  a natural 
son  of  James  II.  of  England,  nephew  of  the 
great  Marlborough,  and  a marshal  of  France. 
He  was  killed  at  Phillipsburg,  1734. 

BESSIERES,  John  Baptist,  Duke  of  Istria, 
one  of  Napoleon’s  generals,  marshal  of  France, 
born  Aug.  6th,  1768,  killed  at  Rippach,  May 
1st,  1813. 

BEZA,  Theodore,  after  Calvin,  the  most 
distinguished  among  the  Calvinistic  preachers 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  born  in  1519.  At 
the  age  of  twenty,  he  published  his  Latin 
poems,  collected  under  the  title  of  “Juvenilia,” 
a work  of  which  he  was  afterward  ashamed. 

At  an  early  age  he  was  dissipated,  but  re- 
formed by  marriage,  and  a dangerous  illness. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  service  of  the 
reformed  church,  and,  in  1564,  became  Cal- 
vin’s successor.  Vain  were  the  efforts  of  his 
adversaries  to  gain  an  advantage  over  him. 
His  truth  and  wit  were  a splendid  defense, 
and  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight  years,  his  in- 
tellectual faculties  appeared  as  clear  as  ever. 
The  pope  made  him  brilliant  offers,  but  he 
nobly  rejected  them.  He  died  Oct.  13th, 
1605,  of  old  age.  He  wTis  a great  Greek 
scholar,  and  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
was  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  English  version. 

BIBLE.  The  first  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  from  the  Hebrew  into  the  Greek 
was  made  by  seventy-two  interpreters,  by  or- 
der of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  at  Alexandria, 
277  b.c.,  or  according  to  others  284  b.c.  From 
the  number  of  translators  this  is  called  the 
Septuagint.  The  oldest  version  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  is  that  in  the  Vatican, 
which  was  written  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  cen- 
tury. The  next  in  age  is  the  Alexandrian 
MS.  in  the  British  Museum,  presented  by  the 
Greek  patriarch  to  Charles  I.,  said  to  have 
been  copied  about  the  same  time.  The  Old 

BIB 


In  the  Old  Testament. 


Books, 

Chapters, 

Verses, 

Words, 


39 

929 

23,214 

592,493 


Letters,  2,728,100 


In  the  New. 

27 
260 
7,959 
181,253 
838,380 


Total. 
66 
1,189 
31,173 
773,746 
3,566,480 


The  Apocrypha  has  183  chapters,  6,081 
verses,  and  125,185  words.  The  middle 
chapter,  and  the  least  in  the  Bible,  is  the 
117th  Psalm  ; the  middle  verse  is  the  8th  of 
the  118th  Psalm;  the  middle  line  is  the  2d 
book  of  the  Chronicles,  4th  chapter,  and  15th 
\rerse.  The  word  ‘and’  occurs  in  the  Old 
Testament  35,535  times ; the  same  word  in 
the  New  Testament  occurs  10,684  times ; the 
word  ‘Jehovah’  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament 
6,855  times.  The  middle  book  of  the  Old 
Testament  is  Proverbs ; the  middle  chapter  is 
the  29th  of  Job  ; the  middle  verse  is  in  the  2d 
book  of  Chronicles,  20th  chapter  and  13th 
verse ; the  least  verse  is  the  1st  book  of  Chron- 
icles, 1st  chapter,  and  1st  verse.  The  middle 
book  of  the  New  Testament  is  the  second 
epistle  to  the  Thessalonians ; the  middle  chap- 
ter is  between  the  13th  and  14th  of  the  Ro- 
mans; the  middle  verse  is  the  17th  of  the 
17th  chapter  of  the  Acts ; the  least  verse  is 
the  35th  verse  of  the  11th  chapter  of  the  Gos- 
pel by  St.  John.  The  21st  verse  of  the  7th 
chapter  of  Ezra  has  all  the  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet in  it.  The  19th  chapter  of  the  2d  book 
of  Kings,  and  the  37th  chapter  of  Isaiah,  are 
alike.  The  book  of  Esther  has  10  chapters, 
but  neither  the  words  Lord  nor  God  in  it. 

The  Bible  was  translated  into  Saxon  in  939. 
The  Vulgate  version  in  Latin  was  made  by 
St.  Jerome,  and  is  that  acknowledged  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  as  authentic : it  was 
first  printed  in  1462.  In  1604,  a great  con- 
ference was  held  at  Hampton  Court,  between 


122 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  established  and  the  puritan  clergy.  The 
existing  English  version  was  condemned. 
James  I.  therefore  appointed  fifty-four  men, 
many  of  whom  were  eminent  as  Hebrew  and 
Greek  scholars,  to  commence  a new  transla- 
tion. In  1607,  forty-seven  of  these  met,  in 
six  parties,  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  West- 
minster, and  proceeded  to  their  task,  a certain 
portion  of  Scripture  being  assigned  to  each. 
Every  individual  of  each  division,  in  the  first 
place,  translated  the  portion  given  to  the  di- 
vision, all  of  which  translations  were  collated ; 
and  when  each  party  had  determined  on  the 
construction  of  its  part,  it  was  proposed  to 
the  other  divisions  for  their  examination. 
When  they  met  together  one  read  the  new 
version,  whilst  all  the  rest  held  in  their  hands 
either  copies  of  the  original,  or  some  valuable 
version,  and  on  any  one  objecting  to  a passage 
the  reader  stopped  till  it  was  agreed  upon. 
The  result,  known  as  King  James’s  version, 
was  published  in  1611,  and  is  that  still  in  use 
throughout  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  It  is  an  excellent  specimen  of  the 
language  of  the  time,  and  being  universally 
read  by  all  classes  of  the  people,  it  has  con- 
tributed most  essentially  to  give  stability  And 
uniformity  to  the  English  tongue.  Martin 
Luther’s  translation  of  the  Bible  made  the  di- 
alect of  Upper  Saxony  the  language  of  all 
Germany.  The  Holland  tongue  or  Low  Dutch, 
as  now  spoken,  has  for  its  basis  the  German 
language  in  use  before  this  time. 

The  Bible  was  printed  in  Spanish,  1478 ; 
in  German,  1522  ; in  French,  1535  ; in  Swed- 
ish, 1541 ; in  Danish,  1550  ; in  Dutch,  1560 ; 
in  Russian,  1581;  in  Hungarian,  1589;  in 
Polish,  1596;  in  modern  Greek,  1638;  in 
Turkish,  1666;  in' Irish,  1685;  in  Portuguese, 
1748;  in  Manx,  1771;  in  Italian,  1776;  in 
Bengalee,  1801;  in  Tartar,  1813;  in  Persian, 
1815;  in  African,  1816;  in  Chinese,  1820. 
A polyglot  Bible,  edited  by  Walton,  Bishop 
of  Chester,  in  the  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldee, 
Samaritan,  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  Persic,  Greek 
and  Latin  languages,  was  printed  in  1657. 
The  books  known  as  the  Apocrjrpha,  in  an 
old  preface  to  which  it  is  said,  “These  books 
are  neyther  found  in  the  Ilebrue  nor  in  the 
Chalde,”  were  not  in  the  Jewish  canon,  but 
were  received  as  canonical  by  the  Romish 
church  at  the  council  of  Trent  in  1545. 

We  present  a succinct  sketch  of  the  history 


of  our  English  Bible.  The  English  version  of 
the  Scriptures  now  in  use,  is  itself  the  result 
of  repeated  revisions.  In  the  preface  to  the 
Bishop’s  Bible  (a.d.  1568)  a distinct  reference 
is  made  to  early  Saxon  versions,  and  there 
are  still  extant,  parts  of  the  Bible  in  Saxon, 
translated  by  Bede,  by  Alfred  the  Great,  and 
by  iElfric  of  Canterbury.  Early  Saxon  MSS. 
of  the  Gospels  are  still  preserved  in  the  libra- 
ries of  the  British  Museum,  and  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Cambridge.  The  first  complete 
translation  of  the  Bible  was  made  by  Wick- 
liffe,  about  a.d.  1380.  It  existed  only  in 
manuscript  for  many  years,  but  the  whole  is 
now  in  print  (New  Testament  1731 ; Old  Tes- 
tament, 1848).  The  work  was  regarded  with 
grave  suspicion ; and  a bill  was  introduced 
into  the  House  of  Lords  for  suppressing  it ; 
but  through  the  influence  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
this  was  rejected.  In  1408,  however,  in  a 
convocation  held  at  Oxford,  it  was  resolved 
that  no  one  should  translate  any  text  of  Scrip- 
ture into  English,  as  a book  or  tract,  and  that 
no  book  of  the  kind  should  be  read.  This 
resolution  led  to  great  persecution,  though 
there  is  reason  to  believe,  that  notwithstand- 
ing, many  manuscripts  of  Scripture  were  at 
that  time  in  extensive  circulation  throughout 
England.  The  first  printed  edition  of  the 
Bible  in  English,  was  published  by  Tyndale, 
the  New  Testament  in  1526,  and  the  Bible  in 
part,  in  1532.  Tonstall,  Bishop  of  London, 
and  Sir  Thomas  More  took  great  pains  to 
buy  up  and  burn  the  impression,  but  with 
the  effect  thereby,  of  enabling  the*  translator 
to  publish  a larger  and  improved  edition.  On 
the  death  of  Tyndale  (who  died  a martyr  to 
the  truth),  Miles  Coverdale  revised  the  whole, 
and  dedicated  it  to  Henry  VIII.,  1535,  and  in 
1537,  John  Rogers,  who  had  assisted  Tyn- 
dale, and  was  then  residing  at  Antwerp,  re- 
printed an  edition,  taken  from  Tyndale  and 
Coverdale.  This  edition  was  published  under 
the  assumed  name  of  Thomas  Matthews.  A 
revision  of  this  edition  again  was  published 
(a.d.  1539)  by  Richard  Taverner.  The  Great 
Bible  appeared  in  1539.  It  was  Coverdale’s, 
revised  by  the  translator,  under  the  sanction 
of  Cranmer.  It  was  printed  in  large  folio. 
For  the  edition  of  1540,  Cranmer  wrote  a pre- 
face, and  it  is  hence  called  Cranmer’s  Bible. 

It  was  published  “by  authority,”  and  was 
ordered  in  1549  to  be  read  in  the  churches. 


BIB 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


123 


READING  THE  BIBLE  TO  THE  PEOPLE. 


During  the  seven  years  of  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI.,  eleven  editions  of  the  Scriptures  were 
printed : but  no  new  version  or  revision  was 
attempted.  During  the  reign  of  Mary,  was 
published  the  Geneva  Bible,  a.d.  1557-60. 
Coverdale  and  others  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  Geneva,  edited  it,  and  added  marginal  an- 
notations. Archbishop  Parker  obtained  au- 
thority from  Queen  Elizabeth,  to  revise  the 
existing  translations,  and  with' the  help  of  va- 
rious bishops  and  others,  published  in  1568 
what  was  called  the  Bishops’  Bible.  It  con- 
tains short  annotations,  and  in  the  smaller 
editions  (from  1589)  the  text  is  divided,  like 
the  Genevan,  into  verses.  The  same  text 
was  afterward  printed,  in  1572,  in  a larger 
size,  and  with  various  prefaces,  under  the 
name  of  Matthew  Parker’s  Bible.  It  contin- 
ued in  common  use  in  the  churches  for  forty 
years,  though  the  Genevan  Bible  was  perhaps 
more  read  in  private.  The  Rhemish  New 
Testament;  and  the  Douay  Old  Testament, 
form  the  English  Bible  of  the  Romanists.  The 
former  was  printed  at  Rheims  (a.d.  1582), 


and  the  latter, at  Douay  (a.d.  1609-10).  In 
1 603, # King  James  resolved  on  a revision  of 
the  translation,  and  for  this  purpose  appointed 
fifty-four  men  of  learning  and  piety.  Forty- 
seven  only  undertook  the  work,  and  in  four 
years  (from  1607-11)  it  was  completed.  The 
text  as  thus  prepared  and  printed  in  1611,  is 
the  authorized  version. 

The  first  Bible  printed  on  the  continent  of 
America  was  in  native  Indian ; the  New  Tes- 
tament in  1661,  and  the  Old  in  1668;  both 
translated  by  Rev.  John  Eliot,  and  printed  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.  As  the  title  records,  it 
was  “ translated  into  the  Indian  language,  and 
ordered  to  be  printed  by  the  Commissioners 
of  the  United  Colonies  .in  New  England,  at 
the  charge  and  with  the  consent  of  the  Cor- 
poration in  England  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel  among  the  Indians  in  New  Eng- 
land.” Printed  by  Samuel  Green  and  Mar- 
maduke  Johnston.  In  the  emphatic  words  of 
Dr.  Cotton  Mather,  this  was  then  “the  only 
Bible  that  ever  was  printed  in  all  America 
from  the  very  foundation  of  all  the  world.” 


124 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


The  second  was  in  German,  a quarto  edition 
published  at  Germantown  near  Philadelphia, 
by  Christopher  Sower,  in  1676.  The  first 
edition  in  English  was  printed  by  Kneeland 
and  Green,  at  Boston  in  1752,  in  small  quarto. 
It  was  published  by  Henchman,  a bookseller ; 
but  to  avoid  prosecution  from  those  who  had 
a royal  patent,  the  title-page  of  the  English 
copy,  London  imprint  and  all,  was  reprinted. 
The  next  edition  was  issued  by  Robert  Aitken, 
of  Philadelphia,  in  1781-2.  He  sent  a memo- 
rial to  Congress,  praying  for  their  patronage. 
His  memorial  was  referred  to  a committee, 
who  obtained  the  opinion  of  the  chaplains  of 
Congress  as  to  the  general  typographical  ac- 
curacy of  his  impression;  and  thereupon  a 
resolution  was  passed  Sept.  12th,  1782,  rec- 
ommending this  edition  of  the  Bible  to  the 
people  of  the  United  States. 

BIDDLE,  James,  commodore  in  the  navy 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1788.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  of  1812,  and  was  an  officer  on  the 
Wasp  when  she  took  the  British  brig  Frolic. 
March  23d,  1815,  Biddle,  then  in  command  of 
the  sloop  Hornet,  met  with  the  British  brig- 
of-war  Penguin,  off  Tristan  d’Acunha,  and 
captured  her  after  an  action  of  only  twenty- 
two  minutes.  He  served  as  a diplomatist, 
and  signed  the  commercial  treaty  with  Turkey 
in  1832.  In  1845  he  was  interim  commis- 
sioner to  China  in  the  place  of  A.  H.  Everett. 
He  died  in  1848. 

BIDDLE,  Nicholas,  captain  in  the  United 
States  navy,  was  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1750, 
and  was  a midshipman  in  the  British  service. 
He  served  in  the  infant  navy  of  his  country 
during  the  war  for  independence,  and  was 
very  successful,  till  March  7th,  1778,  when, 
in  action  in  the  West  Indies  with  the  Yar- 
mouth, the  Randolph,  which  he  commanded, 
blew  up.  His  crew  numbered  three  hundred 
and  fifteen.  But  four  escaped,  and  Capt.  Bid- 
dle was  among  the  lost. 

BIDDLE,  Nicholas,  an  eminent  financier, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  8th,  1786. 
His  father  was  a strong  patriot  during  the 
Revolution.  Nicholas  graduated  at  Princeton 
College  in  1801  with  high  honor,  studied  law, 
and  accompanied  Gen.  Armstrong,  minister 
to  France,  as  private  secretary  in  1804,  and 
was  afterward  secretary  to  Mr.  Monroe  at  the 
court  of  St.  James.  Returning  from  foreign 


travel,  he  commenced  practice  at  Philadelphia 
in  1807,  and  also  engaged  in  literary  occupa- 
tions, preparing  the  account  of  Lewis  and 
Clarke’s  expedition  to  the  Pacific  shore.  In 
1823  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  United 
States  Bank,  and  was  active  in  defense  of  that 
institution  against  the  hot  war  that  was  waged 
upon  it.  After  its  bankruptcy,  he  retired  in 
1839  to  his  estate  of  Andalusia,  on  the  Dela- 
ware near  Philadelphia,  where  he  died  in  1844. 

BIEVRE,  Marquis  de,  marshal,  born  in 
1747,  died  in  1789.  He  was  much  celebrated 
for  ready  repartees  and  puns.  When  pre- 
sented to  Louis  XV.,  the  following  dialogue 
took  place.  Louis.  Give  me  a specimen  of 
your  wit.  B.  Give  me  a subject,  sire.  Louis. 
Take  me.  B.  Sire,  the  king  is  no  subject. 

BINGEN ; a town  in  Hesse  Darmstadt,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine ; population,  5,000. 
In  its  vicinity  is  the  famous  Mouse  Tower, 
connected  with  which  is  the  following  tale. 
In  a time  of  great  famine,  Bishop  Hatto  played 
the  usurer,  to  the  distress  and  ruin  of  many 
poor  people.  For  this  he  is  said  to  have  met 
a dreadful  punishment.  Thousands  on  thou- 
sands of  mice  pouring  into  his  dwelling,  com- 
pelled him  to  seek  refuge  in  his  tower  on  the 
Rhine.  But  here  he  enjoyed  but  a brief 
interval  of  rest.  The  army  of  mice  swam 
the  river,  scaled  the  rocky  precipice,  and 
leaped  into  the  tower,  at  every  cranny,  grate, 
and  loop-hole.  The  bishop  attempted  to 
pray,  but  his  utterance  failed;  he  listened 
to  the  noise  of  the  mice  as  they  swiftly 
approached  his  turret-chamber.  At  length 
they  gained  an  entrance,  and  devoured  the 
prelate,  tearing  the  flesh  from  his  bones,  and 
leaving  him  a mere  skeleton. 

BIRD,  William,  1540-1623,  an  admired 
English  musician,  the  composer  of  the  great 
canon,  “ Non  Nobis  Domine.” 

BIREN,  Ernst  John  von,  Duke  of  Cour- 
land,  born  1687,  died  1772.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Buhren,  a peasant  of 
Courland.  He  gained  the  favor  of  Anna, 
Duchess  of  Courland,  afterward  Empress  of 
Russia,  by  his  beauty  and  accomplishments, 
and  when  his  mistress  was  raised  to  the 
throne,  was  not  forgotten  by  her.  While 
in  power,  he  was  fierce,  resentful,  and  am- 
bitious, and  caused  the  death  of  thousands. 
After  the  death  of  Anna,  a conspiracy  was 
formed  against  him,  and  he  was  banished  to 


BIR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


125 


Siberia.  But  he  was  recalled  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great,  to  the  throne.  After  another  exile  of 
twenty-five  years,  he  was  again  recalled  by 
Peter  III.,  and,  during  the  reign  of  Cathe- 
rine II.,  continued  to  enjoy  the  royal  favor 
until  his  death. 

BIRMA,  or  the  Birman  empire,  extends 
over  more  than  a fourth  of  the  peninsula  be- 
yond the  Ganges,  having  an  area  of  about 
184,000  square  miles,  and  a population  of 
three  millions.  The  Birmans  of  Ava  made 
themselves  independent  of  Pegu,  ih  the  six- 
teenth century,  but  were  reconquered  in  the 
eighteenth.  The  spirit  of  independence, 
however,  was  abroad,  and  Alompra,  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Birmans,  kindled  anew  the 
flame  of  revolt  in  1753,  and  recovered  the 
city  of  Ava.  Various  fortunes  followed,  till 
Alompra  finally  made  himself  master  of  the 
city  of  Pegu.  This  monarch,  whose  abilities 
were  devoted  to  the  good  of  his  subjects,  died 
in  1760,  at  the  age  of  fifty  years,  leaving  his 
throne  to  his  son  Namdogee,  who  inherited 
his  father’s  spirit  and  talent,  and  died  in 
1764.  Shambuan,  his  brother,  was  victorious 
in  a war  with  China,  during  which  Siam, 
which  he  had  previously  conquered,  regained 
its  independence.  In  1776,  this  prince  left 
his  empire,  greatly  extended,  to  his  son 
Chengenza,  who  in  consequence  of  excessive 
debauchery,  was  dethroned  and  put  to  death 
in  1782.  Shembuan  Menderagan,  the  fourth 
son  of  Alompra,  was  placed  by  the  revolution 
on  the  throne.  In  1783,  he  subdued  Arra- 
can.  A war  with  Siam,  in  which  he  next 
engaged,  resulted,  in  1793,  in  the  submis- 
sion of  that  kingdom  upon  certain  terms. 
The  refusal  of  the  East  India  Company  to 
deliver  up  some  Birman  refugees,  who  were 
robbers,  brought  on  a war  with  Shembuan, 
which  was  soon  amicably  concluded.  Shem- 
buan’s  grandson  ascended  the  throne  in 
1819.  In  1826,  a war  which  had  broken 
out  between  the  Burmese  and  English,  ended 
in  a treaty,  by  which  the  king  of  the  white 
elephant  and  the  golden  feet  (titles  of  the 
monarchs  of  Birmah)  ceded  to  the  East  In- 
dia Company  large  tracts  on  the  western 
coast  of  his  empire,  including  Arracan,  Mer- 
guy,  Tavay,  and  Yea.  Assam  became  inde- 
pendent, and  Rangoon  was  declared  a free 
port.  The  Birmese  also  paid  a million 


sterling  as  indemnity.  In  1852,  further  hos- 
tilities were  ended  by  the  British  conquest 
of  Pegu.  The  Birmans  are  gay,  irritable, 
active,  and  fond  of  show.  No  man  is  per- 
mitted to  have  more  than  one  wife,  and 
capital  punishment  is  extended  to  confirmed 
opium  eaters  and  drunkards  in  general.  The 
bodies  of  the  dead  are  burned.  The  com- 
merce of  the  Birmese  is  extensive,  and  the 
merchants  make  use  of  bars  of  gold,  silver, 
and  lead  in  the  place  of  coin.  • The  people 
are  fond  of  amusements,  particularly  dramatic 
spectacles.  Education  is  not  wholly  neg- 
lected among  them,  every  one  learning  arith- 
metic, reading,  and  writing.  They  have 
uncleanly  fashions  in  eating,  gormandizing 
on  reptiles,  lizards,  iguanas,  and  snakes. 
Fried  worms  and  ants  are  choice  dishes. 
Their  faith  forbids  the  killing  of  animals 
for  food;  hence  they  eat  those  that  die  of 
disease.  They  are  Buddhists  in  religion. 

BIRON,  Charles  de  Gontaut,  Duke  of; 
an  intriguing  nobleman  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  tried  on  a charge  of 
treason,  and  beheaded  July  31st,  1602. 

BITHYNIA,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia 
Minor,  also  called  Bebrycia.  It  lay  on  the 
Pontus  Euxinus,  the  Thracian  Bosphorus, 
and  the  Propontis,  and  was  bounded  on  the 
south  by  Phrygia.  It  was  held  successively 
by  the  Assyrians,  Lydians,  Persians,  and 
Macedonians.  It  afforded  for  some  time  an 
asylum  to  Hannibal,  who  was  at  last  delivered 
up.  Nicomedes  III.,  the  last  king,  be- 
queathed the  kingdom  to  the  Romans,  b.c.  75. 
In  1298,  the  Ottoman  Turks  founded  their 
empire  here ; previous  to  which,  the  Seljuks 
had  conquered  it  in  the  eleventh  century. 

BLACK  HOLE.  One  hundred  and  forty- 
six  British  gentlemen,  merchants  and  others, 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company, 
were  seized  by  order  of  Surajah  Dowlah, 
June  20th,  1756,  and  thrust  into  a dungeon  at 
Calcutta,  called  the  Black  Hole,  in  the  fort, 
by  his  soldiers.  These  latter  saw  that  the 
place  was  too  small  for  such  a number,  but 
they  feared  to  awaken  the  nabob,  then  asleep, 
for  further  orders.  One  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  of  the  sufferers  died  before  morning, 
having  been  suffocated  by  the  heat,  crushing, 
and  stench  of  a dungeon  only  eighteen  feet 
square. 

BLACK  SEA,  the  Euxine  of  the  ancients, 


BLA 


126 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


an  inland  sea  between  Europe  and  Asia 
Minor,  covering  about  170,000  square  miles. 
It  is  connected  with  the  Sea  of  Azof  by  the 
Strait  of  Yenikale,  or  Kertsch,  and  with  the 
Mediterranean  through  the  Bosphorus,  Sea 
of  Marmora,  and  the  Dardanelles.  This  sea 
was  navigated  early  by  the  .Greeks,  and  well 
frequented  by  the  Romans.  It  was  also 
much  visited  by  the  Genoese,  till  it  was  closed 
to  all  nations  by  the  Turks  from  the  fifteenth 
to  the  eighteenth  centuries.  The  Russians 
gained  admission  by  treaty  in  1774.  In  1779, 
it  was  partially  opened  to  British  and  other 
traders.  It  was  entered  by  the  British  and 
French  fleets,  Jan.  3d,  1854,  at  the  requisi- 
tion of  the  Porte,  after,  the  destruction  of 
the  Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope  by  the  Russians, 
Nov.  30th,  1853. 

BLACKLOCK,  Thomas,  a poet  and  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Annan,  in  1721.  Although 
deprived  of  sight  in  infancy,  he  became 
famous  for  his  acquirements,  and  took  a high 
station  among  the  literati  of  Scotland.  He 
died  July,  1791. 

BLACKMORE,  Sir  Richard,  an  inferior 
English  poet  and  superior  physician,  born 
1650,  and  died  October  8th,  1729. 

BLACKSTONE,  Sir  William,  an  English 
lawyer  of  great  celebrity,  and  a writer  on  the 
British  constitution,  was  born  in  London, 
in  1723.  He  was  the  son  of  a silk  mercer, 
but  being  left  an  orphan,  was  brought  up 
and  educated  by  Mr.  Thomas  Bigg,  his  uncle, 
a surgeon.  He  left  Pembroke  College,  Ox- 
ford, with  a high  reputation,  and,  in  1746, 
after  faithful  preparatory  study,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  and  commenced  practice.  His 
progress  was  slow,  owing  to  his  deficiency 
in  elocution ; and  he  accordingly  determined 
to  forsake  the  practice  of  the  law,  and  retire 
to  his  fellowship  at  Oxford.  In  1759,  when 
several  of  his  legal  works  had  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  public,  he  resumed  practice, 
and  honors  and  emoluments  poured  in  upon 
him.  In  1761,  he  was  chosen  member  of 
parliament  from  Hindon,  made  king’s  coun- 
sel, and  solicitor-general  to  the  queen ; about 
this  time,  also,  he  married.  In  1765,  the 
first  volume  of  his  “ Commentaries  on  the 
Laws  of  England”  appeared,  and  was  pro- 
nounced superior  to  any  work  upon  the  same 
subject  which  had  before  been  published. 
In  1770  he  was  made  one  of  the  justices  of 


common  pleas,  and  he  died  in  his  fifty-seventh 
year,  1780. 

BLACKSTONE,  William,  the  first  white 
inhabitant  of  Boston,  was  a clergyman  of 
the  church  of  England,  and  had  built  his 
cottage  among  the  Indians  five  years  before 
the  arrival  of  Winthrop  in  1630.  He  did  not 
relish  the  neighborhood  of  the  Puritans.  “ I 
came,”  said  he,  “from  England’because  I did 
not  like  the  lord  bishops,  but  I can  not  join 
with  you,  because  I would  not  be  under  the 
lord  brethren,”  and  in  1634  he  removed  to 
the  bank  of  the  Pawtucket  or  Blackstone 
River,  near  Providence,  where  he  died  in 
1675. 

BLADENSBURG,  Md.,  six  miles  north- 
east of  Washington,  is  memorable  for  a severe 
skirmish,  Aug.  24th,  1814,  between  a small 
force  of  Americans  and  a portion  of  the  Brit- 
ish army  marching  to  destroy  the  capital. 
Bladensburg  was  formerly  much  resorted  to 
as  a dueling  ground.  Decatur  and  Barron 
met  here. 

BLAIR,  James,  was  born  in  Scotland,  about 
1660.  In  1683,  he  was  sent  out  to  America, 
as  a missionary,  by  Dr.  Compton,  Bishop  of 
London ; and  by  the  same  prelate,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1685,  his  commissary  in  Virginia. 
It  was  at  the  latter  epoch,  that  he  conceived 
the  plan,  and  by  unwearied  exertions,  suc- 
ceeded in  founding  a college  at  Williams- 
burg. The  patent  for  the  college  was  granted 
by  William  and  Mary,  about  1693,  and  from 
its  founders  the  institution  was  named  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  College.  Mr.  Blair  was  first 
president;  and  having  filled  the  ministry 
sixty,  and  the  presidency  of  the  college  fifty 
years,  he  died  in  1743. 

BLAIR,  Hugh,  an  eloquent  divine,  was 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1718,  and  made  preach- 
er of  the  High  Church  in  that  city  in  1758. 
Having  acquired  a high  reputation  by  his  lec- 
tures on  composition,  he  was  made  professor 
of  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres  at  Edinburgh, 
in  1762. 

BLAIR,  Robert,  a Scotch  clergyman, 
author  of  “ The  Grave.”  Born  at  Edinburgh 
in  1699,  he  died  in  1746. 

BLAKE,  Robert,  one  of  the  most  renowned 
of  England’s  naval  heroes,  was  born  at 
Bridgewater,  in  August,  1599.  At  Oxford 
where  he  was  educated,  he  was  noted  for  his 
strictness  in  religion,  and  his  liberality  in 


BLA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


127 


politics.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he 
raised  one  of  the  first  troops,  and  was  among 
the  ablest  of  the  soldiers  who  fought  for  the 
parliament.  He  held  Taunton  during  a long 
siege,  and  successfully  defended  it'  against  a 
large  body  of  royalists  under  Goring.  When 
the  war  was  over,  he  was  put  in  command 
of  the  ships  that  were  sent  against  Prince 
Rupert’s  piratical  squadron.  The  navy  was 
not  then  the  separate  branch  of  defense  that 
it  now  is.  A successful  general  was  thought 
competent  to  command  a.  fleet.  Blake  was 
fifty  years  of  age,  but  he  adapted  himself  at 
once  to  the  element  on  which  he  was  to  sur- 
pass all  his  former  prowess.  W ar  broke  but 
between  the  English  and  Dutch  in  1652. 
Desperate  naval  battles  ensued.  Once,  and 
once  only,  was  he  beaten  by  Van  Tromp, 
but  then  the  Dutch  force  was  twice  the 
English.  He  nearly  destroyed  the  Dutch 
navy  in  two  years,  and  Holland  sued  for 
peace.  Cromwell  sent  him  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. He  forced  Algiers  "and  Tunis  to 
surrender  their  English  captives.  He  com- 
pelled the  knights  of  Malta  and  the  Tuscan 
government  to  pay  for  the  seizure  of  English 
merchantmen,  and  made  the  pope  smart  for 
having  allowed  them  to  be  sold  in  his  ports. 
When  the  Spanish  war  began,  he  blockaded 
Cadiz.  His  last  and  most  daring  exploit  was 
at  Santa  Cruz  in  Teneriffe  in  April,  1657. 
Here  he  destroyed  sixteen  Spanish  ships, 
secured  with  great  nautical  skill,  and  pro- 
tected by  the  castle  and  forts  on  the  shore. 
Lord  Clarendon  said,  “It  was  so  miracu- 
lous, that  all  who  knew  the  place  wondered 
any  sober  man,  with  what  courage  soever 
endowed,  would  have  undertaken  it ; and  the 
victors  could  hardly  persuade  themselves  to 
believe  what  they  had  done ; whilst  the  sur- 
viving Spaniards  thought  that  they  were 
devils  and  not  men,  who  had  destroyed  their 
ships  in  such  a manner.”  The  terror  of 
Blake’s  name  was  so  great,  that  it  was  used 
by  the  Dutch  and  Spaniards  to  quell  their 
children.  The  great  admiral  sickened  upon 
his  return  to  England,  and  died  in  sight 
of  the  shores  he  had  so  stoutly  defended. 
Cromwell  caused  him  to  be  buried  with 
fitting  pomp  in  Westminster  Abbey,  but 
after  the  restoration  his  body  was  torn  from 
its  vault  and  coffin,  and  thrown  into  a pit  in 
the  neighboring  church-yard  of  St.  Margaret’s. 


BLAKELEY,  Johnston,  born  in  Ireland 
1781,  was  a distinguished  naval  officer  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States.  In  1800  he 
received  a midshipman’s  warrant,  and  in 
1813  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Wasp.  In  an  action  with  the  Reindeer  in 
1814,  he  took  her  in  nineteen  minutes,  but 
was  forced  to  abandon  her,  as  she  was  so 
completely  cut  up.  The  loss  of  the  Ameri- 
cans in  killed  and  wounded  was  twenty-one ; 
that  of  the  British  sixty-seven.  After  an 
engagement  with  the  brig  Avon,  which  was 
forced  to  strike,  although  three  other  Eng- 
lish vessels  were  in  sight,  the  Wasp  was 
spoken  by  a vessel  off  the  Western  Isles, 
since  which  time  she  has  not  been  heard  of. 
Blakeley  left  an  only  daughter,  who  was  edu- 
cated by  the  state  of  North  Carolina. 

BLANCHARD,  Francois,  one  of  the  ear- 
liest aeronauts,  born  at  Andelys,  in  France, 
in  1738.  He  showed  an  early  fondness  for 
mechanics,  and  in  his  sixteenth  year,  in- 
vented a self-moving  carriage,  which  carried 
him  eighteen  miles.  In  his  nineteenth  year 
he  invented  a hydraulic  machine,  and  soon 
afterward  a sort  of  flying  ship.  When  the 
Montgolfiers  made  their  discoveries,  Blan- 
chard eagerly  made  use  of  them.  In  1785, 
he  crossed  the  channel  from  Dover  to  Calais, 
with  Doctor  Jeffries,  a gentleman  of  Boston, 
Mass.  At  one  time  the  balloon  sank  so  rap- 
idly, that  although  the  aeronauts  had  light- 
ened the  car  by  throwing  over  all  superfluous 
articles,  even  their  clothes,  they  were  in 
danger  of  losing  their  lives.  However,  the 
voyage  was  finally  accomplished  in  safety, 
and  Blanchard  was  presented  by  the  King  of 
France  with  12,000  francs,  and  a pension  of 
1,200.  In  the  same  year  he  made  use  of  a 
parachute  in  London.  His  forty-sixth  ascent 
was  made  in  the  city  of  New  York,  1796. 
In  1798  he  went  up  from  Rouen  in  a large 
balloon  with  sixteen  persons.  He  died  in 
1809,  after  having  made  more  than  sixty-six 
aeronautic  voyages.  Madame  Blanchard, 
after  his  death,  continued  to  make  voyages 
in  the  air.  In  June,  1819,  she  ascended  from 
Paris,  and  was  thought  to  be  in  safety,  when 
her  balloon  took  fire  from  some  fireworks 
which  she  carried  with  her ; she  fell  from  an 
immense  height,  and  was  dashed  to  pieces  in 
the  Rue  de  Provence. 

BLENHEIM,  a village  in  Bavaria,  on  the 


BLE 


128 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Danube,  is  celebrated  for  the  important  vic- 
tory obtained  there  by  the  allies  under  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene, 
over  the  French,  commanded  by  Marshals 
Tallard  and  Marsin,  and  the  Elector  of  Bava- 
ria. In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession, 
Louis  XIV.,  with  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  for 
his  only  ally,  was  forced  to  contend  against 
the  strength  of  Holland,  England,  Austria, 
Savoy,  Portugal,  and  the  German  empire. 
At  the  battle  of  Blenheim,  which  was  fought 
August  13th,  1704,  the  allied  forces  amounted 
to  about  52,000,  and  the  French  to  56,000, 
with  great  advantage  of  situation  ; the  latter, 
however,  were  completely  beaten,  with  the 
loss  of  27,000  killed,  and  13,000  prisoners, 
Tallard  being  among  the  latter. 

BLOOD,  circulation  of,  through  the  lungs, 
first  made  public  by  Michael  Servetus,  a 
Spanish  physician,  in  1553.  Csesalpinus 
published  an  account  of  the  general  circula- 
tion, of  which  he  had  some  confused  ideas, 
and  improved  it  afterward  by  experiments, 
1569  ; but  it  was  fully  confirmed  by  Harvey, 
1628. 

BLOOD,  Thomas,  commonly  called  Col. 
Blood,  a disbanded  officer  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well’s household.  With  confederates  he 
seized  the  Duke  of  Ormond  in  his  coach,  and 
had  got  him  as  far  as  Tyburn,  intending  to 
hang  him,  when  he  was  rescued.  Blood  was 
•afterward  notorious  for  his  attempt  to  steal 
the  crown  and  regalia  from  the  Tower,  in  the 
disguise  of  a. clergyman.  Charles  II.  par- 
doned him,  and  even  bestowed  an  estate 
of  £500  per  annum  on  him,  while  poor 
Edwards,  keeper  of  the  regalia,  who  was 
severely  wounded  in  defending  them,  was 
passed  by  unnoticed. 

BLOOMFIELD,  Robert,  an  English  poet, 
born  at  Honington,  in  1766.  He  was  the  son 
of  a tailor,  and,  in  1781,  he  was  sent  to 
London,  with  his  brother,  to  learn  the  shoe- 
making trade.  He  visited  various  places  of 
public  worship,  the  theatre,  and  a debating 
society,  and  found  his  faculties  developed  in 
a striking  manner.  His  brother,  hearing  him 
one  day  repeat  a song  which  he  had  com- 
posed, induced  him  to  offer  it  to  the  editor 
of  the  London  Magazine , by  whom  it  was 
accepted  and  published.  His  poem  of  the 
“Farmer’s  Boy,”  composed  in  his  London 
garret,  was  published  by  Capel  Lofft,  to 


whom  it  was  first  shown.  The  versification 
in  this,  as  well  as  in  the  other  poems  of 
Bloomfield,  is  easy  and  correct.  He  was 
made  by  the  Duke  of  Grafton  under-sealer 
for  the  seal  office,  but  ill  health  compelled 
him  to  relinquish  this  situation.  He  after- 
ward worked  at  his  trade,  and  engaged  in  the 
book-trade,  but  he  became  bankrupt.  He 
died  in  August,  1823. 

BLUCHER,  Gebhart  Lebrecht  von,  a cel- 
ebrated Prussian  general,  who  distinguished 
himself  in  the  wars  with  France,  particularly 
in  1813,  1814,  and  1815,  and  who,  by  his 
timely  arrival  on  the  field  of  Waterloo,  de- 
cided the  victory.  The  soldiers,  in  allusion 
to  his  promptitude  in  attack,  called  him 
Marshal  Forward.  He  died  Sept.  12th,  1819, 
aged  seventy-seven. 

BLUM,  Robert,  a martyr  for  liberty  in  the 
German  revolution  of  1848.  An  obscure  ar- 
tisan in  Cologne,  his  native  city,  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  friends  of  freedom  by  his 
contributions  to  the  press,  and  especially  his 
exposure  of  the  Romish  humbug  called  “ The 
Holy  Coat  of  Treves.”  In  the  revolution  of 
1848  he  was  foremost  for  action,  and  full  of 
fiery  eloquence.  Mixed  up  with  the  out- 
break in  Vienna,  he  was  seized  by  the  Aus- 
trian government,  and  shot  November  9th, 
1848,  in  the  forty -first  year  of  life. 

BLUMENBACH,  Jean  Frederick,  a cele- 
brated comparative  anatomist,  physiologist, 
and  naturalist,  born  at  Gotha,  1752,  died  at 
Gottingen,  1840.  He  was  the  first  to  estab- 
lish the  division  of  the  human  race  into  five 
varieties,  the  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Ethio- 
pian, American,  and  Malay.  His  great  desire 
was  to  prove  the  unity  of  the  human  species. 

BOADICEA,  a British  heroine,  Queen  of 
the  Iceni.  Her  husband,  for  the  security  of 
his  family,  had  made  the  Roman  emperor 
co-heir  with  his  daughters.  But  the  Roman 
officers  took  possession  of  her  palace,  exposed 
the  princesses  to  the  brutality  of  the  soldiers, 
and  scourged  the  queen  in  public.  Boadicea, 
urged  to  revenge  by  this  usage,  assembled 
her  countrymen,  and,  in  a masculine  har- 
angue, roused  them  to  madness,  by  describ- 
ing her  own,  her  daughters’,  and  her  country’s 
injuries.  London  was  stormed,  and  70,000 
strangers  were  put  to  the  sword.  Suetonius 
Paulinus  defeated  the  Britons,  and  Boadicea 
poisoned  herself  in  despair,  a.d.  60. 


•BOA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


129 


BOCCACCIO,  Giovanni,  a famous  Italian 
author,  born  at  Florence  or  Paris,  1313.  His 
“Decameron”  fixed  his  reputation,  and  the 
name  of  Boccaccio,  according  to  Mazzuchelli, 
is  equivalent  to  a thousand  encomiums.  The 
death  of  his  friend  and  instructor,  Petrarch, 
was  a severe  shock  to  him,  and  he  died  not 
more  than  a year  after,  at  Certaldo  in  Tus- 
cany, Dec.  21st,  1375. 

BOEOTIA,  a state  of  ancient  Greece,  lying 
north  of  Attica.  Thebes,  its  capital,  was 
equally  celebrated  for  its  antiquity,  its  gran- 
deur, and  the  exploits  and  misfortunes  of  its 
heroes  and  kings.  The  country  was  known 
successively  as  Aonia,  Messapia,  Hyantis, 
Ogygia,  Cadmeis,  and  Boeotia.  From  the 
general  character  of  the  inhabitants,  the  term 
Boeotian  was  used  by  the  Athenians  as  a 
synonym  for  dullness ; but  unjustly,  since 
Pindar,  Hesiod,  Plutarch,  Democritus,  Epam- 
inondas,  and  the  accomplished  and  beautiful 
Corinna,  were  natives  of  Boeotia.  The  gov- 
ernment was  an  oligarchy.  Boeotia  was 
frequently  at  war  with  Attica  and  Sparta. 
By  the  valor  of  Epaminondas  it  became  the 
leading  power  in  Greece,  but  soon  after  his 
death,  it  fell  with  its  sister  states  under  the 
rule  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 

BOER  HAVE,  Hermann,  one  of  the  most 
famous  physicians  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
born  at  Woorhout,  near  Leyden,  December, 
1668,  died  in  1738.  People  came  to  him 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  for  advice,  and  a 
Chinese  mandarin  wrote  to  him  with  the 
address,  “ To  Boerhave,  the  celebrated  phy- 
sician of  Europe.”  His  property  amounted, 
at  his  death,  to  two  million  florins. 

BOETHIUS,  Anicius  Manlius  Torquatus 
Severinus,  a man  whose  services,  rewards, 
virtues,  and  unhappy  end  have  made  him 
famous,  was  born  at  Rome  or  Milan,  about 
a.d.  470.  Having  received  an  admirable 
education  and  improved  himself  by  travel, 
he  was  taken  into  favor  by  Theodoric,  King 
of  the  Ostrogoths,  and  rapidly  raised  to  the 
highest  offices  of  the  empire.  His  strict  jus- 
tice and  uncompromising  integrity  acquired 
for  him  the  hatred  of  the  rapacious  and 
unprincipled  Goths ; the  king  became  preju- 
diced against  him,  and  had  him  arrested, 
imprisoned,  and  executed,  a.d.  526  or  527. 
His  most  celebrated  work,  on  “The  Conso- 
lations of  Philosophy,”  consisting  of  prose 

9 


and  verse,  was  composed  by  him  in  prison. 
Alfred  the  Great  of  England  translated  it 
for  the  benefit  of  his  people. 

BOGOTA,  at  the  time  the  Spaniards  con- 
quered South  America,  was  one  of  the  most 
civilized  states  of  the  country,  and  inhabited 
by  the  Muisca  Indians.  The  valley  of  Bo- 
gota, famous  for  its  fertility,  was  filled  with 
Indians  who  rivaled  in  civilization  the  in- 
habitants of  Cuzco.  They  traced  their 
prosperity  to  the  instructions  of  Bochica. 
Gonzalo  Ximenes  di  Quesada  effected  their 
conquest. 

BOHEMIA,  a kingdom  now  forming  a part 
of  the  Austrian  empire ; area  20,013  square 
miles;  population  in  1851,  4,409,900.  Bo- 
hemia is  surrounded  by  mountains  and  cov- 
ered with  forests.  All  kinds  of  grain  and 
fruits  are  exported.  The  mines  yield  silver, 
copper,  tin,  garnets,  and  other  precious  stones, 
iron,  arsenic,  alum,  antimony,  sulphur,  &c. 
The  kingdom  derives  its  name  from  the  Boii, 
a Celtic  nation,  who  settled  there  about  600 
b.c.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century 
it  was  inhabited  by  Slavonians,  who  were 
governed  by  their  own  dukes.  Charlemagne 
made  Bohemia  tributary,  but  it  did  not  long 
remain  so.  The  first  king  received  his  title 
from  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  and  in  1310 
the  house  of  Luxemburg  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  In  1526,  Bohemia  reverted  to  the 
house  of  Austria,  by  whom  it  has  been  ever 
since  held.  Bohemia  produced  the  first  re- 
formers, among  whom  were  John  Huss  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  but  at  the  present  day 
almost  all  the  people  are  Catholics.  The 
land  is  divided  into  estates  of  vast  magnitude, 
and  the  peasantry  are  held  in  servitude.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  manufacturing  districts  of 
Austria.  Bohemian  glass  has  been  noted  since 
the  thirteenth  century.  Many  parts  of  the 
districts  adjoining  the  northern  and  eastern 
ranges  of  mountains  form  one  continued 
manufactory  of  linens,  and  thousands  of 
humble  cabins  resound  with  the  noise  of  the 
jenny  or  the  loom.  With  the  exception  of 
Pragfie,  the  ancient  capital,  there  are  no  large 
towns. 

BOILEAU-DESPREAUX,  Nicholas,  born 
at  Crosne,  near  Paris,  in  1636.  The  future 
satirist  was  dull  and  sickly  in  youth,  and 
described  by  his  father  as  a good-natured 
boy,  who  would  never  speak  ill  of  any  one. 


BOI 


130 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


r 


After  having  studied  diligently  at  the  colleges 
of  Harcourt  and  Beauvais,  he  entered  upon 
the  career  of  the  law,  which  he  soon  relin- 
quished for  the  more  congenial  pursuit  of 
belles-lettres.  His  satire,  “Les  Adieux  a 
Paris,”  first  displayed  his  talents.  He  pub- 
lished many  works,  his  “Art  Poetique” 
being  the  most  popular.  He  was  opposed  by 
many  writers,  to  confound  whom  he  wrote  his 
unrivaled  mock-heroic  poem,  the  “Lutrin.” 
He  died  of  the  dropsy  in  1711,  bequeathing 
almost  all  his  property  to  the  poor. 

BOKHARA,  a country  in  the  interior  of 
Asia,  the  Sogdiana  and  Bactria  of  antiquity. 
It  is  the  south-eastern  part  of  Independent 
Tartary,  or  Turkistan.  The  city  of  Bokhara 
has  a population  of  about  150,000,  and  is  the 
most  commercial  town  of  central  Asia.  Some 
centuries  ago  this  and  the  neighboring  city 
of  Samarcand  were  famous  as  seats  of  learn- 
ing, and  were  sought  by  students  from  all 
the  Mohammedan  countries  of  Asia.  Balkh, 
in  the  ancient  Bactria,  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  cities  of  the  eastern  world.  An- 
ciently it  was  famed  for  its  splendor,  ex- 
tent, and  magnificence.  Alexander  the  Great, 
in  his  eastern  campaign,  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  a Bactrian  chief.  This  chief,  who 
defended  himself  bravely  against  the  Mace- 
donians, while  his  family  was  placed  upon  a 
precipitous  rock,  was  named  Oxyartes.  The 
garrison  of  the  rocky  fortress,  when  sum- 
moned to  surrender,  answered  Alexander 
contemptuously  that  if  his  men  were  winged, 
he  might  intimidate  them,  but  as  it  was,  their 
position  was  impregnable.  Alexander  offered 
rewards  to  those  who  would  attempt  to 
ascend  the  rock,  and  three  hundred  of  the 
most  expert  that  volunteered  were  selected. 
In  the  interstices  of  the  rock,  and  in  the  ice 
upon  its  face,  the  climbers  stuck  iron  pegs, 
and  ascended  the  most  precipitous  parts  in  the 
night-time.  Some  of  the  first  who  ventured, 
fell  headlong,  but  the  summit  was  gained  by 
a determined  band.  By  order  of  Alexander, 
the  Macedonians  shook  before  the  eyes  of  the 
barbarians  long  strips  of  linen,  intimating 
that  they  had  found  wings.  The  garrison 
immediately  surrendered,  tacitly  proving  the 
correctness  of  Alexander’s  favorite  maxim, 
that  no  place  was  impregnable  to  the  brave, 
or  secure  to  the  timorous. 

The  Bactrians  were  a race  holding  a middle 


station  between  the  Persians  and  Scythians, 
with  much  of  the  polish  of  the  former,  and 
little  of  the  ferocity  of  the  latter.  Their  de- 
scendants still  retain  many  of  the  character- 
istics of  the  Bactrians  of  former  days.  Their 
women  were  famed  for  the  brilliancy  of  their 
dark,  shining  eyes,  the  delicate  and  correct 
formation  of  their  features,  and  the  richness 
and  transparency  of  their  complexions.  Rox- 
ana, the  daughter  of  Oxyartes,  was  not  only 
distinguished  above  those  of  her  nation  in 
beauty,  but,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
wife  of  Darius,  was  the  loveliest  of  Asiatic 
women.  The  conduct  of  Alexander  toward 
his  dazzling  captive  was  honorable ; having 
conceived  a warm  attachment  to  her,  he  mar- 
ried her,  pursuant  to  the  wishes  of  his  friend 
Hephasstion,  but  contrary  to  the  advice  of 
Craterus.  The  fears  of  Oxyartes  were  ban- 
ished by  Alexander’s  avowal  of  his  attach- 
ment to  his  child.  He  came  into  the  Mace- 
donian camp,  and  was  received  with  every 
mark  of  attention  and  respect.  Thus  ties  of 
friendship  bound  the  Bactrians  and  Macedo- 
nians together.  Alexander,  according  to 
Strabo,  founded  no  fewer  than  eight  cities  in 
Sogdiana  and  Bactria.  The  city  of  Anderab 
retains  still  a part  of  Alexander’s  name. 
The  Alexandria  which  the  Macedonian  mon- 
arch is  said  to  have  founded,  was  probably 
either  Cabul,  or  else  at  no  great  distance  from 
it.  To  return  to  Balk.  In  1221  it  was 
taken  by  Genghis  Khan,  who  put  to  the  sword 
nearly  all  its  inhabitants. 

BOLEYN,  Anne,  second  wife  of  Henry 
VIII.  of  England,  was  probably  born  about 
1500.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas 
Boleyn.  Her  early  years  were  spent  in 
attendance  on  Henry’s  sister,  the  wife  of 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  on  whose  death  she 
became  maid  of  honor  to  Queen  Catherine. 
Henry  having  procured  a divorce  from  the 
latter,  married  Anne  privately,  and  when  she 
became  a mother  publicly  acknowledged  her 
as  queen.  Her  child  was  the  famous  Eliza- 
beth. The  tyrant  conceiving  a passion  for 
Jane  Seymour,  caused  Anne  to  be  tried  for 
high  treason  and  infidelity.  She  suffered  on 
the  scaffold,  May  19th,  1536,  Henry  consid- 
ering it  an  act  of  great  clemency  to  save  her 
from  the  stake.  She  was  beautiful,  gay,  and 
witty,  and  in  her  last  moments  self-possessed. 
“ She  sent  her  last  message  to  the  king,”  says 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


131 


Hume,  “and  acknowledged  the  obligations 
which  she  owed  him  in  uniformly  continuing 
her  advancement.  From  a private  gentle- 
woman, you  have  made  me,  first  a marchion- 
ess, then  a queen  ; and  as  you  can  raise  me 
no  higher  in  this  world,  you  are  now  sending 
me  to  be  a saint  in  heaven.” 

BOLINGBROKE,  Henry  St.  John,  Vis- 
count, was  born  at  Battersea,  in  1672,  of  an 
ancient  and  distinguished  family.  His  bril- 
liant talents,  elegant  manners,  and  personal 
attractions  secured  him  a warm  welcome  in 
society ; but,  unhappily,  until  his  twenty- 
third  year  his  career  was  stained  with  those 
vices  which  spring  from  the  impetuous  tem- 
per of  youth.  His  marriage  with  a beautiful 
heiress  did  not  produce  the  happiness  which 
his  parents  had  looked  for,  and  the  young 
couple  separated  forever  after  a short  connec- 
tion. The  moment  he  obtained  a seat  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  he  distinguished  himself 
by  industry,  activity,  eloquence,  and  strong 
judgment.  In  1704  he  was  made  secretary 
of  war,  but  when  the  Whigs  came  into  place, 
he  sent  in  his  resignation.  The  Whig  party 
being  prostrated,  Bolingbroke  received  the 
department  of  foreign  affairs,  and  concluded 
the  peace  of  Utrecht.  During  the  height  of 
party  contention  between  the  Whigs  and  To- 
ries, immediately  after  the  conclusion  of 
peace,  a quarrel  occurred  between  Boling- 
broke and  Harley,  then  lord  high  treasurer, 
and  Queen  Anne,  provoked  with  the  latter, 
dismissed  him  four  days  before  her  death, 
and  made  Bolingbroke  prime  minister.  The 
scene  was  speedily  reversed  by  the  death  of 
Anne.  George  I.  ascended  the  throne,  the 
Whigs  triumphed,  and  Bolingbroke,  learn- 
ing that  his  enemies  intended  to  impeach 
him,  fled  to  Lorraine,  and  was  made  secre- 
tary of  state  by  the  Pretender,  who,  however, 
becoming  displeased  with  him,  deprived  him 
of  this  dignity  and  conferred  it  on  the  Duke 
of  Ormond.  His  attainder  having  been 
partly  reversed,  he  returned  to  England  in 
1723,  opposed  the  ministry  for  eight  years, 
and  again  went  to  France.  In  France,  in 
1735,  he  published  his  “Letters  upon  Histo- 
ry,” which,  however  admirable,  were  blamed 
for  attacking  revealed  religion.  In  1738,  he 
returned  to  his  country,  where  he  died  of  a 
lingering  and  painful  disease -in  1751. 

BOLIVAR,  Simon,  the  most  prominent 


actor  in  the  events  which  produced  the  inde- 
pendence  of  a large  portion  of  South  America, 
was  born  in  the  city  of  Caraccas,  July  24th, 
1783,  of  a distinguished  and  noble  Venezue- 
lan family.  After  acquiring  the  elements  of 
a liberal  education  in  South  America,  he 
visited  Spain,  and  spent  some  time  in  travel- 
ing in  Europe,  chiefly  in  the  south  of  France. 
Returning  for  a while  to  Madrid,  he  married, 
and  carried  his  wife  to  his  native  land,  where 
he  thought  to  enjoy  in  peace  the  comforts  of 
domestic  life.  The  death  of  his  wife  put  an 
end  to  his  blissful  visions,  and  he  again  went 
to  Europe,  partly  to  dissipate  his  grief.  On 
his  return,  he  traveled  through  the  . United 
States,  where  his  love  of  liberty  settled  into 
an  indelible  passion,  and  we  find  him  actively 
engaged  in  promoting  the  early  movement  in 
Caraccas,  April,  1810,  and  receiving  a colo- 
nel’s commission  from  the  supreme  junta  then 
established.  He  sided  with  the  patriots  of 
Venezuela,  and,  after  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence, July  5th,  1811,  served  under  Gen- 
eral Miranda,  against  a party  in  Valencia 
who  declared  against  the  principles  and  meas- 
ures of  the  revolutionists. 

After  some  ill  success  in  Venezuela,  which 
is  attributable  to  treachery  of  others  rather 
than  a want  of  talent  on  his  part,  Bolivar 
escaped  to  Cura^oa.  He  could  not,  however, 
content  himself  with  being  a cold  spectator  of 
events  in  which  the  live3  and  fortunes  of  his 
countrymen  were  risked,  and  accordingly  he 
came  to  Carthagena  in  1812,  and  entered  into 
the  service  of  the  patriots  of  New  Grenada. 
His  expedition  against  Teneriffe,  on  the 
river  Magdalena,  was  successful,  he  drove  the 
Spaniards  before  him  in  his  triumphant  ad- 
vance, and  entered  the  city  of  Ocana  in 
triumph,  thus  inspiring  general  confidence  in 
the  patriot  cause,  and  attracting  the  attention 
of  all  to  it  and  to  himself.  He  next  expelled 
the  Spanish  forces  from  Cucuta,  and  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  freeing  Venezuela  from  the 
Spaniards,  a task  which  he  accomplished  by 
the  4th  of  August,  1813.  At  the  assembly 
of  Caraccas,  Jan.  2d,  1814,  the  power  which 
was  vested  in  the  hands  of  Bolivar  as  com- 
mander of  the  liberating  army,  was  con- 
firmed. If  we  carefully  trace  the  military 
career  of  Bolivar,  we  shall  find  him  alter- 
nately meeting  with  success,  and  struggling 
with  reverse;  displaying,  both  in  triumph 


BOL 


132 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  defeat,  the  noble  daring  of  a gallant  war. 
rior,  the  rare  talents  of  a military  chieftain, 
and  the  unyielding  perseverance  of  a true 
patriot.  At  length  he  had  the  satisfaction  of 
beholding  the  arms  of  the  patriots  triumph- 
ant in  every  quarter,  their  banners  moving 
onward  in  pride  and  splendor,  and  the  pha- 
lanx of  opposition  becoming  daily  more  and 
more  feeble. 

In  May,  1826,  Bolivar  presented  to  the 
congress  of  Upper  Peru,  which  had  formed 
the  independent  state  of  Bolivia,  the  consti- 
tution, which,  at  their  request,  he  had  pre- 
pared. Meanwhile  a rebellion  had  broken 
out  in  Venezuela,  headed  by  Paez,  who  con- 
sidered himself  aggrieved,  and  the  fair  fruits 
of  liberty,  won  with  many  a day  of  bloody 
toil,  appeared  in  danger  of  being  lost.  It 
was  Bolivar  alone  who  could  and  did  quell 
this  insurrection.  The  Bolivian  code,  which, 
among  its  prominent  features,  provided  that 
the  executive  authority  should  be  vested  in 
the  hands  of  the  president  for  life,  was  adopted 
as  the  constitution  of  Bolivia,  Dec.  9th,  1826, 
and  Bolivar,  then  absent,  was  declared  its 
president.  If  the  provisions  of  the  Boli- 
vian code  had  alarmed  the  friends  of  liberty, 
what  was  their  terror  when  they  beheld 
Bolivar,  whom  they  suspected  of  ambitious 
designs,  placed  for  life  at  the  head  of  the 
government.  The  Colombian  auxiliarjr  army, 
then  in  Peru,  rapidly  revolutionized  the 
government,  and  induced  the  Peruvians  to 
renounce  the  Bolivian  code.  Strenuous  op- 
position to  Bolivar  was  made  in  Colombia  by 
the  republicans,  who  imagined  that  he  was 
ready  to  emulate  the  career  of  Napoleon, 
although  he  had  repeatedly  expressed  a wish 
to  retire  from  the  presidency.  However,  in 
1828,  a decree,  dated  Bogota,  Aug.  27th, 
gave  him  the  supreme  power  in  Colombia. 
The  authority  reposed  in  him  gave  the  repub- 
licans no  little  alarm,  but  Bolivar  did  not 
live  long  to  exercise  it.  Looking  back  upon 
his  career,  if  there  appear  occasionally  a 
desire  to  exalt  himself  above  his  fellows,  we 
must  grant  him  that  rare  union  of  civil 
and  military  abilities,  that  courage  in  adver- 
sity and  moderation  in  prosperity,  which  were 
alone  capable  of  achieving  the  regeneration 
of  his  country.  He  died  Dec.  17th,  1830. 

BOLIVIA,  a republic  of  South  America, 
Comprising  374,480  square  miles,  and  contain- 


ing about  1,650,000  inhabitants.  It  was  ori 
ginally  called  Upper  Peru,  and  belonged  to 
the  Spanish  vice-royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
Its  independence  of  Spain  was  declared  Aug. 
6th,  1824,  and  the  following  year  the  name  of 
Bolivia  was  assumed  in  honor  of  General  Bol- 
ivar. Its  mountains  contain  rich  silver  mines, 
but  they  are  now  little  worked.  Like  its  sis- 
ter republics  Bolivia  has  been  sadly  distressed 
by  intestine  wars.  Chuquisaca  is  the  capital ; 
population  26,000.  It  was  founded  by  one  of 
Pizarro’s  officers  on  the  site  of  an  old  Peruvian 
town  called  Choque  Chaka,  or  ‘bridge  of 
gold the  treasures  of  the  incas  having  passed 
through  it  on  their  way  to  Cuzco.  A hun- 
dred years  ago  Potosi  had  a hundred  thousand 
dwellers.  Its  silver  mines  were  then  indus- 
triously worked.  Now  there  are  hardly 
30,000  inhabitants,  half  of  whom  are  Peruvian 
Indians. 

BOMARSUND,  a strong  fortress  on  one  of 
the  Aland  Isles,  in  the  Baltic.  It  was  bom- 
barded by  the  French  and  English  in  August, 
1854,  and  the  Russians  surrendered  on  the 
16th.  The  fortifications  were  demolished. 

BONAPARTE.  Charles  Buonaparte,  a 
young  lawyer  of  Ajaccio,  in  Corsica,  wedded 
Letitia  Ramolini,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  accomplished  girls  of  the  island.  Thir- 
teen children  were  the  offspring  of  this  union, 
eight  of  whom  survived  to  maturity : Joseph, 
Napoleon,  Lucien,  Louis,  Jerome,  Eliza,  Pau- 
line, and  Caroline.  The  father  died  early. 
The  mother  lived  to  witness  the  grandeur  of 
her  great  son,  and  to  mourn  his  death  in  the 
sea-girt  isle  which  injustice  made  his  prison. 
She  died  at  Rome,  in  October,  1832,  aged 
eighty -two.  She  was  a woman  of  great  beau- 
ty, great  courage,  and  great  mind.  In  her 
nineteenth  year,  Aug.  15th,  1769,  upon  a 
couch  whose  tapestry  was  embroidered  with 
the  heroes  and  battles  of  the  “ Iliad,”  she  gave 
birth  to  Napoleon,  one  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary characters  recorded  in  history,  distin- 
guished alike  for  his  extraordinary  fortunes, 
his  civil  talents,  and  his  military  genius.  Af- 
ter receiving  the  rudiments  of  a classical  ed- 
ucation, he  entered  the  military  school  at 
Brienne,  where  he  was  distinguished  by  the 
gravity  of  his  character,  and  his  sedulous 
study  of  the  mathematics.  Even  his  sports 
partook  of  his  'graver  pursuits.  On  the  oc- 
currence of  a day  which  was  commonly  con- 


BON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


183 


sidered  a holiday,  Bonaparte’s  instructors  con- 
fined him  and  his  companions  to  the  school 
grounds.  The  jmung  engineer  constructed  a 
mine  with  great  ingenuity,  which  in  exploding 
blew  down  the  walls  and  enabled  the  juvenile 
rebels  to  escape.  When  he  could  enlist  no 
young  recruits  in  his  mimic  armies,  Napoleon 
would  use  flints  as  substitutes  for  soldiers, 
and  marshal  them  with  great  care.  A boy 
who  disturbed  his  array  was  severely  pun- 
ished by  Napoleon.  Many  years  after,  when 
the  imperial  diadem  was  on  his  head,  Napo- 
leon was  informed  that  one  of  his  old  school- 
mates desired  an  interview.  He  assured  the 
chamberlain  that  the  emperor  would  recollect 
him  if  he  mentioned  that  there  was  a deep 
scar  on  his  forehead.  When  the  emperor 
was  informed  of  this,  he  said,  u I do  not  forget 
how  he  got  that  scar.  I threw  a general  at 
his  head  at  Brienne.” 

At  sixteen,  he  received  the  commission  of 
second  lieutenant  in  the  regiment  of  Lafere, 
which  he  joined  at  Valence.  At  twenty  he 
was  promoted  to  a captaincy,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1793,  had  obtained  the  command  of  the 
artillery  train  in  the  attack  on  Toulon,  then 
occupied  by  the  English.  The  originality  of 
his  plans  won  the  siege  for  the  French.  One 
of  the  deputies  of  the  convention  wrote  to 
Carnot:  “I  send  you  a young  man  who  dis- 
tinguished himself  very  much  during  the 
siege,  and  earnestly  recommend  to  you  to  ad- 
vance him  speedily.  If  you  do  not,  he  will 
most  assuredly  advance  himself.”  But  with 
the  exception  of  a brief  service  the  next 
spring  as  commandant  of  the  artillery  in  the 
army  of  Italy,  he  was  for  some  time  left  inac- 
tive. Want  pinched  him.  He  dreamed  of 
the  orient,  and  thought  of  offering  his  sword 
to  the  grand  seignior.  “ How  odd  it  would 
be.”  said  he,  “were  a little  Corsican  officer  to 
become  king  of  Jerusalem.”  Stranger  hap- 
penings than  that  were  to  be.  Once  he  was 
on  the  brink  of  suicide,  when  a timely  loan 
from  an  old  comrade  gave  him  the  means  of 
life. 

In  1795,  when  some  of  the  sections  of  Paris 
rose  in  insurrection  against  the  national  con- 
vention, the  command  of  the  troops  was  in- 
trusted to  him.  His  cannon  dispersed  the 
mob,  the  Directory  was  established,  and  Na- 
poleon made  military  governor  of  the  metrop- 
olis. He  was  at  that  time  very  thin,  although 


distinguished  for  corpulency  ip  the  latter  part 
of  his  life.  On  one  occasion  he  gained  a blood- 
less victory  over  a rabble  whose  exertions 
were  stimulated  by  a very  fat  old  woman. 
“There,”  cried  she,  “look  at  the  soldiers! 
they’re  the  wretches  that  fatten  in  idleness 
while  we  starve.”  “Look  at  her  and  look  at 
me,”  said  Napoleon,  “ and  tell  us  which  is  the 
fattest.”  This  raised  a laugh,  and  the  popu- 
lace dispersed  quietly.  On  this,  as  on  many 
other  occasions,  his  knowledge  of  human  na- 
ture was  apparent. 

The  6th  of  March,  1796,  Napoleon  was  mar- 
ried to  Josephine  Tascher  Beauharnais,  and 
just  before,  through  the  influence  of  Barras, 
their  mutual  friend,  and  one  of  the  directory, 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  in  Italy.  The  French  lay  on  the  cold 
slopes  of  the  maritime  Alps.  Their  foes  were 
snug  upon  the  warm  plains  of  Italy.  The 
French  soldiers  were  ragged,  hungered,  and 
dispirited.  The  glowing  vigor  of  their  young 
general  gave  them  new  nerve  and  hope.  He 
led  them  into  Sardinia  at  once,  and  defeated 
the  surprised  Austrians  at  Montenotte,  the 
11th  of  April.  “ My  patent  of  nobility,”  said 
he  afterward  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
“dates  from  the  field  of  Montenotte.”  He 
astounded  the  veteran  warriors  with  whom  he 
coped,  by  the  rapidity  of  his  maneuvres  and 
his  defiance  of  ancient  tactics.  “War,”  said 
he,  “is  the  science  of  barbarians.  He  who 
has  the  heaviest  battalions  will  conquer.” 
The  troops  of  his  foes  far  outnumbered  his 
own  ; he  attacked  them  in  detached  portions, 
and  conquered  them  by  piecemeal.  The  bat- 
tles of  Millesimo,  Mondovi,  and  Lodi  followed 
in  a month,  and  he  entered  Milan  in  triumph. 
Sardinia  had  been  cowed  into  peace.  It  was 
after  the  hot  contest  of  Lodi,  that  Napoleon’s 
veterans  dubbed  him  with  the  pet  name  he 
never  lost,  “the  little  corporal.”  Napoleon 
has  said,  “It  was  not  till  after  the  terrible 
passage  of  the  bridge  of  Lbdi,  that  the  thought 
shot  across  my  mind  that  I might  become  a 
decisive  actor  in  the  political  arena.  Then 
arose,  for  the  first  time,  the  spark  of  great 
ambition.”  More  soldiers,  from  Austria: 
more  battles.  At  Castiglione,  Roveredo,  Bas- 
sano,  Areola,  and  Rivoli,  the  French  were 
victorious,  and  the  stubborn  Wurmser  at  last 
yielded  Mantua.  The  Austrians  were  driven 
from  Italy.  In  ten  months,  Napoleon,  with 


BON 


134 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


55.000  men,  including  all  recruits,  had  con- 
quered five  grand  armies,  composed  of  over 

200.000  highly  disciplined  Austrian  troops, 
and  headed  by  such  veterans  as  Beaulieu, 
Wurmser,  and  Alvinzi.  At  times  it  had 
seemed  as  if  the  handful  of  French  must  be 
overwhelmed,  but  the  genius  of  their  leader 
had  brought  them  through.  They  had  taken 
a hundred  thousand  prisoners,  and  killed  and 
wounded  thirty -five  thousand  men.  Napoleon 
crossed  the  Carnic  Alps,  threatened  Vienna, 
defeated  a fresh  army  under  the  gallant  Arch- 
duke Charles,  and  forced  Austria  to  the  hu- 
miliating treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  Oct.  17th, 

1797.  One  term  of  this  treaty  was  the  release 
of  Lafayette  from  the  dungeon  of  Olmutz. 

In  Paris,  the  young  conqueror  of  Italy  was 
received  with  an  enthusiasm  that  excited  the 
greatest  terror  and  jealousy  in  the  govern- 
ment. To  be  rid  of  his  presence  they  detailed 
him  upon  distant  and  difficult  service.  In 

1798,  he  took  the  command  of  the  army  des- 
tined against  Egypt,  and  on  his  passage  from 
Toulon,  captured  Malta.  He  landed  at  Alex- 
andria, and  after  the  capture  of  that  city 
pushed  on  toward  Cairo.  The  French  formed 
in  squares  to  receive  the  furious  onsets  of  the 
Mamelukes.  A corps  of  scientific  men,  who 
had  been  mounted  on  donkeys,  accompanied 
the  expedition.  Whenever  a body  of  Mame- 
lukes approached,  the  order,  “Form  square, 
savansandassesin  the  centre,”  was  greeted  with 
jocund  uproar  by  the  soldiery.  At  the  battle 
waged  in  sight  of  the  pyramids,  Napoleon  said 
to  his  men,  “Soldiers!  from  those  summits 
forty  centuries  gaze  upon  you ! ” The  gazing 
centuries  saw  the  rout  of  the  Mamelukes,  and 
the  invaders  masters  of  Cairo.  Nelson's  vic- 
tory in  the  Bay  of  Aboukir  cut  the  expedition 
off  from  all  supplies  and  reenforcements,  yet 
in  Egypt  and  Syria  Napoleon  was  everywhere 
victorious  except  at  Acre ; where,. for  want  of 
besieging  artillery,  he  was  repulsed  by  Sir 
Sydney  Smith.  In*  October,  1799,  the  mis- 
government  of  France,  and  the  disasters  which 
had  befallen  the  French  troops,  induced  him 
to  return,  leaving  Kleber  in  command  inEgypt. 
He  was  received  as  a savior  by  the  French 
nation,  and  on  the  9th  of  November  he  de- 
posed the  directory,  and  was  proclaimed  first 
consul  of  the  republic. 

To  England  and  Austria  he  made  proffers 
of  peace  which  were  rejected.  The  hosts  of 


the  confederates  threatened  an  invasion  of  the 
republic,  and  English  fleets  bloqkaded  her 
coasts.  Napoleon  led  a rapidly  gathered  army 
over  the  crags  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard,  and 
descended  like  an  avalanche  upon  the  forces 
of  Marshal  Melas.  The  campaign  opened  at 
Montebello,  where  Lannes  with  eight  thousand 
men  defeated  eighteen  thousand  Austrians, 
though  the  latter  were  protected  by  the  deadly 
fire  of  strong  and  commanding  batteries.  “ I 
could  hear  the  bones  crash  in  my  division, 
like  glass  in  a hail-storm,”  said  Lannes.  The 
terrible  victory  of  Marengo  followed,  on  the 
14th  of  June,  1800:  Melas,  with  his  army  of 

120,000  was  now  utterly  discomfited,  by  half 
that  number,  and  Napoleon  was  once  more 
master  of  Italy.  An  armistice  was  concluded. 
The  conqueror  left  Massena  in  command  of 
the  triumphant  army,  and  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  again  sought  a fair  peace  with  Aus- 
tria, and  again  unsuccessfully.  Moreau,  who 
commanded  the  grand  army  of  the  Rhine,  ad- 
vanced and  won  the  field  of  Hohenlinden,  and 
chased  the  fleeing  Austrians  within  thirty 
miles  of  Vienna.  Another  armistice  was  had, 
and  Feb.  9th,  1801,  the  peace  of  Luneville 
was  completed,  and  the  continent  thus  quieted. 
About  this  time  many  attempts  were  made  to 
assassinate  Napoleon.  On  Christmas  eve,  as 
he  was  on  his  way  to  the  opera,  the  famous 
‘ infernal  machine,’  a cart  laden  with  gunpow- 
der and  deadly  missiles,  was  fired.  He  es- 
caped by  an  accidental  moment  of  time.  Eight 
persons  were  killed,  and  sixty  wounded,  of 
whom  twenty  afterward  died.  On  both  sides 
the  way  the  houses  were  sadly  shattered. 

Napoleon  employed  his  leisure  of  peace  in 
developing  the  resources  of  France.  He 
planned  and  executed  vast  internal  improve- 
ments, commenced  the  compilation  of  the  civil 
code,  and  restored  the  observances  of  religion. 
He  formed  a great  coalition  against  England, 
which  was  broken  by  the  death  of  Paul,  the 
Czar  of  Russia.  The  great  antagonist  nations 
paused  for  a breathing  spell,  and  the  peace  cf 
Amiens  was  concluded  in  March,  1802.  About 
this  time  the  Italian  or  Cisalpine  republic, 
which  he  had  founded  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
chose  Napoleon  their  president ; a few  months 
after,  the  people  of  France  elected  him  consul 
for  life ; in  May,  1804,  he  assumed  the  title 
of  Napoleon  I.,  Emperor  of  the  French,  and 
Dec.  2d  was  crowned  at  Paris  by  the 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


135 


pope.  In  March,  1805,  he  was  declared  King 
of  Italy,  and  in  May  crowned  at  Milan.  He 
had  previously  established  his  military  order 
of  the  legion  of  honor  and  distributed  the 
crosses  which  were  the  distinguishing  badges. 
Of  all  to  whom  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor 
was  tendered,  Lafayette  alone  declined  it. 
Napoleon,  either  from  want  of  true  perception 
of  moral  greatness,  or  because  the  detestable 
servility  of  returning  emigrants  had  taught 
him  to  think  there  was  no  such  thing  as  honor 
or  independence  in  man,  exclaimed,  when  they 
told  him  that  Lafayette  refused  the  decoration, 

What,  will  nothing  satisfy  that  man,  but 
the  chief  command  of  the  national  guard  of 
the  empire?”  Yes,  much  less  abundantly 
satisfied  him ; the  quiet  possession  of  the  poor 
remnants  of  his  estate,  enjoyed  without  sacri- 
ficing his  principles. 

England  had  previously  renewed  maritime 
hostilities  with  France,  and  in  the  fall  of  1805, 
a mighty  coalition  reared  itself  against  the 
new  empire ; England,  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Sweden.  Afterward  Prussia  joined  them. 
Five  hundred  thousand  men  menaced  Napo- 
leon and  France.  The  emperor  broke  up  the 
powerful  armament  he  had  gathered  at  Bou- 
lognefor  theinvasion  of  Great  Britain,  marched 
into  Germany  with  his  accustomed  rapidity, 
and  at  Ulm  captured  30,000  Austrians.  In 
November,  he  entered  Vienna,  and  on  the  2d 
of  December,  gained  the  battle  of  Austerlitz, 
over  the  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria,  after 
which  he  concluded  peace  with  Austria,  cre- 
ated the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg 
kings,  and  made  his  brother  Joseph  King  of 
Naples,  and  Louis  King  of  Holland. 

The  next  year  England,  Prussia,  and  Rus- 
sia entered  into  a new  coalition.  Napoleon 
invaded  Prussia,  and  on  the  14th  of  October, 
gained  a decisive  victory  at  Jena  and  Auer- 
stadt,  by  which  the  whole  Prussian  monarchy, 
and  Germany  to  the  Baltic,  came  under  his 
authority.  The  man  of  destiny  had  now  filled 
Europe  with  the  terror  of  his  name,  the  bare 
mention  of  which  shook  the  crowned  heads  of 
the  oldest  monarchies  of  the  continent  with 
palsied  apprehension.  In  vain  the  dagger, 
the*mine,  and  the  bowl  had  been  prepared  for 
him.  His  star  had  not  yet  begun  to  decline 
from  the  zenith.  Napoleon  was  almost  mirac 
ulously  preserved  from  poison.  It  is  well 
known  that  he  was  an  inveterate  snuff-taker. 


When  his  mind  was  deeply  engaged,  his 
snuff-box  was  in  constant  requisition.  He 
once  left  his  apartment  for  a few  moments, 
and  returned  to  take  his  box  from  the  mantle- 
piece.  He  thought  the  snuff  felt  somewhat 
strangely,  and  calling  to  a dog  that  was  lying 
near  him,  administered  a pinch.  The  poor 
animal  soon  rolled  over  in  the  agonies  of 
death ; and  Napoleon  thenceforth  kept  his 
snuff  in  his  waistcoat  pockets,  which  he  had 
sheathed  with  tin. 

From  the  royal  palace  at  Berlin,  Napoleon 
promulgated  in  retaliation  the  famous  decree 
by  which  he  proposed  to  exclude  the  trade  of 
Britain  from  all  the  ports  of  the  continent. 
In  June,  1807,  having  overrun  Poland,  he  to- 
tally defeated  the  Emperor  of  Russia  at  Eylau 
and  Friedland,  after  which  an  interview  took 
place  between  them  on  a raft  in  the  Niemen, 
followed  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit.  In  November 
of  that  year,  he  sent  an  army  into  Lisbon, 
thus  annihilating  the  British  supremacy  in 
Portugal,  and  driving  the  Portuguese  court  to 
the  Brazils.  On  the  5th  of  May,  1808,  was 
concluded  the  treaty  by  which  Charles  IV. 
ceded  all  his  rights  in  the  crown  of  Spain. 
Joseph,  brother  of  the  emperor,  wasproclaimed 
King  of  Spain,  on  the  6th  of  June.  Hence 
arose  the  Peninsular  war. 

On  the  27th  of  September,  in  the  same  year, 
Napoleon  had  an  amicable  interview  with  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  at  Erfurt,  and  they  jointly 
proposed  peace  with  England,  which  was  re- 
jected. On  the  29th  of  October  the  emperor 
departed  from  Paris  and  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  army  in  Spain,  the  right  wing  of 
which  pursued  Sir  John  Moore  to  Corunna, 
while  he  marched  to  Madrid  and  seated  his 
brother  on  the  Spanish  throne.  In  the  mean 
time,  the  Austrians  took  the  field;  Napoleon 
hastened  to  oppose  them,  gained  successive 
victories  at  Eckmuhl  and  Wagram,  and  in 
the  latter  battle  a treaty  of  peace.  On  the 
16th  of  December,  1809,  he  divorced  Jose- 
phine, and  on  the  2d  of  April,  1810,  married 
Maria  Louisa,  Archduchess  of  Austria.  The 
20th  of  March,  1811,  was  signalized  by  the 
birth  of  his  son,  who  was  crowned  King  of 
Rome.  In  the  divorce  of  Josephine,  Napoleon 
said  at  St.  Helena,  he  stepped  upon  an  abyss 
covered  with  flowers. 

The  amitvbetween  Napoleon  and  Alexander 
cooled,  and  at  last  was  wholly  ruptured.  In 


BON 


136 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


1812,  Napoleon  assembled  a great  army  in 
Poland,  and  invaded  Russia,  and  having  at 
the  Borodino  and  at  Moskwa  gained  bloody 
victories,  he  entered  Moscow  on  the  14th  of 
September.  That  city  became  untenable,  and 
the  French  retreated  for  winter  quarters  to- 
ward Poland,  but  an  early  and  unusual  frost 
setting  in  during  their  march,  they  lost  their 
horses,  were  compelled  to  abandon  their  ar- 
tillery, and  three-fourths  of  the  army  perished 
or  were  made  prisoners.  Napoleon  returned 
to  Paris,  and  Poland  and  Prussia  were  occu- 
pied by  the  Russians. 

In  April,  1813,  Napoleon  again  took  the 
field  against  the  Prussians,  and  gained  the 
victories  of  Lutzen,  Bautzen,  Wurtzchen,  and 
Dresden ; but  the  Austrians  and  Bavarians 
joined  the  confederacy  against  him,  and  he 
was  attacked  at  Leipsic  by  the  combined  ar- 
mies of  the  European  nations ; being  forced 
to  abandon  that  city  with  immense  loss,  and 
retreat  to  Metz,  thereby  abandoning  his  Ger- 
man conquests.  In  1814,  the  confederates 
having  passed  the  Rhine,  penetrated,  after 
various  battles,  to  Paris,  which,  being  sur- 
rendered by  Marshals  Marmont  and  Mortier, 
Napoleon  concluded  a treaty  with  the  allies, 
at  Fontainebleau,  by  which  he  agreed  to  retire 
to  the  island  of  Elba,  with  provision  for  him- 
self and  family. 

In  March,  1815,  Napoleon  embarked  with 
600  of  his  old  guard,  and  made  a sudden  de- 
scent in  Provence.  On  the  10th,  he  entered 
Lyons,  on  the  20th  Paris  in  triumph.  His 
banners  flew  from  steeple  to  steeple,  until  they 
finally  waved  in  the  wind  from  the  pinnacles 
of  Notre  Dame.  He  assumed  the  throne  once 
more,  and  soon  joined  the  army  on  the  Belgian 
frontier,  where  on  the  16th  of  June,  he  de- 
feated Blucher  at  Ligny  with  a loss  of  22,000 
men.  On  the  18th,  was  fought  the  bloody 
battle  of  W aterloo,  in  which  the  French  army 
was  completely  defeated. 

When,  after  the  disaster  at  Waterloo,  Na- 
poleon came  back  in  desperation  to  Paris,  and 
began  to  scatter  dark  hints  of  dissolving  the 
representatives’  chamber,  repeating  at  Paris 
the  catastrophe  of  Moscow,  and  thereby  en- 
deavoring to  rouse  the  people  of  France  to 
one  universal  and  frantic  crusade  of  resistance, 
Lafayette  was  the  first  to  denounce  the  wild 
suggestion.  He  proposed  a series  of  resolu- 
tions, announcing  that  the  independence  of 


the  nation  was  threatened,  declaring  the 
chambers  a permanent  body,  and  denouncing 
the  instant  penalties  of  high  treason  against 
all  attempts  to  dissolve  it.  The  same  evening 
he  proposed,  in  the  secret  assembly  of  the 
council  of  state,  the  abdication  of  Napoleon. 
The  subject  was  again  pressed  the  following 
day;  but  the  voluntary  act  of  the  emperor 
anticipated  the  decision. 

On  the  8th  of  July,  Louis  XVIII.  returned 
to  Paris,  and  on  the  15th,  Napoleon  surren- 
dered himself  to  the  English  at  Rochefort. 
He  only  asked  permission  to  pass  the  remain- 
der of  his  days  in  England,  under  an  assumed 
name,  and  in  a private  character,  but  he  was 
conveyed  to  St.  Helena,  as  a prisoner  of  state. 
A few  officers  of  his  suite  accompanied  him. 
In  the  island  he  was  treated  with  indignity 
and  meanness  until  his  death,  which  was  the 
result  of  an  intestine  disorder,  and  took  place 
May  5th,  1821.  In  his  last  moments,  he  was 
delirious,  and  his  last  words,  “ Tete  d'armee ,” 
proved  that  he  fancied  himself  at  the  head  of 
his  troops,  watching  the  fluctuating  current 
of  a battle.  He  was  buried  in  a little  valley  ; 
a simple  slab  marked  the  place  of  his  repose ; 
two  weeping-willows  waved  over  it,  and  an 
iron  railing  encircled  that  spot  of  ground  so 
dear  to  millions. 

Napoleon,  in  person,  was  below  the  middle 
size ; and,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  quite 
corpulent.  His  straight  brown  hair  fell  over 
a broad  high  forehead ; his  complexion  was 
clear  olive,  and  his  features  regular  and  class- 
ical. An  air  of  subdued  melancholy  was  the 
prevailing  characteristic  of  his  countenance  in 
repose ; but  he  had  the  power  of  dismissing 
all  expression  from  his  features,  when  he 
chose  to  baffle  scrutiny.  At  such  times  the 
curious  observer  might  gaze  upon  his  still  gray 
eye  and  quiet  lip  without  finding  any  indica- 
tion of  the  thoughts  which  were  passing 
within. 

Though  Napoleon  was  ambitious,  his  de- 
sire was  not  for  mere  self-aggrandizement, 
for  he  sought  the  advancement  of  France. 
He  contended  in  self-defense  and  defense  of 
France,  against  the  crowns  of  Europe,  who 
hated  him  as  the  monarch  of  the  people. 
These  wars  drenched  the  sands  of  Egypt,  the 
snows  of  Russia,  and  the  plains  of  Germany, 
and  Italy,  and  Spain,  with  the  best  blood  of 
France  and  the  best  of  Europe : yet  he  was 


BON 


HISTORY  AND 

not  destitute  of  the  feelings  of  humanitj7",  and, 
as  he  rode  over  a field  heaped  with  the  dead 
and  dying  victims  of  his  ambition,  his  fine 
eye  would  fill  with  tears.  But  feeling  with- 
out repentance  is  of  no  avail.  Yet  if  Napo- 
leon was  lavish  of  the  lives  of  others,  he  was 
no  less  prodigal  of  his  own,  amidst  the  hot 
test  fire  of  the  enemy.  If  he  laid  his  grasp 
upon  nations, — 

“Their  ransom  did  the  general  coffers  fill.” 

He  often  pardoned,  but  he  never  failed  to 
reward.  It  was  thus  that  he  attached  his 
soldiers  to  him  with  indissoluble  bonds.  A 
thousand  proofs  may  be  given  of  their  attach- 
ment to  their  emperor.  At  Waterloo,  one  man 
whose  left  arm  was  shattered  by  a cannon- 
ball, wrenched  it  off  with  the  other,  and 
throwing  it  up  in  the  air,  he  exclaimed  to  his 
comrades,  “Vive  l’empereur,  jusqu’  k la 
mort!  ” When  Napoleon  took  his  final  fare- 
well of  France,  all  wept,  but  particularly 
Savary,  and  a Polish  officer  who  had  been 
exalted  from  the  ranks  by  Bonaparte.  He 
clung  to  his  master’s  knees,  wrote  a letter  to 
Lord  Keith,  entreated  permission  to  accom- 
pany him,  even  in  the  most  menial  capacity, 
which  could  not  be  admitted. 

Napoleon  was  a statesman  as  well  as  a war- 
rior. What  he  would  have  accomplished, 
had  he  been  left  to  govern  France  in  peace, 
may  be  judged  from  the  great  benefits  which 
he  wrought  while  engaged  by  almost  inces- 
sant hostilities.  The  Code  Napoleon  was  an 
inestimable  boon  to  the  jurisprudence  of 
France  and  Europe ; and  throughout  the 
empire,  magnificent  public  edifices,  fortifica- 
tions, harbors,  docks,  canals,  roads,  bridges, 
columns,  and  schools  still  speak  of  the  en- 
ergy with  which  he  improved  and  embel- 
lished the  land  whose  throne  he  occupied, 
and  in  the  hearts  of  whose  people  his  memory 
is  still  warmly  enshrined. 

In  1840,  Louis  Philippe,  after  obtaining  the 
consent  of  England,  sent  a frigate  commanded 
by  his  son,  the  Prince  de  Joinville,  to  St. 
Helena,  to  convey  the  remains  of  Napoleon 
to  France.  On  the  30th  of  November,  they 
reached  Cherbourg,  whence  they  were  con- 
veyed with  great  pomp  to  Paris,  and  depos- 
ited beneath  the  dome  of  the  Hospital  des 
Invalides,  on  the  15th  of  December,  where 


BIOGRAPHY.  137 

they  lie  beside  the  bones  of  Turenne  and 
Vauban. 

Napoleon  Charles  Francis  Joseph,  son 
of  Napoleon  and  Maria  Louisa,  was  born  at 
Paris,  March  20th,  1811.  He  received  the 
title  of  King  of  Rome.  The  downfall  of  his 
illustrious  father  ehanged  his  condition  and 
prospects.  His  grandfather,  the  Emperor  of 
Austria,  was  appointed  his  guardian.  He 
received  the  title  of  the  Duke  of  Reichstadt. 
He  died  at  the  palace  of  Schonbrunn,  near 
Vienna,  of  consumption,  July  22d,  1832. 

Joseph,  the  elder  brother  of  Napoleon,  was 
born  in  1768.  He  shared  the  fortune  of  his 
eminent  brother,  and  was  of  great  service  to 
him  in  a diplomatic  capacity.  In  1806  Na- 
poleon placed  him  upon  the  throne  of  Naples. 
His  brief  reign  was  a succession  of  benefits 
to  a people  who  had  been  long  degraded  by 
oppressive  despotism.  He  founded  civil  and 
military  schools,  overthrew  feudal  privileges, 
suppressed  the  convents,  opened  new  roads, 
set  the  lazzaroni  at  work,  and  everywhere 
animated  the  abject  people  with  new  life  and 
hope.  From  1808  to  1813,  he  wore  the 
crown  of  Spain,  and  but  for  the  intervention 
of  the  British,  and  the  desolation  of  war, 
would  have  opened  a happy  path  for  that 
unfortunate  kingdom.  After  the  fall  of  Na- 
poleon, Joseph  resided  some  years  at  Borden- 
town,  N.  J.  He  died  in  Europe  in  1844.  In 
his  later  years  he  bore  the  title  of  Comte  de 
Survilliers. 

Lucien  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1775.  He 
was  president  of  the  council  of  five  hundred, 
and  aided  in  raising  Napoleon  to  the  con- 
sulship. A partial  estrangement  occurred 
between  the  brothers,  and  Lucien  exiled  him- 
self to  Italy,  whence  he  refused  to  return  and 
accept  a throne.  He  was  a man  of  high 
spirit  and  independence.  The  pope  made 
him  Prince  of  Canino.  When  Napoleon  was 
pent  up  in  Elba,  a reconciliation  was  effected 
between  the  two  brothers,  and  Lucien  was 
more  devoted  to  the  empire  in  its  decline 
than  he  had  been  in  its  day  of  prosperity. 
He  wished  to  share  the  emperor’s  imprison- 
ment at  St.  Helena,  but  it  was  not  permitted. 
He  spent  his  latter  years  in  the  Roman  states, 
and  died  in  1840. 

Louis  was  horn  in  1778.  He  shared  in 
Napoleon’s  Italian  campaigns,  and  accompa- 


BON 


138 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


rued  the  expedition  to  Egypt.  In  1806  he 
was  placed  upon  the  throne  of  Holland.  The 
post  was  reluctantly  accepted,  but  he  devoted 
himself  with  enthusiasm  to  the  duties  it  in- 
volved. The  policy  maintained  by  Napoleon 
against  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  would 
cripple  the  traffic  of  Holland.  Louis  was 
placed  in  an  embarrassing  and  humiliating 
position  between  the  power  of  his  brother 
and  the  interests  of  his  people.  He  abdicated 

in  1810.  Louis  was  of  a melancholy  temper- 
ament, studious  and  retiring.  When  Na- 
poleon was  just  entering  upon  his  brilliant 
career,  his  musing  brother  became  deeply 
enamored  of  a beautiful  scion  of  the  ancient 
nobility.  Their  union  was  impeded,  and 
Louis  forced  to  wed  the  daughter  of  Jose- 
phine, Hortense,  who  loved  and  was  beloved 
by  Duroc.  They  separated  after  a few  years 
of  dejection.  The  eldest  of  their  children 
shattered  by  an  early  death  Napoleon’s  plan 
that  he  should  inherit  the  imperial  crown ; 
the  second  died  in  youthful  manhood  ; the 
third  now  sits  on  the  throne  of  France. 
Louis,  after  his  abdication,  lived  gloomily  a 
retired  and  scholastic  life  till  1846,  in  which 
year  he  died  at  Leghorn. 

Jerome  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1784.  In  his 
youth  he  served  in  the  French  navy,  and  dur- 
ing a visit  to  America,  in  one  of  his  cruises,  mar- 
ried Miss  Elizabeth  Patterson,  the  daughter  of 
a rich  merchant  of  Baltimore.  Napoleon  was 

much  annoyed  at  his  idle  and  dissolute  ways. 

He  finally  exchanged  the  sea  for  land  service. 

In  1807,  he  obeyed  his  brother  in  the  repu- 
diation of  his  American  wife,  espoused  the 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Wurtemberg,  and 
was  made  King  of  Westphalia.  He  was  the 
scapegrace  of  the  Bonaparte  family,  weak, 
mean.  Napoleon  said  to  him,  “ If  the  majesty 
of  kings  is  imprinted  on  the  countenance, 
you  may  safely  travel  incognito.”  The  fall 
of  the  empire  deprived  Jerome  of  the  crown 
he  wore  so  ill.  He  lives  to  see  a second  em- 
pire and  another  Napoleon  on  its  throne. 

Marie  Ann  Elise,  the  eldest  of  Napoleon’s 
sisters,  was  born  Jan.  8th,  1777.  In  May, 
1797,  she  was  married  to  Felix  Bacciochi,  a. 
Corsican.  Napoleon  gave  her  the  grand-duchy 
of  Tuscany,  with  the  principalities  of  Lucca 
and  Tioinbino,  in  whose  government  she  dis- 
played much  energy  and  ability.  Her  sway 

BON 


ended  in  1814,  and  she  died  at  Trieste,  Aug. 
9th,  1820. 

Marie  Pauline,  the  favorite  sister  of  Na- 
poleon, was  born  at  Ajaccio,  Oct.  20th,  1780. 
After  becoming  the  widow  of  General  Le- 
clerc,  she  married  Prince  Camille  Borghese, 
with  whom  she  did  not  live  on  good  terms 
She  died  in  1825.  Her  whole  property 
amounted  to  2,000,000  francs.  She  was  un- 
commonly beautiful,  and  Canova  represented 
her  as  the  goddess  of  beauty,  a Venus  which 
almost  rivaled  the  antique. 

Caroline  Marie  Annonciade,  the  young- 
est of  Napoleon’s  sisters,  wrns  born  March 
26th,  1782.  In  January,  1800,  she  wTas  mar- 
ried to  Murat.  She  w' as  a ver}’’  pretty  and 
a very  clever  woman.  When  the  rule  of  her 
husband  was  overthrown  in  1815,  by  the  re- 
verses of  the  French  and  the  advance  of  the 
Austrian  army,  and  the  city  of  Naples  wTas  on 
the  brink  of  anarchy,  she  took  prompt,  w-ise, 
and  energetic  measures  for  maintaining  order. 
She  died  at  Florence,  May  18tli,  1839. 

BONIFACE,  the  name  of  several  popes. 
Boniface  I.  succeeded  Zosimus  in  418,  and 
was  maintained  in  the  pontifical  chair  by  the 
Emperor  Honorius  against  his  rival  Eulalius. 
He  died  in  422.  Boniface  II.  succeeded  Felix 
IV.  in  530.  He  w*as  born  at  Rome,  but  his 
father  wras  a Goth.  He  compelled  the  bish- 
ops in  a council  to  allow  him  to  nominate 
his  successor,  and  accordingly  he  selected 
Vigil;  but  a second  council  disavowed  the 
proceedings  of  the  first.  Boniface  VI.  came 
to  the  chair  806,  and  died  of  the  gout  a fort- 
night after.  Boniface  VII.  assumed  the  chair 
after  having  murdered  Benedict  VI.  and  John 
XIV.  He  was  acknowdedged  sovereign  pon- 
tiff in  974,  and  died  a few  months  after. 
Boniface  VIII.,  after  the  resignation  of  Celes- 
tine,  was  elected  1294.  He  commenced  his 
pontificate  by  imprisoning  his  predecessor, 
and  laying  Denmark  under  an  interdict.  He 
also  excommunicated  the  Colonnas  as  here- 
tics, and  preached  a crusade  against  them. 
He  excited  the  princes  of  Germany  to  revolt 
against  Albert,  and  laid  France  under  an 
interdict.  Philip  appealed  to  a general  coun- 
cil and  sent  his  army  into  Italy,  and  took 
the  pope  prisoner.  He  died  at  Rome  a few 
months  afterward. 

BONIFACE,  St.,  first  spread  Christianity 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


139 


and  civilization  among  the  Germans.  His 
original  name  was  Winifred,  and  he  was  born 
in  England  in  680.  In  732  he  was  made 
archbishop  and  primate  of  all  Germany.  He 
was  killed  by  barbarians  at  Dockum,  in  W est 
Friesland,  in  755. 

BONNER,  Edmund,  an  English  prelate, 
who  received  several  preferments  from  Car- 
dinal Wolsey.  Henry  VIII.  made  him  one 
of  his  chaplains,  and  sent  him  to  Rome  to 
obtain  from  the  pope  a divorce  from  Catha- 
rine. There  he  was  so  insolent  that  the 
pontiff  -threatened  to  throw  him  into  a cal- 
dj’on  of  boiling  lead,  and  thus  compelled  him 
to  quit  Rome.  He  persecuted  the  Protest- 
ants with  great  cruelty,  and  Elizabeth  im- 
prisoned him  in  the  Marshalsea,  where  he 
died  in  1569. 

BONEVAL,  Claude  Alexander,  Count 
de,  known  also  by  the  name  of  Achmet  Pa- 
cha, was  born  in  1672.  He  was  descended 
from  an  illustrious  family  in  France,  and 
married  the  daughter  of  the  Marshal  de 
Biron.  He  was  disgraced,  however,  by  his 
incessant  pursuit  of  sensual  pleasure.  He 
quitted  the  French  army  to  serve  under 
Prince  Eugene ; but  having  quarreled  with 
the  general,  he  deserted  to  the  service  of  the 
Turks,  among  whom  he  obtained  a military 
command,  and  the  rank  of  pacha  with  three 
tails.  He  won  a great  victory  over  the 
imperial  army  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube. 
He  died  in  1747. 

BOOKS.  The  first  books  were  boards,  or 
the-inner  bark  of  trees;  and  bark  is  still 
used  by  some  nations,  as  are  also  skins,  for 
which  latter  parchment  was  substituted. 
Papyrus,  an  Egyptian  plant,  was  adopted  in 
that  country.  Books  whose  leaves  were  vel- 
lum, were  invented  by  Attalus,  King  of 
Pergamus,  about  178  b.o.,  at  which  time 
books  were  in  volumes  or  rolls.  The  MSS. 
found  at  Herculaneum  consist  of  rolls  of 
papyrus,  charred  and  matted  together  by  the 
fire,  about  nine  inches  long,  and  one,  two, 
or  three  inches  in  diameter,  each  being  a 
separate  treatise.  The  Pentateuch  of  Moses, 
and  the  history  of  Job,  are  the  most  ancient 
books  in  the  world ; and  in  profane  litera- 
ture the  poems  of  Homer,  though  the  names 
of  others  yet  older  are  preserved.  Before  the 
day  of  printing,  books  commanded  prices 
only  within  reach  of  the  wealthy.  Jerome 


states  that  he  had  ruined  himself  by  buying  a 
copy  of  the  works  of  Origen.  King  Alfred 
gave  a large  estate  for  a work  on  cosmog- 
raphy, about  a.d.  872.  A homily  was  ex- 
changed for  two  hundred  sheep  and  five 
quarters  of  wheat ; and  such  books  were 
usually  sold  for  double  or  treble  their  weight 
in  gold.  The  book  of  St.  Cuthbert,  the  ear- 
liest ornamented  book,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  bound  about  a.d.  650.  A Latin  Psalter 
in  oak  boards  was  bound  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. A MS.  copy  of  the  Four  Gospels,  the 
book  on  which  the  Kings  of  England,  from 
Henry  I.  to  Edward  VI.,  took  their  corona- 
tion oath,  was  bound  in  oaken  boards  nearly 
an  inch  thick,  a.d.  1100.  Velvet  was  the 
covering  used  in  the  fourth  century,  and  silk 
soon  after.  Vellum  was  introduced  early  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  and  was  stamped  and 
ornamented  about  1510.  Leather  came  into 
use  about  the  same  time.  Cloth  binding 
began  to  supersede  the  common  boards  about 
1830. 

BOONE,  Daniel,  a native  of  Virginia,  was 
one  of  the  first  to  penetrate  the  savage  wilds 
of  Kentucky,  on  an  expedition  to  explore 
which,  he  departed  with  five  companions, 
May  1st,  1769.  Boone,  with  John  Stewart, 
was  captured  by  the  Indians,  not  long  after 
their  arrival  in  Kentucky,  but  soon  managed 
to  escape.  Their  companions  had  returned 
home,  whither  they  would  have  followedthem, 
but  for  the  timely  arrival  of  Squire  Boone, 
Daniel’s  brother,  with  refreshments.  Stewart 
being  soon  after  slain,  the  two  Boones  re- 
mained the  only  white  men  in  the  wilderness. 
In  1773,  Boone  with  his  own  and  five  other 
families,  a body  of  forty  men,  took  up  the 
march  of  emigration  from  Virginia  to  Ken- 
tucky ; but  in  consequence  of  the  hostility  of 
the  Indians,  they  returned  to  the  settlements 
on  Clinch  River.  In  1775,  Boone  built  a fort 
at  Salt  Spring,  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Kentucky,  on  the  site  of  Boonesborough. 
After  sustaining  several  sieges,  he  was  taken 
by  the  savages,  Feb.  7th,  1778,  while  hunting 
with  some  cf  his  men.  The  Indians  soon 
learned  to  respect  and  value  Boone,  who  was 
adopted  by  one  of  the  chiefs  of  Chillicothe, 
but  the  thoughts  of  his  wife  and  children  in- 
duced our  adventurer  to  attempt  an  escape. 
After  traveling  for  four  days,  taking  but  one 
meal,  he  arrived  at  Boonesborough,  which 


BOO 


140 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


was  a hundred  and  sixty  miles  from  the  place 
of  his  captivity.  On  the  8th  of  August  an 
attack  on  the  fort  was  commenced  by  a body 
of  Indians  and  Canadian  French,  which  con- 
tinued till  the  20th,  when  the  siege  was  aban- 
doned. This  was  the  last  attempt  made  upon 
Boonesborough. 

From  1782  till  1798,  Boone  lived  alternately 
in  Kentucky  and  Virginia.  In  1798,  having 
obtained  from  the  Spanish  government  a grant 
of  land  in  Upper  Louisiana,  he  removed 
thither  with  his  children  and  friends,  who 
were  also  presented  with  land.  He  settled  on 
the  Missouri,  beyond  the  limits  of  other  set- 
tlements, and  employed  himself  in  the  wild 
life  of  the  forest,  hunting  and  trapping,  until 
1820,  when  he  expired,  aged  nearly  ninet}7-. 
He  had  for  a long  time  been  sensible  of  the 
* approach  of  death,  and  had  a coffin  made  out 
of  a favorite  cherry-tree,  which  he  brought  to 
a high  degree  of  polish  by  continual  rubbing. 

BORGIA,  Caesar,  son  of  Pope  Alexander 
VI.,  an  infamous  character.  On  his  father’s 
accession  to  the  papacy  in  1492,  he  was  in- 
vested with  the  purple.  Being  jealous  of  his 
brother  Francis,  he  contrived  to  have  him 
drowned.  Having  renounced  the  cardinal- 
ship,  he  was  made  Duke  of  Romagna  in  1501, 
and  leagued  with  Louis  XII.  of  France.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  he  was  sent  prisoner 
to  Spain,  but  made  his  escape,  and  died  fight- 
ing under  the  walls  of  Biano,  in  1507. 

BORNEO,  next  to  Australia,  the  largest 
island  in  the  world,  is  about  850  miles  long, 
and  700  broad.  Lon.  109°  to  119°  E. ; lat. 
7°  N.  to  4 3 20'  S.  The  insalubrity  of  the 
climate  has  restrained  Europeans  from  explor- 
ing it.  Earthquakes  and  volcanoes  are  fre- 
quent in  the  island.  The  mountain  breezes 
and  the  rains  moderate  the  heat,  which  is  ex- 
cessive. Gold,  diamonds,  pearl,  iron,  copper, 
tin,  antimony,  and  other  minerals  are  found 
here.  The  fruits  are  fine  and  abundant.  The 
native  inhabitants  are  Malays,  Chinese,  Bujis 
or  natives  of  Celebes,  and  a few  descendants 
of  Arabs.  The  Dutch  have  permanent  settle- 
ments on  the  island,  and  derive  their  chief 
profit  from  gold,  pepper,  and  diamonds.  Bor- 
neo was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1526. 

BORODINO.  This  battle,  one  of  the  most 
sanguinary  in  the  world,  was  fought  Sept.  7th, 
1812,  between  the  French  and  Russians,  com- 
manded on  the  one  side  by  Napoleon,  and  on 


the  other  by  KutusofF,  240,000  men  being  en- 
gaged. The  retreat  of  the  Russians  left  Mos- 
cow open  to  Napoleon.  This  is  sometimes 
called  the  battle  of  the  Moskwa. 

BOSCAWEN,  Edward,  a British  admiral, 
particularly  distinguished  himself  at  the  tak- 
ing of  Porto  Bello  and  the  siege  of  Carthagena. 
He  also  signalized  himself  under  Anson,  off 
Cape  Finisterre,  and  at  the  taking  of  Madras, 
Cape  Breton,  and  Louisburg.  He  died  in 
1761,  having  received  in  succession  all  the 
honors  of  his  profession. 

BOSSUET,  Jacques  Benigne,  Bishop  of 
Meaux,  born  at  Dijon,  1627,  became  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  ecclesiastics  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  He  was  pious,  severe  in  doc- 
trine and  practice,  eloquent,  and  learned.  He 
died  in  1704. 

BOSWELL,  James,  the  friend  and  biogra- 
pher of  Dr.  Johnson,  was  a native  of  Scotland, 
and  studied  at  the  universities  of  Glasgow  and 
Utrecht.  Fie  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  in  1740, 
and  died  in  1795.  He  was  acquainted  with 
many  eminent  literary  men,  and  his  introduc- 
tion to  Johnson  he  calls  the  most  important 
event  of  his  life.  His  life  of  Johnson  is  accu- 
rate and  minute,  abounding  with  literary  an- 
ecdote and  personal  detail.  It  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1790,  and  has  since  been  repeatedly 
re-printed. 

BOS  WORTH,  a small  town  of  Leicester- 
shire, England,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  is 
Bosworth  Field,  memorable  for  the  battle 
fought  here,  Aug.  22d,  1485,  between  Richard 
III.  and  the  Earl  of  Richmond,  afteraiard 
Henry  VII.,  in  which  the  latter  was  victori- 
ous, and  Richard,  after  having  performed 
prodigies  of  valor,  and  cloven  from  helm  to 
heel  two  of  Richmond’s  standard-bearers,  thus 
disproving  the  tale  of  his  withered  arm,  was 
finally  slain.  The  brows  of  Richmond  were 
encircled  on  the  field  of  battle  with  the  diadem 
which  was  stricken  from  the  casque  of  Rich- 
ard. This  battle  ended  the  bloody  contentions 
of  the  rival  roses,  the  red  and  white  badges  of 
York  and  Lancaster. 

BOTHWELL,  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of,  re- 
markable in  the  history  of  Scotland  for  his 
connection  with  Queen  Mary  and  his  su]  - 
posed  share  in  the  murder  of  Henry  Darnley, 
her  husband.  When  that  unfortunate  prince 
was  blown  up  in  the  house  where  he  slept, 
suspicion  fell  strongly  on  Bothwcll  and  the 


BOT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


141 


queen.  Bothwell  was  tried,  but  nothing  could 
be  fixed  on  him,  and  he  was  acquitted.  After 
this  he  seized  Mary  near  Edinburgh,  and  car- 
ried her  prisoner  to  Dunbar  Castle,  where 
they  were  married.  During  these  iniquitous 
proceedings,  Bothwell  procured  a divorce  from 
his  first  wife.  Mary  soon  after  created  him 
Earl  of  Orkney.  But  a confederacy  among 
the  lords  being  formed  against  him,  he  retired 
to  the  Orkneys,  and  from  thence  to  Denmark, 
where  he  died  in  1577,  confessing  it  is  said 
his  own  guilt,  and  the  queen’s  innocence  of 
Darnley’s  murder. 

BOUDINOT,  Elias,  was  born  at  Philadel- 
phia, May  2d,  1740.  He  became  eminent  at 
the  bar,  was  chosen  member  of  the  continental 
congress  in  1777,  and  its  president  in  1782. 
For  six  years  he  was  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, and  for  a few  years  director  of  the 
mint.  He  made  munificent  donations  to  the 
American  Bible  Society,  of  which  he  was  the 
first  president.  He  died  in  1821. 

BOUFFLERS,  Marshal  de,  was  born  in 
1644,  and  died  in  1711.  His  defense  of  Na- 
mur, in  1695,  cost  the  allies  20,000  men. 
Louis  XIV.  sent  him  an  order  commanding 
him  to  surrender,  but  he  concealed  it  till  he 
had  no  longer  the  means  of  defense. 

BOUILLE,  Francois  Claude  Amour,  Mar- 
quis de,  a French  loyalist  general,  who,  among 
other  services,  suppressed  a dangerous  insur- 
rection at  Metz,  and  assisted  Louis  XVI.  in 
his  attempt  to  escape  from  France.  For  his 
avowal  of  this  transaction,  a price  was  set 
upon  his  head,  whereupon  he  took  a commis- 
sion in  the  Swedish  service.  He  died  in  1800, 
aged  sixty-one. 

BOURBONS.  This  family  ascended  the 
throne  of  France  in  the  person  of  Henry  IV., 
1589.  The  crown  of  Spain  was  settled  on  a 
younger  branch,  and  guaranteed  by  the  peace 
of  Utrecht,  1713,  after  a long  and  bloody  dis- 
pute called  the  war  for  the  Spanish  succession. 
The  reigning  family  of  Naples  is  a branch  of 
the  Bourbons  of  Spain.  The  Bourbons  were 
expelled  from  France  in  1791,  and  were  re- 
stored in  1814.  The  elder  branch  was  ex- 
pelled in  1830,  and  Louis  Philippe,  of  the  Or- 
leans line,  reigned  till  1^48,  when  he  also  was 
deposed. 

J3OURB0N,  Charles,  Duke  of,  or  Consta- 
ble of  Bourbon,  son  of  Gilbert,  Count  of  Mont- 
pensier,  and  Clara  of  Gonzaga,  born  in  1489. 


At  the  age  of  twenty-six,  he  received  the 
sword  of  constable  from  Francis  I.,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Marignano,  but  soon 
after  fell  into  disgrace.  On  this,  he  associated 
with  Charles  V.,  and  Henry  VIII.  of  England, 
against  his  sovereign.  The  plot  being  discov- 
ered, he  fled  into  Italy,  and  was  beyond  the 
territories  of  France,  when  Francis  sent  to 
demand  the  sword  which  he  wore  as  consta- 
ble, and  the  badge  of  his  order.  In  the  words 
of  his  reply,  we  may  trace  the  deep  anguish 
of  his  heart:  “ The  king  deprived  me  of  my 
sword  at  Valenciennes  when  he  gave  the  com- 
mand of  the  vanguard  to  D’Alen^on : the 
badge  of  my  order  I left  under  my  pillow  at 
Chantelles.”  He  became  commander-in-chief 
of  the  imperial  troops  in  Italy,  but  was  killed 
in  the  successful  assault  on  Rome,  May  2d, 
1527.  He  fell,  it  is  said,  by  a shot  fired  by* 
Benvenuto  Cellini.  He  died  excommunicated. 

BOURBON,  Isle  of,  an  island  about  400 
miles  east  of  Madagascar.  Its  origin  is  sup- 
posed to  be  volcanic.  Le  Piton  de  Neige,  or 
the  Snowy  Spike,  is  a mountain  which  rises 
to  the  height  of  about  10,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  isle  of  Bourbon,  which 
is  48  miles  long,  and  36  broad,  was  discovered 
by  Mascarenhas,  a Portuguese,  in  1545,  and 
called  after  his  name ; but  the  French,  who 
gained  possession  of  it  in  1649,  changed  its 
name.  After  remaining  for  a time  in  the 
hands  of  the  English,  it  was  restored  to  the 
French  in  1815.  After  the  revolution  of  1848, 
it  received  the  name  of  Reunion. 

BOURRIENNE,  L.  A.  Fauvelt  de,  the 
schoolmate  and  secretary  of  Napoleon,  and 
afterward  a partisan  of  the  Bourbons,  1769— 
1824. 

BOWDITCH,  Nathaniel,  LL.D.,  born  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  March  26th,  1773,  died  at  Bos- 
ton, March  IrGth,  1838.  His  translation  of 
the  “Mecanique  Celeste”  of  Laplace,  with 
the  elaborate  additions  that  he  made,  gave 
him  high  rank  as  a writer  in  the  pure  mathe- 
matics. 

BOWDOIN,  James,  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, was  born  at  Boston,  in  1727,  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  1745,  elected  member  of  the 
general  court  in  1753,  and  a member  of  the 
council  in  1756.  In  1778,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  convention  which  framed  the 
Massachusetts  constitution.  In  1785,  being 
chosen  governor  of  Massachusetts,  he  had 


BOW 


142 


Cottage  cyclopedia  of 


Shay’s  insurrection  to  quell.  He  died  at  Bos- 
ton, in  1790.  Such  was  his  reputation  for 
learning,  that  he  was  honored  with  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  by  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
and  admitted  member  of  the  royal  societies  of 
Dublin,  London,  and  other  places. 

BOWLES,  William  Lisle,  a writer  of  ex- 
cellent sonnets  and  other  more  mediocre 
poetry,  enjoys  the  distinction  of  having  ‘ de- 
lighted and  inspired’  the  genius  of  Coleridge, 
who  while  yet  a youth  was  a warm  admirer 
of  his  sonnets.  Mr.  Bowles  was  born  at 
King’s  Sutton  in  Northamptonshire,  Sept. 
24th,  1762,  was  educated  at  Winchester  and 
Oxford,  and  was  for  many  years  rector  of 
Bremhill  in  Wiltshire,  where  he  died  in  his 
eighty-eighth  year.  He  is  chiefly  famous  for 
the  controversy  concerning  the  poetry  of 
Pope,  in  which  Campbell  and  Byron  were 
among  his  antagonists. 

His  absence  of  mind  was  very  great,  and  it 
is  said  that  when  his  coachman  drove  him 
anywhere  he  had  to  practice  all  kinds  of  cau- 
tions to  keep  his  master  to  time  and  place.  The 
poet  once  walked  out  in  company  with  an  an- 
tiquary, as  absent  of  mind  as  himself.  His 
servant  coming  to  look  for  him,  and  learning 
this,  exclaimed  in  ludicrous  distress,  “What! 
those  wandered  away  together  ? then  they’ll 
never  be  found  any  more ! ” His  handwriting 
was  one  of  the  worst  that  ever  man  wrote ; 
insomuch  that  frequently  he  could  not  read 
that  which  he  had  written  the  day  before ; 
and  the  printers  had  tough  work  in  getting 
his  scrawls  into  type.  At  the  office  where 
his  works  were  printed,  there  was  one  com- 
positor who  had  a sort  of  knack  in  making 
out  the  blind  hieroglyphics ; and  he  was  once 
actually  sent  for  by  Mr.  Bowles  into  Wilt- 
shire to  copy  some  manuscript  written  a year 
or  two  before,  which  the  author  had  himself 
vainly  endeavored  to  decipher. 

BOYDELL,  John,  patron  of  the  arts  and 
engraver  by  profession ; born  at  Donington, 
England,  January  19th,  1719  ; came  to  Lon- 
don on  foot,  bound  himself  an  apprentice  to 
an  engraver;  began  to  publish  1745-6,  and 
in  1790,  had  expended  in  the  promotion  of 
the  arts  in  general,  and  the  “Shakespeare 
Gallery”  in  particular,  £350,000  sterling. 
He  died  in  London,  Dec.  17th,  1804,  having 
nearly  reached  the  age  of  eighty-six  years. 

BOYER,  Jean  Pierre,  a mulatto,  president 


of  the  island  of  Hayti,  was  born  in  Port  au 
Prince,  about  1780.  After  the  death  of  Le- 
clerc,  he  joined  the  party  of  Petion,  and  was 
finally  named  by  him  his  successor  in  the 
presidency.  When  the  revolution  broke  out 
in  1820,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  he 
was  invited  to  command  the  insurgents,  and 
upon  the  union  of  the  northern  and  southern 
parts  of  the  island  on  the  death  of  Christophe, 
and  the  revolution  in  the  eastern  part,  he 
became  master  of  the  whole  island. 

BOYLE,  Charles,  fourth  Earl  of  Orrery, 
generally  supposed  the  inventor  of  the  astro- 
nomical instrument  which  bears  his  title,  born 
1676,  died  in  1731.  He  patronized  Rowley, 
the  real  inventor  of  the  planetarium,  called 
the  orrery. 

BOYLE,  Robert,  born  at  Lismore,  in  Ire- 
land, 1627,  was  seventh  son  of  Richard,  the 
great  Earl  of  Cork.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  learned  society  formed  in 
1645,  under  the  name  of  the  Philosophical 
College,  and  afterward  continued  under  the 
name  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  made  nu- 
merous experiments  in  various  branches  of 
natural  philosophy,  which  led  to  some  im- 
portant results.  But  it  is  chiefly  as  a pious 
and  benevolent  man  that  he  is  interesting  to 
us.  Having  conceived  doubts  of  the  authen- 
ticity of  revealed  religion,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  a severe  course  of  study,  until  he  was 
fully  convinced  of  its  truth.  He  endowed 
public  lectures  for  the  defense  of  Christianity 
(which  are  yet  delivered),  and,  at  his  own 
expense,  printed  Irish  and  Gaelic  transla- 
tions of  the  Bible.  He  died  in  London,  in 
1691. 

BOYNE,  Battle  of  the,  was  fought  on  the 
1st  of  July,  1690,  between  William  III.,  at 
the  head  of  a Protestant  army,  and  James  II., 
at  the  head  of  a Catholic  and  French  force. 
The  latter  were  totally  defeated.  The  Duke 
of  Schomberg,  William’s  ablest  general,  was 
shot  by  mistake  by  his  own  soldiers,  as  he 
was  crossing  the  Boyne.  After  this  battle 
James  re-embarked  for  France,  and  William 
completed  the  reduction  of  Ireland,  by  the 
capture  of  Limerick,  after  a protracted  siege. 
The  impetuous  imbecility  of  the  unfortunate 
bigot  James  II.,  served  only  to  hasten  the 
ruin  which  public  opinion  had  so  deservedly 
prepared  for  himself  and  his  family.  It  was 
the  Irish  who,  during  the  dark  fortunes  of 


BOY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


143 


this  last  of  the  royal  Stuarts,  clung  to  him 
when  all  else  deserted  him.  They  manned 
his  navy,  recruited  his  army,  replenished  his 
coffers,  and  took  their  stand  around  his  per- 
son on  their  native  soil ; and  when  they  saw 
him  the  first  to  fly,  they  still  erected  his  torn 
standard,  and  rallied  in  his  cause,  paying  the 
penalty  of  their  generous  but  misapplied 
devotion  to  a bigot  and  a tyrant,  by  utter 
ruin  and  eternal  exile.  Yet  when  James,  in 
his  flight  from  the  battle,  arrived  in  Dublin, 
he  had  the  ingratitude  and  ungraciousness  to 
reflect  upon  the  cowardice  of  the  Irish.  He 
reached  the  castle  late  at  night,  and  was  met 
at  its  gates  by  the  beautiful  Duchess  of  Tyr- 
connel,  “ La  Belle  Jennings  ” of  Grammont’s 
Memoirs.  In  return  for  the  sympathizing 
respect  which  marked  her  reception,  the  king 
is  said  to  have  sarcastically  complimented 
her  upon  the  “alertness  of  her  husband’s 
countrymen.”  The  high-spirited  beauty  re- 
plied, “In  that,  however,  your  majest}7  has 
had  the  advantage  of  them  all.”  The  king, 
in  fact,  was  among  the  first  to  arrive  in  the 
capital  with  the  news  of  his  own  defeat. 

BOZZARIS,  Marco,  one  of  the  gallant  de- 
fenders of  liberty  in  modern  Greece,  was  born 
in  Albania,  in  1780,  and  is  said  to  have  been,  at 
an  early  period  of  his  life,  in  the  French  ser- 
vice. When  the  Greeks  rose  to  throw  off  the 
Ottoman  yoke,  he  ardently  espoused  the  cause 
of  his  country,  and  was  chosen  stratarch  of 
Western  Greece.  The  Turks  having  invaded 
Etolia  with  a large  army,  at  the  head  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  volunteers  he  made  a noc- 
turnal attack  on  the  enemy’s  camp,  and  put 
great  numbers  of  them  to  the  sword ; but 
toward  the  close  of  the  contest  he  received  a 
mortal  wound.  His  companions  in  arms,  by 
a desperate  effort,  succeeded  in  bearing  him 
from  the  field,  and  he  expired  at  Missolonghi 
on  the  following  day,  August  23d,  1823. 

BRABANT.  North  Brabant,  in  the  king- 
dom of  the  Netherlands,  contains  403,687  in- 
habitants, and  South  Brabant,  in  Belgium, 
711,332.  Brabant  formed  a duchy  in  the 
seventh  century.  For  some  ages  it  belonged 
to  the  Frankish  monarch}7,  and  then  was  a 
German  fief.  In  1005,  the  last  duke  dying, 
the  duchy  devolved  on  his  brother-in-law, 
Lambert  I.,  Count  of  Louvain.  From  him  it 
came  to  Philip  II.,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and 
afterward  to  the  Emperor  Charles  Y.  In  the 


seventeenth  century,  the  republic  of  Holland 
took  possession  of  the  northern  part,  which 
was  thence  called  Dutch  Brabant.  The  other 
part,  belonging  to  Austria,  was  seized  upon 
by  France  in  1746.  The  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  restored  it,  but,  after  falling  again 
into  the  hands  of  the  French,  it  was  ceded  to 
France  by  the  treaties  of  Campo  Formio  and 
Luneville,  in  1791  and  1801. 

BRADDOCK,  Edward,  major-general  and 
commander  in  the  British  army,  who  in  1755 
marched  against  Fort  du  Quesne  on  the 
Ohio,  fell  into  an  ambuscade  of  Indians  and 
French,  was  defeated  and  slain.  AYashing- 
ton,  who  had  cautioned  him  in  vain,  con- 
ducted the  retreat  in  a masterly  manner. 

BRADFORD,  William,  eminent  lawyer 
of  Pennsylvania ; born  in  Philadelphia,  Sept. 
14th,  1755,  died  August  23d,  1795.  Wash- 
ington appointed  him  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States. 

BRADFORD,  AYilliam,  one  of  the  first 
printers  in  English  America,  born  in  1658, 
died  in  1752.  In  1725,  the  New  York  Ga- 
zette, the  first  newspaper  published  in  that 
city,  was  commenced  by  him.  He  also 
started  the  manufacture  of  paper  at  Eliza- 
bethtown, N.  J.  He  was  first  established  at 
Philadelphia,  where  his  son  Andrew  contin- 
ued the  American  Mercury , the  first  news- 
paper of  that  town,  commenced  in  1719. 

BRADFORD,  AYilliam,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  a printer  and  bookseller  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1742,  he  published  the  first 
number  of  the  Pennsylvania  Journal , which 
was  continued  through  the  century.  The 
day  preceding  that  on  which  the  stamp-act 
was  to  go  into  force,  the  Journal  appeared 
in  the  blackest  mourning,  with  its  head  sur- 
mounted by  a skull  and  cross-bones.  In  the 
upper  right-hand  corner,  was  a death’s  head, 
entitled  “ An  Emblem  of  the  Effects  of  the 
Stamp.  O ! the  Fatal  Stamp.”  In  the  op- 
posite corner  was  the  quaint  announcement, 
“The  Times  are  Dreadful,  Doleful,  Dismal, 
Dolorous,  and  Dollar-less.”  On  the  margin 
was  the  cry,  “ Adieu,  adieu  to  the  Liberty  of 
the  Press.”  The  first  page  read  thus : “ Thurs- 
day, October  31,  1765.  Numb.  1195.  The 
Pennsylvania  Journal,  and  AYeekly  Advertis- 
er. Expiring : In  Hopes  of  a Resurrection  to 
Life  again.”  “Tam  sorry  to  be  obliged  to  ac- 
quaint my  readers  that  as  the  Stamp  Act  is 


144 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


feared  to  be  obligatory  upon  us  after  the  first 
of  November  ensuing  (The  Fatal  To-morrow), 
the  publisher  of  this  paper,  unable  to  bear 
the  Burthen,  has  thought  it  expedient  to  stop 
awhile,  in  order  to  deliberate,  whether  any 
methods  can  be  found  to  elude  the  chains 
forged  for  us,  and  escape  the  insupportable 
slavery,  which  it  is  hoped,  from  the  last 
representation  now  made  against  that  act, 
may  be  effected.  Meanwhile  I must  ear- 
nestly. Request  every  individual  of  my  sub- 
scribers, many  of  whom  have  been  long 
behind  Hand,  that  they  would  immediately 
discharge  their  respective  Arrears,  that  I 
may  be  able  not  only  to  support  myself  dur- 
ing the  Interval,  but  be  better  prepared  to 
proceed  again  with  this  Paper  whenever  an 
opening  for  that  purpose  appears,  which  I 
hop**  will  be  soon.  William  Bradford.” 
The  sturdy  republican  fought  as  major  and 
colonel  in  the  Pennsylvania  militia  at  Tren- 
ton and  Princeton.  His  constitution  broke 
and  his  fortune  was  shattered.  He  died 
Sept.  25th,  1791,  aged  seventy-two. 

BRADFORD,  William,  was  born  in  the 
north  of  England  in  1588.  While  a youth 
he  was  denounced  as  a separatist.  He  fled 
to  Holland,  and  came  over  in  the  Mayflower. 
While  with  others  he  was  seeking  a spot 
whereat  to  land,  his  wife  fell  overboard  and 
was  drowned.  He  was  made  governor  upon 
the  death  of  Carver  in  1621,  and  annually 
elected  so  long  as  he  lived,  except  now  and 
then  that  “ by  importuning,  he  got  off,”  as 
Winslow  says,  and  another  filled  the  place 
for  the  nonce.  Gov.  Bradford  died  in  May, 
1657. 

BRADLEY,  James,  an  eminent  English 
astronomer,  born  1692;  succeeded  Dr.  John 
Keil,  as  Savillian  professor  of  astronomy,  at 
Oxford,  in  1721 ; discovered  the  aberration  of 
the  fixed  stars,  and  mutation  of  the  earth’s 
axis ; was  appointed  astronomer  roj^al,  Feb- 
ruary, 1741-2;  died  July  13th,  1762. 

BRADSTREET,  Anne,  author  of  the  first 
volume  of  poems  written  in  America,  was  the 
daughter  of  Dudley,  and  the  wife  of  Brad- 
street,  both  governors  of  Massachusetts. 
She  was  born  in  England  in  1614,  and  died  in 
1 672.  Her  poems  were  printed  at  Cambridge 
in  1640,  treating  of  “the  four  elements,  con- 
stitutions, ages  of  man,  seasons  of  the  year, 
the  Assyrian,  Persian,  Grecian,  and  Roman 


monarchies.”  Cotton  Mather  said  that  “her 
poems,  eleven  times  printed,  have  afforded  a 
plentiful  entertainment  unto  the  ingenious, 
and  a monument  for  her  memory  beyond  the 
stateliest  marbles.” 

BRAGANZA,  a town  of  Portugal,  made  a 
duchy  in  1 442.  It  gives  its  name  to  the  royal 
house  of  Portugal,  of  whom  the  first  was 
John  IV.,  Duke  of  Braganza,  who  led  the 
Portuguese  people  in  rendering  themselves 
independent  of  Spain,  in  1640.  A branch 
of  the  house  of  Braganza  is  seated  on  the 
throne  of  Brazil. 

BRAHE,  Tycho,  eminent  astronomer,  born 
in  Sweden,  December  19th,  1546,  died  at 
Prague,  October  24th,  1601,  aged  fifty -five. 

BRAHMINS,  a sect  of  Indian  philosophers 
and  priests,  reputed  so  ancient  that  Pythago- 
ras is  said  to  have  received  from  them  his 
doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  and  it  is  affirmed 
that  some  of  the  Greek  philosophers  went  to 
India  on  purpose  to  converse  with  them. 
They  never  eat  flesh,  and  profess  to  abstain 
from  wine  and  all  carnal  enjoyments.  The 
modern  Brahmins  derive  their  name  from 
Brahma,  the  first  person  in  the  Trinity,  or 
Trimurti,  of  the  Hindoos.  Brahma  is  the 
creator,  Vishnu,  the  preserver,  or  redeemer, 
and  Siva,  the  destroyer.  Brahma  is  repre- 
sented with  four  heads  and  four  arms.  He 
is  gifted  with  great  power,  but  is  himself 
created  by  the  Eternal  One.  Some  believe 
that  he  dies  annually,  and  rises  again.  He 
is  considered  as  the  lawgiver  and  teacher  of 
India. 

BRAINERD,  David,  a devoted  missionary 
among  the  Indians  in  New  York,  New  Jer- 
sey, and  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in  Haddam, 
Conn.,  in  1718.  His  labors  exhausted  his 
strength,  and  he  died  at  the  house  of  Rev. 
Jonathan  Edwards,  Northampton,  Mass., 
Oct.  10  th,  1747. 

BRANDENBURG,  an  ancient  mark  or 
marquisate  of  Germany,  and  now  the  metro- 
politan province  of  Prussia.  The  Suevi  first, 
and  then  the  Sclavonians,  inhabited  it.  The 
latter  barbarians,  in  the  tenth  centur}',  were 
conquered  by  Henry  I.,  and  converted  to 
Christianity.  The  mark  passed  through 
various  hands,  till  in  the  fifteenth  century  it 
came  into  those  of  the  ancestors  of  the  pres- 
ent royal  famil)’-  of  Prussia.  The  Elector 
Frederic  William,  enlarged  it  by  the  annex- 
LA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


145 


ation  of  several  towns  and  districts.  The  old 
mark,  having  been  ceded  to  Napoleon,  in 
1807,  formed  a part  of  the  kingdom  of  West- 
phalia, until  1814,  when  it  was  restored  to 
Prussia. 

BRANDYWINE,  a small  river  taking  its 
rise  in  Pennsylvania,  which,  after  a course  of 
forty-fWe  miles,  flowing  through  the  state  of 
Delaware,  joins  the  Christiana,  two  miles 
below  Wilmington.  The  river  is  known  in 
history  for  a battle  fought  in  its  vicinity, 
Sept.  11th,  1777,  between  the  British  and 
Americans,  in  which  the  latter  sustained 
a defeat  with  a loss  of  900  in  killed  and 
wounded.  Howe  had  17,000  effective  troops, 
while  Washington’s  force  did  not  exceed 
11,000,  many  of  whom  were  raw  militia.  La- 
fayette was  wounded  in  the  leg  by  a musket 
ball. 

BRANT,  Joseph,  a celebrated  Mohawk 
chief,  at  the  head  of  the  Six  Nations  during 
our  Revolution,  was  born  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ohio  in  1742.  His  Indian  name  was  Thay- 
endanegea,  ‘a  bundle  of  sticks,’  or  ‘strength.’ 
Sir  William  Johnson  had  him  well  educated 
at  Dr.  Wheelock’s  Indian  school  in  Colum- 
bia, Conn.  He  attached  himself  to  the  royal 
cause,  and  throughout  the  war  he  was  en- 
gaged in  attacks  upon  the  border  settlements 
of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
far  more  humane  than  the  Tory  leaders  with 
whom  he  was  associated.  After  the  termina- 
tion of  hostilities,  he  procured  a domain  for 
his  tribe  in  Upper  Canada,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  the  social  and  religious  betterment  of 
his  people.  He  rendered  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  and  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark,  into 
the  Mohawk  tongue.  He  died  Nov.  24th, 
1807. 

BRAXTON,  Carter,  a signer  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  was  born  in  New- 
ington, Va.,  Sept.  10th,  1736.  After  grad- 
uating at  William  and  Mary  College,  he 
visited  England,  where  he  tarried  until  1760. 
In  1765,  he  was  chosen  to  a seat  in  the  Vir- 
ginia house  of  burgesses.  In  1775,  he  was 
elected  to  Congress.  He  was  afterward  a rep- 
resentative in  the  legislature  of  Virginia. 
He  was  a graceful  speaker,  and  a man  of 
respectable  attainments.  Pecuniary  embar- 
rassments clouded  the  last  years  of  his  life, 
and  he  died  Oct.  10th,  1797. 

BRAY,  the  Vicar  of.  Bray,  a quiet  vil- 

10  B 


lage  in  Berkshire,  England,  is  famous  for  its 
vicar,  the  Rev.  Symond  Symonds,  who  was 
twice  a papist,  and  twice  a protestant,  be- 
tween the  years  1533  and  1558,  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and 
Elizabeth.  Being  called  a turncoat,  he  said 
he  kept  to  his  principle,  that  of  “ living  and 
dying  the  vicar  of  Bray.” 

BRAZIL,  the  empire  of,  comprehends  the 
eastern  portion  of  South  America.  Its  extent, 
from  north  to  south,  is  about  2,600  miles,  and 
from  east  to  west,  nearly  2,400  miles.  With 
a territory  of  2,300,000  square  miles,  possess- 
ing extraordinary  wealth  and  fertility,  it  is 
inhabited  by  but  seven  and  a half  millions  of 
people.  Brazil  contains  some  of  the  largest 
rivers  in  the  world ; the  Amazon,  Tocantin, 
and  San  Francisco  being  the  most  prominent. 
There  is  much  variety  of  climate,  but  gener- 
ally it  is  healthy ; and  the  salubrity  of  the 
vast  elevated  plains  is  unequaled  by  that  of 
any  other  region  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 
The  richness  of  its  precious  woods,  the  abun- 
dance of  its  streams,  the  profusion  of  its  dia- 
monds and  gold,  and  its  general  healthiness, 
might  in  the  hands  of  thrift  and  enterprise 
make  it  the  El  Dorado  of  the  imagination.  In 
the  beds  of  the  rivers  are  found  diamonds,  to- 
pazes, chrysoberyls,  other  precious  stones, 
and  gold.  The  trees  are  of  every  description, 
adapted  to  cabinet-work,  ship-building,  and 
dyeing ; while  coffee,  oranges,  sugar,  tobacco, 
indigo,  and  rice  are  easily  raised.  Brazil,  at 
the  time  of  its  discovery,  was  inhabited  by 
roving  Indians.  These  Indians  are  still  in 
some  regions  in  as  savage  a state  as  when 
South  America  was  first  discovered.  The 
foreign  population  consists  of  Portuguese  and 
Africans.  The  Indians  were  first  used  as 
slaves,  but  this  order  of  things  has  passed 
away,  and  their  place  in  servitude  is  filled  by 
the  negroes.  Of  the  7,600,000  inhabitants, 
perhaps  2,000,000  are  whites.  Many  of  the 
first  men  in  the  country  evidently  have  an 
admixture  of  African  blood  in  them. 

Brazil  was  discovered,  April  24th,  1500,  by 
Pedro  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  who  at  first  named 
it  Santa  Cruz,  but  Emanuel,  the  Portuguese 
sovereign,  called  it  Brazil,  from  the  quantity 
of  red  wood  which  it  produced.  The  Portu- 
guese at  first  undervalued  this  country,  and 
sent  thither  only  criminals,  and  the  refuse  of 
their  population,  but  the  Jews,  who  had  been 


140 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


DIAMOND  WASHING  IN  BRAZIL. 


banished  to  Brazil  in  1548,  having  successfully- 
introduced  the  culture  of  the  sugar-cane, 
Thomas  de  Souza  was  sent  over  by  the  court 
of  Lisbon,  and  began  to  find  some  good  points 
about  the  country,  although  it  had  not  yielded 
the  desired  gold.  After  temporary  misfor- 
tunes, the  colonists  prospered,  but  the  Portu- 
guese had  to  contend  against  France,  Spain, 
and  the  United  Provinces,  whose  jealousy 
tfas  aroused  by  the  accounts  they  heard  of 
the  richness  and  fertility  of  the  Portuguese 
possessions.  The  Dutch  met  with  great  suc- 
cess in  Brazil,  but  became  the  friends  of  the 
Portuguese,  when  the  latter  shook  off  the 
Spanish  yoke  and  gained  their  independence. 
They  still  retained  the  seven  provinces  they 
had  conquered,  and  hence  arose  the  division 
of  the  country  into  the  Brazils ; but  a pecu- 
niary compensation  induced  them  to  resign 
their  claims  to  the  Portuguese.  The  diamond 
mines  were  not  discovered  till  1728.  The 
prosperity  of  Brazil  has  not  been  what  it 
might  be  made  under  an  enlightened  govern- 
ment. The  conflicting  interests  of  various 
bodies  of  its  inhabitants,  the  unequal  pressure 


of  state  burthens,  and  other  causes,  tended  to 
weaken  and  distract  it.  In  1808,  the  court 
of  Portugal  removed  here,  fleeing  from  Napo- 
leon, but  in  1821,  the  king  returned  to  Lis- 
bon. Dom  Pedro,  his  eldest  son,  then  gov- 
erned Brazil  under  the  title  of  prince-regent. 
The  Brazilians  declared  themselves  indepen- 
dent of  Portugal,  Oct.  12th,  1822,  and  Dom 
Pedro  was  crowned  emperpr.  In  1831  he  ab- 
dicated in  favor  of  his  son  Pedro  II.,  then  a 
lad  of  six  years,  and  returned  to  Portugal. 
The  empire  was  governed  by  a regency  till 
the  coronation  of  the  youthful  monarch  in 
1841.  The  government  is  a hereditary  mon- 
archy, limited  by  an  elective  legislature.  The 
empire  is  divided  into  nineteen  provinces,  each 
of  which  manages  its  local  affairs.  Each  has 
a president,  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  its 
provincial  assembly,  chosen  by  the  people. 
Brazil  has  been  the  most  favored  of  the  South 
American  states  in  its  freedom  from  anarchy 
and  intestine  conflicts.  The  most  cultivated 
part  of  the  population  are  the  merchants  of 
the  maritime  ports,  the  Europeans  and  Creoles 
forming  the  aristocracy  of  the  country.  The 


BRA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


147 


inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics,  with  the 
exception  of  the  independent  native  tribes,  in 
the  vast  and  obscure  regions  of  the  interior. 

Rio  Janeiro,  situated  on  a bay  which  affords 
it  one  of  the  finest,  safest,  and  most  roomy 
harbors  in  the  world,  is  the  capital  of  the  em- 
pire. An  amphitheatre  of  hills  and  mountains 
springing  up  one  behind  another,  and  separ- 
ated by  fertile  valleys  that  enjoy  a perpetual 
spring  and  yield  the  choicest  fruits  and  flow- 
ers, rises  round  the  bay.  Rio  has  a popula- 
tion of  over  300,000,  and  is  a mart  of  great 
and  increasing  commerce.  It  exports  more 
coffee  than  all  other  ports  in  the  world.  Ba- 
hia, or  San  Salvador,  farther  north  on  the 
coast,  was  formerly  the  capital.  Of  its  160,000 
inhabitants  the  majority  are  negroes.  It  too 
has  a capacious  harbor  and  a thriving  trade. 
Pernambuco,  a seaport  <?till  to  the  north,  of 
increasing  trade,  has  95,000  inhabitants. 

BREDA,  a fortified  town  in  Dutch  Brabant, 
formerly  of  immense  importance.  It  has  sus- 
tained several  memorable  sieges.  In  1590,  it 
was  taken  by  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau,  and 
retaken  by  the  Spaniards,  under  Spinola,  in 
1625,  after  a siege  of  ten  months.  The  French, 
during  the  revolution,  gained  possession  of  it, 
but  it  was  abandoned  by  them  in  1813. 
Charles  II.  of  England  dwelt  here  during  part 
of  his  exile. 

BREMEN,  one  of  the  free  cities  of  Germany, 
stands  upon  the  Weser,  fifty  miles  from  the 
sea.  It  was  conspicuous  in  the  Hanseatic 
league,  and  is  now  the  capital  of  a little  re- 
public, whose  territory  amounts  to  112  square 
miles,  and  whose  population  in  1855  was 
88,856.  Bremen  is  a place  of  great  resort  for 
the  warehousing  and  transit  of  German  and 
foreign  goods.  It  has  been  a prominent  point 
for  the  debarcation  of  German  emigrants  to 
America.  Bremen  first  rose  into  notice  in 
788. 

BRENNUS.  Several  chieftains  of  ancient 
Gaul  bore  this  name,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  a title  of  dignity  and  honor.  One,  hav- 
ing ravaged  Lombardy  and  Tuscany,  marched 
to  Rome,  which  he  surrendered  to  plunder. 
The  garrison  held  out  in  the  citadel,  which 
_ would  have  been  taken  at  midnight  by  the 
foe,  but  for  the  noise  made  by  the  sacred  geese 
of  Juno,  that  were  watchful  even  while  the 
dogs  slept.  Brennus  was  then  offered  a thou- 
sand pounds  weight  of  gold  to  spare  the  capi- 


tal, and  quit  the  territories  of  the  republic. 
He  threw  into  the  scale  which  held  the 
weights,  his  sword  and  helmet,  haughtily  ex- 
claiming, “Wo  to  the  vanquished.”  The 
treaty  was  ended  by  the  timely  arrival  of  the 
exiled  Camillus,  who  refuged  the  payment  of 
even  a pound  of  gold  as  ransom.  “ Rome,” 
said  he  proudly,  “ is  to  liberate  herself  with 
iron  and  not  with  gold.”  He  gave  battle  to 
the  Gauls,  and  routed  them,  about  390  b.c. 

BRESCIA,  a province  of  Austrian  Italy. 
Its  manufactures  are  and  have  long  been  ex- 
tensive, and  its  soil  is  remarkable  for  fertility. 
From  the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  it  fell  into 
those  of  the  French,  and  finally  the  Austrians. 
Under  the  sway  of  the  Venetian  republic,  the 
inhabitants  were  unruly,  although  particularly 
favored  by  government.  The  city  of  Brescia 
has  40,000  inhabitants.  In  1512,  it  was 
stormed  by  Gaston  de  Foix,  after  a stubborn 
resistance  by  the  Venetian  garrison.  Forty- 
six  thousand  Brescians,  it  is  said,  perished  in 
the  indiscriminate  slaughter  that  followed  the 
entry  of  the  French,  to  whose  lawless  rapaci- 
ty, rampant  lust,  and  ferocious  cruelty,  the 
gallantry  of  Bayard  formed  but  a feeble  coun- 
terpoise. In  1796,  as  Bonaparte  was  quitting 
Brescia,  the  municipal  officers,  who  accompa- 
nied him  to  the  gate  of  the  city,  said  that  the 
Brescians  loved  liberty  more  than  the  rest  of 
the  Italians.  “Yes,”  said  the  general,  sarcas- 
tically, “they  love  to  talk  of  it  to  their 
women.”  This  slur  nevertheless,  Brescia  re- 
volted against  the  Austrians  in  1849,  and  was 
bombarded  and  stormed  by  Haynau. 

BRESLAU,  capital  of  the  Prussian  province 
of  Silesia,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Ohlau  and  Oder ; population,  127,000.  The 
architectural  beauty  of  the  city  has  been  cel- 
ebrated. Its  commerce  is  considerable.  Here 
the  Prussians  were  defeated  by  the  Austrians, 
Nov.  22d,  1757.  Breslau  was  besieged  and 
taken  by  the  French  in  1807  and  in  1813. 

BREST,  anciently  Brivates  Portus,  is  one 
of  the  chief  naval  stations  of  France.  Its  fine 
harbor  was  constructed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
in  1631.  It  is  well  fortified,  its  dock-yards 
and  magazines  command  admiration,  and  it  is 
considered  impregnable.  It  contains  61,168 
inhabitants.  It  was  attacked  in  1694  by  a 
British  fleet  and  army,  which  were  repulsed 
with  a loss  of  1,300  men  and  their  commander. 
Lord  Berkeley. 


BRE 


148 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


THE  BRITANNIA  TUBULAR  BRIDGE. 


BRETKxNY,  Peace  of,  concluded  between 
England  and  France,  May  8th,  1360.  England 
retained  Gasconry  and  Guienne,  acquired 
Sainton  ge,  Agenois,  Perigord,  Limousin, 
Bigorre,  Angoumois,  and  Rovergne,  and  re- 
nounced her  claims  to  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine, 
and  Normandy.  England  was  to  receive  three 
million  crowns,  and  to  release  King  John  of 
France,  who  had  long  been  a captive  in 
London. 

BREWSTER,  William,  born  in  England  in 
1550,  came  over  in  the  Mayflower,  and  as 
ruling  elder  preached  at  Plymouth  till  his 
death  in  1644. 

BRIDGES  were  so  early  and  general,  and 
the  expedients  for  their  construction  so  vari- 
ous, that  their  origin  can  not  be  traced.  They 
were  first  of  wood.  In  China  there  are  an- 
cient bridges  of  great  magnitude,  built  of  stone. 
Abydos  is  famous  for  the  bridge  of  boats  that 
Xerxes  built  across  the  Hellespont.  Trajan’s 
magnificent  stone  bridge  over  the  Danube, 
4,770  feet  in  length,  was  built  in  a.d.  103. 
The  Devil’s  Bridge  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Uri, 
so  called  from  its  frightful  situation,  was  built 
resting  on  two  high  rocks,  so  that  it  could 
scarcely  be  conceived  how  it  was  erected,  and 


many  fabulous  stories  were  invented  to  ao 
count  for  it.  At  Schaffhausen  an  extraordi- 
nary bridge  was  built  over  the  Rhine,  which 
is  there  four  hundred  feet  wide.  There  was 
a pier  midway  in  the  river,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  bridge  rested  upon  it : a man  of 
the  lightest  weight  felt  the  bridge  totter  under 
him ; yet  wagons  heavily  laden  passed  over 
without  danger.  This  bridge  was  destroyed 
by  the  French  in  1799.  The  first  stone  bridge 
in  England  was  built  at  Bow  near  Stratford, 
a.d.  1087.  The  finest  suspension  bridge  in 
Great  Britain  is  that  erected  by  Mr.  Telford 
(1818-1825)  over  the  Menai  straits,  which  is 
one  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  spring 
tides,  with  five  hundred  and  sixty  feet  between 
the  points  of  suspension.  This  was  considered 
one  of  the  most  surprising  works  of  modern 
times ; but  it  has  been  thrown  in  the  shade 
by  the  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge,  by  which 
the  railway  from  Chester  to  Holyhead  crosses 
the  strait.  About  a mile  south  of  the  suspen- 
sion bridge  is  a rock  called  the  Britannia  rock, 
near  the  centre  of  the  strait,  the  surface  of 
which  is  about  ten  feet  above  low  water  level. 
Without  this  rock  the  tubular  bridge  would 
not  have  been  feasible,  and  from  it  therefore 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


149 


the  bridge  fitly  takes  its  name.  On  this  rock 
is  built  a tower  two  hundred  feet  above  high 
water  (commenced  in  May,  1846),  on  which 
rest  two  lines  of  tubes  or  hollow  girders,  the 
ends  resting  on  abutments  on  each  shore,  each 
tube  being  more  than  a quarter  of  a mile  in 
length.  The  height  of  the  tube  within  is  thirty 
feet  at  the  Britannia  tower,  diminishing  to 
twenty-three  feet  at  the  abutments.  The  lift- 
ing of  the  tubes  to  their  places  from  their  po- 
sition afloat  on  the  water,  is  regarded  as  the 
most  gigantic  operation  ever  successfully  per- 
formed. They  were  raised  by  Brahmah  hy- 
draulic presses,  into  which  'the  water  was  in- 
jected by  powerful  steam-engines.  A locomo- 
tive first  passed  through  these  grand  corridors 
of  iron  in  March,  1850.  .Robert  Stephenson 
was  the  engineer.  A similar  bridge  over  the 
St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal,  called  the  Victo- 
ria bridge,  two  miles  in  length,  was  begun  on 
the  19th  of  June,  1854,  and  the  first  train 
passed  over  Dec.  17,  1859.  The  greatest  and 
oldest  suspension  bridge  in  the  world,  is  said 
to  be  in  China,  near  Kingtung ; it  is  formed 
of  chains.  Rope  suspension  bridges,  from 
rocks  to  rocks,  are  also  of  Chinese  origin. 
One  of  the  finest  suspension  bridges  in  the 
world  crosses  the  Niagara  River,  about  two 
miles  and  a half  below  the  falls,  by  a single 
span  of  eight  hundred  and  thirty-four  feet,  at 
a height  of  two  hundred  and  thirty  feet  above 
the  water.  Three  railways  and  a carriage 
road  pass  the  river  by  this  structure.  Nature 
also  has  thrown  wonderful  bridges  of  rock 
across  mountainous  chasms.  Of  these,  those 
of  Icononzo,  over  fissures  in  the  Cordilleras 
on  the  road  from  Bogota  to  Quito,  the  stupen- 
dous limestone  arch  over  Cedar  Creek  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  one  with  a span  of  a hundred  and 
ninety-five  feet  in  Carter  county,  Kentucky, 
are  remarkable.  The  famous  bridge  by  which 
the  army  of  Xerxes  crossed  the  Hellespont, 
(480  b.c.),  was  formed  by  connecting  together 
ships  of  different  kinds,  some  long  vessels  of 
fifty  oars,  others  three-banked  galleys,  to  the 
number  of  almost  seven  hundred.  They  were 
moored  fast  by  anchors  and  cables  of  great 
strength.  On  extended  cables  between  the 
lines  of  shipping  were  laid  fast-bound  rafters, 
over  these  a layer  of  boughs,  and  on  the  latter 
earth  was  thrown.  On  each  side  was  a fence 
to  prevent  the  horses  and  beasts  of  burthen 
from  being  terrified  by  the  sea  in  their  passage 


from  shore  to  shore.  It  is  said  that  this  won- 
derful work  was  completed  in  one  week. 

BRIENNE,  a town  in  the  French  depart- 
ment of  the  Aube,  at  the  academy  of  which 
Napoleon  learned  the  first  principles  of  the 
military  art.  Here  on  the  1st  and  2d  of 
February,  the  allied  Russians  and  Prussians 
were  defeated  severely  by  the  French.  This 
was  among  the  last  of  Napoleon’s  victories. 

BRIGALIER,  Abbe,  lived  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  XII.  The  superstitions  of  his 
time  are  displayed  by  'some  passages  in  his 
life.  He  was  almoner  to  Mademoiselle  de 
Montauban,  and  spent  30,000  crowns  to  be- 
come an  adept  in  the  magic  art,  without 
accomplishing  his  end.  Being  with  the  court 
at  Compiegne,  a lady  who  had  purchased  a 
piece  of  red  silk,  instead  of  green,  begged  the 
abbe  to  change  it  to  the  color  she  wished. 
Rather  than  lose  his  reputation  as  a magician, 
Brigalier  bought  a piece  of  green  silk  and 
gave  it  to  the  lady,  who  was  astonished  at  his 
success,  and  forthwith  circulated  the  tale. 
By  various  tricks  of  legerdemain,  he  main- 
tained his  credit  as  a sorcerer,  so  that  the 
Archbishop  of  Paris  gravely  commanded  him 
to  desist  from  his  unhallowed  occupations. 

BRINDLEY,  James,  was  born  in  Derby- 
shire, 1716,  and  reared  as  a clodhopper  till 
his  seventeenth  year,  without  the  advantages 
of  even  the  most  ordinary  education.  An 
apprenticeship  to  a millwright  brought  out  his 
inventive  faculties,  and  the  untutored  rustic  be- 
came an  ingenious  mechanician  and  successful 
civil  engineer.  About  1757  he  was  consulted 
by  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater  as  to  the  prac- 
ticability of  constructing  a canal  from  Worsley 
to  Manchester,  a distance  of  twenty-nine  miles. 
Had  a man  of  inferior  genius  or  less  dauntless 
courage  undertaken  this  work,  very  probably 
a failure  would  have  ensued,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  British  inland  navigation  might  have 
been  deferred  for  some  years  longer.  When 
the  canal  was  completed  as  far  as  Barton, 
where  the  Irwell  is  navigable  for  large  ves- 
sels, Brindley  proposed  to  carry  it  over  the 
river  by  an  aqueduct  thirty-nine  feet  above 
the  water ! This  project  was  ridiculed  by  the 
practical  men  of  the  day.  One  much  re- 
spected individual  would  not  discount  the 
Duke  of  Bridgewater’s  bill  for  five  hundred 
pounds,  and  when  the  dimensions  of  the 
aqueduct  were  communicated  to  him,  he 


BRI 


150 


COTTA  G-E  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


exclaimed,  “I  have  often  heard  of  castles  in 
the  air,  but  never  before  was  shown  where 
any  of  them  were  to  be  erected.”  The  canal 
was  completed  in  1761,  and  in  less  than 
fifty  years,  application  had  been  made  to 
parliament  for  one  hundred  and  sixty-five 
acts  for  making  canals  in  Great  Britain  at  an 
expense  of  thirteen  million  pounds.  Many 
of  these  great  channelings  were  engineered 
by  Brindley.  He  died  in  1772,  the  victim  of 
intense  application  to  his  profession.  He  is 
said  to  have  answered  a committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  when  asked  for  what 
object  rivers  were  created,  “ To  feed  naviga- 
ble canals.”  Brindley  could  neither  read  nor 
write  until  late  in  life,  and  then  but  poorly. 

BRISSOT  DE  WARVILLE,  Jean  Pierre, 
a prominent  character  in  the  history  of  the 
French  revolution,  whose  writings  tended 
greatly  to  bring  monarchical  power  into  dis- 
repute. He  was  the  son  of  a pastry-cook, 
and  was  born  in  1754.  At  the  age  of  thirty, 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile,  for  a work 
which  treated  of  prohibited  subjects.  After 
numerous  changes  of  action  and  residence, 
which  the  nature  of  his  works  and  the  fluc- 
tuating state  of  his  popularity  rendered  ne- 
cessary, having  been  engaged  for  some  time 
in  England,  some  time  with  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans, and  some  time  in  America,  he  was  at 
last  guillotined  with  his  friends,  by  the  fac- 
tion of  Robespierre,  in  1793.  He  was  the 
leader  of  the  Girondists,  and  editor  of  the 
Moniteur. 

BRITANNICUS.  Tiberius  Claudius  Ger- 
manicus  was  called,  after  the  return  of  his 
father,  the  Emperor  Claudius,  from  Britain, 
Britannicus.  His  mother  was  the  infamous 
Messalina.  By  the  intrigues  of  Agrippina, 
the  second  wife  of  Claudius,  he  was  poisoned, 
after  having  been  excluded  from  the  succes- 
sion, a.d.  55. 

BROOKS,  John,  a revolutionary  officer 
and  eminent  physician,  born  in  Medford, 
Mass.,  1752.  His  father  was  a farmer.  After 
completing  his  professional  studies,  he  joined 
with  ardor  the  army,  and  was  among  the  first 
to  fight  for  the  freedom  of  America.  On  the 
retreat  of  the  British  from  Lexington,  the 
company  which  he  commanded  had  no  small 
share  in  contributing  to  the  annoyances  of 
that  humiliating  flight.  Brooks  enjoyed  the 


confidence  and  esteem  of  Washington,  and 
had  a colonel’s  commisson  when  the  army 
was  disbanded.  He  retired  to  the  practice  of 
his  profession.  He  was  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts from  1816  to  1823,  and  died  highly 
respected  and  esteemed,  March,  18.25. 

BROUGHAM,  Henry,  Baron  of  Brough- 
am and  Yaux  late  Lord  Chancellor  of  Eng- 
land. He  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  Sept.  19, 
1798.  He  was  descended  from  a Westmoreland 
family,  and  through  his  mother  was  grand 
nephew  of  Wm.  Robertson  the  historian.  He 
was  educated  at  the  high  school  and  univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh  and  was  distinguished  for 
his  attainments  in  mathematics  and  the  physi- 
cal sciences.  He  assisted  in  the  establishment 
of  the  “ Edinburgh  Review,”  in  1802,  and  was 
for  a long  time  a contributor  to  its  pages.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1808,  at  Lincoln’s 
Inn,  and  chose  the  common  law  court.  He 
entered  parliament  in  1810,  and  was  distin- 
guished for  his  speeches  on  law  reform,  cath- 
olic relief,  colonial  slavery,  corporation  and 
test  acts,  and  the  repeal  of  the  common  law.  In 
1825  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the  Glas- 
gow University.  He  was  the  author  of  many 
books  and  political  pamphlets.  He  died  at 
Cannes,  France,  May  7tli,  1868. 

BROWN,  Charles  Brockden,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1771,  was  the  author  of 
several  novels  ; “Arthur  Mervyn”  and  “ Ed- 
gar Huntley  ” are  perhaps  the  best.  He  ed- 
ited several  periodicals,  and  his  literary  labors 
hastened  the  progress  of  the  consumption  of 
which  he  died  in  1809. 

BROWN,  Jacob,  was  born  in  Pennsylva- 
nia in  1775.  In  1812  he  entered  the  service 
of  Iifs  country  as  a militia  officer.  In  1814 
he  was  made  brigadier,  and  soon  after  a ma- 
jor-general in  the  regular  army.  He  com- 
manded at  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and  Ni- 
agara. He  died  at  Washington  in  1 828. 

BROWN,  William,  a native  of  Ireland, 
who  came  to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of 
fourteen,  in  1793,  and  was  for  a long  time 
eno-a^ed  at  sea  in  the  merchant  service.  He 

o o _ 

finally  joined  the  republican  navy,  and  gained 
great  fame  by  his  various  daring  exploits. 

BROWNE,  Sir  Thomas,  a quaint,  learned, 
and  eloquent  author,  tvas  horn  at  London  in 
1605,  educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford, 
and  took  his  medical  degree  at  Leyden.  His 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


151 


principal  works  are  “Religio  Medici,”  Treat- 
ise on  Vulgar  Errors,”  and  “Urn  Burial.” 
He  died  in  1682. 

BRUCE,  James,  a native  of  Scotland,  born 
1730,  distinguished  himself  by  his  travels  in 
Africa.  He  died  in  1794.  His  veracity  has 
been  often  doubted,  but  his  accounts  have 
been  confirmed  by  more  recent  travelers.  He 
penetrated  to  the  sources  of  the  Abyssinian 
branch  of  the  Nile. 

BRUCE,  Robert,  was  the  grandson  of  the 
competitor  of  Baliol  for  the  crown  of  Scot- 
land. It  was  left  for  him  to  accomplish  the 
deliverance  of  his  country,  which  Wallace 
had  so  nobly  attempted.  In  his  youth  he  had 
acted  upon  apparently  no  regular  plan ; and 
although  he  had  at  times  served  against  Ed- 
ward, when  the  Scottish  forces  were  able  to 
make  a successful  resistance,  he  soon  made 
submission  after  their  defeat,  and  thus  avoided 
drawing  down  upon  himself  the  implacable 
resentment  of  Edward.  He  appeared  to  have 
stifled  his  pretensions  to  the  crown ; but 
immediately  after  the  death  of  Wallace  he 
determined  at  once  to  assert  his  own  rights 
and  his  country’s  independence.  Arriving 
at  Dumfries,  from  England,  in  February,  1306, 
he  had  a quarrel  with  Comyn  of  Badenoch, 
and  stabbed  him  in  the  church  of  the  Minor- 
ites, because  he  opposed  his  views.  He  now 
claimed  the  crown ; and  resentment  of  the 
treachery  of  Edward,  and  of  the  death  of 
Wallace,  procured  him  numerous  followers. 
He  was  accordingly  crowned  King  of  Scot- 
land, at  Scone,  on  the  27th  of  March,  the 
same  year.  An  army  sent  by  Edward  soon 
arrived  at  Perth ; and  in  a battle  fought  on 
the  19th  of  June,  Bruce  was  defeated.  He 
took  refuge  at  Aberdeen,  and  afterward  went 
toward  Argyle,  and  was  so  hard  pressed  by 
the  English  and  their  adherents,  that  he  re- 
tired to  the  island  of  Rathlin  on  the  north-west 
of  Ireland,  and  was  supposed  to  be  dead  ; but 
early  in  the  next  spring,  he  again  displayed 
his  banner  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  and  gained 
many  advantages  over  the  English,  of  which 
the  victory  at  Loudon  Hill  was  the  most  re- 
markable; whilst  his  brother,  Sir  Edward, 
and  Sir  James  Douglas,  were  equally  active 
and  successful.  Bruce  came  north  in  the 
end  of  the  same  year,  and  on  account  of  the 
unfavorable  state  of  his  health,  which  had 
been  injured  by  unceasing  hardships  and  pri- 


vations, he  remained  some  time  inactive.  On 
the  22d  of  May,  1308,  he  gained  the  battle  of 
Inverary,  over  the  Earl  of  Buchan  and  Sir 
John  Mowbray,  which  was  the  commencement 
of  a career  of  success  which  established  him 
as  King  of  Scotland.  The  whole  of  the 
fortresses  • of  the  kingdom  were  recovered 
excepting  Stirling,  which  was  beleaguered  by 
his  brother  Edward,  who  entered  into  a treaty 
with  the  governor,  by  which  it  was  agreed  it 
should  be  surrendered  if  not  relieved  before 
the  24th  of  June,  1314.  This  led  to  the 
attempt  of  Edward  II.  to  relieve  it  by  a pow- 
erful army,  and  brought  on  the  battle  of 
Bannockburn.  Bruce’s  army  consisted  of 
thirty  thousand  veterans,  distinguished  by 
their  valor,  the  skill  of  their  leaders,  and  an- 
imated by  every  motive  which  can  promote 
heroic  enterprise.  He  drew  them  up  with  a 
hill  on  his  right  flank,  and  a morass  on  his 
left,  to  prevent  being  surrounded  by  the 
numerous  army  of  Edward.  Having  a rivu 
let  in  front,  he  commanded  deep  pits  to  be 
dug  along  its  banks,  and  sharp  stakes  to  be 
planted  in  them,  and  caused  the  whole  to  be 
carefully  covered  with  turf.  The  English 
arrived  in  the  evening,  when  Bruce  was  riding 
in  the  front  of  his  army.  Sir  Henry  Bohun, 
who  rode  up  to  charge  him  with  his  spear, 
was  brought  to  the  ground  by  his  battle-axe. 
Early  next  morning  the  action  commenced. 
Sir  Robert  Keith,  at  the  head  of  the  men-at- 
arms,  destroyed  the  English  archers.  The 
English  horse,  under  the  Earl  of  Gloucester, 
rushing  on  to  the  charge,  fell  into  the  pits 
Bruce  had  prepared  for  them.  Sir  James 
Douglas,  who  commanded  the  Scottish  cav- 
alry, gave  them  no  time  to  rally,  but  pushed 
them  off  the  field.  Whilst  the  infantry  con- 
tinued the  fight,  discouraged  by  these  unfav- 
orable events,  they  were  thrown  into  a panic 
by  the  appearance  of  what  they  supposed 
another  army  advancing  to  surround  them. 
This  was  a number  of  wagoners  and  sumpter 
boys,  whom  King  Robert  had  collected  and 
supplied  with  military  standards,  which  gave 
them  the  appearance  of  an  army  at  a distance. 
The  stratagem  was  decisive,  and  an  universal 
rout  and  immense  slaughter  ensued.  This 
great  and  decisive  battle  secured  the  inde- 
pendence of  Scotland,  and  fixed  Bruce  on  the 
throne.  He  afterward  invaded  England,  and 
laid  waste  the  northern  counties.  He  also 


BRU 


152 


COTTA  G’E  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


led  an  expedition  into  Ireland,  in  support  of 
his  brother  Edward,  who  had  been  crowned 
king  of  that  country,  in  the  course  of  which 
he  gained  several  victories.  Peace  was  at 
last  concluded  between  England  and  Scotland, 
at  Northampton,  in  1328,  and  on  the  7th  of 
June,  1329,  Robert  died,  in  the  fifty -fifth 
year  of  his  age,  and  was  buried  in  the  ab- 
bey of  Dumfermline.  His  grand-daughter 
was  the  wife  of  Robert  II.,  the  first  king 
of  the  house  of  Stuart,  and  from  the  issue  of 
that  marriage  the  present  royal  family  is 
descended. 

BRUMMELL,  George  Bryan,  best  known 
as  Beau  Brummell,  was  born  in  June,  1778, 
and  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford.  He  be- 
came the  leader  of  English  fashion ; by  no 
means  a mere  dandy,  but  the  best-dressed 
gentleman  of  the  day.  Neckcloths  were  his 
greatest  victories.  At  his  beck  they  were 
starched.  He  was  fastidious  in  tying  them. 
“These,”  solemnly  said  his  valet,  bearing 
forth  a pile  of  crumpled  linen,  “ these  are  our 
failures.”  So  arbitrary  was  the  king  of 
fashion’s  power,  that  he  could  snub  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  who  aspired  to  be  the  first  gentle- 
man in  Europe.  Coolness  sprang  up  in  the 
intimacy  of  the  two,  and  the  prince  cut  the 
beau.  Brummell  had  full  revenge,  when  he 
asked  in  St.  James’s  street,  just  as  George  was 
stepping  off,  “Alvanley,  pray  who  is  your 
fat  friend?”  But  the  contest  was  unequal. 
Beau  B.  ran  through  his  fortune,  and  had 
no  nation  to  furnish  the  sinews  of  war.  One 
day  he  wrote  thus  to  Scrope  Davies : 

“My  Dear  Scrope  : Lend  me  two  hundred 
pounds ; the  banks  are  shut,  and  all  my  mo- 
ney is  in  the  three  per  cents.  It  shall  be 
repaid  to-morrow  morning. 

“ Yours,  George  Brummell.” 

The  answer  was  prompt. 

“ My  Dear  George  : ’Tis  very  unfortunate ; 
but  all  my  money  is  in  the  three  per  cents. 

“ Yours,  S.  Davies.” 

That  night  Mr.  Brummell  ran  away  to 
Calais.  England  and  his  creditors  saw  him 
no  more.  In  France  he  dragged  out  a mis- 
erable existence,  sinking  from  the  admired  of 
fashion  to  the  shabby  genteel;  thence  still 
lower  ; till  at  last  he  died  at  Caen  in  beggary 
and  imbecility  March  29th,  1840. 


BRUNSWICK,  the  duchy  of,  lies  in  the 
north-west  of  Germany,  between  Hanover  and 
Prussia,  comprising  1,524  square  miles,  and 
in  1857,  269,915  people.  Brunswick,  its 
capital,  has  42,000  inhabitants,  and  was  for- 
merly one  of  the  Hanse  Towns.  The  house 
of  Brunswick  was  founded  by  Henry  the 
Lion,  who  married  Maud,  daughter  of  Henry 
II.  of  England.  The  younger  ranch  of  this 
family  came  into  possession  of  Hanover,  and 
has  'given  sovereigns  to  England  since  the 
commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Charles  Frederick  William,  Duke  of  Bruns* 
wick,  fell  upon  the  battle  field  of  Jena,  1806, 
and  the  duchy  was  in  the  power  of  Napoleon 
till  1813.  The  three  elder  sons  were  blind, 
and  yielded  their  rights  in  favor  of  Frederick 
William,  who  was  born  in  1771.  He  joined 
the  war  against  France  in  1806,  and  con- 
tinued, throughout  his  life,  the  determined 
enemy  of  Napoleon.  His  Black  Bruns  wick- 
ers, so  called  from  their  dress  and  equipments 
being  entirely  black,  held  out  upon  the  con- 
tinent as  long  as  resistance  was  of  any  avail, 
and  finally  their  duke  retired  to  England. 
In  1815,  he  again  appeared  in  arms,  and  fell 
at  Quatre-bras,  commanding  Wellington’s 
van-guard,  on  the  16th  of  June.  His  death 
was  atoned  for  by  the  bravery  of  his  black 
hussars. 

BRUTUS,  Lucius  Junius,  a celebrated  Ro- 
man. He  was  the  son  of  Marcus  Junius  by  a 
daughter  of  Tarquin  the  Elder.  When  his 
father  and  brothers  were  beheaded  by  Tar- 
quin, Brutus  saved  himself  by  feigning  idiocy, 
whence  his  surname,  signifying  ‘ the  brute,’ 
was  given  him.  He  continued  this  appear- 
ance until  Lucretia  killed  herself  in  conse- 
quence of  the  violence  of  Sextus  Tarquin. 
This  was  the  time  for  Brutus  to  rouse  the 
Roman  people  to  action,  and  display  the 
energy  of  his  mind.  By  his  exertions  the 
Tarquins  were  expelled  and  the  monarchy 
changed  to  a republic.  The  consulship  was 
instituted,  and  Brutus  and  Collatinus,  the 
husband  of  Lucretia,  were  chosen  the  first  to 
hold  that  dignity.  When  his  sons  joined  in 
the  conspiracy  to  restore  the  Tarquins,  Bru- 
tus, convinced  of  their  guilt,  ordered  their 
execution,  that  this  example  might  confirm 
the  liberty  of  Rome.  The  same  year  he  was 
slain  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  fighting 
against  Aruns,  the  son  of  Tarquin,  who  also 


BRU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


153 


fell  in  the  encounter.  This  took  place,  b.c. 
509.  Brutus  was  mourned  by  the  whole 
Roman  people. 

BRUTUS,  Marcus  Junius,  was  lineally 
descended  from  the  above,  whose  republican 
principles  he  seemed  to  inherit.  In  the  civil 
wars  he  joined  Pompey,  although  the  latter 
was  his  father’s  murderer,  only  because  he 
looked  upon  him  as  just  and  patriotic  in  his 
claims.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  Caesar 
not  only  spared  Brutus,  but  made  him  one 
of  his  friends.  He,  however,  forgot  the  favor 
when  Caesar  displayed  his  ambition  and 
tyranny,  and  conspired  to  stab  Caesar  in 
the  senate-house.  Brutus  was  forced  to  re- 
tire into  Greece  by  the  excitement  created 
by  Antony.  Here  he  gained  many  friends, 
but  was  soon  pursued  by  Antony,  accompan- 
ied by  the  young  Octavius.  A battle  was 
fought  at  Philippi.  Brutus,  who  commanded 
the  right  wing  of  the  republican  army,  de- 
feated the  enemy ; but  Cassius,  on  the  left, 
was  overpowered,  and  Brutus  found  himself 
surrounded  by  the  soldiers  of  Antony.  He, 
however,  made  his  escape,  and  soon  after  fell 
upon  his  sword,  b.c.  42.  It  is  said  that, 
previous  to  this  battle,  a spectral  figure  twice 
the  size  of  life,  appeared  to  Brutus,  and 
warned  him  of  his  fate. 

BUCCANEERS.  These  French  and  Eng- 
lish freebooters  of  America  acquired  great  no- 
toriety. After  the  assassination  of  Henry  IY. 
of  France,  many  Frenchmen  settled  in  St. 
Christopher,  an  island  of  the  Antilles.  Be- 
ing driven  from  this  place  in  1630,  they 
sought  refuge  on  the  western  coast  of  St. 
Domingo,  and  the  neighboring  island  of  Tor- 
tugas.  Their  wild  and  solitary  life  possessed 
a certain  charm  which  induced  many  Eng- 
lishmen to  join  them,  and  their  numbers  at 
length  became  considerable.  They  were 
hardy  and  enterprising,  and,  deprived  of  the 
softening  influence  of  female  society,  nour- 
ished a spirit  of  reckless  ferocity.  They  did 
not,  however,  display  at  first  those  stern  fea- 
tures which  afterward  characterized  them, 
but  were  comparatively  peaceful  and  indus- 
trious. Those  who  were  settled  at  St.  Do- 
mingo, used  to  hunt  the  wild  cattle  of  the 
island,  whose  hides  they  sold  to  the  crews 
that  landed  on  their  coast.  They  were  accus- 
tomed to  boucaner  (that  is,  to  smoke)  the 
flesh  of  these  animals  before  large  fires,  and 


thence  received  the  name  of  boucaneers,  or 
buccaneers.  Increasing  in  strength  and 
spirit,  they  defied  the  attempts  of  the  Span- 
iards to  subdue  them,  and  soon  made  them- 
selves formidable  by  their  predatory  excur- 
sions. 

The  Spaniards  resolved  to  extirpate  the 
wild  cattle,  and  thus  induce  the  buccaneers 
to  become  farmers  for  support,  or  else  to 
join  their  more  lawless  comrades  on  the  island 
of  Tortugas.  The  buccaneers  nourished  a 
deep-seated  hatred  of  the  Spaniards,  and  it 
was  their  vessels  which  were  most  frequently 
attacked  by  the  pirates.  Sailing  from  the 
American  ports,  laden  with  the  most  precious 
productions  of  the  New  World,  the  size  and 
strength  of  the  galleons  formed  no  adequate 
protection  against  the  numbers  and  intrepid- 
ity of  the  buccaneers,  who  attacked  them  in 
boats,  ill  equipped  it  is  true,  but  manned  by 
crews  of  iron  nerve  and  unquailing  resolution. 
The  spirit  of  the  Spaniards  became  crushed 
by  the  repeated  successes  of  the  buccaneers, 
and  before  long  they  did  not  even  attempt  to 
defend  themselves.  Thus  when  Laurent,  a 
famous  buccaneer,  found  himself  in  a small 
vessel,  with  a few  guns,  and  two  Spanish 
ships  each  of  sixty  guns  along-side,  the  des- 
peration and  fury  of  his  resistance  so  over- 
awed the  Spanish  officers,  that  they  permitted 
him  to  escape,  although  they  had  him  com- 
pletely in  their  power. 

The  leaders  of  the  buccaneers  were  chosen 
for  superior  daring,  but  enjoyed  but  few  priv- 
ileges save  that  of  being  foremost  in  danger. 
In  dividing  the  spoils,  all  had  an  equal  share, 
or,  if  any  exception  was  made,  it  was  in  favor 
of  those  who  had  received  very  severe  wounds 
in  combat.  The  captain  had  no  larger  share 
than  any  of  his  followers,  unless  he  happened 
to  have  displayed  extraordinary  skill  and 
valor.  Previous  to  dividing  the  booty,  each 
was  obliged  to  swear  that  he  had  kept  back 
no  part  of  the  prize,  and  perjury,  which  was 
of  rare  occurrence,  was  punished  by  the  exile 
of  the  offender  to  a desert  island.  The  share 
of  those  who  had  fallen  was  appropriated  to 
relieve  the  necessities  of  their  relations,  or  as 
gifts  to  the  church,  in  case  there  were  no 
surviving  friends  or  relatives.  The  buc- 
caneers were  scrupulous  in  observing  the 
outward  rites  of  religion,  and  offered  up 
prayers  for  the  success  of  each  enterprise 


BUC 


154 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


before  embarking  in  it.  So  formidable  were 
the  operations  of  the  buccaneers,  that  they 
greatly  diminished  the  trade  between  Spain 
and  America.  The  baleful  effects  of  the 
climate,  and  the  nature  of  their  occupation, 
gradually  diminished  their  numbers,  till  they 
were  at  length  extirpated  by  the  French  and 
English  governments.  From  them  originated 
the  French  settlements  on  the  western  part 
of  St.  Domingo,  although  their  piracies  were 
ended  in  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Several  of  their  leaders  acquired  a reputa- 
tion for  daring  and  enterprise  which  has 
preserved  their  names  from  oblivion.  One 
of  the  most  noted  of  these  was  Montbar,  the 
son  of  a gentleman  of  Languedoc,  who  early 
imbibed  a hatred  for  the  Spaniards.  While 
at  school,  performing  the  part  of  a French- 
man in  a drama,  in  his  combat  with  a fellow- 
student,  who  represented  a Spaniard,  he  so 
far  forgot  the  reality  of  his  situation,  in  the 
illusion  of  the  moment,  that  he  would  have 
slain  his  antagonist  but  for  the  intervention 
of  the  more  cool-headed  spectators.  At  an 
early  age  Montbar  embarked  for  America, 
and  was  highly  delighted  when  one  day  a 
Spanish  galleon  hove  in  sight.  Long  before 
the  vessels  met,  Montbar  had  completed  his 
preparations  for  the  combat,  and,  with  an 
unsheathed  sword  beneath  his  arm,  was  pac- 
ing the  deck,  in  all  the  hot  hurry  of  untried 
valor.  The  moment  the  vessels  closed,  call- 
ing to  the  boarders,  he  sprang  on  the  deck  of 
the  galleon,  and  carried  all  before  him  by  the 
impetuosity  of  his  attack.  While  his  com  - 
rades were  busy  in  estimating  and  dividing 
the  booty,  he  was  sternly  gazing  on  the  stif- 
fened bodies  of  the  first  victims  of  his  hatred, 
like  an  eagle  hovering  over  the  slain.  Ar- 
rived at  St.  Domingo,  the  buccaneers  who 
came  on  board  to  trade,  complained  that  the 
Spaniards,  during  their  absence  in  the  chase, 
destroyed  their  settlements.  ‘ ‘ Mak  e me  }mur 
leader,”  cried  Montbar,  “and  I will  teach 
these  spoilers  that  there  exists  a power 
greater  than  theirs.  I seek  for  no  emolu- 
ments: the  joys  of  battle  are  enough  for 
me.”  Struck  with  his  appearance  and  im- 
petuosity, they  chose  him  their  leader,  and 
had  no  reason  to  repent  having  done  so,  for 
he  unweariedly  pursued  the  Spaniards  with 
invariable  success,,  and  succeeded  in  induc- 


ing the  Indians  to  forsake  the  Spaniards  and 
league  against  them  with  the  buccaneers. 

BUCHANAN,  George,  Latin  poet  and 
historian  of  Scotland,  born  1506,  died  1582. 

BUCHANAN,  Claudius,  an  eminent  mis- 
sionary to  the  East  Indies,  born  near  Glas- 
gow, March  12th,  1766,  died  Feb.  9th,  1815. 

BUCHANAN,  James.  See  Ap’x,  p.  971. 

BUENA  VISTA,  a mountain  pass  between 
San  Luis  and  Saltillo  in  Mexico.  Here,  Feb. 
23d,  1847,  the  Mexicans  attacked  the  Amer- 
icans. Santa  Anna  sent  Taylor  a summons 
to  surrender  at  discretion.  Old  “Rough  and 
Ready”  immediately  replied,  “declining  to 
accede  to  the  request.”  Santa  Anna’s  force 
was  the  flower  ‘of  the  Mexican  army,  and 
20,000  strong.  Taylor  only  had  4,500  men, 
of  whom  4,000  were  untried  volunteers.  The 
complete  success  of  Taylor  struck  terror  and 
dismay  into  the  hearts  of  the  Mexican  nation. 
The  American  loss  w as  267  killed,  456  wround- 
ed,  and  23  missing:  that  of  the  Mexicans 
exceeded  1,500. 

BUENOS  AYRES,  formerly  a Spanish 
province,  and  afterward  a part  of  the  Argen- 
tine Confederation,  is  now  a republic  by  itself. 
The  area  is  roughly  estimated  at  60,000 
square  miles ; the  population  probably  does 
not  exceed  350,000.  The  western  and  north- 
ern parts  of  the  country  are  rough,  but  large 
portions  are  extremely  level;  in  the  south, 
for  instance,  the  pampas  (immense  plains) 
are  more  than  1200  miles  long,  and  500 
broad,  filled  with  wdld  cattle,  and  the  abode 
of  Indians  hardly  less  wild.  The  fertility  of 
a large  proportion  of  the  soil  is  surprising, 
although  agriculture  is  neglected  for  the 
rearing  of  cattle.  Among  the  mineral  pro- 
ductions are  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  and 
lead.  Hides,  tallow,  and  beef  are  exported 
in  great  quantities.  The  only  town  of  much 
importance  is  the  capital,  Buenos  Ayres, 
which  wras  founded  in  1535,  and  contains  a 
population  of  120,000.  A few  of  the  public 
buildings  may  well  be  called  magnificent,  but 
generally  architecture  is  in  a low  state  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  chiefly  from  the  scarcity  of 
good  building  material,  chalk  and  brick 
forming  but  a very  inferior  substitute.  In 
1826,  it  was  made  the  seat  of  government  of 
the  United  Provinces  of  La  Plata.  In  1806, 
it  was  captured  by  the  English,  wrho  wrere 
shortly  afterward  attacked  by  surprise,  and 


BUE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


155 


suffered  great  loss.  The  reinforcements  which 
came  over  the  following  year,  were  received 
into  the  city  with  apparent  submission,  but 
then  attacked  with  vigor,  and  compelled  to 
conclude  a truce,  after  suffering  immense  loss. 
The  trade  of  the  city  is  very  considerable. 

BUFFON,  George  Louis  Le  Olerc,  Comte 
de,  a famous  French  naturalist,  born  at 
Montbard  in  Burgundy,  in  1707,  died  at  Paris, 
April  16th,  1788.  His  “Natural  History” 
continues  to  be  read  with  pleasure,  and  at 
the  time  of  its  appearance  differed  from  all 
previous  works,  which  were  merely  masses  of 
technical  description,  with  no  interesting 
general  views  and  details. 

BULL.  A papal  bull  is  kn  apostolical  re- 
script or  edict,  of  ancient  use,  and  generally 
written  on  parchment.  The  bull  is,  properly, 
the  seal,  deriving  its  name  from  bulla,  and  has 
been  made  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  wax. 
On  one  side  are  the  heads  of  Peter  and  Paul ; 
on  the  other,  the  name  of  the  pope,  and  year 
of  his  pontificate.  The  celebrated  golden 
bull  of  the  Emperor  Charles  IV.  was  so 
called  because  of  its  golden  seal,  and  was 
made  the  fundamental  law  of  the  German 
empire  at  the  diet  of  Nuremberg,  1356. 
Papal  bulls  denouncing  Queen  Elizabeth  and 
her  abettors,  and  consigning  them  to  hell- 
fire,  accompanied  the  boastful  Spanish  ar- 
mada, 1588. 

BULL  BAITING,  a sport  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,  somewhat  equivalent  in  those  coun- 
tries to  the  fights  of  the  gladiators  among  the 
Romans.  It  is  recorded  as  being  an  amuse- 
ment at  Stamford  in  England  so  early  as 
1209.  Bull  running  was  a sport  at  Tutbury 
in  1374.  Among  the  sports  of  ‘Merrie  Eng- 
land’ were  the  “Easter  fierce  hunts,  when 
foaming  boars  fought  for  their  heads  and 
lusty  bulls  and  huge  bears  were  baited  with 
dogs ; ” and  near  the  Clink,  London,  was  the 
Paris,  or  bear  garden,  so  celebrated  in  the 
time  of  Queen  Bess  for  the  exhibition  of 
bear-baiting,  then  a fashionable  amusement. 
Bull-fights  were  introduced  into  Spain  about 
1260,  and  abolished  there,  “ except  for  pious 
and  patriotic  purposes,”  in  1784.  There 
was  a bull-fight  at  Lisbon,  at  Campo  de  Santa 
Anna,  attended  by  ten  thousand  spectators, 
Sunday,  June  14th,  1840. 

BUNKER  HILL.  This  memorable  battle 
was  fought  June  17th,  1775.  On  the  eve- 


ning of  June  16th,  Col.  Prescott  received 
orders  to  fortify  Bunker  Hill,  but  Gen.  Put- 
nam, who  had  the  command  of  the  expedition, 
finding  Breed’s  Hill  more  suitable,  the  re- 
quisite fortifications  were  rapidly  thrown  up 
on  that  height.  The  British  were  uncon- 
scious of  the  enterprise  until  morning,  when 
their  ships-of-war,  floating  batteries,  and  the 
guns  of  Copp’s  Hill,  opened  a severe  fire  on 
the  Americans.  At  one  o’clock,  the  troops 
under  Howe  landed  in  Charlestown,  and  were 
soon  after  reinforced  which  swelled  their 
number  to  about  5,000  men,  with  six  field- 
pieces.  The  British  troops  were  well  equip- 
ped and  officered,  possessed  all  the  advan- 
tages of  strict  discipline,  and  were  by  no 
means  distrustful  of  the  issue  of  the  contest. 
The  American  army,  on  the  other  hand,  hav- 
ing been  hastily  called  together,  was  composed 
of  men  who  had  few  ideas  of  military  com- 
binations, and  whose  weapons  were  generally 
fowling-pieces  without  bayonets,  but  who 
were  all  animated  by  one  spirit.  Their  lead- 
ers were  beloved  and  respected  by  them,  and 
were  men  of  tried  truth  and  nerve ; Putnam, 
Stark,  Pomeroy,  Warren,  and  Prescott,  men 
whose  names  yet  call  a glow  into  the  bosom  of 
every  patriot.  The  provincial  troops  amount- 
ed to  perhaps  2,000  men,  with  two  field- 
pieces.  “ Don’t  fire,  ” said  Putnam  to  his  men, 
“till  you  can  see  the  whites  of  their  eyes.” 
The  British  approached  unmolested  till  within 
close  gun-shot,  when  the  tremendous  fire  of 
the  provincials  drove  them  back  with  great 
slaughter.  In  *he  second  attack,  Charles- 
town was  set  on  fire  and  burned  to  the  ground, 
adding  its  raging  flames  to  the  other  horrors 
of  the  battle  scene.  As  the  ammunition  of 
the  Americans  was  nearly  exhausted,  the 
third  attack  carried  the  redoubt,  although  the 
provincials  resisted  the  British  with  the  butt- 
ends  of  their  muskets,  and  slowly  retreated 
from  the  hill.  The  Americans  lost  115 
killed  (among  them  General  Warren),  305 
wounded,  and  30  were  made  prisoners.  The 
British  lost  1,054  in  killed  and  wounded. 

As  the  Americans  retreated  across  Bunk- 
er’s Hill,  Gen.  Putnam  used  every  exertion  to 
rally  them.  He  commanded,  begged,  cursed 
and  swore  like  a madman.  “ Halt ! Make  a 
stand  here!”  he  cried;  “we  can  check  them 
yet.  In  God’s  name  form,  and  give  them  one 
shot  more.”  It  is  said  that  for  the  torrent  of 


156 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


profanity  in  which  the  brave  old  general  in- 
dulged at  this  time,  he  made  a confession,  after 
the  war,  before  the  church  of  which  he  was 
a member.  “It  was  almost  enough  to  make 
an  angel  swear,”  he  said,  “ to  see  the  cowards 
refuse  to  secure  a victory  so  nearly  won.” 
But  the  undisciplined  yeomanry  were  desti- 
tute of  ammunition  ; thrice  had  they  repulsed 
a force  superior  in  strength  and  skill ; and 
whatever  victory  the  British  had  gained 
was  more  humiliating  than  defeat.  A lofty 
monument  now  stands  upon  the  site  of  the 
redoubt. 

BUN Y AN,  John,  the  son  of  a tinker,  born 
at  Elston,  in  1628.  At  an  early  age  "he  was 
dissipated,  and  served  as  a soldier  in  the  par- 
liamentary army.  Reflection  and  reformation, 
however,  brought  out  the  bright  points  of  his 
character.  He  became  a member  of  a society 
of  Anabaptists,  and  finally  their  teacher.  As 
a dissenter  he  was  imprisoned  in  Bedford  jail, 
twelve  years,  and  the  occupation  of  his  mind 
during  his  long  confinement,  was  the  compo- 
sition of  his  unrivaled  “ Pilgrim’s  Progress,” 
that  wonderful  religious  allegory,  bearing  the 
impress  of  a strong  mind  and  an  ardent  imag- 
ination. Bunyan  died  in  1688.  Robert,  his 
last  male  descendant  in  a direct  line,  died  at 
Lincoln,  England,  Nov.  27th,  1855,  aged 
eighty. 

BURCKHARDT,  John  Louis,  famous  for 
his  travels  in  Africa,  born  at  Lausanne  in 
1784.  His  country  being  oppressed  by  France, 
he  went  to  London  in  1806,  and  was  engaged 
by  the  African  association  to  explore  Africa 
from  the  north.  To  facilitate  his  progress  in 
Nubia  and  other  parts  of  the  country,  he  as- 
sumed the  character  of  a S}Trian  Turk,  and  so 
thoroughly  Acquainted  with  the  manners  and 
religion  of  the  East  was  he,  that  he  underwent 
an  examination  by  two  learned  jurists,  and 
was  pronounced  by  them  a learned  and  true 
Mussulman.  He  died  at  Cairo,  October  15th, 
1817,  and  was  buried  in  the  Mussulman  cem- 
etery with  great  splendor. 

BURGOYNE,  John,  the  natural  son  of  Lord 
Bingly,  a general  in  the  English  army,  and 
also  an  agreeable  dramatist.  He  entered  the 
army  at  an  early  age,  and,  in  1762,  had  the 
command  of  a body  of  troops  sent  to  Portugal 
for  the  defense  of  that  kingdom  against  the 
Spaniards.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
American  war  by  taking  Ticonderoga,  but 


after  severe  engagements  at  Stillwater  and 
Saratoga,  was  forced  to  surrender,  with  his 
whole  army,  to  General  Gates,  in  1777. 
Afterward  he  sat  in  parliament,  and  in  1781 
he  warmly  advocated  the  discontinuance  of 
hostilities. 

BURGUNDIANS,  a tribe  of  Germans,  a 
branch  of  the  Vandals,  who  occupied  a part 
of  France,  in  the  fifth  century,  which  has  since 
been  called  Burgundy.  It  was  long  an  inde- 
pendent state,  but  was  attached  to  France  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  on  the 
death  of  Charles  the  Bold.  The  independent 
dukes  of  Burgundy  rendered  their  name  illus- 
trious, and  many  of  them  were  distinguished 
for  their  bravery ’and  other  high  qualities. 

BURIAL.  This  was  the  earliest  mode  of 
disposing  of  dead  bodies,  and  the  first  idea  of 
it  is  said  to  have  been  formed  from  observing 
a live  bird  covering  a dead  one  with  leaves. 
The  antiquity  of  the  custom  of  burning  the 
dead  rises  as  high  as  the  Theban  war ; it  was 
practiced  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
Homer  abounds  with  descriptions  of  such  ob- 
sequies. It  was  very  general  about  1225  b.c.  ; 
it  was  revived  by  Sylla  for  fear  the  relics  of 
the  dead  in  graves  should  be  violated  by  ene- 
mies, and  was  not  in  disuse  till  the  time  of 
Macrobius.  Among  the  most  ancient  -sepul- 
chres were  those  circular  mounds  yet  discern- 
ible in  various  countries,  and  in  Britain  called 
barrows.  Several  of  these  near  Stonehenge 
having  been  opened,  curious  remains  of  Celtic 
ornaments,  such  as  beads,  buckles,  and 
brooches,  in  amber,  wood,  and  gold,  were 
found.  Places  of  burial  were  consecrated 
under  Pope  Calixtus  I.  in  210 ; the  first 
Christian  burial-place  was  instituted  in  596  ; 
burial  in  cities,  742 ; in  consecrated  places, 
750;  in  churchyards,  758.  Woolen  shrouds 
were  used  in  England,  1666.  The  ancients 
had  not  the  unwise  custom  of  crowding  all 
their  dead  in  the  midst  of  their  towns  and 
cities,  within  the  narrow  precincts  of  a place 
reputed  sacred ; much  less  of  amassing  them 
in  the  bosoms  of  their  fanes  and  temples,  as 
has  been  the  habit  in  European  countries. 
The  mortuaries  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
were  at  a distance  from  the  towns  ; those  of 
the  latter  generally  near  the  highways,  whence 
came  the  necessity  for  inscriptions  on  the 
tombs ; and  the  Jews  had  their  sepulchres  in 
gardens,  and  in  fields,  and  among  rocks  and 


BUR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


157 


mountains.  The  practice  of  inhuming  in 
churchyards  and  within  religious  edifices  was 
introduced  by  the  Romish  clergy,  who  pre- 
tended that  the  dead  enjoyed  peculiar  privi- 
leges from  interment  in  consecrated  ground. 
It  is  now  the  custom  to  bury  the  dead  in 
cemeteries.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
these  is  Pere  la  Chaise.  It  takes  its  name 
from  a French  Jesuit,  the  confessor  of  Louis 
XIV.  He  died  in  1709,  and  the  site  of  his 
house  and  grounds  at  Paris  is  now  occupied 
by  this  beautiful  cemetery.  The  burying 
places  of  the  Turks  are  handsome  and  agree- 
able, which  is  owing  chiefly  to  the  fine  shrub- 
bery and  plants  carefully,  placed  over  the 
dead.  It  was  a practice  of  high  antiquity  to 
plant  herbs  and  flowers  about  the  graves  of 
departed  friends.  The  Romans  strewed  roses 
upon  their  tombs ; the  Greeks,  amaranth  and 
myrtle.  The  women  in  Egypt  go  weekly  to 
pray  and  weep  at  the  sepulchres,  and  throw 
sweet  basil  upon  them.  In  Asia  Minor  and 
Turkey  in  Europe,  the  tombs  are  also  adorned 
either  with  palm-leaves,  boughs  of  myrtle,  or 
cypresses  planted  at  the  head  and  foot.  Be- 
tween some  of  the  tombs  is  put  a chest  of  or- 
namental stone,  filled  with  earth,  in  which 
are  planted  herbs  and  aromatic  flowers. 
These  are  regularly  cultivated  by  women  who 
assemble  in  groups  for  that  duty.  The  Athe- 
nian heroes  were  buried  in  coffins  of  cedar, 
because  of  the  aromatic  and  incorruptible  na- 
ture of  that  wood.  Coffins  of  marble  and 
stone  were  used  by  the  Romans.  Alexander 
is  said  to  have  been  buried  in  one  of  gold. 
Glass  coffins  have  been  found  in  England,  and 
the  earliest  record  of  wooden  coffins  there  is 
in  the  burial  of  King  Arthur,  who  was  buried 
in  an  entire  trunk  of  oak,  hollowed,  a.d.  542. 

BURKE,  Edmund,  a statesman  and  great 
political  writer,  was  born  at  Dublin,  January 
1st,  1730.  He  was  contemporary  with  Pitt 
and  Fox.  After  finishing  his  education  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  he  entered  his  name 
at  the  Middle  Temple  as  a law  student,  but 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  political 
career  commenced  by  his  accompanying  Ham- 
ilton, secretary  of  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land, to  Dublin,  and  on  his  return  he  was 
made  private  secretary  to  the  Marquis  of 
Rockingham.  On  the  fall  of  the  Rockingham 
ministry,  he  wrote  a pamphlet  on  the  subject, 
and  beoame  an  active  member  of  tha  opposi- 


tion, being  chosen  for  Bristol,  in  1774,  without 
expense.  His  speeches  in  the  senate  eclipsed 
even  the  reputation  of  his  writings,  and  were 
delivered  with  a vehemence  which  it  was  dif- 
ficult to  resist.  He  was  strenuous  for  the 
conciliation  of  the  American  colonies.  On 
the  return  of  the  Rockingham  administration, 
Mr.  Burke  for  a short  time  filled  the  office  of 
paymaster-general,  but  he  resigned  the  post, 
upon  the  succession  of  Lord  Shelburne  to  the 
premiership.  The  leading  features  of  his 
subsequent  political  life,  in  which  he  held  no 
office,  are  his  impeachment  of  Warren  Has- 
tings ; his  opposition  to  the  limited  regency 
in  1788;  his  prediction  of  the  effects  of  the 
French  revolution,  and  his  separation  from 
Mr.  Fox  upon  those  sentiments.  This  was 
his  last  great  political  act,  all  his  subsequent 
ones  being  to  establish  and  defend  it.  On 
this  subject  he  published  several  pamphlets, 
the  merit  of  which  obtained  him  a pension, 
and  many  severe  reflections  from  his  oppo- 
nents, to  which  he  replied  in  “ A Letter  to  a 
Noble  Lord,”  replete  with  sarcastic  irony. 
He  died  July  8th,  1797.  Mr.  Burke  had  a 
commanding  oratory,  to  enhance  which  he 
spared  no  incidental  act  .of  gesticulation  and 
manner.  On  one  occasion,  he  is  said  to  have 
drawn  forth  and  brandished  a dagger  to  give 
a greater  effect  to  his  words. 

BURNS,  Robekt,  the  greatest  of  Scottish 
bards,  was  the  son  of  a gardener,  and  was 
born  near  the  town  of  Ayr,  January  25th, 
1759.  He  had  some  instruction  and  was  fond 
of  reading.  His  poetical  talent  was  first  dis- 
played in  some  amatory  verses,  and  his  con- 
versational talents  caused  him  to  be  sought 
for  by  convivial  parties,  which  tended  to  fix 
his  habits  of  dissipation.  The  publication  of 
his  poems  procured  him  a sum  of  money 
larger  than  he  anticipated,  and  a high  literary 
reputation.  He  was  enabled  to  take  a farm 
near  Dumfries,  and  at  the  same  time  procured 
the  office  of  exciseman.  He  married  the  early 
object  of  his  affections,  the  “bonnie  Jean” 
of  whom  he  has  written  so  tenderly  in  the 
most  musical  of  his  verses.  She  survived  the 
poet  who  had  immortalized  her  name,  and  died 
in  the  year  1834.  Burns  might  have  pros- 
pered and  enjoyed  a long  life,  had  he  but  lis- 
tened to  the  advice  an  (^remonstrances  of  his 
friends,  and  forsaken  those  ruinous  indulgen- 
ces that  produced  or  at  least  hastened  his 


BUR 


158 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


BIRTH-PLACE  OF  ROBERT  BURNS. 


death,  which  took  place  July  21st,  1796. 
Burns  was  emphatically  the  poet  of  truth  and 
of  nature.  His  most  beautiful  poems  were 
composed  in  the  spirit  of  truth,  and  glow  with 
the  fire  of  real  feeling  and  passion.  Full  of 
affectionate  and  sad  remembrances,  he  com- 
posed the  verses  “ To  Mary  in  Heaven,”  com- 
mencing ; 

“My  Mary,  dear  departed  shade, 

Where  is  thy  blissful  place  of  rest? 

Sees’t  thou  thy  lover  lowly  laid, 

' Hear’st  thou  the  groans  that  rend  his  breast?” 

In  this  he  celebrates  their  last  meeting. 
The  Mary  of  Burns  was  a peasant-girl,  whose 
acquirements  merely  enabled  her  to  read  her 
Bible  and  psalm-book,  and  who  walked  bare- 
footed to  their  trysting-place,  and  yet  she  in- 
spired the  most  enthusiastic  attachment  in  a 
man  whose  intellect  cast  a glory  upon  the 
hills,  and  woods,  and  streams  of  his  native 
land,  and  a halo  round  the  objects  of  his  love, 
which  will  endure  as  long  as  the  human  breast 
is  warmed  with  the  glow  of  social  and  patri- 
otic feeling. 

BURR,  Aaron,  was  born  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
February  6th,  1756.  His  father  was  the  pious 
president  of  Princeton  College,  and  his  mother 


the  daughter  of  that  devout  divine,  Jonathan 
Edwards.  But  death  robbed  him  earlv  of 
their  care,  and  his  life  was  in  deep  contrast 
to  such  parentage.  Brilliant  talents  he  dis- 
played in  his  youthful  collegiate  career,  and 
bravery  in  the  ardor  with  which  he  threw 
himself  into  the  patriotic  cause.  He  was  a 
volunteer  in  Arnold’s  expedition  against  Que- 
bec, and  fought  close  by  Montgomery  when 
that  brave  man  fell.  He  reached  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel.  Ill  health  forced  him  to 
leave  the  army  in  1779.  He  was  soon  fore- 
most at  the  bar  of  New  York,  and  from  1791 
to  1797  was  a member  of  the  United  States 
Senate.  In  1800,  he  was  a candidate  for  the 
presidency  against  Jefferson.  The  choice  de- 
volved  upon  the  House  of  Representatives. 
On  the  thirty-sixth  ballot  Jefferson  was  elected 
president,  and  Burr  vice-president.  The  mur- 
der of  Alexander  Hamilton  by  Burr  in  a duel 
in  1 804,  brought  great  hatred  upon  the  latter. 
In  1807  Burr  was  tried  for  treason,  being  ac- 
cused of  an  attempt  to  rear  an  empire  in  the 
south-west,  but  he  was  acquitted.  His  public 
life  was  at  an  end,  and  he  lived  in  comparative 
obscurity  till  his  death,  Sept.  14th,  1886. 

BURRO WS,  William,  born  October  6th. 


BUR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


159 


1785,  a gallant  officer  in  the  United  States 
navy,  who  fell  a victim  in  the  moment  of  glory, 
Sept.  6th,  1813,  commanding  the  Enterprise, 
which  engaged  the  British  brig  Boxer;  he 
received  a mortal  wound  early  in  the  action, 
and  when  the  sword  of  the  enemy  was  pre- 
sented to  him,  he  exclaimed,  “lam  satisfied ; 
I die  content and  soon  after  expired.  The 
action  lasted  forty -five  minutes. 

BUSACO,  a mountain  ridge  in  Portugal, 
celebrated  for  the  repulse  of  the  French  under 
Massena,  by  the  English  under  Lord  W elling- 
ton,  Sept.  27th,  1810. 

BUTLER,  Riciiakd,  an  officer  of  the  Rev- 
olutionary war,  colonel  of  Morgan’s  rifle  corps, 
shared  at  Saratoga,  and  many  other  places, 
the  renown  of  that  admirable  body.  After  a 
life  of  honor,  General  Butler  fell,  in  the  defeat 
of  St.  Clair’s  army,  by  the  Indians,  Nov.  4th, 
1791. 

BUTLER,  Thomas,  brother  of  Richard,  and 
a brave  officer,  joined  the  army  in  1770,  was 
at  Brandywine,  served  through  the  war,  and 
was  very  severely  wounded  in  the  war  with 
the  Indians,  at  the  battle  where  his  brother 
fell.  His  latter  years  were  imbittered  by  dis- 
putes with  General  Wilkinson,  -which  were 
closed  by  death,  Sept.  7th,  1805,  aged  fifty- 
one.  He  would  not  yield  to  the  general  order 
which  required  officers  and  soldiers  to  cut  the 
hair  close  to  the  head. 

BUTLER,  Samuel,  an  English  poet,  the  son 
of  a farmer,  born  in  Stresham,  Worcester- 
shire, in  1612.  His  pungent  satire  of  “ Hudi- 
bras,”  in  which  the  weak  points  of  the  Puri- 
tans are  happily  exposed,  brought  the  author 
into  notice,  but  did  not  better  his  circumstan- 
ces, and  he.  died  poor  in  1680. 

BYLES,  Mather,  D.D.,  a clergyman  of 
Boston,  born  in  1706.  He  was  for  some  time 
pastor  of  the  Hollis  Street  Church,  but  was 
removed  from  his  pulpit  in  consequence  of 
his  Tory  principles.  His  political  opinions 
subjected  him  to  a temporary  imprisonment 
on  board  a guard-ship.  He  was  however  re- 
leased, but  a guard  put  over  him  in  his  own 
house.  The  guard  was  removed,  and  then 
replaced  in  consequence  of  further  complaint 
against  him.  Finally,  the  presence  of  the 
sentinel  was  dispensed  with.  It  was  on  this 
occasion,  that  the  witty  doctor  remarked  that 
he  had  been  “ guarded,  regarded,  and  disre- 
garded.” When  two  selectmen  stuck  fast  in 


the  slough  opposite  his  house,  he  said  to  them, 
“ Gentlemen,  I have  several  times  complained 
of  this  nuisance,  and  am  therefore  pleased  to 
see  you  stirring  in  the  matter.”  Byles  cor- 
responded with  Pope,  Lansdowne,  and  AY atts, 
and  possessed  some  poetical  talent.  His  es- 
says and  poems  were  collected,  and  published 
in  a volume.  He  died  in  Boston,  July  5th, 
1788. 

BYNG,  George,  an  English  admiral,  born 
in  1663.  He  became  rear-admiral  in  1703. 
In  1706,  he  relieved  Barcelona,  besieged  by 
the  Duke  of  Anjou;  and  in  1708,  frustrated 
the  efforts  of  the  French  to  assist  the  Preten- 
der by  an  invasion.  In  1718,  he  defeated  the 
Spanish  fleet  off  Sicily.  For  these,  and  other 
services,  he  received  many  offices  and  honors, 
and  was  made  \riscount  Torrington.  He  died 
in  1733. 

BYNG,  John,  an  English  admiral,  son  of 
the  preceding,  served  under  his  father  in  many 
expeditions,  and,  although  esteemed  an  able 
seaman  and  a brave  man,  was  ruined  by  par- 
tisan animosity.  Failing  in  his  attempts  to 
relieve  Minorca,  in  1755,  he  was  tried  by  a 
court-martial,  and,  although  recommended  to 
mercy,  shot  in  1757.  After  party  fury  had 
subsided,  and  his  conduct  had  been  dispas- 
sionately examined,  his  intentions  were  al- 
lowed to  have  been  good,  his  courage  indis- 
putable, and  his  death  the  consequence  of 
rancorous  misrepresentation  from  personal 
dislike.  His  conduct  in  his  last  moments  con- 
firmed no  part  of  the  evidence  against  him ; it 
was  cool,  determined,  dignified,  and  resigned. 
Immediate  posterity  honored  him  as  a British 
admiral ; his  connections,  as  a man  of  honor ; 
and  it  was  obtained  from  among  the  secrets  of 
ministerial  intrigue,  that  he  was  the  victim  of 
ministerial  cowardice,  undeserving  of  the  dis- 
grace of  an  execution,  and  obedient  to  orders 
which  the  men  in  office  had  not  the  courage 
to  avow. 

BYRON,  George  Gordon,  Lord,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  English  poets  of  modern 
days,  was  born  in  London,  Jan.  22d,  1788. 
Admiral  Byron,  the  great  voyager,  was  his 
grandfather.  His  mother  was  a Scotch  heir- 
ess, only  daughter  of  George  Gordon,  Esq., 
of  Aberdeenshire,  and  his  father  was  Captain 
Byron,  or,  as  he  was  popularly  termed,  for 
his  reckless  profligacy,  ‘ Mad  Jack  Byron  of 
the  Guards.’  The  parents  of  the  poet  lived 


160 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


unhappily  together,  and  the  heartless  liber- 
tine who  transmitted  so  many  failings  to  his 
son,  squandered  the  property  of  the  woman 
he  had  married  for  her  wealth,  and  reduced 
her  to  comparative  poverty.  Economy  in- 
duced Mrs.  Byron  to  take  up  her  residence 
at  Aberdeen  in  1790,  where  her  son  was 
placed  at  school.  Her  management  of  young 
Byron  was  anything  but  judicious,  and  in 
her  fits  of  passion,  she  even  reproached  him 
with  the  lameness  of  one  of  his  feet,  a de- 
formity which  although  trifling  was  severely 
felt  by  the  sensitive  poet,  and  even  engen- 
dered many  of  his  misanthropic  views.  It 
was  rarely  that  he  alluded  to  it  in  a jesting 
way.  In  his  youth,  however,  he  was  ac- 
quainted with  a child  who  had  a similar  de- 
fect, and  used  to  say  to  his  nurse,  in  the 
Scotch  dialect  which  he  had  acquired,  “ See 
the  twa  laddies  wi’  the  twa  club  feet  ganging 
up  the  high  street.”  His  rambles  among  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  had  a strong  effect 
upon  his  imagination,  and  probably  kindled 
the  spark  which  afterward  brightened  to  a 
flame.  In  one  of  his  poems  he  says : 

“ Long  have  I roamed  through  lands  which  are 
not  mine, 

Adored  the  Alps,  and  loved  the  Appenine, 
Revered  Parnassus,  and  beheld  the  steep 
Jove’s  Ida  and  Olympus  crown  the  deep  ; 

But ’t  was  not  all  long  ages’  yore,  nor  all 
Their  nature  held  me  in  their  thrilling  thrall; 
The  infant  rapture  still  survived  the  boy, 

And  Loch-na-gar  with  Ida  looked  o’er  Troy, 
Mixed  Celtic  memories  with  the  Phrygian  mount, 
And  Highland  linns  with  Castalie’s  clear  fount. 
Forgive  me,  Homer’s  universal  shade ! 

Forgive  me,  Phoebus!  that  my  fancy  strayed; 
The  North  and  nature  taught  me  to  adore 
Your  scenes  sublime,  from  those  beloved  before.” 

To  this  passage  the  following  note  is  append- 
ed by  the  author : “ When  very  young,  about 
eight  years  of  age,  after  an  attack  of  the 
scarlet  fever  at  Aberdeen,  I was  removed  by 
medical  advice  into  the  Highlands.  Here  I 
passed  occasionally  some  summers,  and  from 
this  period  I date  my  love  of  mountainous 
countries.  I can  never  forget  the  effect,  a 
few  years  afterward  in  England,  of  the  only 
thing  I had  long  seen,  even  in  miniature,  of 
a mountain,  in  the  Malvern  Hills.  After  I 
returned  to  Cheltenham,  I used  to  watch 
them  every  afternoon  at  sunset,  with  a sen- 
sation w’hich  I can  rvot  describe.  This  was 
boyish  enough  ; but  T was  then  only  thirteen 
years  of  age,  and  it  was  in  the  holidays.” 


In  the  year  1798,  on  the  death  of  his 
grand-uncle,  he  succeeded  to  a baronial  es- 
tate and  title,  and  became  a chancery  ward 
under  the  guardianship  of  the  Earl  of  Carl- 
isle, against  whom  he  soon  conceived  a dis- 
like. Placed  at  Harrow,  he  had  to  encounter 
all  the  temptations  and  annoyances  insepara- 
ble from  public  education.  School-boys  are 
not  famous  for  feeling,  and  the  lameness  of 
Byron  was  perpetually  called  to  mind  by  the 
rudest  practical  sarcasms.  He  would  often 
wake  and  find  his  lame  foot  plunged  in  a pai] 
of  water.  Through  Harrow,  he  fairly  fought 
his  way.  “I  had,”  said  he,  in  one  of  his 
conversations  with  Captain  Medwin,  “ a spirit 
that  ill  brooked  the  restraints  of  school  dis- 
cipline ; for  I had  been  encouraged  by  ser- 
vants in  all  my  violence  of  temper,  and  was 
used  to  command.  Eve^thing  like  a task 
was  repugnant  to  my  nature,  and  I came 
away  a very  indifferent  classic,  and  read  in 
nothing  that  was  useful.  That  subordination 
which  is  the  soul  of  all  discipline,  I sub- 
mitted to  with  difficulty ; yet  I did  submit  to 
it;  and  I have  always  retained  a sense  of 
Drury’s  kindness,  which  enabled  me  to  bear 
it  and  fagging  too.  The  Duke  of  Dorset  was 
my  fag.  I was  not  a very  hard  task-master. 
There  were  times  at  which,  if  I had  not  consid- 
ered it  as  a school,  I should  have  been  happy 
at  Harrow.  There  is  one  spot  I should  like 
to  see  again : I was  particularly  delighted 
with  the  view  from  the  church-yard,  and 
used  to  sit  for  hours  on  the  stile  leading  into 
the  fields ; even  then  I formed  a wish  to  be 
buried  there.”  “ There  were  two  things  that 
strike  me  at  this  moment,  that  I did  at  Har- 
row. I fought  Lord  Calthorpe  for  writing 
atheist  under  my  name ; and  prevented  the 
school-room  from  being  burnt  during  a re- 
bellion, by  pointing  out  to  the  boys  the 
names  of  their  fathers  and  grandfathers  on 
the  walls.” 

In  October,  1805,  the  young  lord  entered 
Cambridge  university,  where  he  was  little 
distinguished  for  application,  and  showed  no 
great  respect  for  academic  honors.  He  even 
evinced  his  contempt  for  them  by  keeping  a 
young  bear  in  his  room,  which  he  said  he 
was  training  for  a fellowship.  Id  his  twen- 
tieth year  he  took  up  his  abode  at  Newstead 
Abbey,' a fine  old  building,  which  he  proceed- 
ed immediately  to  repair.  His  “ Hours  of 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


161 


Idleness  ” now  appeared,  a collection  of  poems 
written  during  his  minority,  which  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Edinburgh  Review  with  a 
degree  of  malignity  and  violence  that  pro- 
voked the  youthful  bard  to  vindicate  his 
reputation  in  a satire  entitled  “ English  Bards 
and  Scotch  Reviewers.”  This  severe  and 
sweeping  philippic  appeared  a few  days  after 
he  had  taken  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  gained  the  favor  of  the  public  in  a short 
time.  He  soon  after  went  abroad,  traveling 
through  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Greece.  The 
scenes  through  which  he  passed  are  finely 
described  in  “Childe  Harold’s  Pilgrimage.” 
In  the  east  he  swam  from  Sestos  to  Abydos, 
and  prided  himself  greatly  on  this  daring- 
feat.  He  returned  to  England  in  1811,  after 
an  absence  of  t\to  years. 

He  hastened  to  Newstead,  but  arrived  too 
late  to  close  the  eyes  of  his  mother.  About 
this  period,  the  acquaintance  between  him- 
self and  Thomas  Moore  commenced,  an  ac- 
quaintance which  afterward  rippned  into  the 
warmest  friendship.  On  the  29th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1812,  appeared  the  two  first  cantos  of 
“ Childe  Harold,”  and  the  success  and  sale  of 
the  work  was  instantaneous.  The  hero,  a 
proud  but  melancholy  wanderer,  satiated  with 
sensual  pleasure,  was  at  once  recognized  as  a 
delineation  of  the  noble  author,  notwith- 
standing his  decisive  denial.  The  “Giaour,” 
the  “Bride  of  Abydos,”  and  the  “ Corsair,” 
poems  in  all  of  which  the  author  displayed 
his  unrivaled  talents,  and  accurate  knowledge 
of  eastern  customs  and  manners,  followed  at 
short  intervals.  Of  one  of  these,  twenty 
thousand  copies  were  sold  in  one  day.  On 
the  2d  of  January,  1815,  Byron  married  Miss 
Milbanke,  daughter  of  Sir  Ralph  Milbanke. 
The  marriage  was  unhappy,  and  after  various 
quarrels,  and  much  distress,  the  parties 
separated.  Ada,  the  daughter  of  unhappy 
parents,  was  taken  from  Byron,  who,  in 
1816,  left  England  forever.  He  gave  in  con- 
versation the  following  melancholy  account 
of  his  situation  immediately  before  leaving 
England : “ In  addition  to  all  my  other  mor- 
tifications, my  affairs  were  irretrievably  in- 
volved, and  almost  so  as  to  make  me  what 
they  wished.  I was  compelled  to  part  with 
Newstead,  which  I never  could  have  ventured 
to  sell  in  my  mother’s  lifetime.  As  it  is  I 
shall  never  forgive  myself  for  having  done 


so ; though  I am  told  that  the  estate  would 
not  now  bring  half  so  much  as  I got  for  it. 
This  does  not  at  all  reconcile  me  to  having 
parted  from  the  old  abbey.  I did  not  make 
up  my  mind  to  this  step  but  from  the  last 
necessity.  I had  my  wife’s  portion  to  repay, 
and  was  determined  to  add  £10,000  more  of 
my  own  to  it,  which  I did.  I always  hated 
being  in  debt,  and  do  not  owe  a guinea.  The 
moment  I put  my  affairs  in  train,  and  in  little 
more  than  eighteen  months  after  my  mar- 
riage, I left  England,  an  involuntary  exile, 
intending  4t  should  be  forever.” 

After  his  residence  in  Italy,  where  his 
dramas  and  many  other  poems  were  written, 
and  where  he  was  alternately  dissolute  and 
temperate,  the  revolution  in  Greece  engaged 
his  attention,  and  he  determined  to  embark 
his  person  and  fortune  in  the  cause  of  liberty. 
He  was  received  in  Greece  with  enthusiasm, 
and  proceeded  to  Missolonghi,  where  his  re- 
ception was  most  gratifying  to  his  feelings. 
He  immediately  formed  a brigade  of  five 
hundred  Suliotes.  He  was  aware  of  the  dis- 
sensions existing  among  the  Greeks,  but  was 
confident  of  their  ultimate  success.  He  was 
urged  to  go  to  Zante,  on  account  of  the  un- 
heal thiness  of  Missolonghi.  “I  can  not  quit 
Greece,”  he  wrote  to  a friend,  “ while  there 
is  a chance  of  my  being  even  of  (supposed) 
utility.  There  is  a stake  worth  millions  such 
as  I am,  and  while  I can  stand  at  all,  I must 
stand  by  the  cause.  While  I say  this,  I am 
aware  of  the  difficulties,  dissensions,  and 
defects  of  the  Greeks  themselves ; but  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  them  by  all  reasona- 
ble people.” 

On  the  9th  of  April,  while  riding  on  horse- 
back, he  was  overtaken  by  a rain-storm,  and 
the  feverish  cold  he  took  was  the  precursor 
of  a fatal  malady.  He  died  April  19th,  1824; 
his  last  thoughts,  as  his  words  indicated, 
were  with  his  wife  and  child.  His  funeral 
was  solemnized  in  Missolonghi,  and  his  death 
publicly  mourned  in  Greece.  His  body  was 
conveyed  to  England,  and  interred  at  Huck- 
nall  church,  near  Newstead  Abbey.  The  ex- 
terior of  the  coffin  bore  the  following  inscrip- 
tion: “George  Gordon  Noel  Byron,  Lord 
Byron  of  Rochdale;  born  in  London,  Jan. 
22d,  1788.  Died  at  Missolonghi,  in  Western 
Greece,  April  19th,  1824.” 

Most  of  Lord  Byron’s  vices  sprang  from 


BYR 


162 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


his  freedom  from  all  control  at  an  age  when  | anniversaries  ; people  only  laugh  at  it,  who 
he  most  stood  in  need  of  friendly  advice  and 
friendly  restraint,  to  guard  him  from  those 


evils  which  beset  young  men,  and  particu- 
larly young  men  of  rank,  in  the  outset  of 
their  career.  Yet  his  reckless  gallantry,  and 
laxity  of  morals,  did  not  efface  fine  traits  of 
feeling,  benevolence,  and  a respect  for  virtue. 
His  attachment  to  his  daughter  Ada  was  sin- 
cere and  lasting ; and  he  often  spoke  of  his 
wife  with  affection  and  respect.  Medwin 
says  that  his  absent  daughter  occupied  much 
of  his  thoughts.  uHe  opened  his  writing 
desk,  and  showed  me  some  hair,  which  he 
told  me  was  his  child’s.  During  our  ride 
and  drive  this  evening,  he  declined  our  usual 
amusement  of  pistol-firing,  without  assigning 
a cause.  He  hardly  spoke  a word  during  the 
first  half-hour,  and  it  was  evident  that  some- 
thing weighed  heavily  on  his  mind.  There 
was  a sacredness  in  his  melancholy  that  I 
dared  not  interrupt.  At  length  he  said: 
“ This  is  Ada’s  birth-day,  and  might  have 
been  the  happiest  day  of  my  life ; as  it  is 

! ” He  stopped,  seemingly  ashamed  of 

having  betrayed  his  feelings.  He  tried  in 
vain  to  rally  his  spirits  by  turning  the  con- 
versation ; but  he  created  a laugh  in  which 
he  could  not  join,  and  soon  relapsed  into  his 
former  reverie.  It  lasted  till  we  came  within 
a mile  of  the  Argive  gate.  There  our  silence 
was  all  at  once  interrupted  by  shrieks  that 
seemed  to  proceed  from  a cottage  by  the  side 
of  the  road.  We  pulled  up  our  horses,  to 
inquire  of  a contadino  standing  at  the  little 
garden-wicket.  He  told  us  that  a widow  had 
just  lost  her  only  child,  and  that  the  sounds 
proceeded  from  the  wailings  of  some  women 
over  the  corpse.  Lord  Byron  was  much 
affected,  and  his  superstition,  acted  upon  by 
a sadness  that  seemed  to  be  presentiment, 
led  him  to  augur  some  disaster.  “I  shall 
not  be  happy,”  said  he,  “till  I hear  that  my 
daughter  is  well.  I have  a great  horror  of 


have  never  kept  a register  of  them.  I always 
write  to  my  sister  on  Ada’s  birthday.  I did 
so  last  year ; and,  what  was  very  remarkable, 
my  letter  reached  her  on  my  wedding-day, 
and  her  answer  reached  me  at  Ravenna  on 
my  birthday.  Several  extraordinary  things 
have  happened  to  me  on  my  birthday ; so 
they  did  to  Napoleon ; and  a more  won- 
derful circumstance  still  occurred  to  Marie 
Antoinette.”  That  Lord  Byron  should  have 
joined  to  his  religious  skepticism  some  super- 
stitious weaknesses,  will  surprise  many ; yet 
it  should  seem  no  incompatibility.  There  is 
little  or  no  connection  between  reason  and 
sentiment,  and  all  imaginative  persons  are 
liable  to  this  disease : for  superstition  is  the 
malady  of  man  himself,  only  as  he  is  an 
imaginative  animal.  Byron  once  consulted 
a conjurer,  more  out  of  sport  than  curiosity. 
He  was  told  that  two  years  would  be  fatal 
to  him,  his  twenty-seventh  and  his  thirty- 
seventh.  In  the  first  he  married,  in  the 
second  he  died. 

BYZANTIUM,  named  from  Byzas , its 
founder,  was  situated  on  the  site  of  the  pres- 
ent city  of  Constantinople.  It  was  founded 
by  a Greek  colony,  b.c.  667.  Philip  of  Mace- 
don  laid  siege  to  it.  One  dark  night  his 
soldiers  had  almost  gained  the  town,  when 
a light  shone  suddenly  from  the  north,  and 
revealed  to  the  inhabitants  their  danger. 
The  thankful  Byzantines  built  an  altar  to 
Diana,  and  assumed  the  crescent  as  the  em- 
blem of  their  city.  When  the  Turks  con- 
quered Constantinople,  they  adopted  it  as 
their  own  device.  From  the  Thracians, 
Scythians,  and  Gauls,  and  under  the  Roman 
emperors  Severus  and  Gallienus,  Byzantium 
suffered  severely.  During  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantine the  Great,  it  was  rebuilt  and  made 
the  capital  of  the  empire.  The  B}rzantine 
empire  is  a name  given  to  the  Eastern  Roman 
empire. 


BYZ 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


163 


c. 

CABOT,  Sebastian,  a celebrated  navigator, 
son  of  John  Cabot,  was  born  at  Bristol,  in 
1467,  Ho  was  the  discoverer  of  Florida.  He 
visited  the  eastern  side  of  the  island  of  New- 
foundlanl  John  Cabot  and  his  son  Sebas- 
tian discovered,  on  the  24th  of  June,  1497, 
the  shores  of  Newfoundland.  The  neighbor- 
ing island  received  the  name  of  St.  John, 
because  it  was  discovered  upon  the  festival 
of  that  saint.  After  having  sailed  in  the 
English  service,  Sebastian  went  to  Spain  in 
1526,  where  he  was  furnished  with  vessels 
with  which  he  ascended  the  river  La  Plata. 
He  made  other  voyages  also  in  Spanish  ves- 
sels. He  returned  to  England,  however,  and 
was  graced  with  various  dignities,  and  in- 
trusted with  the  direction  of  the  Merchants’ 
Company,  formed  for  the  purpose  of  making 
discoveries.  He  superintended  Willoughby’s 
expedition  in  1553,  and  an  act  of  Edward 
VI.,  dated  1549,  grants  him  a pension  of 
£166,  a considerable  sum  if  we  consider  the 
value  of  money  at  that  period.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  died  in  1557. 

CADE,  John,  a native  of  Ireland,  who, 
having  been  compelled  to  fly  to  France,  re- 
turned to  England  in  1450,  assumed  the  pop- 
ular name  of  John  Mortimer,  and  raised  a 
formidable  force  in  Kent,  at  the  head  of  which 
he  placed  himself.  He  promised  to  lay  down 
his  arms,  if  the  grievances  of  which  he  com- 
plained were  redressed;  but  losing  his  au- 
thority over  his  followers  they  committed 
various  outrages  which  were  resented  by  the 
well-disposed  part  of  the  community.  The 
rebels  were  defeated,  a price  was  set  on  Cade’s 
head,  and  he  was  killed  by  one  Iden,  a gen- 
tleman of  Sussex,  1451. 

CADMUS.  This  name  belongs  to  several 
characters  of  mythology  and  history.  One, 
a Phoenician,  brought  a colony  of  his  coun- 
trymen to  Greece,  and  introduced  letters 
there,  b.c.  1550. 

CADOUDAL,  George,  a Chouan  chief, 
who  with  Gen.  Pichegru,  was  concerned  in  a 
conspiracy  to  take  the  life  of  Bonaparte  when 
first  consul.  He  was  brought  over  to  France 
in  a British  government  vessel,  but  was  seized 


by  the  police,  tried,  condemned,  and  executed 
June  24th,  1804,  aged  thirty-five  years. 

CADWALLADER,  John,  a distinguished 
military  officer,  born  in  Philadelphia.  He 
commanded  the  Pennsylvania  troops  in  the 
winter  of  1777,  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
General  W ashington.  At  the  battles  of  Prince- 
ton, Brandywine,  Germantown,  and  Mon- 
mouth, he  served  as  a volunteer  or  acted  in 
his  command,  and  died  in  1786. 

CiESAR,  Caius  Julius,  descended  from 
the  illustrious  family  of  Julia,  which  traced 
its  origin  toiEneas  and  Venus,  was  born  100 
b.c.  In  his  infancy  he  witnessed  the  civil 
wars  of  Sylla  and  his  maternal  uncle,  Marius. 
When  Caesar  had  arrived  at  man’s  estate, 
Sylla,  then  at  the  height  of  power,  could  not 
excuse  his  crime  in  being  the  nephew  of  Ma- 
rius, and  the  son-in-law  of  Cinna.  He  was 
proscribed,  and  his  sentence  was  revoked  only 
by  means  of  the  earnest  solicitations  of  the 
vestals,  and  the  credit  of  his  family.  Sylla 
is  said  to  have  declared,  in  yielding  to  their 
urgency,  that  they  would  one  day  repent 
having  saved  the  life  of  a young  man  in 
whom  he  beheld  the  spirit  of  more  than  one 
Marius.  Young  Caesar  commenced  his  mil- 
itary career  in  Asia.  Returning  to  Rome 
after  the  death  of  Sylla,  he  gained  applause 
and  popularity  by  his  eloquence,  an  art  in 
which  Appollonius  of  Rhodes  was  his  instruc- 
tor. While  absent  from  Rome,  pursuing  his 
studies,  he  learned  that  Mithridates  had  at- 
tacked the  provinces  of  the  allies  of  Rome, 
and  accordingly,  leaving  Rhodes  for  the  con- 
tinent, he  assembled  troops  and  led  them 
against  the  king  of  Pontus. 

On  his  return  to  Rome,  finding  Pompey  at 
the  head  of  the  senate  and  the  republic,  and 
fearing  that  his  connection  with  the  partisans 
of  Marius  might  prove  disadvantageous  to 
him,  he  joined  the  Pompeian  party.  The 
office  of  military  tribune,  and  afterward  that 
of  questor,  were  conferred  upon  Caesar.  Upon 
pronouncing  the  funeral  eulogium  on  his  aunt 
Julia,  while  enjoying  the  latter  dignity,  he 
produced  the  images  of  Marius,  which  had 
not  seen  the  light  since  the  dictatorship  of 


C.ES 


164 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


Sylla.  When  promoted  to  the  dignity  of 
aedile,  he  caused  the  statues  and  trophies 
of  Marius  to  be  replaced.  At  this  period  he 
was  accused  of  aiming  at  the  supreme  power, 
but  the  people,  whose  tastes  he  flattered, 
vaunted  his  devotion  and  courage,  and  the 
zeal  with  which  he  had  discharged  his  official 
duties ; and  the  multitude  did  not  forget  the 
magnificent  spectacles  for  which  they  were 
indebted  to  him,  and  the  ample  arrange- 
ments which  he  had  made  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  spectators  at  the  public  shows. 
When  the  conspiracy  of  Cataline  was  discov- 
ered, Caesar  had  the  hardihood  to  recommend 
the  conspirators  to  mercy,  and  sustained  his 
opinion  with  a warmth  which  gave  rise  to  a 
suspicion  that  he  was  not  altogether  a stran- 
ger to  the  plot.  So  strongly  did  the  tide  of 
indignation  set  against  him,  that  the  knights 
who  composed  the  guard  on  that  day,  waited 
only  for  a sign  from  Cicero  to  kill  him  ; but 
the  latter,  fearing  that  it  would  be  impossi- 
ble to  substantiate  his  guilt,  saved  him  from 
their  fury.  Caesar,  while  engaged  in  ambi- 
tious schemes,  mingled  in  the  dissipation  of 
the  day,  and  concealed  under  the  exterior  of 
a man  of  pleasure  the  traits  of  a determined 
foe  to  liberty. 

On  the  death  of  Metellus,  Caesar  obtained 
the  office  of  pontifex  maximus,  although  two 
powerful  men  were  his  competitors.  He  had 
so  plunged  himself  in  debt  by  his  heavy  brib- 
ery, that  on  the  day  of  the  election,  seeing  his 
mother  in  tears,  he  embraced  her,  and  said, 

“ To-day  you  will  see  me  a high-priest  or  an 
exile.”  Shortly  after  this,  Clodius  having 
been  accused  of  attempting  to  corrupt  the 
fidelity  of  Caesar’s  wife,  he  divorced  her,  and 
said,  “The  wife  of  Caesar  must  not  even  be 
suspected.”  He  was  then  praetor ; after- 
ward the  government  of  Spain  fell  to  his  lot. 
A saying  of  his  at  this  time  proved  that  he 
then  entertained  the  most  ambitious  ideas. 
At  a poor  village  in  the  Alps,  some  of  his 
friends  asked  if,  in  that  miserable  place, 
power  and  rank  occasioned  discussion.  “ I 
had  rather,”  said  he  to  them,  “ be  the  first 
even  in  this  place,  than  the  second  in  Rome.” 
lie  was  b}r  no  means  idle  in  his  government, 
but  made  many  conquests,  while  he  did  not 
neglect  his  private  interests,  for  he  extorted 
money  enough  to  pay  his  enormous  debts, 

Cl 


and  enable  him  to  purchase  a vast  number 
of  creatures. 

To  obtain  the  consulate,  he  reconciled  Cras- 
sus  and  Pompey,  and  made  use  of  both,  form- 
ing with  them  the  first  triumvirate.  Al- 
though he  had  a colleague,  he  governed  with 
absolute  authority.  Bibulus,  who  was  'asso- 
ciated with  him,  and  vainly  opposed  his 
wishes,  wittily  declared  that  the  Romans  were 
not  under  the  consulate  of  Caesar  and  Bibu- 
lus, but  under  the  consulate  of  Julius  and 
Caesar.  Caesar  gained  popularity  by  procur- 
ing the  distribution  of  the  lands  of  Campania. 

Shortly  after  the  union  of  Pompey  with 
Julia,  the  daughter  of  Caesar,  the  latter  ob- 
tained the  government  of  the  Gauls  and  Illy- 
ria for  five  years,  with  the  command  of  four 
legions.  He  triumphed  over  the  Gauls,  the 
Helvetians,  the  brave  Belgians,  and  others, 
carried  his  arms  beyond  the  Rhine,  and 
raised  the  Roman  eagles  in  hitherto  uncon- 
quered Britain.  During  the  ten  years  of  the 
Gallic  war,  Caesar  is  said  to  have  possessed 
himself  of  eight  hundred  towns,  and  to  have 
triumphed  in  arms  over  three  million  men. 
In  the  midst  of  his  victories,  he  was  mindful 
of  his  own  interests,  and  robbed  even  altars 
and  temples  to  increase  his  wealth.  He  is 
said  to  have  quoted  with  approbation  this 
sentence  of  Euripides,  “Violate  justice  only 
for  the  sake  of  ruling.”  The  soldiers  were 
gained  by  liberal  presents,  and  it  seemed  as 
if  the  army  was  the  depositary  of  the  im- 
mense wealth  which  Caesar  was  accumulat- 
ing. Thus  the  troops  were  the  soldiers  of 
Caesar,  and  not  of  the  republic.  Rome  had 
become  venal : everything  was  for  sale,  and 
Caesar  was  the  purchaser  of  everything. 

Crassus  had  been  slain  in  a campaign 
against  the  Parthians,  and  Julia,  the  link  that 
bound  Caesar  and  Pompey  together,  as  the 
daughter  of  one  and  the  wife  of  the  other, 
was  no  more.  The  predominant  party  in  the 
senate  was  favorable  to  Pompey,  and  the  in- 
creasing power  of  the  conqueror  of  Gaul  was 
jealously  seen.  Although  the  term  of  Cae- 
sar’s command  had  not  yet  expired,  the 
senate  sent  him  a decree,  the  purport  of  which 
was,  that  if  in  a limited  time  Caesar  did  not 
relinquish  his  command,  he  should  be  treated 
as  the  enemy  of  the  commonwealth.  Three 
tribunes  of  Caesar’s  party,  among  them  Mark 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


165 


Antony,  having  been  expelled  from  the  sen- 
ate for  opposing  this  decree,  fled  to  the  camp 
of  Caesar  in  the  garb  of  slaves.  War  was 
practically  declared.  The  senate  commanded 
the  consuls  to  look  to  the  safety  of  the  repub- 
lic, and  Caesar  ordered  his  troops  to  advance 
to  the  Rubicon,  a small  river  separating  Cis- 
alpine Gaul  from  Italy.  The  republic,  which 
both  parties  invoked,  was  no  more  than  a 
name  ; Caesar  and  Pompey  were  both  heads 
of  factions,  that  sought  to  elevate  themselves 
above  the  laws.  Learning  the  decree  of  the 
senate,  Caesar  marched  directly  to  the  Rubi- 
con. There,  the  risks  he  was  about  to  incur, 
and  the  evils  he  was  about  to  bring  upon  his 
country,  held  his  mind  in  suspense  for  a long 
time;  but,  after  having  reflected  upon  the 
hate  and  animosity  of  his  enemies,  and  upon 
his  own  strength,  he  dashed  forward,  ex- 
claiming, “The  die  is  cast.”  His  soldiers 
followed  him.  Arrived  at  Rimini,  the  terror 
of  his  arms  spread  to  Rome,  where  disorder 
prevailed.  Conflicting  opinions  distracted 
the  city,  and  all  energy  seemed  sunk  in  the 
consideration  of  the  greatness  of  the  danger, 
and  the  insufficiency  of  the  means  of  defense. 

Pompey  left  Rome,  with  the  consuls,  prin- 
cipal senators,  &c.,  and  from  Capua  went  to 
Dyrrachium,  to  which  last  place  he  escaped 
under  cover  of  night,  leaving  the  whole  of 
Italy  in  the  power  of  Caesar.  The  latter, 
sending  his  lieutenants  to  take  possession  of 
Sardinia  and  Sicily,  advanced  to  Rome.  The 
only  act  of  violence  which  he  committed,  was 
the  seizure  of  the  public  treasure  deposited 
in  the  temple  of  Saturn.  Pompey’s  party 
had  idly  imagined  that  the  removal  of  the  key 
was  a sufficient  safeguard.  The  tribune  Me- 
tellus  opposed  the  passage  of  Caesar,  who 
threatened  him  with  death,  sternly  adding, 
“ This  is  an  act  easier  for  me  to  do  than  to 
name.”  The  tribune  retired,  and  Caesar  took 
out  all  the  treasure,  even  the  most  sacred 
deposits.  Having  subdued  Pompey’s  lieu- 
tenants in  Spain,  Caesar  was  named  dicta- 
tor. He  then  went  to  Greece  for  the  purpose 
of  crushing  Pompey.  Crossing  the  sea  in  a 
mere  fishing-boat,  he  was  exposed  to  great 
danger,  and  animated  the  pilot  by  the  memo- 
rable exclamation,  “ Fear  nothing ! you  carry 
Caesar  and  his  fortunes ! ” The  fate  of  Pom- 
pey and  of  the  republic  was  decided  by  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia,  fought  48  b.c.,  in  which 


Caesar  was  completely  victorious.  He  pur- 
sued Pompey  to  Egypt,  but  was  indignant 
when  the  head  of  his  unfortunate  rival  was 
brought  him  by  his  assassins. 

While  he  was  in  Alexandria,  detained  by 
the  charms  of  Cleopatra,  and  the  differences 
existing  between  the  members  of  the  family 
of  Ptolemy,  he  witnessed  the  breaking  out  of 
a sedition  which  shortly  became  an  open 
war,  and  called  for  the  exertion  of  all  his 
energy.  After  remaining  some  months  in 
Egypt,  he  marched  against  Pharnaces,  king 
of  Pontus,  whom  he  defeated  with  a celerity 
well  expressed  in  his  own  words,  “ Veni , 
vidi , vici “I  came,  I saw,  I conquered.” 
There  still  remained  to  be  conquered  some 
formidable  enemies ; Scipio,  Labienus,  Cato, 
and  Juba,  the  king  of  Mauritania,  had  pow- 
erful armies  in  Africa.  After  a campaign  in 
which  Caesar  displayed  all  his  skill,  Africa 
no  longer  sheltered  a Roman  opposed  to  him, 
except  Cato,  who  shut  himself  up  in  Utica, 
and  preferred  death  to  submission.  Caesar, 
who  admired  elevation  of  soul,  envied  Cato 
the  glory  of  his  death,  and  wept  for  his  fate, 
as  he  had  shed  tears  at  that  of  Pompey.  The 
conqueror,  after  having  subjected  Africa,  and 
ordered  the  rebuilding  of  Carthage,  returned 
to  Italy,  where  he  was  received  with  the 
acclamations  of  the  senate  and  Roman  peo- 
ple. Four  triumphs  were  decreed  to  him. 
His  liberality  was  felt  by  the  people,  for 
whose  amusements  he  prepared  festivals  and 
shows. 

The  two  sons  of  Pompey  mustered  a strong 
force  in  Spain,  but  were  attacked  in  the 
plains  of  Munda,  by  Caesar,  and  signally  de- 
feated. So  obstinate  was  the  battle,  that 
Caesar  himself  declared  that  he  fought  less 
for  victory  than  life,  but  from  the  moment 
that  both  were  secure,  everything  was  in 
his  power.  He  re-entered  Rome  the  master 
of  the  world.  The  triumph  which  he  then 
obtained  for  having  vanquished  Romans  ex- 
cited secret  murmurs  among  the  people  and 
senators,  but  no  one  dared  to  utter  a com- 
plaint in  public.  The  senate  decreed  him 
extraordinary  honors  and  unlimited  author- 
ity. He  was  declared  consul  for  ten  years, 
and  perpetual  dictator;  they  gave  him  the 
titles  of  emperor,  and  father  of  his  country. 
His  person  was  declared  sacred  and  inviolable. 
He  had  the  privilege  of  being  present  at 


166 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


spectacles  in  a golden  chair,  with  a crown  of 
laurel  upon  his  head.  The  decree  of  the 
senate  provided  that,  even  after  his  death, 
this  chair  and  the  crown  of  gold  should  be 
conspicuously  placed  at  all  spectacles  in  honor 
of  his  memory.  There  was  now  but  one 
thing  wanting,  the  title  of  king.  He  is  said 
to  have  deliberated  whether  he  should  take  it. 

He  preserved  the  republican  forms  in  the 
midst  of  an  absolute  government,  and  showed 
himself  as  able  to  maintain  power,  as  to  gain 
it.  “ His  clemency,”  says  Montesquieu,  “ was 
insulting.  It  was  considered  that  he  did  not 
pardon,  but  disdained  to  punish.”  Having 
by  victory  obtained  the  highest  power,  he 
wished  to  enjoy  it  as  if  it  had  been  transmit- 
ted to  him,  and  sought  too  soon  to  banish  the 
inquietudes  which  almost  invariably  trouh  2 
a power  of  recent  growth.  “ I had  rather,” 
said  he,  “ die  at  once,  than  live  always  in 
fear.”  He  sent  away  his  Spanish  guard, 
contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  best  friends,  and 
trusting  too  readily  the  assertions  of  his  flat- 
terers, who  declared,  that  after  having  put 
an  end  to  the  civil  wars,  the  republic  was 
more  interested  than  he  was,  in  his  safety. 
His  death  was  caused  by  this  want  of  caution. 

He  had  formed  a plan  for  conquering  the 
Parthians,  and  was  on  the  eve  of  departing 
for  Asia.  His  partisans,  to  reconcile  the  Ro- 
mans to  his  assumption  of  the  title  of  king, 
circulated  a report  that  the  books  of  the 
Sibyls  declared,  that  the  Parthians  could  only 
be  subjugated  by  the  Romans  when  their 
leader  was  a king.  The  rumor  gave  the  ene- 
mies of  Caesar  a pretext  for  seeking  his  death. 
A conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  at  the 
head  of  which  were  Brutus  and  Cassius, 
whom  he  had  made  praetors.  The  assassin- 
ation was  to  take  place  on  the  ides  of  March, 
the  day  on  which  Caesar,  according  to  report, 
was  to  assume  the  royal  title.  The  conspir- 
acy was  not  so  secret  as  to  prevent  the  circu- 
lation of  some  reports  with  regard  to  it, 
but  Caesar  refused  to  take  any  precaution. 
Moved,  however,  by  the  tears  and  entreaties 
of  his  wife  Calphurnia,  he  had  made  up  his 
mind  to  remain  at  home,  when  Decimus  Bru- 
tus, by  representing  to  him  the  importance 
of  presenting  himself  at  the  senate-house, 
changed  his  resolution.  As  he  was  leaving 
his  house,  a certain  Artemidorus  placed  in 
his  hand  a paper,  containing  an  exposure  of 


the  whole  plot.  Being  unable  to  read  this 
and  other  letters  from  the  pressure  of  the 
crowd  about  him,  Caesar  gave  them  to  his 
secretaries.  He  had  no  sooner  entered  the 
senate-house,  than  he  was  surrounded  by  the 
conspirators.  Cimber,  under  pretext  of  re- 
spect, seized  the  skirt  of  his  robe,  a signal 
which  Casca  responded  to  by  stabbing  Caesar 
in  the  shoulder.  The  weapon  was  caught 
by  the  intrepid  victim,  who  exclaimed, 
“Wretch!  what  art  thou  doing?”  Caesar, 
though  repeatedly  wounded,  defended  him- 
self against  his  assassins,  until  Brutus  struck 
him,  when,  fixing  his  eyes  upon  him,  he 
mournfully  exclaimed,  “ And  thou,  too,  Bru- 
tus?” Then,  folding  his  head  in  his  mantle, 
he  fell,  pierced  with  thirty-three  wounds,  at 
the  base  of  Pompey’s  statue,  March  15th,  44 
b.c.  He  was  then  fifty-six  years  old.  The 
body  of  Caesar,  abandoned  by  all,  was  car- 
ried home  by  three  slaves.  When  his  will 
was  read  from  the  tribune  by  Antony,  the 
people  made  the  air  ring  with  their  cries 
of  grief  and  anger.  The  funeral  ceremonies 
were  distinguished  by  uncommon  magnifi- 
cence. The  senate,  who  dared  not  defend 
him  in  his  hour  of  need,  placed  him  among 
the  gods,  and  ordered  that  his  laws  should  be 
immutable. 

The  results  of  this  assassination  were  de- 
plorable, for  jealousy,  ambition,  and  personal 
anger  armed  the  greater  part  of  the  murder- 
ers, and  but  few  among  them  were  animated 
by  a love  of  liberty.  Caesar,  with  many 
faults  and  foibles,  possessed  many  fine  traits, 
and  was  fitted  by  nature  to  command.  His 
erudition  was  considerable,  and  his  “ Com- 
mentaries ” are  models  of  good  writing.  He 
has  been  pronounced  the  greatest  man  that 
Rome  ever  beheld.  Clement,  generous,  and 
magnanimous,  he  was  also  insatiably  ambi- 
tious. He  was  an  orator,  statesman,  and 
scholar,  as  well  as  a successful  general. 

CAILLIE,  Rene,  a native  of  France,  cele- 
brated for  his  travels  in  Africa.  He  won  the 
prize  offered  by  the  geographical  society  of 
Paris  to  the  man  who  should  first  reach  Tim- 
buctoo  (1827-8)  ; and,  besides  other  rewards, 
was  presented  with  the  cross  of  the  legion  of 
honor. 

CALAIS,  a seaport  of  France,  in  the  British 
Channel,  opposite  to  Dover.  It  is  strongly 
fortified,  and  contains  about  13,000  inhabit- 


CAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


167 


ants.  In  1346,  Edward  III.  of  England,  after 
his  great  victory  of  Cressy,  laid  siege  to  it, 
and  concerted  his  measures  so  well,  that  his 
adversaries  could  not  throw  succors  into  the 
place.  Nearly  two  thousand  of  the  wretched 
inhabitants,  who  had  been  sent  out  of  the 
place  to  lessen  the  consumption  of  provisions, 
came  to  the  camp  of  the  besiegers.  Edward 
gave  each  of  them  a hearty  meal  and  two  shil- 
lings, and  provided  for  their  future  safety. 
Calais  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  the  Eng- 
lish, after  holding  out  a year,  and  remained  in 
their  possession  until  1558,  when  it  was  in- 
vested and  attacked  by  the  Duke  of  Guise, 
and,  after  a siege  of  eight  days,  was  obliged 
to  capitulate.  During  the  operations  of  Fran- 
cis I.  and  the  Duke  of  Bourbon  against  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  a congress  was  held  at 
Calais,  under  the  mediation  of  Henry  VIII., 
of  England,  which  proved  unsuccessful.  Ca- 
lais was  the  last  possession  of  England,  in 
France,  and  its  loss  deeply  mortified  Queen 
Mary.  “ When  I am  dead,”  she  said,  “ Calais 
will  be  found  written  on  my  heart.” 


CALDERON.  Don  Pedro  Calderon  de  la 
Barca  Henao  y Riano,  a Spanish  poet  and 
dramatist,  born  at  Madrid,  1600,  and  died 
1681.  He  served  in  a military  capacity,  but 
afterward  embraced  the  clerical  profession. 
He  was  the  author  of  three  hundred  plays. 

CALHOUN,  John  Caldwell,  was  born  at 
Long  Cane,  in  Abbeville  district,  S.  C.,  March 
18th,  1782,  of  Irish  parentage.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Yale  College  and  the  law  school  in 
Litchfield,  Conn.  In  1811,  he  entered  the 
lower  house  of  Congress,  whence  in  1817  Mon- 
roe called  him  to  the  head  of  the  department 
of  war.  In  1825,  he  was  chosen  vice-presi- 
dent. From  1831  to  1843  he  represented  his 
native  state  in  the  federal  senate.  In  the  lat- 
ter year  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state 
by  Mr.  Tyler,  and  in  1845  returned  to  the 
senate,  in  which  he  continued  till  his  death, 
March  31st,  1850.  Mr.  Calhoun  was  one  of 
the  ablest  statesmen  and  most  forcible  orators 
that  have  mingled  in  the  public  counsels  of 
the  country. 


CALIFORNIA.  This  state  on  the  shores 
of  the  Pacific,  is  a portion  of  the  territory  ob- 
tained from  Mexico.  It  has  an  area  of  188,982 
square  miles,  and  the  population  in  1870  was 
560,247.  It  is  traversed  by  two  great  ranges 
of  mountains,  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast 
range,  having  between  them  the  splendid  val- 
ley of  the  Sacramento  and  the  Joaquin ; on 
the  eastern  side  wide  sandy  plains,  and  on 
the  western  the  narrow  slip  of  coast. 


most  important  rivers  are  the  Sacramento  and 
the  San  Joaquin.  California  has  a dry  and 
a wet  season ; the  first  lasting  from  about  the 
middle  of  May  to  September  or  October ; the 
wet  season  setting  in  early  in  November,  and 
lasting  till  May.  To  its  dry  season  it  owes 
its  name,  which  is  from  the  Spanish  caliente 
. fornalla , ‘ hot  furnace.’  In  the  great  interior 
valley,  the  soil  is  of  great  fertility,  and  one 
day  the  state  will  be  as  rich  in  its  agriculture 


Its 

CAL 


168 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


as  in  its  mines.  The  country  was  discovered  | 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1542,  but  they  did  not 
colonize  it  till  1768.  Up  to  the  great  discov- 
ery of  gold  it  was  a scantily  peopled  tract. 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  who  visited  it  in  1578,  re- 
ceived such  reports  of  the  existence  of  gold 
from  the  natives  that  he  declared  it  to  be  his 
conviction  that  there  was  “no  part  of  this 
country  wherein  there  is  not  some  special 
likelihood  of  gold.”  Yet  little  or  no  search 
seems  to  have  been  made  for  the  precious 
metal.  The  shining  scales  of  virgin  gold  were 
accidentally  discovered  in  September,  1847, 
upon  the  estate  of  Captain  Sutter.  It  soon 
became  known,  and  emigration  flowed  toward 
the  golden  country  from  all  Christendom. 
The  scene  was  unparalleled  in  history.  Towns 
and  cities  sprang  up  as  if  by  magic.  The  fa- 
ble of  the  Argonauts  was  revived  and  im- 
proved upon.  The  colonists  formed  them- 
selves into  a sovereign  state,  and  California 
was  received  into  the  Union  in  September, 
1850.  Society  was  for  a time  very  unsettled, 
but  the  disorders  which  bad  men  introduced 
culminated  and  met  with  a terrible  and  de- 
cisive check  in  the  Vigilance  Committee  of 
San  Francisco  during  1856,  and  the  law- 
abiding  Anglo  Saxon  character  has  since 
been  creditably  maintained.  California  con- 
tained in  1870,  49,310  Chinese,  attracted  by 
the  gold  mining. 

San  Francisco,  the  largest  city  of  Califor- 
nia, is  said  to  Iiave  been  a Spanish  mission 
settlement  in  17  76.  In  1845  it  had  only  150 
inhabitants.  In  1870  it  had  149,473  inhab- 
itants, consisting  of  136,059  whites,  1,330  col- 
ored, 12,022  Chinese,  and  54  Indians.  The 
city  has  suffered  from  conflagrations,  but  it 
has  of  late  been  free  from  severe  fires.  Sacra- 
mento is  the  capital.  It  was  founded  is  1849, 
and  in  1870  had  16,283  inhabitants,  consist- 
ing of  14,485  whites,  418  colored,  1,370  Chi- 
nese, and  9 Indians. 

CALIGULA,  Caius  Caesar  Augustus  Ger- 
manicus,  a Roman  emperor,  was  the  son  of 
Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  and  born  a.d.  12. 
He  received  its  surname  from  th ecaligce  (half 
boots)  which  he  wore.  His  life,  with  a single 
exception,  presented  only  a series  of  acts  of 
horrible  cruelty,  disgusting  absurdity,  and 
daring  impiety.  The  reputation  of  his  father 
at  first  disposed  the  Romans  to  think  favora- 
bly of  the  son,  but  after  a few  hollow  displays 


of  clemency  and  liberality,  he  showed  himself 
in  his  true  light,  and,  even  while  a boy,  com- 
mitted incest.  He  married  and  repudiated 
several  wives,  the  last  of  whom,  Caesonia,  re- 
tained a firm  hold  upon  his  affections.  His 
murders  were  numerous,  and  rendered  memo- 
rable by  the  rank  of  the  victims  and  the  rela- 
tion which  they  bore  to  him.  It  was  Caligula 
who  wished  that  the  people  of  Rome  had  but 
one  head,  that  he  might  sever  it  at  a blow. 
If  the  cruelties  of  the  tyrant  call  forth  our  in- 
dignation, his  unmanly  follies  excite  our  con- 
tempt. His  treatment  of  his  horse  Incitatus 
exhibited  the  ridiculous  part  of  his  character. 
This  animal  had  a gorgeous  stable,  a house  to 
entertain  visitors,  and  frequently  dined  at  the 
emperor’s  table,  when  he  was  presented  with 
wine  and  gilded  oats.  His  master  even  med- 
itated elevating  him  to  the  consulship.  Cali- 
gula appeared  in  public  in  the  attributes  of 
various  divinities,  male  as  well  as  female,  and 
claimed  homage  as  a Venus  and  a Mars. 
Among  his  absurdities  may  be  reckoned  the 
bridge  of  boats  built  from  Baioe  to  Puteoli ; 
his  expedition  against  Britain,  when  the  sol- 
diers gathered  cockle-shells  for  spoils,  and 
lastly,  his  design  of  decimating  the  German 
army  for  a revolt.  To  this  last  act  the  world 
owed  its  deliverance  from  the  monster,  who 
was  murdered  by  Choerea  and  Cornelius  Sa- 
binus,  military  tribunes,  a.d.  41,  after  a reign 
of  four  years. 

CALONNE,  Charles  Alexander  de,  an 
eminent  French  statesman,  born  at  Douai  in 
1734,  succeeded  to  the  management  of  an 
empty  treasury  in  1783,  and  skillfully  met 
the  claims  upon  it,  without  adding  to  the 
burthens  of  the  people.  He  advised  the  abo- 
lition of  the  pecuniary  exemptions  enjoyed 
by  the  nobility,  clergy,  and  magistracy.  He 
was,  however,  obliged  to  retire  from  the  ven- 
geance of  those  bodies.  He  died  in  1802. 

CALVERT,  George,  Lord  Baltimore, 
founder  of  Maryland,  was  of  Flemish  descent, 
born  at  Kipling,  in  Yorkshire,  England,  1582, 
and  educated  at  Oxford;  in  1619,  he  was 
made  by  Charles  I.  one  of  the  principal  sec- 
retaries of  state;  resigned  that  office,  1624; 
made  Baron  of  Baltimore,  1625;  obtained  a 
patent  for  Maryland,  June  20th,  1632,  and 
died  at  London  the  same  year. 

CALVIN,  John,  a leader  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  born  at 


CAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


169 


Noyon,  in  Picardy,  July  15th,  1509,  and  was 
destined  for  the  church  at  an  early  age,  being 
presented  with  a benefice  in  the  cathedral  of 
his  native  place  when  he  was  but  twelve 
years  old.  His  progress  was  rapid,  but  it 
was  not  long  before  he  received  the  seeds  of 
the  new  doctrines.  In  1533,  he  was  involved 
in  a persecution  with  his  friend  Michael  Cop, 
who  had  defended  the  reformed  doctrines  in 
a public  discourse.  Obliged  to  quit  France, 
he  repaired  to  Bale,  in  1534,  where  he  com- 
posed his  famous  “Institutes  of  Christianity.” 
He  was  induced  to  write  this  by  the  persecu- 
tions of  Protestants,  which  disgraced  the 
reign  of  Francis  I.  of  France.  Although 
received  in  different  places  with  marks  of 
respect,  Calvin  found  the  warmest  welcome 
and  the  safest  asylum  in  Geneva.  After  some 
agitation,  the  new  doctrine  was  generally  re- 
ceived at  Geneva.  On  the  refusal  of  Calvin 
and  Farel  to  comply  with  the  decrees  of  the 
council  of  Lausanne,  the  magistrates  com- 
pelled them  to  leave  the  city  in  1538.  At 
Strasburg,  Calvin’s  reception  was  favorable, 
but  he  turned  a longing  look  upon  Geneva. 
He  was  finally  invited  to  return,  and  he 
gained  a great  ascendency  over  the  Genevese. 
The  rigor  of  Calvin  was  excessive.  Thus,  a 
magistrate  was  deprived  of  his  office,  and  im- 
prisoned for  two  months,  because  “ his  habits 
were  irregular,  and  he  had  leagued  with  the 
enemies  of  Calvin.”  James  Gruet  was  be- 
headed, for  having  written  “impious  letters 
and  libertine  verses,”  and  for  having  “labored 
to  destroy. ecclesiastical  regulations.”  Geneva, 
in  becoming  the  metropolis  of  the  reformed 
worship,  became  the  centre  of  a prodigious 
book-trade,  and  the  city  of  all  Europe  in 
which  the  arts  and  sciences  were  cultivated 
with  the  greatest  success. 

Calvin  died  in  Geneva,  May  27th,  1564,  in 
the  fifty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  His  constitu- 
tion was  weak,  and  throughout  life  he  had 
suffered  much  from  disease.  In  1539  he 
married  a widow,  by  whom  he  had  one  son, 
who  died  young.  She  died  in  1549,  and  he 
never  married  again.  He  was  sombre  and 
austere  in  his  manners,  of  a melancholy  dispo- 
sition. He  never  knew  the  sweets  of  friend- 
ship, and  his  sole  joy,  if  joy  it  was,  was  in 
ruling,  and  beholding  the  triumph  of  his 
opinions.  Calvin  never  had  any  other  title 
in  the  church  of  Geneva,  than  that  of  pastor. 


His  temper,  according  to  his  own  confession, 
was  impatient  and  opposed  to  all  contradic- 
tion. Thus  the  tone  of  his  polemical  wri- 
tings is  almost  always  harsh  and  insulting. 
As  a theologian,  Calvin  gained  the  highest 
rank  among  the  men  of  his  century,  by  his 
profound  knowledge,  by  his  tact,  and,  as  he 
himself  boasted,  by  his  art  in  pressing  an 
argument.  As  a writer  he  merits  high 
praise.  His  mode  of  worship,  bare  and  stern, 
appeared,  in  the  eyes  of  many,  to  have  ele- 
vated religion  above  all  sublunary  things,  by 
stripping  it  of  every  object  which  had  an 
attraction  for  the  senses. 

CALYPSO,  a daughter  of  Atlas,  who  dwelt 
upon  the  island  of  Ogygia,  where  Ulysses 
was  shipwrecked.  He  refused  to  marry  the 
goddess,  although  immortality  was  the  prom- 
ised reward,  preferring  to  revisit  Ithaca  and 
again  behold  his  wife.  He  remained  seven 
years  on  the  island,  and  grief  at  his  depart- 
ure destroyed  the  enamored  goddess. 

CAMBACERES,  Jean  Jacques  Regis,  was 
Duke  of  Parma,  prince  and  arch-chancellor 
of  the  French  empire,  dignities  which  he  en- 
joyed during  the  ascendency  of  Napoleon,  of 
whom  he  was  a colleague  in  the  consulate  in 
1799.  His  plan  of  a civil  code,  drawn  up  in 
1796,  was  the  basis  of  the  celebrated  Code 
Napoleon.  He  left  France  on  the  downfall 
of  the  emperor,  and  died  in  Paris,  March  8th, 
1824,  aged  seventy-one. 

CAMBRAY,  a strongly  fortified  town  of  the 
French  department  of  the  North,  containing 
20,000  inhabitants,  celebrated  in  diplomatic 
history  for  several  important  treaties  nego- 
tiated there.  Its  manufactures  are  extensive, 
one  of  the  principal  articles  being  cambric, 
which  takes  its  name  from  this  town.  The 
town  was  taken  by  Charles  Y.  in  1544;  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1596 ; and  by  Louis  XIY. 
in  person,  in  1677.  In  August,  1793,  it  was 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Austrians, 
when  the  republican  general,  Declay,  replied 
to  the  imperial  summons  to  surrender,  that 
“ he  knew  not  how  to  do  that,  but  his  sol- 
diers knew  how  to  fight ; ” and  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1815  it  was  taken  by  the  British, 
and  made  the  head-quarters  of  the  allied 
armies. 

CAMBRONNE,  Pierre  Jacques  Etienne, 
baron,  general,  commander  of  the  legion  of 
honor,  and  distinguished  for  his  personal 


CAM 


170 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


bravery,  was  born  Dec.  26th,  1770.  He 
commanded  the  small  band  which  Napoleon 
led  from  Elba.  At  Waterloo,  he  was  severely 
wounded,  and  taken  prisoner.  In  that  battle 
he  commanded  the  old  guard,  and  when  he 
heard  the  British  demand  for  capitulation,  he 
answered  nobly,  “The  guard  dies;  but  does 
not  surrender.”  He  died  in  1842. 

CAMBYSES,  a king  of  Persia,  and  son  of 
Cyrus  the  Great,  ascended  the  throne  b.c. 
530.  He  conquered  and  devastated  Egypt. 
Offended  at  the  superstitions  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, he  killed  their  god  Apis,  whose  flesh 
was  eaten  by  his  soldiers,  and  plundered  their 
temples.  On  mounting  his  horse  at  a subse- 
quent period,  his  sword  gave  him  a fatal 
wound  in  the  thigh,  the  place  where  he  had 
injured  the  bull,  and  the  Egyptians  looked 
upon  this  event  as  the  retributive  vengeance 
of  the  gods.  He  was  dissolute,  and  destitute 
of  moral  principles.  In  his  fits  of  intoxica- 
tion, his  brutality  was  feared  even  by  those 
who  had  the  greatest  claims  upon  his  for- 
bearance. In  a fit  of  drunken  rage  he  gave 
his  wife  a kick  which  killed  her.  His  throne 
was  usurped  by  one  of  the  Magi,  who  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Smerdis,  a brother  of  the 
king,  who  had  been  secretly  murdered  on 
account  of  a dream  which  prognosticated  to 
the  tyrant  future  troubles,  and  warned  him 
to  save  himself  by  the  death  of  his  brother. 

CAMDEN,  in  South  Carolina,  was  the 
scene  of  two  contests  in  the  Devolution,  in 
both  of  which  the  British  were  victors.  The 
first  was  fought  between  Gen.  Gates  and 
Lord  Cornwallis,  Aug.  16th,  1780;  the  second 
between  Gen.  Greene  and  Lord  Rawdon, 
April  25th,  1781.  The  British  evacuated 
and  burned  Camden,  May  13th,  1781.  In 
the  first  of  these  battles  the  brave  Baron  de 
Kalb  fell,  pierced  with  seven  wounds. 

CAMILLUS,  Marcus  Furius,  an  illustrious 
Roman,  who  obtained  four  triumphs  and  five 
times  filled  the  office  of  dictator,  but,  being 
prosecuted  on  a charge  of  peculation,  went 
into  voluntary  banishment.  While  he  was 
absent,  Brennus,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of 
Gauls,  took  Rome,  and  besieged  the  senate  in 
the  capitol.  Camillus,  forgetting  his  wrongs, 
hastened  to  the  relief  of  his  country,  defeated 
the  barbarians,  and  was  created  dictator. 
He  died  b.c.  365,  of  the  plague.  He  was 
generally  honored  and  respected,  although 

Cl 


party  and  personal  prejudices  more  than  once 
involved  him  in  persecution.  In  the  siege  of 
Falerii,  the  schoolmaster  of  the  town,  who 
had  the  children  of  the  senators  under  his 
care,  led  them  out  of  the  city  under  pretext 
of  recreation,  carried  them  to  the  Roman 
camp,  and  surrendered  them  to  the  Roman 
general,  telling  him  that  he  might  now  pro- 
pose to  the  besieged  what  terms  he  chose, 
since  the  treasures  they  valued  most  were  in 
his  hands.  Camillus,  indignant  at  this  treach- 
ery, answered  that  the  Romans  warred  with 
men,  not  with  boys ; and  that,  in  the  conduct 
of  hostilities,  integrity,  as  well  as  courage, 
should  be  prized.  He  ordered  the  school- 
master to  be  stripped,  and,  with  his  hands 
bound  behind  his  back,  to  be  delivered  to 
the  boys  to  be  lashed  back  to  the  town.  The 
Falerians,  before  obstinate  in  their  resistance, 
struck  with  this  noble  act,  delivered  them- 
selves up  to  the  Romans,  convinced  that  it 
would  be  better  to  have  such  men  for  friends 
than  foes. 

CAMOENS,  Luis  de,  the  most  celebrated 
of  Portuguese  poets,  was  born  in  Lisbon,  in 
1517.  His  father  was  of  a noble  family,  and 
his  mother  of  the  illustrious  house  of  Sa. 
Camoens  studied  at  Coimbra,  where  his  in- 
structors valued  no  literature  but  that  which 
was  written  in  imitation  of  the  ancients. 
But  the  genius  of  Camoens  was  animated  by 
the  history  of  his  country  and  the  manners 
of  his  age ; and  his  lyric  poems  belong,  like 
the  works  of  Dante,  of  Petrarch,  Ariosto,  and 
Tasso,  to  that  literature  which  was  renewed 
by  Christianity,  and  to  the  spirit  of  chivalry, 
rather  than  to  a purely  classical  style  of 
writing.  For  this  reason,  the  numerous  par- 
tisans of  the  classic  school  did  not  applaud 
the  performances  of  Camoens  in  the  early 
part  of  his  career.  On  the  completion  of  his 
studies,  he  returned  to  Lisbon,  where  he 
became  warmly  attached  to  Catharine  d’At- 
tayde,  a lady  of  the  court.  Ardent  passions 
are  often  united  to  great  genius,  and  the  life 
of  Camoens  was  alternately  consumed  by  his 
feelings  and  his  genius. 

He  was  exiled  to  Santarem  on  account  of 
the  quarrels  which  his  attachment  to  Catha- 
rine brought  upon  him.  There,  in  his  seclu- 
sion, he  composed  detached  poems,  which 
distinctly  portray  the  state  of  his  feelings  at 
the  time  of  their  composition.  The  hope- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


171 


lessness  of  his  situation  led  him  to  embark 
as  a soldier  in  the  Portuguese  fleet  sent 
against  Morocco.  In  the  midst  of  battles  he 
composed  poems,  the  glories  and  the  dangers 
of  war  kindling  his  poetic  spirit,  and  his 
poetic  imagination  in  turn  urging  him  on- 
ward to  exploits.  He  lost  his  right  eye  by 
an  arrow  before  Ceuta.  On  his  return  to 
Lisbon,  he  hoped  that  his  wounds  would  en- 
title him  to  some  favor,  even  if  his  talents 
were  despised ; but,  although  he  had  a double 
claim  upon  the  notice  of  government,  he  en- 
countered unexpected  obstacles.  Justly  in- 
dignant at  this  neglect,  he  embarked  for  the 
Indies  in  1553,  and  like  Scipio  bade  farewell 
to  his  country,  declaring  that  even  his  ashes 
should  not  repose  there. 

He  landed  at  Goa,  the  principal  Portuguese 
establishment  in  India ; here  his  imagination 
was  excited  by  the  exploits  of  his  country- 
men in  this  part  of  the  world,  and,  great  as 
were  his  inducements  to  complain  of  them, 
he  thought  to  consecrate  their  glory  in  an 
epic.  But,  incensed  at  the  abuses  which  were 
committed  by  the  government,  he  composed 
so  severe  a satire  upon  the  subject,  that  the 
enraged  viceroy  of  Goa  banished  him  to 
Macao,  where  he  lived  several  years,  sur- 
rounded by  the  most  glorious  scenes  which 
the  fairy  regions  of  the  east  can  boast.  Here 
he  composed  his  “Lusiad.”  The  expedition 
of  Yasco  da  Gama  to  the  Indies  is  the  sub- 
ject of  this  work,  which  is  sustained  by  the 
skill  of  Camoens  in  mingling  details  of  Por- 
tuguese history  with  the  splendors  of  poetry, 
and  Christian  piety  with  pagan  fable. 

Camoens,  on  being  recalled  from  his  ban- 
ishment, was  shipwrecked  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Mecon,  in  Cochin  China,  and  saved 
himself  by  swimming  with  one  hand,  while 
in  the  other  he  held  the  leaves  of  his  immor- 
tal poem,  the  only  treasure  that  he  saved, 
above  the  reach  of  the  greedy  waves.  Ca- 
moens was  persecuted  by  a new  viceroy  at 
Goa,  and  imprisoned  for  debt,  but  some  of 
his  friends  becoming  security  for  him,  he 
embarked  for  Lisbon  in  1569,  sixteen  years 
after  having  quitted  Europe.  The  young 
king  Sebastian  took  an  interest  in  Camoens, 
accepted  the  dedication  of  his  epic  poem, 
and,  on  the  eve  of  departing  on  his  unfortu- 
nate expedition  against  the  Moors  in  Africa, 
felt  more  than  any  one  else  the  genius  of  the 


poet,  who  like  himself  gloried  in  dangers 
when  they  led  the  way  to  fame.  But  Sebas- 
tian was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Alcazar,  in 
1578 ; the  royal  line  became  extinct,  and 
Portugal  lost  her  independence.  The  unfor- 
tunate Camoens  was  reduced  by  this  event 
to  such  extremes,  that,  during  the  night,  a 
slave,  whom  he  had  brought  from  India, 
begged  in  the  streets  to  obtain  food  for  his 
master.  In  this  wretched  state,  he  still  com- 
posed lyric  poems,  and  the  finest  of  his  de- 
tached pieces  are  those  which  contain  com- 
plaints of  his  misfortunes.  How  brilliant 
was  that  genius  which  could  extort  inspiration 
from  the  very  calamities  which  finally  extin- 
guished it.  This  hero  of  Portuguese  literature, 
the  only  one  whose  glory  belongs  alike  to  his 
nation  and  to  Europe,  died  in  a hospital  in 
1579,  aged  sixty-two  years.  After  his  death, 
a monument  was  erected  to  his  memory,  and 
thousands,  who  would  have  denied  succor 
while  he  was  living,  crowded  to  do  homage 
to  his  inanimate  remains. 

CAMPBELL,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Glas- 
gow,  July  27th,  1777.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
two,  ‘'The  Pleasures  of  Hope”  gained  him 
instant  fame  as  a poet ; it  went  through 
four  editions  at  Edinburgh  in  a year.  It 
is  a curious  fact  that  the  first  fourteen  lines 
were  the  last  that  were  written.  Campbell’s 
friend  and  critic,  Dr.  Anderson,  had  always 
urged  the  want  of  a good  beginning,  and, 
when  the  poem  was  on  its  way  to  the  printer, 
again  pressed  the  necessity  of  starting  with 
a picture  complete  in  itself.  Campbell  all 
along  admitted  the  justice  of  the  criticism, 
but  never  could  please  himself  with  what 
he  did.  The  last  remark  of  Dr.  Anderson’s 
roused  the  full  swing  of  his  genius  within 
him,  and  he  returned  the  next  day  to  the 
delighted  doctor,  with  that  fine  comparison 
between  the  beauty  of  remote  objects  in  a 
landscape,  and  those  ideal  scenes  of  happi- 
ness which  imaginative  minds  promise  to 
themselves  with  all  the  certainty  of  hope  ful- 
filled. Anderson  was  more  than  pleased,  and 
the  new  comparison  was  made  the  opening 
of  the  new  poem. 

“ At  summer  eve,  when  Heaven’s  ethereal  bow 
Spans  with  bright  arch  the  glittering  hills  below, 
Why  to  yon  mountain  turns  the  musing  eye, 
Whose  sunbright  summit  mingles  with  the  sky? 
Why  do  those  cliffs  of  shadowy  tint  appear 
More  sweet  than  all  the  landscape  smiling  near  f 


172 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


’T  is  distance  lends  enchantment  to  the  view, 

And  robes  the  mountain  in  its  azure  hue. 

Thus,  with  delight  we  linger  to  survey 
The  promised  joys  of  life’s  unmeasured  way ; 
Thus  from  afar,  each  dim-discovered  scene 
More  pleasing  seems  than  all  the  past  hath  been ; 
And  every  form  that  Fancy  can  repair 
From  dark  oblivion,  glows  divinely  there.” 

The  poem  had  put  some  money  in  the 
poet’s  pocket,  and  he  gratified  an  early  long- 
ing in  a visit  to  Germany.  At  Hamburgh, 
the  sight  of  the  many  Irish  exiles  inspired 
him  to  that  touching  lament,  “The Exiles  of 
Erin.”  During  this  journey,  also,  he  wrote 
“The  Mariners  of  England.”  On  his  road 
from  Munich  to  Linz,  he  witnessed  from  the 
walls  of  a convent  the  bloody  field  of  Hohen- 
linden,  and  saw  the  triumphant  French  cav- 
alry, under  Moreau,  enter  the  nearest  town, 
wiping  their  bloody  swords  on  their  horses’ 
manes.  His  lyric  has  enshrined  the  conflict 
forever.  “John  Leyden,”  says  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  “introduced  me  to  Tom  Campbell. 
They  afterward  quarreled.  When  I repeated 
‘ Hohenlinden  ’ to  Leyden,  he  said,  4 Dash  it, 
man,  tell  the  fellow  I hate  him ; but,  dash 
him,  he  has  written  the  finest  verses  that 
have  been  published  these  fifty  years.’  I did 
mine  errand  as  faithfully  as  one  of  Homer’s 
messengers,  and  had  for  answer,  4 Tell  Ley- 
den that  I detest  him ; but  I know  the  value 
of  his  critical  approbation.’”  Scott  knew 

“Hohenlinden”  by  heart;  and  when  Sir 
Walter  dined  at  Murray’s  in  1809,  he  repeated 
at  the  table,  as  Wilkie  tells  us,  Campbell’s 
poem  of  “ Lochiel.”  He  had  it  by  heart  after 
hearing  it  once,  and  once  reading  it. 

Campbell  sustained  his  reputation  by 
“Gertrude  of  Wyoming”  in  1809.  His  life 
was  passed  in  literary  labor,  but  his  other  pro- 
ductions were  inferior.  He  was  extremely 
sensitive  to  criticism.  “I  often  wonder,” 
said  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  1826,  44  how  Tom 
Campbell,  with  so  much  real  genius,  has  not 
maintained  a greater  figure  in  the  public  eye 
than  he  has  done  of  late.  The  author  not 
only  of  4 The  Pleasures  of  Hope,’  but  4 Ho- 
henlinden,’ 4 Lochicl,’  &c.,  should  have  been 
at  the  very  top  of  the  tree.  Somehow  he 
wants  audacity,  fears  the  public,  and  what  is 
worse,  fears  the  shadow  of  his  own  reputa- 
tion.” * * * “What  a pity  it  is,”  said  Sir 
Walter  to  Washington  Irving,  44  that  Camp- 
bell does  not  write  more  and  oftener,  and  give 


full  sweep  to  his  genius ! He  has  wings  that 
would  bear  him  to  the  skies,  and  he  does, 
now  and  then,  spread  them  grandly,  but 
folds  them  up  again,  and  resumes  his  perch, 
as  if  he  was  afraid  to  launch  away.  The 
fact  is,  Campbell  is  in  a manner  a bugbear  to 
himself ; the  brightness  of  his  early  success 
is  a detriment  to  all  his  further  efforts.  He 
is  afraid  of  the  shadow  that  his  own  fame  casts 
before  him.” 

In  1827,  he  was  elected  lord-rector  of  his 
own  mother  university  at  Glasgow,  by  the 
free  and  unanimous  choice  of  the  students, 
and  was  justly  proud  of  his  election.  “It 
was  a deep  snow,”  writes  Allan  Cunningham, 
“when  he  reached  the  college-green;  the 
students  were  drawn  up  in  parties,  pelting 
one  another:  the  poet  ran  into  the  ranks, 
threw  several  snowballs  with  unerring  aim, 
then  summoning  the  scholars  around  him  in 
the  hall,  delivered  a speech  replete  with  phi- 
losophy and  eloquence.  It  is  needless  to  say 
how  this  was  welcomed.”  When  his  year 
had  expired,  he  was  unanimously  re-elected, 
the  students  presenting  him  at  the  same  time 
with  a handsome  silver  punch-bowl,  described 
by  the  poet  in  his  will  as  one  of  the  great 
ewels  of  his  property. 

Campbell  wTas  passionately  fond  of  chil- 
dren. This  once  led  to  a ludicrous  circum- 
stance. He  saw  a fine  child,  about  four 
years  old,  one  day  walking  with  her  nurse  in 
the  park ; and  on  his  return  home  he  could 
not  rest  for  thinking  of  his  child  sweetheart, 
as  he  called  her,  and  actually  sent  an  adver- 
tisement to  the  Morning  Chronicle , mak- 
ing inquiries  after  his  juvenile  fascinator^ 
giving  his  own  address,  and  stating  his  age 
to  be  sixty-two ! The  incident  illustrates  the 
intensity  of  his  affections,  as  well  as  the  live- 
liness of  his  fancy ; for,  alas ! the  poet  had 
then  no  home-object  to  dwell  upon,  to  con- 
centrate his  hopes  and  his  admiration.  His 
wife  had  long  been  dead,  and  his  only  son  was 
a helpless  imbecile.  Several  hoaxes  were 
played  off  on  the  susceptible  poet  in  conse- 
quence of  this  singular  advertisement.  One 
letter  directed  him  to  the  house  of  an  old 
maid,  by  whom  he  was  received  very  cava- 
lierly. He  told  his  story,  but  “the  wretch,” 
as  he  used  to  say  with  a sort  of  peevish 
humor,  44  had  never  heard  either  of  him  or 
his  poetry  ! ” In  his  last  years  the  poet  him- 


CAM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


178 


self  sank  into  a state  of  comparative  mental 
and  bodily  feebleness.  He  died  at  Boulogne, 
and  was  buried  in  the  poet’s  corner  at  West- 
minster Abbey. 

Campbell  told  a story  with  much  humor. 
At  a meeting  of  authors  he  once  proposed 
Napoleon’s  health  because  he  had  murdered 
a publisher,  Palm!  He  liked  “Gertrude” 
the  best  of  his  poems,  and  once  said,  “I  never 
like  to  see  my  name  before  “ The  Pleasures  of 
Hope ; ” why,  I can  not  tell  you,  unless  it  was 
that,  when  young,  I was  always  greeted  among 
my  friends  as  Mr.  Campbell,  author  of  ‘ The 
Pleasures  of  Hope.’  Good  morning  to  you,  Mr. 
Campbell,  author  of  ‘The  Pleasures  of  Hope.’ 
When  I got  married,  I was  married  as  the 
author  of  ‘ The  Pleasures  of  Hope ; ’ and  when 
I became  a father,  my  son  was  the  son  of  the 
author  of  ‘ The  Pleasures  of  Hope.’  ” The 
phrase  followed  him  out  of  life,  for  the  in- 
scription on  his  coffin  was : 

“ Thomas  Campbell,  LL.D. 

Author  of  the  ‘Pleasures  of  Hope.’ 

Died  June  15,  1844. 

Aged  67 .” 

CAMPO-FORMIO,  a village  of  Udine  in 
Friuli,  a province  of  Venice,  belonging  to  the 
Austrians,  famous  for  the  treaty  signed  here 
Oct.  17th,  1797,  by  which  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  ceded  to  the  French  republic  the 
whole  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  and  con- 
sented to  their  remaining  in  possession  of  the 
islands  of  Corfu,  Zante,  Cephalonia,  and  all 
the  islands  in  the  Adriatic,  together  with  the 
Venetian  territories  in  Albania.  He  also 
acknowledged  the  Cisalpine  republic  as  an 
independent  state ; ceded  to  it  the  countries 
in  Lombardy  which  had  formerly  belonged 
to  Austria,  and  consented  that  it  should  pos- 
sess Bergamo,  Brescia,  and  other  Venetian 
territories,  together  with  the  duchies  of  Man- 
tua and  Modena,  the  principalities  of  Carrara 
and  Massa,  and  the  cities  of  Romagna,  Fer- 
rara, and  Bologna,  belonging  to  the  pope. 
France  yielded  up  to  Austria,  Istria,  Dalma- 
tia, the  city  of  Venice,  with  a large  portion 
of  the  dominions  of  that  republic,  and  the 
Venetian  islands  in  the  Adriatic,  lying  to  the 
north-east  of  the  Gulf  of  Lodrino. 

CANADA,  The  Dominion  of,  in  North 
America,  belonging  to  Britain,  was  formerly 
divided  into  the  Provinces  of  Canada  East, 
now  Quebec,  and  Canada  West,  now  Ontario., 


The  population  of  the  two  Provinces  are 
estimated  (1870)  at  3,435,218,  and  the  area 
331,280  square  miles.  Quebec,  late  Canada 
East,  has  an  area  of  210,000  square  miles, 
and  contains  1,111,566  inhabitants,  of  whom 
the  greater  portion  are  French  Canadians, 
the  remainder  being  English,  Scotch,  Irish, 
and  Americans.  It  is  divided  into  thirty- 
six  counties.  Seigniories,  or  grants  of  the 
French  government,  and  townships,  or 
grants,  of  the  English,  are  the  minor  sub- 
divisions. A Lieutenant  Governor,  whose 
residence  is  at  Quebec,  is  at  the  head  of 
the  Provincial  Government.  The  houses 
of  the  Canadians  are  generally  low,  and 
built  of  stone,  with  little  finish.  Educa- 
tion is  generally  at  a low  ebb  among  them, 
although  Quebec  and  Montreal  sustain  some 
highly  reputable  seminaries.  The  commerce 
of  the  province  has  gradually  increased 
under  the  fostering  spirit  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment. The  fur  trade,  of  which  Montreal 
is  the  depot,  is  considerable,  and  timber,  pot 
and  pearl  ashes,  grain,  &c.,  are  exported  in 
great  quantities.  Grass,  wheat,  barley,  rye, 
&c.,  are  the  principal  productions  of  the  soil. 
The  majestic  St.  Lawrence  is  the  main  river 
of  the  Canadas,  but  there  are  also  others  of 
great  importance. 

The  French  Canadians  possess  the  charac- 
teristics which  distinguish  the  volatile  inhab- 
itants of  France.  The  passionate  vivacity, 
the  eagerness  in  pursuit  of  pleasure,  the 
levity,  and,  it  must  be  added,  laxity  of  prin- 
ciple, exhibit  the  connection  between  the 
parent  stock  and  the  transplanted  race. 
Their  amusements  in  winter  consist  of  sleigh- 
ing expeditions,  in  which  the  spirited  little 
Canadian  horses  prove  their  worth,  varied 
by  dancing,  and  social  gayeties.  Where  the 
females  are  distinguished  for  their  temper- 
ance, the  men  are  unfortunately  addicted  to 
the  use  of  spirituous  liquors,  and  can  scarcely 
be  persuaded  to  abandon  them  in  winter, 
alleging  the  severity  of  the  weather,  which 
frequently  depresses  the  mercury  in  the  ther- 
mometer to  forty  degrees  below  zero,  as  an 
excuse. 

Canada  West,  now  Ontario,  is  principally 
settled  by  emigrants  from  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  and  their  descendants.  Population 
(1870),  2,047,334.  Area,  121,260  square 
miles. 


CAN 


174 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


A large  proportion  of  the  emigrants  to  Can- 
ada now  settle  in  this  province,  induced  by 
the  very  great  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the 
value  and  abundance  of  the  timber.  The 
forests  increase  in  extent  as  they  spread  to 
the  regions  of  the  north.  In  these  wooded 
districts,  vast  sheets  of  water  expand  in  sol- 
itary splendor,  haunted  only  by  the  beasts  of 
prey,  or  Indians  hardly  less  wild.  The  es- 
tablished religion  of  the  Canadas  is  that  of 
the  Church  of  England,  but  a large  portion 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Catholics.  The  Brit- 
ish constitution  forms  the  basis  of  that  of 
British  America. 

The  French,  at  a very  early  period,  seemed 
to  be  aware  of  the  importance  of  the  discov- 
ery of  Canada  by  Cabot,  and  the  cod-fishery 
began  to  employ  their  men  as  early  as  the 
commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In 
the  early  part  of  that  century  a Frenchman 
is  said  to  have  made  a chart  of  the  entrance 
of  the  St.  Lawrence.  In  1524,  Francis  I.  of 
France  sent  four  ships,  under  Yerazzani,  a 
Florentine,  to  prosecute  discoveries  in  this 
country.  In  1535,  James  Cartier,  of  St.  Ma- 
loes,  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  formed 
alliances  with  the  natives,  took  possession  of 
the  territory,  built  a fort,  and  wintered  in  the 
country.  Henry  IY.  appointed  the  Marquis 
de  la  Roche  lieutenant-general  of  Canada  and 
the  neighboring  countries.  In  1608,  the  city 
of  Quebec  was  founded,  and  from  that  period 
the  establishment  of  a permanent  French 
colony  commenced.  In  1629,  an  English 
expedition  took  possession  of  Quebec,  but  it 
was  surrendered  again  to  the  French  by’  the 
treaty  of  St.  Germain.  This  expedition  was 
headed  by  Sir  David  Keith.  In  1690,  a bold 
attempt  was  made,  but  without  success,  to 
subject  Canada  to  the  English  crown.  The 
attempt  was  renewed  in  1711,  but  equally  in 
vain.  Canada  continued  in  the  occupation  of 
the  French  till  the  breaking  out  of  the  war 
between  France  and  England  in  1756.  In 
1759  the  British  government  formed  the  pro- 
ject of  attempting  its  conquest,  and  the  Eng- 
lish took  possession  of  Quebec  after  a gallant 
resistance  on  the  part  of  the  French ; in 
which  the  English  general  Wolfe,  and  Mont- 
calm the  French  commander,  both  per- 
ished. The  latter,  on  being  told  that  his 
wound  was  mortal,  nobly  exclaimed,  “ Then 
I shall  not  live  to  see  the  city  surrendered  to 


the  British ! ” The  whole  province  of  Can- 
ada was  soon  after  subdued  by  the  English, 
and  was  confirmed  to  Great  Britain  by  the 
treaty  of  1763.  In  1775,  Canada  was  in- 
vaded by  a body  of  continental  troops,  led 
by  Montgomery  ; Montreal  was  taken,  but 
the  gallant  general  perished  in  the  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  upon  Quebec.  During  our 
last  war  with  Great  Britain,  Upper  Canada 
became  the  theatre  of  a sanguinary  struggle. 
During  1837  and  1838  insurrections  broke 
out  against  the  government,  and  some  small 
battles  were  fought.  From  1791  till  1840, 
the  two  provinces  had  distinct  governments. 
In  the  latter  year  they  were  united.  The 
act  of  unioh  provides  for  the  appointment  of 
a legislative  council  by  the  crown,  and  an 
assembly  chosen  by  the  people.  The  royal 
governor  of  Canada  is  governor-general  of 
British  North  America.  Quebec  and  Toronto, 
which  were  the  capitals  of  the  separate  prov- 
inces, were  made  joint  seats  of  government. 

Ottawa,  formerly  Bytown,  a thriving  city 
in  Ontario,  on  the  Ottawa  river,  was  desig- 
nated in  1858  as  the  capital  of  the  Canadas, 
and  in  1867  as  the  capital  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada.  The  population,  in  1870,  is 
25,550. 

Quebec  stands  on  a promontory,  on  the 
north-west  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  400 
miles  from  its  mouth,  containing  about  60,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  Upper  and  the  Lower  Town.  The  Upper 
Town  is  built  on  a bold  precipice  of  naked 
rock,  rising  to  the  height  of  345  feet.  Que- 
bec, for  an  American  city,  is  certainly  a 
peculiar  town : a military  town,  most  com- 
pactly and  permanently  built,  stone  its  sole 
material ; environed,  as  to  its  important  parts, 
by  w'alls  and  gates,  and  defended  by  numer- 
ous heavy  cannon;  garrisoned  by  troops, 
having  the  arms,  the  costume,  the  music,  the 
discipline,  of  Europe,  foreign  in  language, 
features,  and  origin,  from  most  of  those  whom 
they  are  sent  to  defend;  founded  upon  a 
rock,  and  its  higher  parts  overlooking  a great 
extent  of  country;  between  three  and  four 
hundred  miles  from  the  ocean,  in  the  midst 
of  a great  continent,  and  yet  displaying  fleet* 
of  foreign  merchantmen  in  its  fine  capacious 
bay,  and  showing  all  the  bustle  of  a crowded 
seaport;  its  streets  narrow,  populous,  and 
winding  up  and  down  almost  mountain  de- 


CAN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


175 


PEAK  OF  TENERIFFE. 


divides.  Its  siege  and  capture  in  1759,  by 
Gen.  Wolfe,  was  fatal  both  to  the  English 
and  French  commanders.  In  1776,  Generals 
Montgomery  and  Arnold  attempted  to  take 
Quebec  by  storm,  but  Montgomery  fell,  and 
Arnold  was  compelled  to  retreat. 

Toronto,  on  Lake  Ontario,  has  an  excellent 
harbor,  and  is  the  centre  of  trade  for  a broad 
back  country;  population  in  1870,  47,019. 
Montreal,  on  an  island  in  the  St.  Lawrence, 
180  miles  above  Quebec,  and  200‘ below  Lake 
Ontario,  is  at  the  head  of  ship  navigation. 
The  streets  are  regular,  the  houses  are  built 
of  gray  stone,  and  present  a singular  appear- 
ance from  being  covered  with  tin.  Magill 
College  is  a very  flourishing  institution.  Pop- 
ulation of  city  and  suburbs  (1870),  160,000. 

In  July,  1867,  England’s  North  American 
Colonies,  Canada,  (Upper  and  Lower,)  Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Prince  Edward’s  Is- 
land, were  confederated  into  one  Govern- 
ment, under  the  name  of  Dominion  of  Cana- 
da. The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in 
a Parliament  of  two  houses,  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Assembly.  Area  of  the  Dominion, 
376,988  square  miles;  population,  3,464,766  ; 
capital,  Ottawa. 

CANALS.  The  first  regular  chain  of  arti- 


ficial water  intercommunication,  of  which 
history  has  transmitted  to  us  the  record, 
was  that  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea. 
This  canal  route  was  examined  with  great 
care  by  the  French  engineers,  and  several 
portions  found  in  1798  in  such  a state  of 
preservation  as  only  to  demand  cleansing. 
The  system  of  modern  canal  improvement 
may  be  stated  to  have  commenced  in  Italy, 
at  Viterbo,  1481,  when  sluices  with  double 
doors  were  invented,  and  first  used  on  a large 
scale,  near  Milan,  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 
The  canals  of  the  delta  of  the  Rhine  com- 
menced, it  is  true,  in  the  dark  ages,  but  it 
was  not  before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, that  they  were  planned  and  constructed 
with  scientific  regularity  of  design.  The 
most  stupendous  canal  in  the  world  is  one 
in  China,  which  passes  over  two  thousand 
miles,  and  to  forty-one  cities ; it  was  com- 
menced in  the  tenth  century.  The  Erie 
canal  in  New  York,  three  hundred  and  thirty 
miles  in  length,  was  begun  in  1817.  The 
Bridgewater  canal,  the  first  great  work  of  the 
kind  in  Englani,  was  begun  by  the  Duke  of 
Bridgewater,  in  1758.  Brindley  was  the 
architect.  [See  Brindley.] 

CANARIES,  a group  of  seven  islands  in 


CAN 


i 


176 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  Atlantic,  off  the  coast  of  Africa,  belong- 
ing to  Spain.  Ter.eriffe  is  the  largest  and 
most  important.  The  Peak  rises  11,946  feet 
above  the  sea.  These  are  supposed  to  be 
the  Fortunate  Isles  of  the  ancients.  In 
1330  a French  ship,  driven  among  them  by 
stress  of  weather,  made  them  known  to  the 
modern  world.  They  were  seized  by  the 
Spaniards,  who  planted  the  vine,  which  still 
flourishes,  about  1420.  The  canary-bird  is  a 
native  of  these  isles.  It  was  brought  into 
England  in  1500. 

C AND  I A,  the  ancient  Crete,  a large  island 
in  the  Mediterranean,  lying  about  eighty 
miles  south  of  the  Morea.  The  climate  is 
mild,  and  the  soil  productive,  capable,  as 
was  proved  in  ancient  times,  of  supporting 

1.200.000  inhabitants,  a population  which 
Turkish  tyranny  and  indolence  have  dimin- 
ished to  159,000.  It  was,  in  mythological 
accounts,  the  kingdom  of  Saturn.  After 
becoming  a republic,  and  a pirate  isle,  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Romans,  and  then  by  the 
Saracens  in  823.  In  962,  the  Greeks  re- 
gained possession  of  it.  It  was  sold  to  the 
Venetians  in  1204,  and  was  fiercely  contended 
for  by  the  troops  of  the  Porte  and  the  re- 
public. Hither  the  Christian  chivalry  of 
Europe  rushed  to  display  their  valor  against 
the  infidels,  and  the  capital  was  only  surren- 
dered after  a siege  of  twenty-five  years,  Sept. 
27th,  1669.  Candia  continued  in  the  hands 
of  the  Turks,  until  its  cession  to  Mehemet 
Ali  in  1830.  In  1840  it  was  restored  to  the 
sultan.  The  wild  goat  of  Crete  is  the  sup- 
posed origin  of  all  the  domestic  varieties. 

CANNiE,  a city  on  the  Adriatic,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Aufidus,  where  the  Romans 
were  defeated  by  the  Carthaginians,  under 
Hannibal,  May  21st,  216  b.c.  Hannibal  had 

10.000  horse  and  40,000  foot,  while  the  Ro- 
man troops,  headed  by  iEmilius  Paulus  and 
Terentius  Varro,  amounted  to  87,000  men. 
The  opponents  of  Hannibal  had  two  to  one 
against  him  in  infantry,  while  Hannibal  had 
five  to  one  against  them  in  cavalry.  The 
light-horse  and  slingers  began  to  skirmish, 
after  whom  Hasdrubal  charged  the  troops 
of  horse  that  were  led  by  iEmilius,  and  broke 
their  ranks.  The  last  blow  that  ended  all 
resistance  was  given  by  the  same  hand  tfhat 
aimed  the  first.  Hasdrubal,  having  cut  in 
pieces  all  the  Roman  horse  that  opposed  him, 


fell  back  upon  the  rear,  and  came  up  to  the 
Numidians,  with  whom  he  joined  and  made 
a charge  upon  Varro.  The  Romans  whom 
they  charged  appeared  incapable  of  resist- 
ance, and  were  completely  routed.  Livy 
says  that  40,000  foot  and  above  2,700  horse 
were  slain ; Polybius  accounts  the  loss  much 
greater.  The  prisoners  taken  amounted  to 

3.000  foot  and  300  horse,  according  to  Livyq 
according  to  others,  to  8,000.  Hannibal  col- 
lected the  rings,  the  badges  of  the  fallen  Ro- 
man knights,  and  sent  many  bushels  of  them 
to  Carthage,  as  tokens  of  his  triumph.  He  lost 

4.000  Gauls,  1,500  Spaniards  and  Africans, 
and  200  horse.  Had  he  pursued  his  victory 
and  marched  forthwith  to  Rome,  instead  of 
quartering  his  troops  in  the  seductive  Capua, 
he  might  probably  have  ended  the  war ; but 
he  did  not  trust  his  own  good  fortune  to  such 
a length.  Varro,  the  consul  whose  impru- 
dence brought  on  the  defeat,  saved  himself 
by  flight,  while  his  brave  colleague,  AEmilius, 
perished  on  the  field  of  battle. 

CANNING,  George,  a brilliant  English 
statesman,  born  April  11th,  1770.  His  life 
was  spent  on  the  political  arena,  and  he  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Liverpool  as  premier  in  February, 
1827 ; but  worn  by  his  toils,  both  in  body 
and  mind,  he  died  August  8th,  1827. 

CANOVA,  Antonio,  the  most  celebrated 
and  successful  sculptor  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, was  born  in  the  Venetian  territory,  at 
Possagno,  Nov.  1st,  1757,  and  from  his  twelfth 
year  devoted  himself  to  the  art  in  which  he 
became  so  celebrated.  When  quite  young  he 
modeled  the  figure  of  a lion  in  butter  with 
exquisite  skill.  This  was  placed  upon  the 
table  of  the  seigneur  of  the  place,  Falieri, 
whose  attention  it  attracted.  The  ingenious 
artist  was  sought  for,  found,  and  placed  with  a 
statuary.  At  seventeen,  his  statue  of  Euryd- 
ice  was  sculptured,  and  highly  praised.  In 
1779  he  went  to  Rome  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Venetian  senate.  His  works  are  nu- 
merous, and  his  subjects  various ; the  female 
figures  being  the  most  perfect  and  beautiful. 
Canova  had  a method  of  finishing  his  statues, 
by  applying  to  the  marble  a peculiar  prepara- 
tion, which  destroyed  the  glare  and  glitter  of 
the  stone,  and  imparted  to  it  the  soft  and 
mellow  lustre  of  wax.  Modest,  moral,  and 
amiable,  Canova  was  free  from  professional 
jealousy,  and  liberally  patronized  young  art- 


CAN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


177 


ists  of  merit,  removing  many  of  the  obstacles 
which  oppose  the  early  steps  of  devotees  to 
the  fine  arts.  He  was  created  Marquis  of  Is- 
chia, with  a large  pension,  by  Pope  Pius  VII., 
who  was  by  no  means  backward  in  acknowl- 
edging his  merit.  The  amiable  artist  died  at 
Venice,  Oct.  13th,  1822,  leaving  behind  him 
many  monuments  of  his  talents,  industry, 
goodness,  and  liberality.  A writer,  speaking 
of  the  comparative  merits  of  the  Medicean  and 
the  Canova  Venus,  says,  “I  am  by  no  means 
convinced  of  the  great  superiority  of  the  an- 
cient over  the  modern  work.  It  is  certain  the 
general  attitude  and  aspect  are  copied  in  the 
latter,  which  deprives  the  artist  of  a great 
share  of  the  merit  of  originality ; but  if  we 
were  to  regard  the  works  alone,  without  any 
reference  to  their  formation,  I am  not  sure 
that  the  palm  would  not  be  given  to  Canova. 
As  a friend  of  mine,  no  mean  judge,  said  to 
me,  4 If  they  were  both  dug  out  of  the  earth 
now,  and  nobody  knew  anything  about  either, 
the  Canova  statue  would  be  preferred.’  ” 
CANUTE,  the  Great,  King  of  Denmark  and 
England,  succeeded  his  father  Sweyn  in  the 
former  kingdom,  about  the  year  1015.  He 
commenced  his  reign  by  an  expedition  against 
England,  but  hearing  that  the  King  of  Norway 
had  invaded  Denmark,  he  was  obliged  to  make 
a precipitate  return.  Having  repulsed  the 
invader,  he  resumed  his  enterprise,  and  land- 
ing on  the  southern  coast,  committed  dreadful 
ravages  ; but  Edmund  Ironsides  opposed  him 
with  such  bravery,  that  Canute  agreed  to  di- 
vide the  kingdom  with  him.  On  the  murder 
of  Edmund  by  Edric  in  1017,  Canute  obtained 
the  whole  kingdom  in  an  assembly  of  the 
states,  and  put  to  death  Edric,  and  several  of 
the  English  nobility  who  had  basely  deserted 
their  sovereign.  He  likewise  levied  heavy 
taxes  on  the  people,  and  particularly  on  the 
inhabitants  of  London.  The  King  of  Sweden 
having  attacked  Denmark,  he  went  thither 
and  slew  the  Swedish  monarch  in  battle. 
Canute  built  churches,  made  a pilgrimage  to 
Rome,  cherished  the  interests  of  learnings  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  piety.  Canute’s 
reproof  of  his  courtiers  is  well  known.  These 
flatterers  having  assured  him  he  had  power 
over  all  things,  he  seated  himself  upon  the 
sea-shore,  and  commanded  the  waves  not  to 
approach  his  feet.  The  element  advanced 
with  its  usual  rapidity,  and  Canute,  rising, 
12 


said  to  his  courtiers  in  a tone  of  great  solem- 
nity : 44  lie  alone  can  rule  the  waves,  who  has 
said  to  them,  Thus  far  shall  ye  go,  and  no 
farther.”  Canute  died  at  Shaftesbury,  1036. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.  The  Cape,  nearly 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  long  in 
the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  was  found,  on  the 
conquest  by  the  English,  in  the  year  1795,  to 
be  550  English  miles  in  length,  and  233  in 
breadth.  This  flourishing  colony  was  origin- 
ally founded  by  the  Dutch.  Van  Riebeck, 
surgeon  of  one  of  the  Dutch  company’s  ships, 
having  touched  at  the  Cape,  was  struck  with 
the  extent  of  the  bay,  capable  of  containing 
more  than  one  hundred  vessels ; its  situation, 
half-way  between  Europe  and  India ; and  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  which  seemed  proper  for 
every  kind  of  cultivation.  On  his  return,  ho 
communicated  his  ideas  to  the  company,  who 
approved  of  his  plan  and  gave  him  full  powers 
to  carry  it  into  execution.  Van  Riebeck  ac- 
cordingly embarked  with  four  vessels,  and, 
after  arriving  at  the  Cape,  purchased  from  the 
inhabitants  land  for  an  establishment,  for 
which  he  gave  them  merchandise,  to  be  se- 
lected at  then  own  choice,  to  the  value  of 
50,000  florins,  1651.  The  possession  of  this 
region  was  for  a long  time  a source  of  contest 
between  the  Dutch  and  English.  It  was  taken 
by  the  English  in  1797,  and,  after  having  been 
surrendered  to  the  Dutch  in  1802,  was  again 
occupied  by  the  former  in  1806,  and  has  since 
remained  in  their  possession.  Cape  Town  is 
resorted  to  by  ships  bound  to  the  Indian 
Ocean,  for  supplies  of  water  and  provision. 
The  Hottentots,  or  Bushmen,  are  a degraded 
race,  but  instead  of  endeavoring  to  better  their 
condition,  the  Europeans  have  contributed  to 
prolong,  and  in  fact  consolidate,  their  evil 
habits,  furnishing  them  with  spirituous  li- 
quors, the  agency  of  which  insures  their  de- 
struction, or  reduces  them  to  an  abject  state 
which  is  far  worse  than  death  itself.  The 
cruelty  practiced  on  the  natives  by  the  Dutch 
almost  exceeds  belief.  When  a party  of 
Dutch  wished  to  settle  in  any  spot,  they  pro- 
ceeded to  clear  it  by  the  death  of  the  natives, 
with  as  much  coolness  as  an  American  squat- 
ter would  exhibit,  in  hewing  down  the  forest- 
trees  to  open  a place  for  the  erection  of  his 
log-house,  or  in  picking  off  with  his  rifle  a few 
of  the  wild  animals  which  threatened  to  be 
troublesome.  The  Dutch  manner  of  proceed- 


CAP 


178 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Ing  was  summary.  Having  selected  the  liut 
of  some  poor  wretch  as  an  object  of  destruc- 
tion, they  first  set  fire  to  it.  Let  us  imagine 
the  dismay  and  horror  of  a poor  family  at 
finding  flames  breaking  forth  around,  above 
them,  in  every  direction.  Rushing  forth,  the 
wretched  owners  of  the  miserable  dwelling 
would  implore  pity  from  their  cruel  enemies. 
The  Dutch  boors  would  be  too  much  engaged 
in  loading  their  pieces  and  discharging  them 
upon  the  males,  to  heed  the  cries  of  the  fe- 
males, who,  with  their  children,  were  gener- 
ally saved.  The  indifference  with  which  the 
boors  regarded  the  death  of  the  Bushmen,  is 
strikingly  illustrated  in  the  followinganecdote. 
A boor,  presenting  himself  at  the  secretary’s 
office  at  Cape  Town,  after  having  traversed  a 
lonely  tract,  was  asked  if  he  had  not  found 
the  Bushmen  troublesome  ? “ Not  very,”  re- 

plied he,  with  great  coolness,  “I  only  shot 
four.” 

In  1848,  the  population  was  200,546.  Cape 
Town,  the  capital  of  the  British  possessions  in 
this  region,  was  the  first  settlement  of  the 
Dutch. 

CAPE  YERDE  ISLANDS,  a group  of 
islands,  in  the  Atlantic,  opposite  to  and  890 
miles  from  Cape  Verde,  belonging  to  Portugal. 
Their  number  has  been  variously  stated  from 
ten  to  fourteen.  The  air  is  unwholesome,  but 
some  portion  of  the  soil  is  fertile.  Rain  is 
unfrequent,  and  the  drought  has  been  so  se- 
vere that  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  have 
perished  from  the  consequent  famine.  The 
salt  manufactured  at  Mayo,  a small  island,  is 
exchanged  for  flour,  and  this  trade  is  chiefly 
carried  on  by  means  of  American  vessels. 
The  inhabitants,  who  are  mostly  negroes, 
numbered  86,738  in  1850.  These  isles  were 
known  to  the  ancients  as  the  Gorgades,  but 
were  not  visited  by  the  moderns  till  1446. 

CAPET.  The  family  name  of  a royal  race, 
thirty-six  members  of  which  have  reigned  in 
France,  and  eighty -two  in  other  European 
states.  The  word  signifies  ‘broad-head,’  or 
perhaps  ‘broad-hat,’  and  was  first  given  to 
Hugo,  son  of  Hugo  the  Great,  Duke  of  France 
and  Count  of  Paris,  b}r  his  adnerents,  in  the 
tenth  century.  He  seized  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  Louis  V.,  the  Indolent,  the  last  of  the 
Carlovingian  race,  a.d.  987.  Louis  had 
reigned  but  one  year,  and  was  poisoned  by 
bis  queen,  who  loved  him  not 


CAPO  DTSTRIA,  John,  Count  of,  a native 
of  Greece,  was  born  at  Corfu,  in  1780.  He 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  Russia,  was 
intrusted  with  several  important  missions, 
and  assisted  to  manage  the  intrigues  by  which 
that  power  fomented  the  disaffection  of  the 
Greeks  toward  the  Turks.  In  1827,  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Greek  republic.  In 
this  responsible  station,  his  talents  appear  to 
have  been  of  a high  order,  although  the  weak- 
ness of  the  state,  and  the  disorders  which 
reigned  throughout  Greece,  embarrassed  his 
abilities.  He  was  assassinated  in  1831,  his 
leaning  toward  Russian  policy  gaining  him 
enemies. 

CAPPADOCIA,  a province  of  Asia,  once  of 
great  importance  as  an  independent  kingdom, 
at  times,  although  nominally  dependent  upon 
Persia,  whose  satraps  governed  it.  The  Pon- 
tus  Euxinus  lay  upon  the  north,  Armenia  on 
the  east,  Cilicia  and  Syria  on  the  south,  and 
Lycaonia  on  the  west.  It  was  divided  into 
Cappadocia  Magna,  and  Cappadocia  Minor, 
afterward  Cappadocia  Proper,  and  Pontus. 
The  kingdom  was  founded  by  Pharnaces,  744 
b.c.  The  people  are  said  to  have  been  addict- 
ed to  every  vice  that  man  is  capable  of  com- 
mitting. They  worshiped  the  sun.  Arche- 
laus,  the  last  king,  bequeathed  the  country  to 
the  Romans,  a.d.  17. 

CAPRI,  the  ancient  Capreae,  a beautiful 
rocky  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Naples,  whose  in- 
habitants are  6,000  in  number.  Besides  being 
valuable  on  account  of  its  oil  and  wine,  it  is 
enriched  by  quails,  which  come  hither  in  great 
numbers  from  Africa,  and  are  caught  with 
ease.  The  charms  of  this  island  induced  Ti- 
berius to  select  it  for  his  retreat  when  he 
chose  to  retire  from  the  active  administration 
of  government,  and  give  himself  up  to  the 
most  revolting  debauchery,  occasionally  re- 
minding his  subjects  of  his  existence  by  or- 
dering the  execution  of  Rome’s  best  citizens. 

CAPUCHIN  FRIARS,  a sort  of  Francis- 
cans, to  whom  this  name  was  given  from  their 
wearing  a great  capuehon,  or  cowl,  an  odd 
kind  of  cap,  or  hood,  sewn  to  their  habit,  and 
hanging  down  upon  their  backs.  They  were 
founded  by  Matthew  Baschi,  about  1525.  Al- 
though the  rigors  of  this  order  have  abated, 
still  the  brethren  are  marked  for  their  extreme 
poverty  and  privations. 

CARABOBO,  a province  of  Venezuela,  in 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


179 


South  America.  The  famous  battle  of  Cara- 
bobo,  which  decided  the  independence  of  Ven- 
ezuela, was  fought  between  Bolivar  and  La 
Torre,  the  Spanish  general,  June  24th,  1821. 

CARACALLA,  Antoninus  Bassianus,  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Emperor  Severus,  born  a.d. 
188,  and  associated  with  his  father  in  the 
government  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years.  Af- 
ter his  father’s  death,  he  assassinated  his 
brother  Geta,  who  shared  the  throne  with 
him,  in  212.  Caracalla  received  the  surname 
of  Alemannicus,  for  basely  murdering  a tribe 
of  the  Germans  whom  he  pretended  to  assist. 
He  visited  Egypt,  and  displayed  every  where 
the  greatest  cruelty.  He  was  finally  assassin- 
ated at  Edessa,  a.d.  217,  by  Macrinus,  the 
praetorian  prefect. 

CARACTACUS,  king  of  the  Silures,  a Brit- 
ish tribe  of  Wales,  who,  being  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Romans,  was  led  before  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  a.d.  62.  He  was  unawed  by  the 
power  and  splendor  which  surrounded  him, 
but  was  surprised,  as  he  told  the  emperor, 
that  the  possessors  of  so  much  wealth  and 
grandeur  could  envy  him  his  humble  cottage. 
The  magnanimity  of  his  bearing,  and  the  can- 
dor and  moderation  of  his  remarks,  so  moved 
the  emperor,  that  he  gave  orders  to  have  the 
captive  monarch  set  at  liberty.  This  was  the 
only  good  action  performed  by  Claudius  that 
is  extant. 

CARBONARI  (‘colliers’),  the  name  of  a 
secret  political  society  of  Italy  which  existed 
for  many  years,  but  the  origin  of  which  is 
doubtful.  The  Carbonari  were  sworn  foes  of 
oppression,  “Hatred  to  tyrants!”  being  the 
initiatory  oath.  The  places  where  they  met 
were  called  huts  ; the  interior  the  colliery,  and 
the  exterior  the  wood.  Tolerance  in  religious 
matters  was  secured  by  their  principles.  In 
1820,  when  Italy  was  disturbed  by  plots, 
650,000  new  members  were  admitted,  in  the 
month  of  March.  In  that  year  the  society 
was  suppressed  by  the  Austrian  government ; 
though  there  is  reason  to  think  it  yet  exists. 

CARDINALS  were  originally  the  parish 
priests  at  Rome ; title  began  to  be  used,  308 ; 
college  of,  founded  by  Pope  Pascal  I.,  817; 
did  not  elect  the  popes  till  1160;  wore  the 
red  hat,  to  remind  them  that  they  ought  to 
shed  their  blood,  if  required,  for  religion,  and 
were  declared  princes  of  the  church,  1243 ; 
the  cardinals  set  fire  to  the  conclave,  and  sep- 


arated, and  a vacancy  in  the  papal  chair  for 
two  years,  1314 ; Cardinal  Carassa  was  hanged 
by  order  of  Pius  IV.,  1560 ; as  was  Cardinal 
Poli,  under  Leo  X. ; the  title  of  eminence  first 
given  them  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  about  1630. 
Paul  II.  gave  them  the  scarlet  habit,  1464. 
The  cardinals  are  now  ecclesiastical  princes  in 
the  Church  of  Rome.  They  are  the  council 
of  the  pope,  and  constitute  the  conclave  or 
sacred  college. 

CAREY,  William,  D.D.  of  the  English 
Baptist  mission  at  Serampore,  was  born  Aug. 
17th,  1761.  He  was  the  son  of  a poor  man, 
and  commenced  business  in  life  as  a shoe- 
maker. By  industry  and  application  he  ac- 
quainted himself  with  Hebrew  and  various 
other  languages.  In  1793,  he  left  England 
for  India.  He  translated  the  Scriptures  into 
Bengalee,  and  into  all  the  principal  languages 
of  northern  Ilindostan,  and  compiled  also  a 
voluminous  Bengalee  dictionary.  He  died  in 
1834. 

CARLOS,  commonly  known  as  Don  Carlos, 
son  of  Philip  I.  of  Spain  by  his  first  wife, 
Mary  of  Portugal,  was  born  at  Valladolid, 
Jan.  8th,  1544.  Four  days  after,  his  mother 
died  in  the  midst  of  preparations  for  the  cel- 
ebration of  the  birth  of  the  prince.  Carlos 
was  naturally  feeble,  and  had  one  leg  shorter 
than  the  other.  The  excessive  indulgence 
with  which  he  was  treated  in  youth,  fostered 
his  strong  passions,  and  rendered  him  vindic- 
tive and  obstinate.  In  1560,  Philip  caused 
the  states,  assembled  at  Toledo,  solemnly  to 
recognize  Don  Carlos  as  heir  to  the  crown. 
A headlong  fall  down  the  staircase  of  the 
palace  of  the  Cardinal  Ximenes  at  Alcald,  in 
1562,  nearly  deprived  the  young  prince  of 
life.  His  skull  was  fractured,  and  trepanning 
was  necessary.  Of  course  a royal  prince  of 
Spain  could  not  be  restored  without  a mira- 
cle, and  the  credit  of  Carlos’s  recovery  was 
divided  between  the  bones'  of  a holy  friar 
and  the  image  of  Our  Lady  of  Atocha. 
These  sanctified  instrumentalities  did  not 
work  a radical  cure,  for  the  brain  of  their 
patient  had  received  a permanent  injury. 

Writers  vary  greatly  in  the  portraits  which 
they  draw  of  Don  Carlos.  According  to 
some,  he  was  born  with  those  qualities  which 
adorn  a hero,  with  a love  of  glory  joined  to 
high  courage,  a proud  disdain  of  opposition, 
and  a desire  of  extended  power.  According 


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180 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


to  others,  his  actions  were  those  of  a mad- 
man, whom  accident  and  opposition  irritate, 
but  address  or  submission  calms.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  after  this  accident  he  displayed 
much  eccentricity  of  conduct,  and  gave  him- 
self to  reckless  gratification  of  his  passions. 

One  night,  as  he  was  traversing  the  streets 
of  Madrid,  some  one  accidentally  threw  a 
little  water  on  his  head.  Instantly  stopping, 
Don  Carlos  ordered  his  attendants  to  set  fire 
to  the  house,  and  cut  the  throats  of  its  inmates. 
They  parted,  as  if  to  execute  his  commands, 
but  returning  immediately,  assured  him  that 
it  was  impossible  to  obey  him,  because  the 
holy  sacrament  was  on  the  point  of  being 
administered  to  a sick  person  in  the  offensive 
dwelling.  This  reply  pacified  the  prince. 

Cardinal  Epinosa,  president  of  the  council 
of  Castile,  and  afterward  grand-inquisitor, 
banished  a comedian  named  Cisneros  from 
the  place,  where  he  was  to  have  performed 
that  night  for  the  prince’s  diversion.  It  was 
probably  by  Philip’s  order.  Carlos,  meeting 
the  cardinal,  seized  him  roughly  by  the  col- 
lar, and,  laying  his  hand  on  his  poniard,  ex- 
claimed, “ You  scurvy  priest,  do  you  dare  to 
prevent  Cisneros  from  playing  before  me? 
By  the  life  of  my  father,  I will  kill  you ! ” 
The  trembling  prelate,  throwing  himself  upon 
his  knees,  was  too  happy  to  escape  with  his 
life  from  the  hands  of  the  infuriated  prince. 

An  unfortunate  money-lender,  one  Grim- 
aldo,  after  having  supplied  the  prince  with 
some  money  he  had  asked,  added  in  the  usual 
high-flown  style  of  Castilian  politeness,  that 
all  that  he  had  was  at  his  disposal.  Carlos 
took  him  at  his  word,  and  instantly  demand- 
ed a hundred  thousand  ducats.  In  vain 
Grimaldo  protested  that  he  had  only  used 
a form  of  speech  current  in  all  good  society. 
The  best  bargain  he  could  make  was  to  be 
let  off  with  sixty  thousand,  to  be  furnished 
within  twenty-four  hours. 

A shoemaker  having  made  a pair  of  boots 
much  too  tight  for  the  prince,  the  latter 
ordered  them  to  be  cut  to  pieces  and  stewed. 
“Villain!”  exclaimed  he,  to  the  terrified 
tradesman,  “ thou  must  eat  these  or  die ! ” 
In  vain  the  unfortunate  man  represented  the 
cruelty  of  the  sentence,  and  the  trivial  nature 
of  his  offense.  He  was  not  permitted  to  de- 
part until  he  had  eaten  up  his  boots. 

Don  Alonzo  de  Cordova,  brother  of  the 


Marquis  of  Las  Nevas,  having  failed  to  repair 
instantly  to  the  prince’s  chamber,  at  the 
summons  of  his  bell,  the  furious  prince  seized 
him  by  the  waist,  and,  but  for  the  cries  of 
the  sufferer,  which  procured  the  assistance 
of  servants,  would  have  dashed  the  chamber- 
lain  through  the  window  into  the  moat. 

Yet  Carlos  at  other  times  behaved  in  a 
most  generous  manner,  and  he  obtained  the 
affections  of  those  members  of  the  ro}ral 
family  who  approached  him  most  nearly. 
One  of  these,  romance  has  closely  linked 
with  his  unfortunate  fate.  In  1559,  a mar- 
riage had  been  proposed  between  Don  Carlos 
and  Isabella,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  and 
Catharine  de  Medici  of  France.  Philip 
judged  proper  to  substitute  himself  for  his 
son.  It  has  been  said  that  Carlos  loved 
Isabella,  that  their  passion  was  mutual,  and 
that  he  never  forgave  his  father  for  having 
deprived  him  of  his  bride. 

Carlos  may  have  cherished  such  a senti- 
ment, no  doubt,  but  that  Isabella  loved  the 
sallow  and  sickly  boy  is  hardly  probable. 
She  was  kind  to  him,  and  always  befriended 
him,  but  it  was  the  kindness  of  an  amiable 
woman  and  a relative.  She  appears  to  have 
possessed  a complete  control  over  him,  so 
that  his  conduct  in  her  presence  was  never 
extravagant. 

Philip  served  Carlos  a second  trick  of  this 
kind.  He  was  led,  in  1565,  to  hope  for  a 
union  with  the  Archduchess  Anne,  his  cousin, 
and  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  but 
Philip  shortly  afterward  opposed  the  match, 
and,  on  the  death  of  Don  Carlos,  married 
the  lady  himself.  Thus  he  successively  de- 
prived his  son  of  two  females,  whose  attrac- 
tions might  have  bound  him  to  domestic  life, 
and  softened  the  wilder  and  more  obdurate 
portions  of  his  character. 

In  1653,  Philip,  who  had  no  heir  but  Don 
Carlos,  whom  he  doubtless  judged  incapable 
of  governing,  sent  for  his  nephews,  the  Arch- 
dukes Rodolphus  and  Ernest,  whom  he  re- 
ceived in  person,  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
the  succession  to  them.  The  following  year, 
Don  Carlos,  who  was  discontented,  and  at 
variance  with  his  father,  projected  his  escape 
from  Spain  under  the  pretext  of  going  to  the 
relief  of  Malta,  then  besieged  by  the  troops 
of  Solyman.  He  collected  fifty  thousand 
ducats,  and  was  on  the  eve  of  departing, 


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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


181 


when  a forged  letter  of  the  viceroy  of  Naples, 
urging  his  stay  in  Spain,  induced  him  to 
change  his  resolution.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
dwell  upon  the  various  projects  of  Don  Car- 
los for  securing  fame  and  distinction  in  other 
countries,  all  of  which  were  crossed  by  his 
stern  parent,  who  regarded  him  with  a jeal- 
ous eye,  and  punished  several  of  his  confi- 
dants and  friends. 

Philip  appeared  to  repose  implicit  confi- 
dence in  the  Duke  of  Alva,  Ruy  Gomez  de 
Sylva,  and  Espinosa.  Don  Carlos  had  an 
invincible  repugnance  to  these  men,  either 
from  jealousy  of  the  confidence  they  enjoyed, 
or  from  considering  them  as  authorized  and 
privileged  spies  upon  his  conduct.  He  could 
not  bear  to  dwell  upon  the  thought  that  the 
Duke  of  Alva  had  obtained  the  government 
of  Flanders,  which  he  had  solicited  for  himself. 
When  Alva  came  to  pay  his  respects  to 
him  previous  to  his  departure  for  the  Nether- 
lands, the  prince  fiercely  said,  “You  are  not 
to  go  to  Flanders ; I will  go  there  myself.” 
Alva  endeavored  to  pacify  him,  saying  that  it 
was  too  dangerous  a mission  for  the  heir  to 
the  throne ; that  he  w'as  going  to  quiet  the  ; 
troubles  of  the  country,  and  prepare  it  for  j 
the  coming  of  the  king,  when  the  prince  j 
could  accompany  his  father,  if  his  presence  j 
could  be  spared  in  Castile.  But  this  expla- 
nation only  served  to  irritate  Carlos  the  more ; 
and,  drawing  his  dagger,  he  turned  suddenly  | 
on  the  duke,  exclaiming,  * You  shall  not  go ; 
if  you  do,  1 will  kill  you.’  A struggle  en-  j 
sued ; an  awkward  one  for  Alva,  as  to  injure  I 
the  heir-apparent  might  be  construed  into 
treason.  Fortunately,  being  much  the  strong- 
er of  the  two,  he  grappled  with  Carlos  and 
held  him  tight,  while  the  latter  exhausted 
his  strength  in  ineffectual  efforts  to  escape. 
But  no  sooner  was  the  prince  released  than  i 
he  turned  again,  with  the  fury  of  a madman, 
on  the  duke,  who  again  closed  with  him, 
when  the  noise  of  the  fray  brought  in  one 
of  the  chamberlains  from  an  adjoining  room ; 
and  Carlos,  extricating  himself  from  the  iron 
grasp  of  his  adversary,  withdrew  to  his  own 
apartment. 

“I’ll  kill  you”  seems  to  have  been  his 
favorite  threat.  Louis  de  Foix,  a French  en- 
gineer, the  celebrated  architect  who  built 
the  Escurial,  is  said  to  have  been  commanded 
by  Don  Carlos  to  make  him  a book  heavy 


enough  to  kill  a man  at  one  blow.  De  Thou, 
the  historian  who  relates  this,  says,  “This 
prince  desired  the  book,  after  having  read  in 
the  annals  of  Spain  that  an  imprisoned  arch- 
bishop had  made  a leather  cover  to  a brick 
of  the  size  of  his  breviary,  and  used  it  to  kill 
his  jailer,  whom  he  struck  dead.”  De  Foix 
told  the  historian  that  he  made  the  prince  a 
book,  composed  of  ten  tablets  of  a blue  stone, 
covered  with  plates  of  steel,  concealed  under 
plates  of  gilt,  and  this  book,  six  inches  by 
four,  weighed  more  than  fourteen  pounds. 
He  said  also  that  Don  Carlos,  wishing  to  be 
alone  in  his  chamber,  employed  him  to  make 
him  a machine,  with  which  by  means  of  pul- 
leys he  could  fasten  and  unfasten  his  door 
without  rising  from  his  bed.  The  prince  had 
always  under  his  pillow  two  drawn  swords, 
a brace  of  loaded  pistols,  and  at  the  bedside, 
half  a dozen  arquebusses  and  an  arm-chest. 

These  precautions  and  preparations  alarmed 
Philip.  Don  Carlos  was  often  heard  mutter- 
ing against  the  conduct  of  his  father.  He 
went  about  frequently  repeating  that  there 
was  a man  with  whom  he  had  quarreled; 
whom  he  desired  to  kill.  At  Christmas  time 
it  was  the  custom  of  the  royal  family  to  take 
the  sacrament  together  in  public ; and  to  pre- 
pare himself  for  this  sacred  ceremony,  Carlos 
went  to  confession.  He  confessed  that  he 
was  meditating  murder,  without  revealing  his 
intended  victim.  The  confession  being  re- 
vealed tc  Philip,  he  exclaimed,  “I  am  the 
man  whose  life  he-  seeks ! but  I will  take  care 
to  prevent  the  execution  of  his  designs.” 

The  dark  surmise  of  the  father  was  con- 
firmed. Don  Carlos’s  confessor  refused  him 
absolution.  Several  learned  divines  were  got 
together  to  give  their  opinions  on  the  case. 
One  of  the  number,  wishing  to  draw  from 
Carlos  the  name  of  his  enemy,  told  him  that 
this  intelligence  might  possibly  have  some  in- 
fluence on  their  judgment.  The  prince  replied 
that  “ his  father  was  the  person,  and  that  he 
wished  to  have  his  life ! ” What  more  palpa- 
ble proof  of  insanity  could  be  put  on  record! 
At  the  same  time  that  he  was  brooding  over 
this  assassination,  he  was  also  projecting 
schemes  to  fly  from  the  palace  and  his  father. 
Both  designs  were  of  course  revealed  to  the 
king,  who  now  took  prompt  measures  for  his 
arrest.  De  Foix  was  ordered  to  arrest  the 
action  of  the  pulleys  which  closed  the  door  of 


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182 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


the  prince’s  chamber.  This  was  done  private- 
ly, and  with  so  much  skill  that  the  prince  nev- 
er perceived  it.  He  slept  soundly  on  the  night 
of  the  18th  of  January,  1568,  when  the  Count 
of  Lerma  first  entered  his  apartment,  silently 
removed  all  separate  weapons,  and  sat  down 
upon  the  chest  which  contained  theremainder. 
The  king  then  entered,  preceded  by  Ruy  Go- 
mez de  Sylva,  the  Duke  of  Feria,  several  other 
noblemen,  and  guards,  Don  Carlos  being  still 
buried  in  sleep.  Being  awaked,  and  seeing 
his  father,  he  exclaimed,  “I  am  lost,”  and 
mingled  prayers  for  death  with  loud  cries  and 
menaces.  Philip  coldly  replied  that  bis  life 
was  not  in  danger ; ordered  him  to  rise ; re- 
moved his  attendants,  seized  a casket  filled 
with  papers,  which  was  under  the  bed, 
charged  those  whom  he  intrusted  with  the 
care  of  the  prince  not  to  lose  sight  of  him,  and 
to  prevent  his  writing  or  communicating  with 
any  one,  and  withdrew.  Out  of  that  room 
Don  Carlos  never  again  passed.  The  windows 
were  barred  up,  the  door  secured,  a guard  of 
twelve  halberdiers  were  constantly  stationed 
in  the  passages  leading  to  it,  and  night  and 
day  there  were  noblemen  appointed  to  keep 
watch  over  the  prisoner  himself.  All  com- 
munication with  the  outer  wrorld  was  cut  off. 
He  was  as  one  buried  alive. 

The  guards  dressed  him  in  black.  They 
removed  the  bed  itself,  leaving  only  a small 
trundle-bed  in  its  place.  The  confinement 
soon  told  upon  his  health ; and  the  unhappy 
prisoner  seems  to  have  hastened  his  end  by 
his  own  wild  behavior.  At  one  time  he 
would  abstain  from  food  for  days  together ; 
then  he  would  eat  enormously.  He  wrould 
also  deluge  the  floor  writh  water;  then  walk 
about  half-naked  with  bare  feet  on  the  cold 
pavement.  He  caused  a warming-pan  filled 
with  ice  and  snow  to  be  introduced  several 
times  in  a night  into  his  bed.  But  Mr.  Pres- 
cott tells  us  that  for  this  last  practice  he  might 
have  pleaded  the  medical  authorities  of  his 
time,  and  that  it  was  only  the  hydropathic 
treatment  of  that  day.  He  caused  a large  fire 
to  be  built,  under  pretense  of  cold,  and  threw 
himself  into  it,  to  perish  in  the  flames.  It 
required  the  utmost  exertions  of  his  guards  to 
save  him.  He  endeavored  to  choke  himself 
by  swallowing  a large  diamond  which  he  wore 
about  him. 

Philip  is  said  to  have  discovered  in  the  cask- 


et which  was  found  concealed  under  the  bed 
of  Don  Carlos,  communications  with  the  reb- 
els of  the  Netherlands.  The  excessive  pre- 
cautions which  Philip  took  to  justify  his  con- 
duct, have  disposed  posterity  to  judge  favor- 
ably of  Don  Carlos.  It  is  certain  that  many 
of  the  most  influential  grandees  of  Spain 
vainly  petitioned  for  his  liberation. 

Some  historians  are  of  opinion  that  Carlos 
was  condemned  to  death  by  the  inquisition, 
that  the  sentence  was  secretly  executed,  that 
the  prince  partook  of  some  poisoned  broth, 
and  died  a few  hours  afterward.  Some  be- 
lieve that  his  veins  were  opened  in  the  bath, 
others  that  he  wTas  strangled ; while  Ferreras, 
and  the  Spanish  historians  in  general,  declare 
that  he  died  of  a malignant  fever,  occasioned 
by  an  improper  regimen  and  by  violent  fits 
of  passion;  that  he  received  the  last  sacra- 
ments with  piety,  and  wished  to  have  the 
blessing  of  his  father.  It  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine the  manner  or  date  of  the  prince’s  death, 
but  we  incline  to  refer  it  to  the  24th  of  July, 
1568.  The  same  year  Isabella  died,  aged 
twenty -three,  but  her  death  was  natural  and 
had  no  connection  writh  the  fate  of  Don  Carlos. 
We  do  not  know  how  much  faith  to  repose  in 
the  Spanish  historians  who  defend  the  mem- 
ory of  Philip  as  the  protector  of  religion,  and 
represent  his  son  as  a languid  member  of  the 
church,  a partisan  of  the  revolted  Calvinists 
of  the  Netherlands,  and,  above  all,  a determ- 
ined opponent  of  the  inquisition.  Whether 
or  not  Philip  adopted  any  measures  to  hasten 
the  death  of  his  son,  beyond  the  close  confine- 
ment we  have  mentioned,  it  is  clear  that  he 
sternly  intended  that  Don  Carlos  should  not 
survive  him. 

CARLSBAD,  an  aristocratic  watering-place 
in  Europe,  is  in  Bohemia.  The  arrival  of  dis- 
tinguished strangers  is  heralded  by  trumpet- 
ers stationed  on  a tall  tower  near  the  market- 
place ; the  tone  and  length  of  the  blasts  de- 
pending on  the  character  of  the  equipage. 
The  popular  spirit  manifested  throughout  Eu- 
rope against  despotic  governments,  induced 
the  congress  of  Carlsbad,  Aug.  1st,  1819; 
whereat  the  great  continental  powers  decreed 
measures  to  repress  the  rage  for  free  institu- 
tions, and  denounced  liberal  opinions  and  the 
liberty  of  the  press. 

CARMELITES,  or  White  Friars,  one  of 
the  four  mendicant  orders,  and  bound  by 


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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


183 


austere  rules,  appeared  in  1141.  Their  rigor 
was  moderated  about  1540.  They  claim  their 
descent  in  uninterrupted  succession  from  the 
prophet  Elijah,  and  take  their  name  from  Mt. 
Carmel,  on  which  mountain  they  have  a mon- 
astery, built,  they  say,  on  the  spot  where  the 
Tishbite  and  his  pupil  Elisha  had  their  abode. 

CARNOT,  Lazare  Nicolas  Marguerite, 
born  in  Burgundy,  1753.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  mathematical  abilities,  and  in 
the  revolution  commenced  his  career  as  cap- 
tain of  a corps  of  engineers.  He  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king.  Carnot  distinguished  him- 
self in  a military  and  civil  capacity,  but  was 
obliged  to  leave  Paris,  June  18th,  1799 ; be- 
ing soon  after  recalled,  he  was  made,  in  April, 
1800,  minister  of  war.  He  was  a firm  repub- 
lican, opposed  the  ambitious  views  of  Napo- 
leon, and  equally  so  the  attempts  of  the  royal- 
ists. He  died  at  Magdeburg,  August  3d,  1823. 
Carnot  was  a man  of  integrity  and  talents, 
brave,  learned,  and  patriotic,  and  honored  by 
all  parties. 

CAROLINE,  wife  of  George  IV.  of  England, 
was  born  in  May,  1768.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  in  1795 
became  the  bride  of  the  Prince  of  W ales.  Her 
daughter,  the  Princess  Charlotte,  died  at  an 
early  age,  regretted  by  all.  The  prince  aban- 
doned Caroline,  and,  in  order  to  procure  her 
ruin,  accused  her  of  infidelity.  The  trial  of 
the  unhappy  queen  reflects  disgrace  upon  the 
profligate  prince.  She  refused  the  offers 
which  were  made  to  induce  her  to  quit  Eng- 
land with  the  empty  name  of  queen,  and  as- 
serted her  rights  with  dignity  and  firmness. 
She  finally  succumbed  under  the  persecution 
of  her  enemies,  and  died  Aug.  7th,  1821. 

CARRIER,  John  Baptist,  born  in  1756, 
originally  an  obscure  attorney,  rose  to  infa- 
mous notoriety  in  the  French  revolution.  Un- 
der his  direction,  the  greatest  cruelties  were 
perpetrated,  and  15,000  individuals  perished 
in  little  more  than  a month.  He  was  finally 
apprehended  and  condemned  to  death  by  the 
revolutionary  tribunal,  Dec.  16th,  1794. 

CARROLL,  Charles,  of  Carrollton,  one  of 
the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
survived  all  his  associates  in  that  momentous 
act.  He  was  a native  of  Annapolis,  Md.,  and 
was  born  Sept.  20th,  1737.  His  parents  were 
of  Irish  descent  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  and  he  was  sent  to  France  to  be  ed- 


ucated in  that  faith.  After  studying  civil  law 
in  France,  he  repaired  to  England  to  acquire 
a knowledge  of  the  common  law.  He  returned 
to  his  native  land  in  1765,  a finished  scholar, 
and  soon  distinguished  himself  by  able  politi- 
cal writing  and  active  opposition  to  the  arbi- 
trary aggressions  of  the  British  ministry.  He 
was  elected  to  the  congress  of  1776,  and  placed 
his  name  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
He  was  possessed  of  a large  estate,  and  as  he 
advanced  to  sign  the  immortal  document,  a 
member  sportively  remarked,  “There  goes 
half  a million  at  the  dash  of  a pen.”  But  his 
wealth  vanished  from  his  view,  when  he  looked 
upon  the  interests  of  his  country. 

He  retired  from  Congress  in  1778,  and  was 
thereafter  a member  of  the  state  legislature 
till  1789,  when  he  entered  the  first  federal 
congress  as  senator  from  his  native  state.  In 
the  senate  he  remained  till  1792.  His  latter 
days  were  spent  amid  honoring  friends  and  in 
the  tranquil  enjoyment  of  study  and  literature. 
Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  the  last  on  earth 
of  those  who  signed  the  charter  of  our  liber- 
ties, died  Nov.  14th,  1832,  at  the  ripe  ago  of 
ninety-four. 

CARTER,  Elizabeth,  an  English  literary 
lady,  daughter  of  a clergyman  of  Kent,  born 
in  1717.  She  was  acquainted  with  Latin, 
Greek,  French,  German,  Italian,  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic.  In  1749, 
her  translation  of  Epictetus  was  commenced. 
She  died  in  1806,  having  enjoyed  a high 
literary  reputation,  and  the  esteem  of  all  who 
knew  her. 

CARTHAGE,  the  rival  of  Rome,  and  long 
the  mistress  of  Spain,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia, 
wras  a colony  of  the  Tyrians,  and  one  of  the 
latest  Phoenician  settlements  on  the  African 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  precise  time 
of  its  foundation  is  unknown  ; yet  most  wri- 
ters agree  that  it  was  built  by  Dido  about 
869  b.c.,  or  according  to  others  72  or  93  years 
before  the  foundation  of  Rome.  The  tradi- 
tion is  that  Dido  was  a Tyrian  princess,  who 
fled  to  Africa  to  avoid  the  persecutions  of  her 
brother  Pygmalion.  She  outwitted  the  na- 
tives in  making  purchase  of  a piece  of  land 
whereon  to  build  her  citadel.  They  agreed 
for  a certain  sum  to  give  her  as  much  land 
as  she  could  encompass  with  a bull’s  hide 
(byrsa).  When  the  money  was  paid,  the 
artful  princess  cut  the  hide  into  narrow 


CAR 


184 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


thongs,  with  which  she  found  herself  able  to 
inclose  a very  large  space.  The  citadel 
which  she  subsequently  erected  on  this  spot, 
was  called,  in  memory  of  the  transaction, 
Byrsa. 

Carthage  flourished  for  several  centuries, 
attaining  the  zenith  of  its  glory  under  Han- 
nibal and  Hamilcar.  At  one  time  the  city 
contained  700,000  inhabitants.  Its  power 
excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Romans.  The 
latter,  proud  and  strong,  determined  on  the 
conquest  and  ruin  of  their  wealthy  rivals. 
The  three  famous  wars  between  Rome  and 
Carthage  are  known  as  the  Punic  wars.  They 
brought  forth  all  the  energies  of  the  hostile 
parties.  The  Carthaginians  confided  in  their 
inexhaustible  wealth  and  the  superiority  of 
their  navy  the  Romans  in  their  superior 
hardihood  and  energy.  The  Romans  were 
ultimately  victorious,  and,  above  all  others 
of  their  leaders,  Scipio  acquired  the  greatest 
renown.  For  his  successes  and  his  struggles 
in  Africa,  he  obtained  the  name  of  Africanus^ 
It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  Carthagin- 
ians tamely  submitted  to  the  Roman  arms : 
on  the  contrary,  even  to  the  last,  they  de- 
fended their  city  against  the  invaders,  with 
unequaled  bravery.  Gold  and  silver  vessels 
were  surrendered  by  the  luxurious  Africans 
to  procure  the  means  of  carrying  on  the  war ; 
and  the  women,  with  patriotic  devotion,  cut 
off  their  fine  long  hair,  and  twisted  it  into 
bow  strings.  All  their  exertions  were  un- 
availing. The  skill  and  bravery  of  the  Ro- 
mans, who  fought  under  the  eye  and  example 
of  Scipio,  prevailed,  and  in  the  third  Punic 
war,  Carthage  was  totally  demolished,  b.c. 
146.  The  siege  was  wondrous  for  its  horrors, 
for  the  desperate  resistance  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians, and  the  self-devotedness  of  their  women. 
As  the  Roman  troops  drove  the  Carthagin- 
ians before  them  in  every  quarter,  a few  firm 
heroines,  among  whom  was  the  wife  of  As- 
drubal,  the  Carthaginian  general,  with  her 
children,  endeavored  to  maintain  their  posi- 
tion in  the  temple  in  which  they  had  sought 
refuge.  Finding  it  impossible  to  defend  this, 
the  wife  of  Asdrubal  determined  to  set  fire  to 
it  and  perish.  She  dressed  herself  accord- 
ingly in  a splendid  garb,  and  having  fired  the 
building,  first  stabbed  her  children  and  then 
plunged  into  the  flames.  The  city  was  thirty- 
six  miles  in  circumference,  and  when  it  was 


fired  by  the  Romans,  it  burned  incessantly 
for  seventeen  days.  Thousands  perished  in 
the  conflagration,  rather  than  yield,  so  that 
out  of  the  great  population,  only  fifty  thou- 
sand surrendered  themselves  to  Scipio  and 
w ere  saved.  Caesar  planted  a small  colony  on 
the  ruins  of  Carthage,  and  Augustus  sent 
thither  three  thousand  men.  Adrian,  after 
the  example  of  his  imperial  predecessors,  re- 
built a portion  of  it,  and  gave  it  the  name  of 
Adrianopolis.  This  new  Carthage  wras  con- 
quered from  the  Romans  by  the  arms  of 
Genseric,  a.d.  439,  was  for  more  than  a 
century  the  seat  of  the  Vandal  empire  in 
Africa,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens  in 
697,  and  was  utterly  destroyed. 

The  riches  and  commerce  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians were  immense,  and  their  naval  power,  at 
one  time,  supreme.  They  bore  the  charac- 
ter of  a faithless  and  treacherous  people,  and 
the  proverb  Punicafides  (Carthaginian  faith), 
is  wTell  known.  Their  religion  was  gloomy 
and  cruel.  Human  victims  were  offered  to 
the  gods  to  appease  their  vrrath  : these  sac- 
rifices were  usually  their  own  children,  wrhose 
mothers,  unmoved  by  their  cries  and  agonies, 
gave  them  to  the  glowing,  red-hot  Moloch. 
Captives  also  w^ere  thus  immolated.  Crim- 
inals were  executed  by  crucifixion,  to  wrhich 
other  aggravated  tortures  v'ere  frequently 
addeTI.  The  government  w^as  oligarchical, 
and  centered  in  the  city,  which  ruled  all  the 
other  territory.  The  boundaries  coincided 
nearly  wuth  those  of  the  present  state  of 
Tunis. 

CARTHUSIANS,  a religious  order  founded 
by  Bruno  of  Cologne,  W'ho  in  1084  retired 
from  the  world  to  Chartreuse  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Dauphiny.  Their  austere  rules 
were  formed  by  Basil  VII.,  general  of  the 
order.  The  monks  could  neither  leave  their 
cells  nor  speak,  without  express  leave ; and 
their  clothing  wras  two  hair-cloths,  tw^  o cowls, 
twTo  pair  of  hose,  and  a cloak,  all  coarse. 
The  general  takes  the  title  of  prior  of  the 
Chartreuse,  the  principal  monastery,  from 
which  the  order  is  named,  and  whose  monks 
in  these  degenerate  days  are  famous  for  a 
generous  liqueur  they  have  the  secret  of  com- 
pounding. Bruno  the  founder  died  in  1101, 
aged  seventy-four. 

CARUS,  Marcus  Aurelius,  a Roman  em- 
peror, wras  born  at  Narbonne,  about  the  year 


CAR 


m 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


185 


230.  He  rose  to  a military  command  by  his 
virtues,  and  was  elected  emperor  in  283. 

CARVER,  John,  the  first  governor  of 
Plymouth  colony,  died  from  a sun-stroke, 
April  3d,  1621.  He  was  of  Mr.  Robinson’s 
flock,  who  went  from  England  to  Leyden. 

CARVER,  Jonathan,  was  born  in  Canter- 
bury, Ct.,  in  1732.  He  served  in  the  expe- 
dition against  Canada,  and  on  the  conclusion 
of  peace  in  1763,  attempted  to  explore  the 
territory  acquired  by  Gt.  Britain,  beyond  the 
Mississippi.  He  hoped  to  reach  the  Pacific 
in  the  latitude  of  the  great  lakes,  and  open  a 
shorter  route  to  the  East  Indies.  Failing  of 
this,  yet  he  explored  the  borders  of  Lake  Su- 
perior, then  comparatively  unknown.  He 
went  to  England,  but  was  obliged  to  deliver 
up  his  maps  and  papers  to  the  plantation 
office.  He  died  in  want  at  Boston  in  1780. 

CASAS,  Bartholomew  de  las,  a Spanish 
prelate,  the  apostle  of  the  Indians.  His  life 
was  passed  in  laboring  to  improve  the  natives 
of  the  New  World,  and  he  received  the  grate- 
ful title  of  protector  of  the  Indians.  He  came 
to  Hispaniola  in  1502,  returned  to  Spain  in 
1551,  and  died  at  Madrid  in  1566,  aged  92. 

CASHMERE,  the  most  extensive  of  the 
alpine  valleys  of  the  Himalaya  range  is  75 
miles  in  length  by  40  in  breadth,  and  lies 
imbedded  in  high  mountains.  The  costly 
shawls  of  Cashmere,  which  can  be  woven  of 
no  other  wool  than  that  of  Thibet,  were  first 
brought  to  England  in  1666. 

CASIMIR,  the  name  of  several  kings  of 
Poland.  Casirnir  III.,  called  the  Great,  suc- 
ceeded Ladislaus  in  1333.  He  united  to  his 
warlike  qualities,  the  virtues  of  a great  mon- 
arch, and  from  his  devotion  to  their  welfare, 
was  called  the  peasants’  king.  He  was  killed 
by  a fall  from  his  horse,  in  1370,  aged  61. 

CASS,  Lewis,  born  in  Exeter,  N.  H.,  Oct. 
9,  1782,  was  educated  at  Exeter  Academy 
from  his  tenth  year.  Removing  with  his 
parents  to  Wilmington,  Del.,  he  became  a 
teacher.  Seeking  his  fortune  in  the  West, 
he  crossed  the  Alleghanies  on  foot,  when  17 
years  old,  and  settling  in  Marietta,  O.,  stud- 
ied law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1802, 
became  member  of  the  legislature  in  1806, 
and  marshall  of  the  State  1807-11. — Vol 
unteering  to  repel  Indian  aggressions,  he 
was  elected  Col.  of  the  3d  Reg.  O.  Vols.,  and 
entered  the  service  of  the  U.  S.  at  the  begin- 


ning of  the  war  of  1812.  Reaching  Detroit 
with  the  advance  force,  he  urged  the  immedi- 
ate invasion  of  Canada,  was  the  author  of 
the  proclamation  of  that  event,  and  the  first 
to  land  on  the  enemy’s  shore,  winning  the 
first  battle,  that  of  Tarontoe.  He  rose  in 
the  regular  army  to  the  rank  of  Brig.  Gen., 
and  was  Maj.  Gen.  of  Ohio  Vols.  He  was 
Gov.  of  Michigan  Territory  1813-31,  Sec.  of 
War  in  Gen.  Jackson’s  Cabinet,  1831-6,  Min- 
ister to  France  1836-42,  and  U.  S.  Senator 
1845-48.  In  May,  1848,  he  received  the 
Democratic  nomination  for  the  Presidency, 
but  was  defeated  by  Gen.  Taylor.  He  was 
re-elected  U.  S.  Senator  in  1849,  and  became 
Sec.  of  State  in  Pres.  Buchanan’s  Cabinet 
in  1857.  His  various  trusts  he  discharged 
with  marked  ability.  His  writings,  speeches 
and  state  papers  would  fill  several  volumes. 
He  had  great  abilities,  with  remarkable  pru- 
dence and  judgment.  It  is  said  that  he  never 
even  tasted  of  spirituous  liquors.  He  died 
June  17,  1866,  aged  84  years. 

C ASSANDER,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  After  his  death,  Cassander 
murdered  Roxana  and  her  son,  seized  Mace- 
don  for  his  share  of  the  empire,  and  founded 
a new  kingdom.  He  died  298  b.  c. 

CASSANDRA  (Alexandria).  According 
to  the  ancients,  she  received  the  gift  of  proph- 
ecy from  Apollo,  who  loved  her,  but  as  she 
refused  to  fulfill  the  conditions  upon  which 
the  knowledge  was  imparted,  the  offended 
deity  deprived  her  predictions  of  the  power  of 
commanding  belief.  Thus,  when  she  foretold 
the  fall  of  Troy,  her  words  were  discredited. 
Troy  was  taken,  Cassandra  dishonored  at,  the 
altar  by  Ajax,  and  then  dragged  away  as  the 
slave  and  companion  of  Agamemnon  with 
whom  she  was  slain  by  Clytemnestra. 

CASSINI  DE  THURY,  Cesar  Francois, 
director  of  the  royal  observatory  after  his 
father  James,  was  born  at  Paris,  June  17th, 
1714.  He  died  Sept.  4th,  1784,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Count  John  Dominic, 
with  whom  ended  this  family  of  astronomers, 
who  had  been  at  the  head  of  the  royal  observ- 
atory in  Paris  since  its  foundation  in  1670. 

CASSIUS,  Longinus  Caius,  was  the  friend 
of  Brutus,  and  opposed  to  the  interests  of 
Caesar,  to  whom,  however,  he  surrendered 
after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  When  he  per- 
ceived that  Caesar  aimed  at  supreme  power, 


CAS 


* 


186 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ho  conspired  against  him.  “ The  lean  and 
hungry  Cassius,”  as  Shakspeare  calls  him, 
was  among  the  first  to  strike  the  master  of 
the  world  with  his  dagger.  He  married  the 
sister  of  Brutus,  and  in  the  distribution  of 
the  provinces,  obtained  Africa  as  his  share. 
He  was  defeated  with  Brutus  at  Philippi,  b.c. 
42,  and  ordered  his  freedman  to  run  him 
through  the  body. 

CASTIGLIONE,  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
victories  of  the  French  arms  under  Gen.  Bo- 
naparte, fought  in  Italy  against  the  main 
body  of  Austrians  commanded  by  Wurmser. 
The  battle  lasted  from  the  2d  to  the  6th  of 
July,  1796.  The  Austrian  loss  in  this  obsti- 
nate conflict  was  seventy  field-pieces,  between 
12,000  and  15,000  prisoners,  and  6,000  killed 
and  wounded. 

CASTLEREAGH.  Robert  Stewart,  Bar- 
on Castlereagh,  and  Marquis  of  Londonderry, 
was  born  in  Ireland,  June  18th,  1769.  He 
was  a prominent  statesman  of  the  Tory  party, 
and  represented  England  at  the  congresses  of 
Vienna  in  1814  and  1815.  He  was  a man  of 
fine  person,  and  an  industrious  minister,  but 
as  an  orator  he  signally  failed.  He  mixed 
his  metaphors  sadly.  Here  is  one  of  them 
which  Moore  versified: 

“The  level  of  obedience  slopes 

Upward  and  downward,  as  the  stream 

Of  hydra  faction  kicks  the  beam.” 

Lord  Castlereagh,  in  a fit  of  excitement  re- 
sulting from  over-exertion,  cut  his  throat, 
Aug.  12  th,  1822.* 

CAT  ALINE,  Lucius  Sergius,  a celebrated 
Roman,  descended  from  a noble  family. 
When  he  had  squandered  away  his  fortune 
by  his  debaucheries  and  extravagance,  and 
had  been  refused  the  consulship,  he  secretly 
meditated  the  ruin  of  his  country,  and  con- 
spired with  many  high-born  Romans  as  dis- 
solute as  himself,  to  murder  the  senate,  plun- 
der the  treasury,  and  set  Rome  on  fire.  This 
conspiracy  was  timely  discovered  by  the 
consul  Cicero,  whose  eloquence  at  this  crisis 
will  never  be  forgotten.  Cataline,  after  he 
had  declared  his  intentions  in  full  senate,  and 
attempted  to  vindicate  himself,  on  seeing 
five  of  his  accomplices  arrested,  fled  to  Gaul, 
where  his  friends  were  raising  a powerful 
army  to  support  him.  The  remaining  con- 
spirators were  punished.  Petreius,  at  the 
head  of  the  consular  troops,  defeated  the 


rebels  in  Etruria,  Jan.  5th,  b.c.  62,  in  a hotly 
contested  battle  which  cost  Cataline  his  life. 
The  crimes  of  this  man  were  of  the  blackest 
dye,  murder  and  licentiousness  marking  every 
stage  of  his  career. 

CATHARINE  of  Arragon,  youngest  daugh- 
ter of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  sovereigns  of 
Arragon  and  Castile,  was  born  in  1483.  In 
1501  she  was  married  to  Arthur,  eldest  son 
of  Henry  VII.,  and  after  his  death  to  his 
brother,  afterward  Henry  VIII.  By  him  she 
had  several  children,  who  died  young,  with 
the  exception  of  Mary,  afterward  Queen  of 
England.  Henry  repudiated  her  in  1533,  on 
pretense  of  religious  scruples  grounded  on 
her  marriage  to  his  brother.  She  maintained 
her  rights  with  dignity,  and  died  at  Kimbol- 
ton  Castle,  in  1536. 

CATHARINE,  the  only  daughter  of  Lo- 
renzo de  Medici,  Duke  of  Urbino,  and  wife 
of  Henry,  Duke  of  Orleans,  afterward  Henry 
II.  of  France,  was  born  in  1510.  She  was 
the  mother  of  three  successive  kings  of 
France,  and  one  queen  of  Navarre.  In  1559, 
she  became  a widow,  and  her  son  Francis 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  during  whose  reign 
her  influence  was  supplanted  by  the  Guises. 
On  the  accession  of  her  second  son,  Charles 
IX.,  in  his  eleventh  year,  she  acquired  the 
regency,  and  brought  eternal  infamy  on  her 
name  by  the  horrible  treachery  to  the  Hugue- 
nots, and  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew’s 
day.  She  died  in  1589.  She  was  very  ex- 
travagant, seemingly  incapable  of  setting 
bounds  to  her  expenditures.  When  upbraid- 
ed with  her  prodigality  she  would  exclaim, 

“ One  must  live ! ” Her  talents  were  as  com- 
manding as  were  her  vices  odious. 

CATHARINE  I.  and  II.  of  Russia.  [Se* 
Romanoff.] 

CATO,  Marcus  Portius,  commonly  called 
the  Censor,  was  born  at  Tusculum,  232  b.c. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  army  at  the 
age  of  seventeen,  and  was  remarkable  for  his 
temperance  and  abstinence.  In  Sicily  and 
Africa,  as  military  tribune  and  quaestor,  he 
was  noted  for  the  fidelity  with  which  he  dis- 
charged his  duties.  The  censors  were  two 
magistrates  whose  duty  was  to  survey  and 
rate,  and  correct  the  manners  of  the  people. 
Their  power  was  also  extended  over  private 
families,  and  they  restrained  extravagance. 
The  office  was  established  443  b.c.,  and  abol 


CAT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


187 


ished  by  the  emperors.  When  Cato  was  made 
a censor,  he  opposed  Valerius  Flaccus,  his  col- 
league, in  his  attempt  to  repeal  the  Oppian  law, 
which  was  once  passed  for  the  suppression  of 
luxury.  He  conducted  the  war  in  further 
Spain  with  great  success,  and  took  no  part  of 
the  spoils  to  his  own  share.  On  his  arrival 
at  Rome  he  was  honored  with  a triumph. 
As  consul  he  manifested  his  dislike  to  luxury, 
in  whatever  shape  it  was  presented.  He  also 
distinguished  himself  by  his  hatred  to  Car- 
thage, always  concluding  his  speeches  in  the 
senate  with  the  expression,  “ Preterea  censeo 
Carthayinem  esse  delendam  ” (Besides  I think 
it  necessary  to  destroy  Carthage).  He  died 
b.c.  147.  In  his  old  age  he  gave  himself  up 
to  scholastic  enjoyments. 

CATO,  Marcus  Poktius,  surnamed  JJticen- 
sis  from  the  place  of  his  death  (Utica),  was 
the  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  born 
about  95  b.c.  The  virtues  he  displayed  in 
his  early  childhood  seemed  to  prognosticate 
his  future  greatness.  At  the  age  of  fourteen, 
he  earnestly  asked  his  preceptor  for  a sword 
to  stab  the  tyrant  Sylla.  He  served  in  the 
army  against  the  insurgent  gladiator  Sparta- 
cus,  and  though  his  services  entitled  him  to 
the  office  of  tribune,  he  never  applied  for  it  till 
he  saw  it  in  danger  of  being  filled  unworthily. 
He  was  very  jealous  of  the  safety  and  liberty 
of  the  republic,  and  watched  carefully  over  the 
conduct  of  Pompey,  whose  power  and  influ- 
ence were  great.  In  the  conspiracy  of  Cata- 
line  he  supported  Cicero,  and  was  instru- 
mental in  procuring  the  capital  punishment 
of  the  conspirators.  When  the  provinces  of 
Gaul  were  decreed  for  five  years  to  Caesar, 
Cato  observed  to  the  senators  that  they  had 
introduced  a tyrant  into  the  capitol.  Being 
sent  to  Cyprus  against  Ptolemy,  by  the  influ- 
ence of  his  enemies,  who  hoped  to  injure  his 
reputation,  his  prudence  extricated  him  from 


the  Rubicon,  Cato  advised  the  Roman  senate 
to  deliver  the  care  of  the  republic  into  the 
hands  of  Pompey,  and  when  his  advice  had 
been  complied  with,  followed  him  with  his 
son  to  Dyrrachium,  where  after  some  incon- 
siderable success  there,  he  was  intrusted  with 
the  care  of  the  ammunition,  and  the  command 
of  fifteen  cohorts.  After  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  Cato  took  command  of  the  fleet,  and 
when  he  heard  of  Pompey’s  death  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  he  traversed  the  deserts  of 
Libya,  to  join  himself  to  Scipio.  He,  how- 
ever,  refused  to  take  the  command  in  Africa, 
but  when  he  heard  of  Scipio’s  defeat,  fortified 
himself  in  Utica.  Caesar  approached  the 
city,  but  Cato  disdained  to  fly,  and  strength- 
ening his  resolution  by  reading  Plato’s  trea- 
tise on  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  gave 
himself  the  fatal  wound,  Feb.  5th,  b.c.  45. 
Caesar,  on  hearing  of  his  fate,  exclaimed,  “I 
envy  thee  thy  death,  since  thou  couldst  be- 
grudge me  the  pleasure  of  saving  thy  life.” 

The  suicide  of  Cato  was  termed  the  era 
destructive  of  the  liberties  of  Rome.  The 
patriot  and  philosopher  considered  freedom 
as  that  which  alone  sustains  the  name  and 
dignity  of  man,  and  would  not  survive  the 
independence  of  his  country.  Yet  by  this 
rash  act  of  suicide,  as  Montesquieu  has  said, 
Cato  carried  his  patriotism  to  the  highest 
degree  of  political  frenzy,  leaving  aside  all 
moral  considerations ; for  Cato  dead  could  be 
of  no  use  to  his  country ; while  had  he  pre- 
served his  life,  his  counsels  might  have  mod- 
erated Caesar’s  ambition,  and  have  given  a 
different  turn  to  public  affairs. 

CAUCASUS,  a chain  of  mountains  inhab- 
ited by  a great  number  of  tribes,  and  of  vast 
extent,  lying  between  the  Black  and  Caspian 
seas,  and  covering  127,140  square  miles, 
being  about  seven  hundred  miles  long,  and, 
t the  widest,  a hundred  and  fifty  miles  broad. 


every  danger.  That  prince  submitted  to  According  to  the  ancients,  Prometheus  was 

tied  on  the  top  of  Caucasus  by  Jupiter,  and 
continually  devoured  by  vultures.  As  great 
perfection  of  form  and  an  ancient  origin  were 
attributed  to  the  inhabitants  of  this  region, 
the  highest  rank  in  ethnological  classification 
has  been  termed  the  Caucasian  race. 

CAULAINCOURT,  Armand  Augustine 
Louis  de,  Duke  of  Vicenza,  an  eminent  min- 
ister of  the  French  empire  under  Bonaparte, 
died  in  1827  at  the  age  of  fifty-four. 


him,  and,  after  a successful  campaign,  Cato 
was  received  at  Rome  with  the  most  distin- 
guished honors,  which  he,  however,  modestly 
declined.  He  strenuously  opposed  the  first 
triumvirate  between  Caesar,  Pompey,  and 
Crassus,  and  foretold  to  the  Roman  people 
all  the  misfortunes  that  soon  after  followed. 
After  repeated  applications  he  was  made 
praetor,  but  unsuccessfully  applied  for  the 
office  of  consul.  When  Caesar  had  passed 


CAU 


188 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


CAVAIGNAC,  Eugene,  was  born  in  Paris, 
Dec.  15th,  1802.  After  a regular  course  of 
study  at  the  Potytechnic  school,  he  entered 
the  army,  and  in  1830  was  sent  to  Africa  for 
refusing  to  fire  upon  the  inhabitants  of  Metz, 
in  case  of  an  insurrection.  He  distinguished 
himself  greatly  in  1836  by  holding  the  cita- 
del of  Tlemcen  with  a small  body  of  troops, 
against  repeated  assaults  by  the  Arabs  under 
Abd-el-Kader.  From  this  period  he  was 
actively  and  creditably  engaged  in  the  Al- 
gerine war,  and  rose  so  rapidly  in  the  service, 
that  in  1847,  he  was  a general  of  brigade, 
succeeding  Lamoriciere  in  the  command  of 
the  province  of  Oran,  and  in  February,  1848, 
was  appointed  by  the  provisional  government, 
general  of  division  and  governor-general  of 
Algeria.  During  the  few  weeks  he  held  this 
office  lie  showed  administrative  abilities  of  a 
high  order.  Having  been  elected  a member 
of  the  national  assembty,  he  left  Algiers  and 
arrived  in  Paris  just  after  the  disturbances 
of  the  15th  of  May,  1848.  He  was  immedi- 
ately appointed  minister  of  war  and  put  in 
command  of  the  troops,  which,  in  anticipa- 
tion of  the  impending  insurrection,  were 
rapidly  concentrating  in  Paris.  By  the  mid- 
dle of  June  75,000  troops  of  the  line  were  at 
hand  to  support  the  190,000  national  guards 
already  on  the  ground.  On  the  22d  of  June 
the  disaffected  began  to  throw  up  barricades, 
and  in  twenty-four  hours  one  of  the  most 
formidable  insurrections  ever  organized  in 
Paris  was  in  full  progress.  In  this  emer- 
gency, Cavaignac,  who  had  been  appointed 
dictator,  acted  with  coolness  and  sagacity. 
The  contest  lasted  four  days,  and  resulted 
in  the  total  defeat  of  the  rebels.  Cavaignac, 
immediately  resigned  his  dictatorship  and  was 
appointed  president  of  the  council,  with  power 
to  nominate  his  ministry.  He  chose  it  from 
among  the  more  reasonable  and  moderate  of 
the  pure  republicans,  afterward  admitting 
several  members  of  the  old  dynastic  opposi- 
tion. He  resolutely  removed  from  office  the 
Socialists,  the  “ Montague  ” and  the  Red  Re- 
publicans of  every  shade  or  sect. 

In  the  election  for  president,  Cavaignac  was 
the  leading  candidate  against  Louis  Napoleon. 
He  retired  into  private  life  without  a mur- 
mur, after  an  administration  reflecting  great 
credit  upon  his  integrity  and  his  civil  and  mil- 
itary ability.  For  several  years  afterward  he 


was  less  in  public  life,  but  he  was  deemed,  on 
account  of  his  staunch  republicanism,  so  for- 
midable an  opponent  to  the  autocratic  schemes 
of  Louis  Napoleon,  that  after  the  coup  d'etat 
of  December,  1851,  he  was  one  of  the  num- 
ber selected  for  arrest.  He  was  released  on 
condition  of  leaving  the  country,  and  spent 
several  years  in  Brussels.  Within  a year  or 
two  before  his  death,  he  was  permitted  to 
return  to  France.  At  the  elections  in  1857, 
Gen.  Cavaignac  was  one  of  the  few  successful 
republican  candidates,  being  chosen  to  repre- 
sent one  of  the  constituencies  of  Paris  in  the 
legislature  of  the  empire.  His  course  was 
looked  forward  to  with  much  interest.  But 
on  the  28th  of  October,  1857,  while  out 
shooting,  he  died  suddenly  from  aneurism  of 
the  heart. 

CAVE,  Edward,  a bookseller  at  St. 
John’s  Gate  in  London,  who  in  1731  founded 
the  Gentleman's  Magazine , the  first  periodical 
of  the  sort  in  England,  was  born  in  1691,  and 
died  in  1754. 

CAVENDISH,  William,  the  first  Duke 
of  Devonshire,  was  born  in  1640.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  House  of  Commons 
against  the  court,  and  was  a witness  in  favor 
of  Lord  Russell.  In  1684  he  succeded  to  the 
title  of  Earl  of  Devonshire,  and  about  the 
same  time  was  fined  £30,000  and  imprisoned 
for  assaulting  Col.  Culpepper,  who  had  in- 
sulted him.  He  gave  bond  for  the  payment 
of  the  fine,  which,  however,  he  saved  by  the 
arrival  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  In  1689, 
he  was  made  a privy  counselor,  and  at  the 
coronation  of  William  he  served  as  lord  high 
steward.  He  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  and  during  the  king’s  ab- 
sence, after  the  death  of  the  queen,  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  regency.  He  died  in  1707. 

CAVOUR,  Camillo  de  Count,  a Sardin- 
ian statesman,  born  at  Turin,  Aug.  10,  1810. 
Ffe  had  a large  fortune  left  him  by  his  father, 
and  held  many  offices  under  the  Sardinian 
government.  He  first  appeared  in  public  life 
in  1847,  and  was  connected  with  a newspaper 
of  free  trade  principles.  He  was  a member 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies  in  1849,  and  in 
18ol  was  appointed  minister  of  agriculture 
and  commerce.  In  1852  he  was  elected  pres- 
ident of  the  council,  and  represented  Sardinia 
in  the  peace  conference  at  Paris  in  1856.  He 


189 


HISTORY  AND 

was  distinguished  as  a statesman,  and  Sar- 
dinia and  Italy  are  indebted  to  him  for  par- 
liamentary government,  religious  liberty,  and 
the  free  press  on  the  south  side  of  the  Alps. 
He  died  June  2d,  1861. 

CAXTON,  William,  the  first  English 
printer,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Kent,  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  was 
apprenticed  to  a worthy  London  mercer,  and 
dwelt  in  Holland  a score  and  a half  of  years, 
as  agent  for  English  merchants.  There  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  new  mystery  of 
printing.  Under  the  patronage  of  Lady  Mar- 
garet, sister  of  Edward  IV.,  and  bride  of  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  Caxton  translated  a 
French  book,  titled  “ The  Recuyell  of  the 
Ilistoreys  of  Troy  e,”  and  printed  it  at  Ghent  in 
14TL  This  was  the  first  book  ever  printed  in 
the  English  language.  In  a note  the  printer 
said  of  the  work:  It  “is  not  wretton  with 
penne  and  ynke  as  other  books  ben  to  thende 
that  all  men  may  have  them  att  ones,  for  all 
the  bookes  of  this  storye  named  The  Recule 
of  the  Historys  of  Trove  then  emprynted  as 
ye  here  see,  were  begonne  in  oon  day  and 
fynyshed  in  oon  day.”  A few  years  later  he 
established  a printing-office  at  Westminster, 
and  in  1474  produced  “The  Game  of  Chess,” 
the  first  book  printed  in  Britain.  Caxton 
wrote  or  translated  about  sixty  different 
books,  all  of  which  passed  through  his  own 
press,  before  his  death  in  1491. 

CECIL,  William,  Lord  Burleigh,  a cele- 
brated English  statesman,  born  in  1521.  He 
was  dismissed  from  the  office  which  he  held 
under  Henry  VIII.,  upon  the  accession  of 
Mary,  but  was  the  chief  counselor  of  Elizabeth. 
After  being  privy  counselor,  secretary  of 
state,  and  master  of  the  court  of  wards,  he 
was  chosen  chancellor  of  Cambridge,  and 
raised  to  the  peerage.  He  died  in  1598.  As 
a minister,  Burleigh  was  noted  for  wariness, 
application,  sagacity,  calmness,  and  a degree 
of  closeness  which  sometimes  degenerated  into 
hypocrisy. 

CECIL,  Robert,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  son  of 
the  preceding,  on  account  of  his  deformity 
and  weak  constitution,  received  the  rudiments 
of  his  education  at  home.  In  1588  he  served 
in  the  fleet  against  the  Armada,  and  in  1591 
was  knighted,  and  sworn  of  the  privy  council. 
In  1596  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state, 
to  the  great  disgust  of  the  Earl  of  Essex.  The 


BIOGRAPHY. 

year  following  he  was  ambassador  in  France, 
and  in  1599  succeeded  his  father  in  the  court 
of  wards.  He  kept  up  a secret  correspond- 
ence with  James  of  Scotland,  whom  he  pro- 
claimed on  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  became  the  favorite  of  that 
monarch.  On  the  death  of  Lord  Dorset,  in 
1608,  he  became  lord  high  treasurer,  discharg- 
ing the  duties  of  the  office  with  fidelity,  and 
dying  from  excessive  exertion  in  1612,  aged 
forty-nine. 

CECROPS,  a native  of  Sais,  in  Egypt,  came 
to  Attica  1556  b.c.,  founded  the  city  of  Ath- 
ens, instructed  the  uncivilized  Greeks,  intro- 
duced the  worship  of  Minerva,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  future  prosperity  of  Greece. 
He  died  after  a reign  of  fifty  years. 

CELEBES,  an  island  in  the  East  Indian 
seas,  separated  from  Borneo  by  the  Strait  of 
Macassar,  having  an  area  of  70,000  square 
miles,  and  containing  several  separate  states. 
The  fruits  and  flowers  of  this  island  are  abun- 
dant, and  numbers  of  wild  animals  are  found 
here.  The  Dutch,  who  possess  a part  of  the 
island,  obtain  here  gold,  ivory,  sandal  wood, 
rice,  cotton,  camphor,  ginger,  long  pepper, 
and  pearls.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
between  two  and  three  millions. 

CELLINI,  Benvenuto,  united  the  talents 
and  skill  of  a sculptor,  engraver,  and  gold- 
smith. He  was  born  in  Florence  in  1500,  and 
enriched  his  native  city  with  his  works. 
Wild,  fiery,  and  impetuous,  although  honest, 
he  was  frequently  involved  in  quarrels  in 
which  he  entirely  disregarded  the  rank  and 
strength  of  his  opponents.  At  the  siege  of 
Rome,  in  1527,  according  to  his  own  account, 
he  killed  the  Constable  of  Bourbon.  Although 
he  behaved  with  gallantry  during  the  siege, 
he  was  accused  of  secreting  the  Roman  crown 
jewels,  and  imprisoned.  Francis  I.,  having 
procured  his  release,  invited  him  to  the  French 
court,  but  Florence  was  not  to  be  forgotten 
by  the  sculptor,  and  thither  he  returned,  and 
died  Feb.  13th,  1570. 

CELSUS,  Augustus  Cornelius,  a celebrated 
physician  and  medical  writer  of  Rome,  who 
flourished  about  a.d.  37. 

CELTiE,  one  of  the  ancient  nations  of  Gal- 
lia, whose  country  extended  from  Brittany  to 
the  Alps  and  Rhine.  Their  government  was 
aristocratical,  and  their  aptitude  for  warlike 
pursuits  great. 


CEL 


190 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


CELTIBERIA,  an  ancient  country  in  the 
north-east  of  Spain,  along  the  Iberus.  The 
Celtiberians  were  completely  subdued  by  the 
Romans  in  the  Sertorian  war. 

CENTAURS,  an  ancient  people  of  Thessaly, 
about  Mount  Pelion.  As  little  was  known 
with  regard  to  their  actual  history,  they 
formed  the  favorite  theme  of  writers  of  fable 
and  traditionary  tales,  being  represented  as 
half  horse  and  half  man,  and  being,  according 
to  some,  the  offspring  of  an  intermixture  of 
the  human  and  brute  races,  or,  according  to 
others,  the  children  of  Ixion  and  the  Cloud. 
They  were  probably  young  men  who,  having 
learned  to  break  and  ride  horses,  hunted  the 
wild  bulls  that  ravaged  the  neighborhood  of 
Mount  Pelion,  during  the  reign  of  Ixion. 
Hence  they  were  called  Centaurs.  In  fables, 
Hercules,  Theseus,  and  Pirithous  are  said  to 
have  contended  against  them. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA,  the  central  portion 
of  the  long  isthmus  that  unites  North  and 
South  America,  has  an  area  of  about  150,000 
square  miles.  Under  the  Spanish  rule  it 
formed  the  kingdom  of  Guatemala.  For  a 
short  time  after  the  revolt  from  Spain  it  was 


leaving  over  a thousand  killed  and  wounded 
on  the  field  of  battle,  scampered  off  on  the 
road,  and  were  pursued  as  far  as  Jalapa. 
This  brilliant  victory,  which  destroyed  the 
Mexican  army,  cost  Scott  63  killed  and  368 
wounded,  out  of  a total  force  of  8,500. 

CERVANTES  SAAVEDRA,  Miguel  de, 
was  born  of  a noble  family,  at  Alcala  de  Hc- 
nares,  in  New  Castile,  in  1547.  He  early  cul- 
tivated poetry,  and  preserved  throughout  his 
life  a strong  inclination  for  the  muses.  In 
1569,  Cervantes,  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  went 
to  seek  in  Italy  glory  or  fortune.  He  first 
entered  the  service  of  Cardinal  Acquaviva,  in 
the  capacity  of  page.  The  war  between  the 
Turks  and  the  Venetians  offered  him  a field 
more  worthy  of  his  birth  and  courage.  He 
was  enrolled  beneath  the  banners  of  the  Duke 
of  Paliano,  Mark  Antony  Colonna,  general  of 
the  naval  force  sent  to  succor  the  island  of 
Cyprus.  This  expedition  was  unfortunate; 
but,  in  the-  following  year,  the  victory  of  Lc- 
panto  established  the  naval  honor  of  Chris- 
tendom, and  in  this  engagement,  whose  glory 
he  shared,  the  left  hand  of  Cervantes  was 
maimed  for  life.  In  1575  he  was  taken  by  a 


united  to  the  Mexican  empire  of  Iturbide.  1 corsair  and  carried  to  Algiers,  where  he  suf- 


In  1821  its  independence  was  declared,  and 
after  some  sanguinary  struggles,  a federal  re- 
public was  established.  This  has  since  been 
dissolved,  and  the  country  is  now  divided  into 
the  distinct  republics  of  Guatemala,  San  Sal- 
vador, Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and  Honduras ; 
under  which  heads  further  mention  will  be 
found.  The  country  is  mountainous,  contain- 
ing numerous  volcanic  summits,  the  soil  fer- 
tile, and  the  products  various.  The  original 
inhabitants  were  the  Toltecas  Indians  from 
Mexico,  whom  it  was  found  no  easy  task  by 
the  Spaniards  to  expel.  These  people,  like 
the  Mexicans,  had  made  considerable  advan- 
ces in  the  arts,  as  their  buildings  of  various 
descriptions  proved. 

CERRO  GORDO,  a mountain  pass  on  the 
road  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico.  It  was 
stormed  by  Scott’s  army,  April  18th,  1847, 
and  the  Mexicans  under  Santa  Anna  driven 
from  their  strong  position.  There  were  12,000 
of  the  Mexicans,  horse  and  foot,  besides  pow- 
erful batteries  of  artillery.  Three  thousand, 
including  five  generals,  surrendered  as  pris- 
oners of  war;  Santa  Anna  fled  by  a defile  on 
a baggage  mule;  the  remnant  of  his  army, 


fered  the  evils  of  slavery  for  six  years.  The 
tale  of  “The  Captive,”  inserted  in  his  novel 
of  “ Don  Quixote,”  describes  vividly  the  scenes 
through  which  he  passed.  His  marriage  fol- 
lowed close  upon  the  publication  of  “ Galatea,” 
in  1584.  This  novel  celebrates  his  mistress 
Catharine  Salazer  y Palacios.  His  pen  then 
became  the  only  support  of  Cervantes.  The 
gloomy  reign  of  Philip  II.,  and  that  of  his 
successor  Philip  III.,  were  unfavorable  to  the 
efforts  of  genius,  but  while  the  latter  of  these 
monarchs  filled  the  throne,  the  inimitable 
novel  of  “ Don  Quixote  ” made  its  appearance. 
The  first  part  appeared  at  Madrid  in  1605, 
and  the  second  in  1615.  The  other  works  of 
Cervantes  are  forgotten  in  the  contemplation 
of  this.  One  day,  as  Philip  III.  was  standing 
in  a balcony  of  his  palace  at  Madrid,  he  ob- 
served a student  reading  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Manzanares,  who  seemed  to  be  repeat- 
edly interrupted  in  his  occupation  by  the  ex- 
cess of  his  delight,  striking  his  forehead  and 
showing  other  tokens  of  the  extraordinary 
amusement  his  book  afforded  him.  “Either 
that  fellow  is  mad,”  said  the  king,  “ or  he  is 
reading  ‘ Don  Quixote.’  ” Inquiry  proved 


CER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


191 


Philip  right  in  his  conjecture,  for  the  student 
was  reading  Cervantes’  matchless  tale  of 
chivalry. 

The  history  of  the  knight  of  La  Mancha 
still  excites  the  interest  of  people  of  all  coun- 
tries, of  all  ranks,  and  of  all  ages.  Who  de- 
lights not  to  recall  his  principal  adventures, 
the  attack  on  the  windmills,  the  affair  of  the 
puppets,  the  affray  with  the  wine-skiris,  the 
vigil  of  arms,  the  scene  of  his  studies  ? This 
celebrated  work  was  written  in  prison,  Cer- 
vantes having  become  obnoxious  to  the  au- 
thorities of  La  Mancha,  who  procured  liis  im- 
prisonment by  the  employment  of  one  of  the 
thousand  arts  known  to  the  civil  functionaries 
of  Spain.  He  revenged  himself  by  making 
his  hero  a townsman  of  his  judges,  and  in 
choosing  their  country  for  the  theatre  of  his 
exploits.  Cervantes  died  at  Madrid,  on  the 
23d  of  April,  1 G1 6,  in  his  sixty-ninth  year. 
It  is  a coincidence  worth  noting,  that  on  the 
same  day,  Shakespeare  expired.  He  was  in- 
terred pursuant  to  his  own  directions,  in  the 
church  of  the  fraternity  of  the  Trinity  in  that 
city.  His  intimate  friends  mourned  for  the 
virtuous  citizen  and  the  man  of  worth.  The 
wits  of  his  day,  who  had  decried  his  talents, 
did  not  consider  his  loss  an  irreparable  one, 
and  were  far  enough  from  believing  that  Spain 
would  one  day  have  only  the  romance  of 
“Don  Quixote”  to  oppose  to  the  master- 
works  of  other  nations. 

CEVENNES,  a chain  of  mountains  in  the 
south  of  France,  forming  a branch  of  the 
Alps;  the  highest  summits  are  6,500  feet 
high.  Their  fastnesses  afforded  an  asylum 
to  the  Huguenots  in  the  religious  wars  of 
France. 

CEYLON,  an  island  off  the  Coromandel 
coast  of  Hindostan.  Tt  is  a little  less  in 
size  than  Ireland.  The  climate  is  generally 
healthy,  the  soil  fertile,  and  the  variety  of  its 
productions  surprising.  In  the  bosom  of  the 
earth  are  found  precious  metals ; the  rocks  are 
enriched  with  valuable  gems,  and  the  tropi- 
cal fruits  grow  wild  here.  Ceylon  yields  the 
chief  supply  of  cinnamon  to  the  world. 
Among  the  ancients  the  elephants  of  Ceylon 
were  noted  for  their  size  and  beauty.  They 
often  make  predatory  incursions  in  troops, 
and  do  great  injury  to  the  crops.  In  the 
recosscs  of  the  forests  are  also  found  leopards, 
jackals,  monkeys,  hyenas,  bears,  and  rac- 


coons. The  number  of  inhabitants  exceeds 
1,500,000.  The  Cingalese,  who  form  a portion, 
are  divided  into  castes  like  the  Hindoos,  and 
profess  the  religion  of  Buddha.  “Ceylon,” 
says  Bishop  Heber,  “might  be  one  of  the 
happiest,  as  it  is  one  of  the  loveliest,  spots  in 
the  universe,  if  some  of  the  old  Dutch  laws 
were  done  away ; among  which,  in  my  judg- 
ment, the  most  obnoxious  are  the  monopoly 
of  cinnamon,  and  the  compulsory  labor  of  the 
peasants  on  the  high  roads,  and  other  species 
of  corvees”  These  restraints  have  since 
been  removed  by  the  British.  The  natives 
of  Ceylon  claim  that  their  island  was  the 
seat  of  Paradise. 

Ceylon  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. The  Arabs  called  it  Serendib.  There 
is  a tradition  that  St.  Thomas,  the  apostle, 
preached  the  gospel  here,  but  it  is  more  gen- 
erally believed  that  Nestorian  missionaries 
accompanying  Persian  merchants  were  the 
first  to  introduce  Christianity.  Churches  • 
were  founded  here  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century,  but  none  were  existing  when 
the  Portuguese  discovered  the  island  in  1505. 
Xavier  soon  after  made  many  Catholic  con- 
verts. The  Portuguese  so  exasperated  the 
natives,  that  the  Cingalese  took  part  with  the 
Dutch,  who  succeeded  in  expelling  them  in 
1056.  The  Dutch,  being  regarded  in  the 
light  of  benefactors,  were  rewarded  with  lav- 
ish grants  of  territory,  but  repaid  kindness  by 
ingratitude,  and  bloody  wars  arose,  in  which 
the  Europeans  ■were  invariably  victorious. 

In  1795,  the  English  took  possession  of  this 
island,  which  was  formally  ceded  to  them  in 
1802,  and  completely  subjected  in  1815. 

CILTSRONEA,  an  old  city  of  Boeotia,  where 
were  fought  two  battles  of  note  in  ancient 
history.  In  the  first,  Aug.  2d,  b.c.  338,  Philip 
of  Macedon  defeated  the  United  armies  of 
Athens  and  Thebes,  thus  mastering  the  lib- 
erties of  Greece.  In  the  second,  b.c.  86, 
Archelaus,  lieutenant  of  Mithridates,  was 
defeated  by  Sylla,  and  110,000  Cappadocians 
slain.  Chaeronea  was  the  birthplace  of 
Plutarch. 

CHAISE,  Francis  de  la,  a French  Jesuit, 
and  confessor  to  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  from 
1675,  to  his  death,  1709.  It  is  supposed  with 
every  rational  probability  that  Father  de  la 
Chaise  instigated  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantz.  The  beautiful  cemetery  of  Pere  la 
A 


192 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


Chaise  at  Paris  occupies  the  site  of  his  house 
and  grounds. 

CHALDiEA,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia, 
near  the  junction  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates ; it  was  the  southerly  part  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  was  extremely  fertile.  The  Chal- 
deans were  an  Asiatic  tribe  originally,  and 
possessed  great  astronomical  knowledge.  It 
was  they  who  founded  the  mighty  empires 
of  Babylon  and  Assyria.  The  knowledge  of 
which  they  boasted  was  eventually  confined 
to  the  priests,  who  added  to  their  sciences 
the  arts  of  prophecy,  magic,  &c. 

CHALMERS,  Thomas,  D.D.,  foremost 
among  the  divines  and  preachers  of  Scotland, 
was  born  March  17th,  1780,  at  Anstruther 
in  Fife.  From  the  country  parish  of  Kilmany 
the  fame  of  his  eloquence  and  zeal  was  bruited 
abroad,  and  in  1815  he  was  transferred  to 
Glasgow.  Crowds  thronged  the  Tron  church, 
not  only  on  the  Sabbath,  but  on  week  days. 
A series  of  Thursday  discourses  on  astrono- 
my, displaying,  amid  the  glow  of  blazing 
eloquence,  the  sublime  poetry  and  religion  of 
the  heavens,  were  published  about  the  same 
time  as  the  “Tales  of  My  Landlord.”  The 
sermons  rivaled  even  the  rapid  sale  of  the 
magic  pages  of  Scott.  In  1827,  Dr.  Chalmers 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  divinity  in  the 
university  of  Edinburgh.  His  reputation  as 
a divine  was  enhanced  by  the  works  of  his 
pen.  He  headed  the  secession  of  1843  from 
the  established  church  of  Scotland,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Free  Church.  His 
health  was  undermined  by  his  great  labors, 
and  he  died  in  1847. 

CHAMBERS,  Ephraim,  the  first  person  in 
England  who  undertook  a work  in  the  form 
now  known  as  a cyclopoedia,  or  encyclopcedia. 
His  dictionary  published  in  1728,  in  two  folio 
volumes,  was  the  origin  of  what  is  now  termed 
Rees’  Cyclopoedia.  He  was  born  about  1680, 
and  died  May  15th,  1740. 

CHAMPE,  John,  a native  of  Loudon  coun- 
ty, Ya.  At  the  age  of  twenty-four,  in  the 
year  1776,  he  entered  the  Revolutionary  army 
with  the  rank  of  sergeant-major,  in  Lee’s 
cavalry.  His  reputation  for  resolution  and 
address  was  such,  that  he  was  selected  to 
attempt  the  seizure  of  Arnold,  that  the  execu- 
tion of  the  traitor  might  save  the  life  of 
Andre.  His  orders  were  given  him,  he  left 
the  American  camp  as  a deserter,  arrived  at 


New  York  after  a perilous  journey,  and,  after 
being  closely  examined  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
was  admitted  to  serve  under  him.  He  failed 
in  the  attempt  to  accomplish  his  object,  and 
went  to  Virginia  with  the  royal  troops. 
Escaping,  he  rejoined  his  friends,  after  many 
hardships.  When  Washington  took  com- 
mand of  the  army,  during  the  administra- 
tion of  President  Adams,  it  was  his  intention 
to  bring  Champe  into  the  field  at  the  head  of 
a company,  but  he  learned  to  his  grief  that 
the  gallant  fellow  had  died  in  Kentucky. 

CHAMPLAIN,  a lake  of  the  United  States, 
lying  between  New  York  and  Vermont,  130 
miles  long,  and  from  1 to  15  miles  broad. 
The  river  Chambly,  or  Sorelle,  forms  the  out- 
let by  which  its  waters  are  discharged  into 
the  St.  Lawrence.  The  lake  takes  its  name 
from  Samuel  de  Champlain,  a French  naval 
officer  who  founded  Quebec  and  Montreal  in 
Canada,  of  which  he  was  governor-general, 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  On  its  waters, 
near  Plattsburg,  a naval  engagement  was 
fought  the  11th  of  September,  1814,  in 
which  Macdonough,  the  commander  of  an 
American  fleet,  gained  a complete  victory 
over  the  British.  \See  Plattsburg.] 

CHAMPOLLION,  J.  F.,  a French  archeol- 
ogist, who  did  more  than  any  other  man  of 
science  toward  explaining  the  hieroglyphics 
1 of  Egypt.  His  death  in  1832,  at  the  age  of 
forty-one,  in  the  midst  of  his  triumphant 
researches,  was  regretted  as  an  almost  irre- 
parable loss. 

CIIANNING,  William  Ellery,  an  eminent 
Unitarian  divine,  was  a native  of  Newport, 
R.  I.,  April  7th,  1780.  He  died  in  1842. 

CHANTREY,  Sir  Francis,  was  born  at 
Norton  in  Derbyshire,  April  7th,  1781,  and 
was  apprenticed  to  a wood  carver.  His  own 
force  and  talent  raised  him  to  good  success 
among  modern  sculptors.  He  was  knighted 
by  the  queen  in  1837.  tie  died  Nov.  25th, 
1841. 

CHAPULTEPEC,  a castle  commanding 
one  of  the  approaches  to  the  city  of  Mexico. 
It  was  stormed  by  the  American  army,  Sept. 
12th,  1847,  and  two  days  after,  Scott  entered 
the  city  in  triumph. 

CHARLEMAGNE  (a  compound  word  sig- 
nifying Charles  the  Great),  King  of  France, 
Emperor  of  the  West,  was  born  in  742,  at 
the  chateau  of  Saltzburg,  in  Upper  Bavaria. 


CHA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


193 


He  was  the  grandson  of  Charles  Martel,  and 
the  son  of  Queen  Bertrade  and  Pepin  the 
Short,  on  the  death  of  whom,  in  768,  he  was 
crowned  king,  sharing  France  with  Carloman, 
his  younger  brother ; but  the  conditions  of  the 
partition  were  frequently  changed  without 
ever  giving  mutual  satisfaction,  and  the  no- 
bles, who  had  long  sought  to  weaken  the 
royal  authority,  would  without  doubt  have 
profited  by  the  animosity  which  existed  be- 
tween these  two  princes,  if  the  death  of 
Carloman,  which  took  place  in  771,  had  not 
given  Charlemagne  an  opportunity  of  becom- 
ing sole  king  of  France  by  refusing  to  share 
the  rule  with  his  nephews.  Their  mother 
fled  with  them  to  Italy,  and  found  a protector 
in  Desidcrius,  King  of  the  Lombards.  They 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Charlemagne,  on  the 
taking  of  Yerona,  and  of  their  future  fate, 
history  says  nothing.  If  Pepin  had  need  of 
courage,  activity,  and.  extreme  prudence  to 
found  a new  dominion,  Charlemagne  found  it 
necessary  to  enchain  the  minds  of  men  by 
fear  and  admiration,  for  the  means  employed 
to  effect  usurpation  had  enfeebled  the  sover- 
eign power. 

The  people  of  Aquitania  were  the  first  who 
tried  to  aim  at  independence.  Charlemagne 
marched  against  them  with  a small  force,  but 
he  relied  upon  Carloman,  his  brother,  to 
whom  a part  of  Aquitania  belonged,  and  who 
in  consequence  was  compelled  to  unite  with 
him.  Carloman  found  him  at  the  appointed 
spot,  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  but  fearing 
to  fall  before  the  power  of  his  brother,  Carlo- 
man  hastily  retraced  his  steps.  Abandoned 
thus  unexpectedly,  in  a manner  which  could 
not  fail  to  encourage  the  rebels,  Charlemagne 
did  not  hesitate  for  a moment : without  con- 
sidering the  number  of  his  followers,  or  that 
of  his  enemies,  he  pursued  his  way,  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  (770),  arranged  the  affairs 
of  Aquitania  with  a promptitude  and  fore- 
sight which  displayed  the  energy  of  a great 
man  and  the  skill  of  a politician,  and  dis- 
concerted the  tributary  princes  of  France, 
who  thought  to  profit  by  the  youth  of  the 
monarch.  When  Charlemagne  found  himself 
sole  master  of  France,  he  formed  the  project 
of  subjugating  the  Saxons.  These  people, 
who  were  still  pagans,  occupied  a large  por- 
tion of  Germany  ; like  all  barbarous  nations, 
they  preferred  plunder  to  fixed  establish- 

13  Cl 


ments,  and  they  were  divided  into  many 
tribes,  whom  it  was  difficult  to  unite  in  the 
same  interest.  Charlemagne  began  to  wage 
war  upon  them  in  772,  and  did  not  complete 
their  subjugation  until  804;  so  obstinately 
did  they  resist,  for  thirty-two  years,  the  con- 
queror, who,  sometimes  indulgent  to  impru- 
dence, and  often  severe  to  cruelty,  as  eager 
to  convert  as  to  conquer  them,  was  in  reality 
master  of  their  country  only  when  he  had 
reduced  it  to  a desert.  The  two  most  cele- 
brated chiefs  of  the  Saxons  were  Witikind 
and  Alboin,  who  finally  embraced  Christian- 
ity in  783.  The  cruelties  of  Charlemagne 
to  the  Saxons,  resembled  despair ; and  his 
indulgence  to  them  proved  that,  pressed  by 
other  affairs,  he  was  willing  to  make  any 
concession  which  could  bring  him  off  with 
honor. 

While  he  was  fighting  on  the  banks  of  the 
Weser,  Pope  Adrian  implored  his  succors 
against  Desiderius,  King  of  the  Lombards, 
who  sought  to  possess  himself  of  Ravenna, 
and  urged,  the  pope  to  crown  the  sons  of  Car- 
loman, in  order  to  display  Charlemagne  in 
the  light  of  an  usurper  of  the  throne  of  his 
nephews,  and  thus  stir  up  a large  portion  of 
France  against  him.  Flying  to  the  scene  of 
action  with  the  rapidity  which  the  danger 
rendered  necessary,  Charlemagne  seized  the 
person  of  Desidcrius,  sent  him  to  end  his 
days  in  a monastery,  and  caused  himself  to 
be  crowned  King  of  Lombardy,  in  774. 
Thus  ended  that  kingdom,  which  shortly  after- 
ward took  its  ancient  name  of  Italy,  but 
preserved  the  laws  it  had  received  from  the 
Lombards. 

Charlemagne  passed  into  Spain  in  778,  be- 
sieged and  took  Pampeluna,  and  made  him- 
self master  of  the  country  of  Barcelona ; but 
his  troops,  on  their  return,  were  defeated  in 
the  pass  of  Roncesvalles,  by  a part  of  the 
Saracens,  and  the  mountain  Gascons,  the  un- 
ruly tributaries  of  Charlemagne,  who  were 
so  intractable,  that  more  than  thirty  years 
afterward,  strong  forces  were  required  to  op- 
pose them.  At  this  battle  fell  the  famous 
Roland,  his  nephew,  whose  fate  has  been 
celebrated  by  romance  writers  and  poets. 
The  disaffection  of  the  inhabitants  of  Aqui- 
tania having  induced  Charlemagne  to  give 
them  a separate  monarch,  he  chose  the  young- 
est of  his  sons,  we1!  known  as  Louis  the  Mild, 


194 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


778.  At  the  same  time  the  continual  efforts 
of  the  Lombards  and  Greeks  to  reconquer 
Italy,  and  the  want  of  fidelity  in  his  nobles, 
made  him  feel  the  necessity  of  rallying  them 
about  the  throne,  and  he  gave  them  for  a 
king,  Pepin,  the  second  of  his  sons ; the 
eldest,  who  bore  the  name  of  Charles,  re- 
mained with  him  to  assist  him  in  his  expedi- 
tions. He  had  another  son,  Pepin,  whose 
mother  he  had  repudiated.  This  son,  hav- 
ing been  convicted  of  taking  part  in  a 
conspiracy  against  him,  was  devoted  to  the 
monastic  life. 

On  his  return  from  Spain,  Charlemagne 
found  himself  obliged  to  march  against  the 
Saxons,  and  each  year  renewed  the  necessity 
of  a warlike  expedition.  He  caused  4,500  of 
them  to  be  put  to  death ; a ferocious  revenge 
which  only  served  to  prolong  and  invigorate 
their  resistance.  Thence  he  went  to  Rome  to 
have  his  two  sons,  Pepin  and  Louis,  crowned 
b}^  the  pope,  thus  confirming  the  people  in  the 
belief  that  the  head  of  religion  could  alone 
render  the  royal  power  legitimate  and  sacred. 
The  year  790,  the  twenty-seventh  of  his 
reign,  was  the  first  which  he  passed  without 
taking  up  arms,  and  this  peace  lasted  only 
until  the  spring  of  the  following  year.  Char- 
lemagne had  formed  the  project  of  re-estab- 
lishing the  empire  of  the  west.  Irene,  who 
reigned  as  empress  at  Constantinople,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  the 
empire,  proposed  to  Charlemagne  to  unite 
their  children,  which  would  have  placed  Eu- 
rope under  one  government.  Her  proposal 
was  accepted,  but  ambition  impelled  Irene  to 
dethrone  her  son  in  order  to  seize  the  power 
herself,  and  she  offered  her  hand  to  Charle- 
magne. This  singular  union,  which  ambi- 
tion alone  could  suggest  and  carry  into  effect, 
would  have  presented  a new  spectacle  to  the 
world,  had  not  the  empress  been  hurled  from 
her  throne.  Charlemagne  was  crowned  em- 
peror of  the  west,  by  Pope  Leo  III.,  in  the 
year  800 ; and,  although  his  journey  to  Rome 
had  no  other  object,  he  affected  to  be  much 
surprised  at  the  honors  which  were  heaped 
upon  him.  He  was  declared  Caesar  and  Au- 
gustus ; the  ornaments  of  the  ancient  Roman 
emperors  were  decreed  to  him ; all  the  con- 
secrated forms  were  followed;  nothing  was 
forgotten  but  the  fact  that  it  was  impossible 
that  an  empire  should  subsist,  the  power  of 


which  was  shared  by  the  children  of  the  de- 
ceased monarch.  Charlemagne,  after  having 
made  one  of  his  sons  a monk,  had  the  mis- 
fortune to  lose,  in  810,  Pepin,  whom  he  had 
created  King  of  Italy ; the  year  following 
Charles,  the  eldest,  followed  his  brother  to 
the  grave ; there  only  remained,  of  his  legiti- 
mate children,  Louis,  King  of  Aquitania, 
whom  he  associated  wun  him  in  the  empire 
in  813,  his  great  age  and  his  infirmities  mak- 
ing him  feel  that  he  was  approaching  the 
termination  of  his  career.  He  died  the  28th 
of  January,  814,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of 
his  age,  and  the  forty-seventh  of  his  reign. 
By  his  will,  made  in  806,  confirmed  by  the 
French  lords  assembled  at  Thionville,  and 
signed  by  Pope  Leo,  Charlemagne  divided 
his  estates  among  his  three  sons.  He  left  his 
subjects  the  power  of  choosing  a successor, 
after  the  death  of  the  princes,  provided  he 
was  of  the  blood  royal.  He  provided  that 
they  should  not  have  recourse  to  the  trial  by 
battle,  in  the  case  of  dispute,  but  to  that 
of  the  cross.  This  judgment  consisted,  in 
doubtful  circumstances,  in  conducting  to  the 
church  two  men,  who  stood  upright  with 
their  elevated  arms  crossed,  during  the  cele- 
bration of  divine  service,  and  the  victory  was 
gained  by  the  party  whose  champion  remained 
motionless  the  longest. 

Charlemagne  was  buried  at  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle.  His  body  is  said  to  have  been  disposed 
in  the  following  manner.  He  was  seated 
upon  a throne  of  gold,  clad  in  his  imperial 
habits.  „ He  had  a crown  upon  his  head,  and 
was  girt  with  his  sword.  He  held  a chalice 
in  his  hand,  the  book  of  the  Evangelists  upon 
his  knees,  his  sceptre  and  gold  buckler  at  his 
feet.  The  sepulchre  was  filled  with  pieces  of 
gold,  perfumed  and  sealed,  and  above,  a su- 
perb triumphal  arch  was  raised,  with  this 
epitaph : “ Here  rests  the  body  of  Charles,  the 
great  and  orthodox  emperor,  who  gloriou'sly 
enlarged  the  kingdom  of  the  French,  and 
governed  it  happily  for  forty-seven  years.” 
Charlemagne  was  a friend  of  letters  and  of 
learned  men.  He  was  marked  by  his  plainness 
and  frugality  of  costume.  He  was  the  tallest 
and  the  strongest  man  of  his  time.  Force  he 
used  to  conquer,  but  he  instituted  wholesome 
laws  to  govern. 

CHARLES  I.  and  II.,  of  England.  [See 
Stuart,  House  of.] 


CHA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


195 


CHARLES  GUSTAVUS,  son  of  John  Cas- 
imir,  Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Sweden  on  the  abdication  of 
his  cousin  Christina  in  1654.  He  obtained 
over  the  Poles  the  famous  victory  of  Warsaw, 
besides  taking  a number  of  important  places. 
The  Poles,  calling  to  their  assistance  Mus- 
covy, England,  and  Denmark,  obliged  Sweden 
to  conclude  a peace ; but  the  war  breaking 
out  again,  Charles  took  Cronenburgh,  and  laid 
seige  to  Copenhagen ; his  navy  having  been 


defeated,  he  was  obliged  to  return  home,  and 
died  in  1660. 

CHARLES  XT  of  Sweden,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  1655.  On  his  acces- 
sion a peace  was  concluded  with  Denmark, 
but  in  1674,  in  the  war  with  that  power,  he 
lost  several  places,  which  were  restored  at 
the  peace  of  Nimeguen.  He  married  the 
sister  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  and  died  in 
1697.  In  his  reign  the  arts  and  sciences 
began  to  flourish  in  Sweden. 


CHARLES  XII.  of  Sweden,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1682. 
He  came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
and  at  his  coronation  snatched  the  crown 
from  the  hands  of  the  Archbishop  of  Upsal, 
and  placed  it  on  his  own  head.  He  was  well 
educated,  and  very  fond  of  bodily  exercises. 
The  commencement  of  his  reign  gave  no 
splendid  proof  of  genius  or  talent.  On  the 
formation  of  a confederacy  against  him  by 
Russia,  Denmark,  and  Poland,  he  seemfed  to 
arouse  from  his  slumber.  He  gave  the  cast- 
ing voice  in  the  council  for  the  most  vigorous 
measures,  and  immediately  prepared  to  carry 
them  into  effect.  He  renounced  at  once  even 
limited  enjoyments,  and  bent  all  his  energies 
to  support  the  character  he  had  marked  out 
for  himself.  Of  the  confederated  powers,  he 
attacked  each  in  turn,  beginning  with  Den- 
mark, which  produced  a peace  with  that 
power.  Nov.  80th,  1700,  he  obtained  a brill- 
iant victory  over  the  Russians  at  Narva; 


although  his  force  consisted  of  only  8,000 
men,  he  attacked  them  in  their  intrenchments, 
slew  30,000  and  took  20,000  prisoners.  His 
next  enterprise  was  against  Poland,  and  after 
several  battles  he  dethroned  Augustus,  and 
placed  Stanislaus  upon  the  throne.  He  re- 
turned to  the  invasion  of  Russia,  and  obtained 
some  signal  advantages  over  Peter  the  Great, 
but  at  length  experienced  a terrible  defeat  at 
Pultowa,  July  8th,  1709.  Almost  all  his 
troops  were  either  slain-  or  taken  prisoners ; 
he  himself  was  wounded  in  the  leg,  and  car- 
ried off  on  a litter.  Charles  sought  an  asylum 
in  Turkey,  where  he  was  hospitably  received 
by  the  grand  seignior,  who  provided  for  him 
a residence  at  Bender.  He  availed  himself 
of  his  asylum  to  persuade  the  grand  seignior 
to  enter  into  a war  with  Russia,  and  employ- 
ed much  money,  much  time,  and  many  men- 
aces to  induce  it.  His  conduct  was  at  length 
so  violent,  that  he  was  ordered  to  leave  the 
Turkish  territories.  He  refused  to  obey. 


CHA 


196 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


The  sultan  directed  that  he  should  be  forced 
away ; but  Charles,  with  his  retinue,  resisted 
the  attack  of  the  janizaries,  till  superiority 
of  numbers  obliged  him  to  take  shelter  in  his 
house,  which  he  defended  with  great  spirit, 
and  did  not  yield  till  the  premises  were  in 
flames.  He  then  sallied  out,  sword  in  hand, 
but  being  entangled  by  his  long  spurs,  he  fell 
and  was  taken  prisoner.  After  having  been 
confined  as  a prisoner  six  months,  he  finally 
set  out  on  his  return  to  his  own  dominions.  In 
1716,  he  invaded  Norway,  but  after  penetra- 
ting to  Christiana,  was  obliged  to  return  to 
Sweden.  He  resumed  the  attack  in  the  win- 
ter of  1718,  but  was  killed  by  a cannon-shot 
at  the  siege  of  Frederickshall,  Dec.  11th, 
aged  thirty-six  years,  having  reigned  twenty- 
one.  Charles  was  liberal,  active,  and  firm, 
but  rash,  obstinate,  and  cruel.  At  the  battle 
of  Narva,  he  had  several  horses  shot  under 
him,  and  as  he  was  mounting  upon  a fresh 
one,  he  said,  “These  people  find  me  exer- 
cise.” When  he  was  besieged  at  Stralsund, 
a bomb  fell  into  the  house  while  he  was  dic- 
tating to  his  secretary,  who  immediately 
dropped  his  pen,  and  started  up  in  a fright. 
“ What  is  the  matter  ? ” said  the  king,  calmly. 
“ The  bomb ! the  bomb ! sire,”  said  the  agita- 
ted secretary.  “ Well,  sir,”  resumed  Charles, 
“ what  has  the  bomb  to  do  with  what  I was 
dictating  to  you  ? Go  on.”  When  struck 
by  the  ball  that  caused  his  death,  he  instinc- 
tively grasped  his  sword-hilt,  as  if  seeking 
for  revenge.  Charles  was  exceedingly  tem- 
perate, abjuring  wine,  and  living  frequently 
upon  the  coarsest  bread.  No  woman  ever 
exerted  any  influence  over  him.  His  dress 
consisted  of  an  old  cloak,  a blue  coat  with 
brass  buttons,  a plain  waistcoat  and  breeches 
of  leather,  high  boots  with  spurs,  and  long 
leather  gloves.  His  wild  career  of  war 
gained  him  the  name  of  ‘ the  madman  of  the 
north.’ 

CHARLES  I , King  of  Sicily  and  Naples, 
born  in  1220,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VIII.  of 
France.  Having  married  the  daughter  of  the 
Count  of  Provence,  he  thereby  became  his 
successor,  and  added  to  his  dominions  the 
counties  of  Anjou  and  Maine.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  with  his  brother  Louis,  in  Egypt,  in 
1248.  On  his  return  he  defeated  Manfred, 
the  usurper  of  the  Sicilian  crown,  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  King  of  Naples.  He 


also  defeated  his  rival,  Conradin,  Duke  of 
Suabia,  and  took  him  and  the  Duke  of  Aus- 
tria prisoners.  Charles  brought  infamy  on 
his  name,  by  causing  his  royal  captives  to  bo 
put  to  death,  at  Naples,  on  a public  scaffold. 
After  this  he  laid  Tunis  under  tribute,  and 
quelled  the  Ghibellines.  In  1276,  he  gained 
the  title  of  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  meditated 
an  expedition  against  Constantinople.  But 
his  arbitrary  conduct  occasioned  a general 
insurrection  in  Sicily,  where  8,000  of  the 
French  were  massacred  on  Easter  Monday, 
1282.  This  massacre  is  known  by  the  name 
of  the  “ Sicilian  vespers,”  the  bell  for  evening 
prayers  being  the  signal  of  revolt.  The 
Sicilians  chose  Peter  of  Arragon  for  their 
king.  Charles  died  in  1285. 

CHARLES  MARTEL,  son  of  Pepin  Heris- 
tel,  and  mayor  of  the  palace  under  Chilperic 
and  Thierry  IV.,  kings  of  France.  He  gained 
many  victories,  the  principal  of  which  was 
over  the  Saracen  general,  Abdalrahman,  in 
732.  On  the  death  of  Thierry,  in  737,  no 
successor  was  appointed,  and  Charles  con- 
ducted the  government.  He  died  in  741,  and 
left  his  dominions  between  his  sons  Carloman 
and  Pepin ; the  latter  of  whom  became  the 
first  king  of  the  Carlovingian  race,  which 
name  was  taken  from  the  founder,  Charles 
Martel. 

CHARLES  IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
was  the  son  of  John  of  Luxemburg,  and 
grandson  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VII.  He 
ascended  the  throne  in  1347.  In  his  reign 
the  golden  bull  was  given  at  the  diet  of  Nu- 
remberg, 1356,  which  established  the  Ger- 
manic constitution.  Charles  died  in  1378. 
He  was  a learned  man  and  a great  patron  of 
letters. 

CHARLES  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and 
King  of  Spain  (in  the  latter  capacity,  Charles 
I.),  was  born  at  Ghent,  in  1500.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  kingdom  of  Spain  in  1516,  and 
to  the  empire  on  the  death  of  Maximilian  in 
1519.  Francis  I.  of  France  disputed  with 
him  the  latter  title,  and  their  rivalry  occa- 
sioned a violent  war  in  1521.  Charles  was 
joined  by  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and  after 
several  important  actions,  took  Francis  pris- 
oner at  the  battle  of  Pavia.  A peace  having 
been  concluded  in  1529,  Charles  turned  his 
arms  against  Africa,  where  he  defeated  Bar- 
| barossa,  entered  Tunis,  and  re-established 
CHA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


197 


Muley  Hassan  on  the  throne.  Soon  after  this 
he  renewed  hostilities  against  France,  rav- 
aging Champagne  and  Picardy,  till  he  was 
at  length  obliged  to  retire,  and  peace  was 
restored  in  1538.  In  1541  he  attempted  the 
conquest  of  Algiers,  but  his  fleet  was  dis- 
persed by  a storm,  and  the  emperor  was 
obliged  to  return  in  disgrace.  He  again 
leagued  with  England  against  France,  but 
Fortune  was  not  so  favorable  to  him  as  she 
had  formerly  been,  and  he  was  glad  to  enter 
into  a treaty  in  1545.  The  Protestant  princes 
of  Germany  confederated  against  him,  and 
obtained  liberty  of  conscience  for  those  of 
their  religion.  In  1556,  he  resigned  the 
crown  to  his  son  Philip,  and  retired  into  a 
monastery  in  Estremadura,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  days  in  religious  exer- 
cises, mechanical  pursuits,  and  gardening. 
He  died  in  1558.  He  encouraged  artists,  and 
once  picked  up  a pencil  which  Titian  had 
dropped,  and  presented  it  to  him,  saying,  that 
Titian  was  worthy  of  being  served  by  an 
emperor. 

CHARLES  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
the  son  of  Philip  the  Good,  was  born  in  1433. 
There  were  constant  wars  between  him  and 
Louis  XI.  of  France,  who  instigated  Charles’s 
subjects,  the  Liegois,  to  revolt  against  him. 
Charles  siezed  on  Guelderland  and  Zutphen, 
and  afterward  invaded  Switzerland,  but  his 
army  was  put  to  rout  and  his  baggage 
taken  by  the  Swiss.  He  collected  another 
army,  but  was  again  defeated,  and  slain  while 
besieging  Nancy,  in  1477.  As  he  was  that 
day  putting  on  his  helmet,  the  golden  lion 
which  formed  the  crest,  fell  to  the  ground, 
and  he  exclaimed,  “Ecce  magnum  signum 
Dei  ! ” (Behold  the  great  sign  of  God  !) 

CHARLES  IX.,  of  France,  son  of  Henry 
II.,  and  Catharine  de  Medici,  was  born  in 
1550,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1560 ; 
his  mother  conducted  the  government ; but 
she  so  abused  her  trust  that  the  Huguenots 
revolted,  and  a civil  war  ensued,  in  which  the 
insurgents  were  unsuccessful.  The  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew’s  ensued.  It  is  said  that 
Charles  repented  of  this  horrid  crime  on  his 
death-bed,  in  1574. 

CHARLES  X.  of  France  and  Navarre,  as- 
cended the  throne  which  had  been  filled  by 
his  brothers,  the  unfortunate  Louis  XVI.  and 
Louis  XVIII.,  in  September,  1824.  He  bore 


for  some  time  the  title  of  Count  of  Artois,  and 
afterward  that  of  Monsieur.  He  was  fond  of 
expensive  pleasures,  and  distinguished  for 
his  mild  manners.  Charles  was  crowned  at 
Rheims,  being  anointed  with  the  holy  oil, 
which  it  was  absurdly  pretended  had  been 
brought  from  heaven  by  a dove.  He  swore 
to  maintain  the  charter,  but  he  had  not  been 
long  seated  on  the  throne,  before  he  began  to 
play  those  fantastic  tricks  which  seem  to  be- 
long peculiarly  to  the  province  of  legitimacy. 
The  press,  that  vast  moral  engine  at  which 
tyrants  tremble,  became  obnoxious  to  the 
monarch,  and  a censorship  was  established  in 
1 827.  The  king  showed  himself  rather  favor- 
ably disposed  to  the  Greeks,  which  produced 
him  a temporary  popularity.  The  ministry 
of  Prince  Polignac,  however,  caused  great  in- 
dignation, on  account  of  the  arbitrary  tone  of 
the  measures  adopted ; and  the  unwarrantable 
prosecution  of  the  liberal  press  hastened  the 
revolution  of  1830,  when  the  Parisians  over- 
came the  royal  troops,  and  the  French  legis- 
lature exiled  Charles  X.,  imprisoned  the  min- 
isters for  life,  and  seated  Louis  Philippe  on 
the  throne.  Charles  was  born  Oct.  9th,  1757. 
He  died  at  Gratz  in  Hungary,  NoV.  6th,  1836. 

CHARLES  EMMANUEL  I.,  Dukeof  Savoy, 
surnamed  the  Great,  was  born  in  1562. 
Though  of  a weak  constitution,  he  was  of  an 
enterprising  spirit,  and,  taking  advantage  of 
the  internal  commotions  of  France  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.,  he  seized  part  of  Dau- 
phiny  and  Provence ; and  on  the  death  of  that 
monarch,  he  aspired  to  the  crown,  but  was 
disappointed.  A war  broke  out,  and  the 
French  troops  took  possession  of  part  of  Sa- 
voy. By  the  mediation  of  the  pope,  however, 
peace  was  concluded.  The  duke  made  a 
treacherous  attempt  to  seize  Geneva,  but  his 
troops  were  repulsed,  and  the  prisoners  that 
were  taken  were  hung  up  by  the  Genevans  as 
robbers.  On  the  death  of  Francis,  Duke  of 
Mantua,  in  1613,  this  restless  prince  laid  claim 
to  the  succession,  but  was  obliged  to  relin- 
quish it.  The  French  persuaded  him  to  turn 
his  arms  against  Genoa,  and  he  gained  some 
advantages,  but  the  interference  of  Spain  ef- 
fected a peace.  He  aspired  to  the  imperial 
crown,  and  made  an  attempt  on  the  duchy  of 
Montserrat,  which  involved  him  in  a war  with 
France  and  Spain.  He  died  in  1630,  it  is  sup- 
posed of  grief  for  the  loss  of  Pignerol. 


CHA 


198 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


CHARLESTON,  a city  and  seaport  of 
South  Carolina,  had  in  1870,  48,956  inhabi- 
tants, being  over  8,000  greater  than  in  1860. 
It  is  the  natural  commercial  emporium  of 
South  Carolina,  and  of  much  of  North  Caro- 
lina and  Georgia  also.  It  stands  at  the  head 
of  a bay  on  the  point  between  the  mouths 
of  Cooper  and  Ashley  rivers,  seven  miles 
from  the  sea.  It  has  long  been  a wealthy 
commercial  city.  Fort  Moultrie,  on  Sulli- 
van’s Island,  was  assaulted  June  28, 1776,  by 
sea  and  land  by  the  British,  who  were  se- 
verely defeated.  May  12,  1780,  Gen.  Lin- 
coln with  his  army  of  over  5,000  men  capitu- 
lated to  Sir  Henry  Clinton  after  a month’s 
siege.  The  British  evacuated  the  place  Apr. 
14,  1788.  Charleston  was  a principal  center 
of  the  secession  movement,  and  the  scene  of 
the  first  rebel  hostilities  against  the  United 
States,  by  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter, 
April  12,  1861,  resulting  in  its  surrender  to 
the  rebels  the  next  day.  Soon  after  the 
harbor  was  blockaded,  and  sea  and  land 
forces  were  kept  actively  employed  against  the 
place  during  the  whole  of  the  war.  It  was 
not  however  taken  until  Sherman’s  north- 


ward march  caused  its  evacuation  April  18, 
1865,  when  the  Union  troops  entered  it. 
About  a third  of  it  had  been  destroyed. 

CHARLOTTE  AUGUSTA,  daughter  of 
Queen  Caroline  and  George  IV.  of  England, 
a beautiful,  amiable,  and  accomplished  lady, 
became,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  the  wife  of 
Prince  Leopold  of  Coburg  (afterward  King  of 
Belgium),  Mayr2d,  1816.  Nov.  5th,  1817, 
the  unfortunate  princess,  in  becoming  the 
mother  of  a child  that  did  not  survive  her, 
lost  her  life.  The  physician  who  had  attended 
her,  shot  himself.  The  princess  was  beloved 
by  the  English  nation,  and  her  death  deeply 
lamented. 

CHARON,  in  mythology,  the  son  of  Erebus 
and  Nox.  He  was  the  ferryman  of  hell,  being 
supposed  to  carry  the  dead  across  the  wraves 
of  Acheron,  Cocytus,  and  the  Styx,  receiving 
an  obolus  in  pay.  This  coin  was  placed  in 
the  mouth  of  the  dead,  as,  without  it,  it  was 
thought  that  the  deceased  would  be  con- 
demned to  long  and  restless  wanderings  on 
the  dreary  banks  of  Acheron.  Charon  was 
represented  as  an  old  man,  of  a forbidding 
aspect,  dressed  in  rags. 


THE  CHARTER  OAK. 


CHARTER  OAK,  a stately  tree  in  a cavity 
of  whose  trunk  the  royal  charter  of  Connecti- 
cut was  hidden  by  Capt.  Wadsworth,  when 
demanded  by  Andross,  Oct.  31st,  1687.  The 
story  is  that  the  debate  of  the  assembly  upon 
obeying  Sir  Edmund’s  demand  was  prolonged 
until  evening ; when  suddenly  the  lights  wrere 


extinguished,  the  parchment  snatched  from 
the  table,  and  borne  off  to  its  hiding-place. 
This  oak  was  an  ancient  forest-monarch  at 
the  first  settlement  of  Hartford.  The  cavity 
in  which  the  charter  was  put  gradually  closed, 
but  in  time  the  heart  of  the  tree  rotted  away, 
leaving  a larger  opening.  Before  dawn,  Aug. 


CIIA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


199 


21st,  1856,  the  revered  tree  was  prostrated  by 
the  wind,  and  only  a ragged  stump  left  stand- 
ing. On  this  occasion  the  bells  of  the  city 
were  knelled  for  an  hour  at  twilight.  A mar- 
ble slab  now  marks  the  site  of  the  tree. 

CHARYBDIS,  the  rapacious  daughter  of 
Neptune  and  Terra,  whom  Jupiter  changed 
into  a whirlpool.  The  whirlpool  whose  origin 
was  thus  related  in  mythology,  was  on  the 
coast  of  Sicily,  opposite  the  formidable  rock 
called  Scylla  on  the  Italian  shore.  It  was 
very  dangerous  to  mariners,  and  proved  fatal 
to  part  of  the  fleet  of  Ulysses.  No  whirlpool 
is  now  found  that  corresponds  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  ancients.  The  words,  Incidit  in 
Scyllam  qui  vult  vitare  Chary became 
proverbial,  to  show  that  in  our  eagerness  to 
avoid  an  evil  we  often  fall  into  a greater. 

CHASE,  Samuel,  a signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Somerset  coun- 
ty, Maryland,  April  17th,  1741.  His  father 
was  an  Episcopal  missionary  and  personally 
superintended  his  education.  Having  ac- 
quired eminence  and  popularity  as  a lawyer 
in  Annapolis,  and  by  his  resistance  to  the 
stamp  act,  he  was  elected  to  the  continental 
Congress  in  1774,  and  in  1776  undertook  a 
mission  to  Canada  to  excite  opposition  to  the 
mother  country.  He  was  a delegate  to  Con- 
gress,' 1774-78  and  1784-85.  In  1783,  he 
went  to  England  as  agent  of  the  state  of  Mary- 
land to  recover  property  intrusted  to  the  Bank 
of  England,  and  while  there  formed  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Pitt,  Fox,  and  Burke.  In  1791, 
he  was  made  chief-justice  of  the  general  court 
of  Maryland.  Washington  appointed  him  as- 
sociate justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States,  vice  John  Blair  of  Virginia, 
who  had  resigned.  He  was  impeached  by 
the  house  of  representatives  in  1804,  for  al- 
leged misdemeanors  in  political  trials,  but  ac- 
quitted in  his  trial  before  the  senate,  which, 
after  long  attracting  public  attention,  ended 
March  5th,  1804.  He  died  at  the  age  of  sev- 
enty, June  19th,  1811.  He  was  a man  of  in- 
tegrity, boldness,  and  decision.  While  on  the 
bench  in  Maryland,  in  1794,  nobody  being 
willing  to  assist  in  the  arrest  of  the  ringlead- 
ers in  a riot,  “Summon  me,”  cried  Judge 
Chase;  “I’ll  be  the  posse  comitatm ;”  and 
he  was  as  good  as  his  word. 

CHATEAUBRIAND,  Francois  Auguste, 
Vicomte  de,  was  born  in  Brittany  of  an  an- 


cient family,  in  1769.  During  the  terrors  of 
the  French  revolution,  he  resided  chiefly  in 
England,  paying,  however,  a visit  to  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  roaming  into*  the  backwoods. 
When  Bonaparte  had  restored  order  he  re- 
turned to  France,  and  in  1802  gained  great 
fame  by  his  “ Genius  of  Christianity.”  In 
1806  he  set  out  on  those  oriental  journey ings 
recorded  in  his  “ Itinerary  from  Paris  to  Je- 
rusalem.” Under  the  Bourbons  he  took  part 
in  public  life  and  honors.  These  he  aban- 
doned when  Louis  Philippe  was  crowned,  oc- 
cupying himself  thenceforth  in  literary  labors, 
and  dying  in  1848. 

CHATHAM,  William  Pitt,  Earl  of,  was 
the  son  of  Robert  Pitt,  Esq.,  of  Boconock,  in 
Cornwall,  and  born  Nov.  15th,  1708.  On 
quitting  the  university  at  Oxford  he  went  into 
the  army  as  cornet,  but  soon  left  the  military 
life,  and,  in  1735,  obtained  a seat  in  parlia- 
ment for  Old  Sarum.  His  eloquence  was  first 
displayed  on  the  Spanish  convention,  in  1738, 
and,  in  a short  time,  Sir  Robert  Walpole  found 
him  the  most  powerful  opponent  he  had  ever 
encountered.  The  dowager  Duchess  of  Marl- 
borough left  Mr.  Pitt  a legacy  of  £10,000  for 
his  conduct  at  this  period.  In  1746,  he  was 
made  vice  treasurer  of  Ireland,  and  the  same 
year  paymaster-general  of  the  army.  In  1755, 
he  resigned  his  places ; but  the  year  following, 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for  the 
southern  department.  In  this  post,  however, 
he  did  not  remaih  long,  on  account  of  some 
difference  with  the  king ; but  such  was  his 
popularity,  that  his  majesty  found  it  necessary 
to  recall  him.  In  1757,  he  became  prime 
minister,  in  which  situation  he  gave  a new 
turn  to  affairs,  and  by  the  vigor  of  his  meas- 
ures, subverted  the  power  of  France  in  Eu- 
rope, Asia,  and  America.  In  the  midst  of  his 
glory,  George  II.  died,  and  Mr.  Pitt  resigned 
the  helm  to  Lord  Bute ; when  his  lady  was 
created  a peeress,  and  he  himself  rewarded 
with  a pension.  His  acceptance  of  a coronet 
in  1766,  when  he  returned  to  the  ministry, 
hurt  his  popularity,  for  the  people  had  loved 
to  call  him  ‘ the  great  commoner.’  The  witty 
Lord  Chesterfield  called  it  a “fall  up-stairs,” 
and  said,  “ Everybody  is  puzzled  to  account 
for  this  step.  Such  an  event  was,  I believe, 
never  heard  or  read  of,  to  withdraw,  in  the 
fullness  of  his  power  and  in  the  utmost  grati- 
fication of  his  ambition,  from  the  House  of 


CHA 


200 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Commons  (which  procured  him  his  power, 
and  which  could  alone  insure  it  to  him),  and 
to  go  into  that  hospital  of  incurables,  the 
House  of  Lords* is  a measure  so  unaccounta- 
ble, that  nothing  but  proof  positive  could 
make  me  believe  it ; but  so  it  is.”  Mr.  Pitt 
took  the  title  of  Earl  of  Chatham,  and  the 
sinecure  office  of  the  privy  seal  in  the  new 
cabinet,  which  place  he  resigned  two  or  three 
years  afterward.  During  the  war  of  our  rev- 
olution, he  opposed  the  ministers,  and  their 
scheme  of  taxation ; and  in  a speech  on  the 
subject  of  the  independence  of  the  colonies, 
April  7th,  1778,  he  exerted  himself  so  ener- 
getically, as  to  fall  exhausted  into  the  arms 
of  those  around  him.  He  died  on  the  11th  of 
the  following  month.  A public  funeral  and 
monument  were  voted  by  parliament ; an  an- 
nuity of  £4,000  was  annexed  to  the  earldom 
of  Chatham,  and  his  debts  were  discharged. 

CHATTERTON,  Thomas,-  a youth  whose 
precocious  talents  and  sad  fate  have  excited 
great  interest,  was  born  at  Bristol,  in  1752, 
of  poor  parents.  In  his  twelfth  year  he  wrote 
a poem  of  some  merit,  and  at  the  age  of 
sixteen  successfully  imitated  the  style  of  an- 
tique English  writers,  and  introduced  to  the 
world  as  works  of  great  antiquity,  the  fruits 
of  his  own  mind.  The  reception  he  met 
with  in  London,  led  him  to  form  extrav- 
agant hopes,  ’which  were,  however,  never 
realized,  for  the  wretchedness  of  his  situation 
induced  him  to  commit  suicide  by  poison  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  in  1770.  The  poems 
which  he  wrote  at  fifteen  he  ascribed  to  a 
monk  of  the  fifteenth  century,  named  Thomas 
Rowley.  For  precocious  talent  this  marvel- 
ous boy  is  without  a peer  in  English  litera- 
ture. 

CHAUCER,  Geoffrey,  the  father  of  Eng- 
lish poetry,  was  born  in  London,  in  1828. 
He  was  high  in  favor  with  Edward  III.,  and 
married  Philippa,  the  sister  of  Lady  Catha- 
arine  Swynford,  afterward  the  wife  of  John 
of  Gaunt.  This  prince  was  Chaucer’s  steady 
patron.  He  filled  several  responsible  offices, 
and  was  sent  abroad  as  ambassador.  His  for- 
tunes varied  with  those  of  the  party  to  which 
he  was  attached,  but  he  finally  lived  in  pleas- 
ant retirement  at  Woodstock,  and  completed 
the  “Canterbury  Tales.”  He  owned  a house 
in  London,  in  the  garden  of  the  convent  of 
Westminster,  where  the  chapel  of  Henry 


VII.  now  stands.  Here  he  died,  Oct.  25th, 
1400,  and  was  interred  in  the  neighboring 
abbey,  the  first  of  the  illustrious  line  of  poets 
whose  ashes  have  there  been  laid  to  rest. 

CHAUNCY,  Charles,  was  the  grandson 
of  the  erudite  and  excellent  president  of  Har- 
vard University,  where  he  was  educated. 
He  was  born  Jan.  1st,  1705,  and  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  first  church  in  Boston, 
in  1727.  He  died  in  his  eighty-third  year, 
Feb.  10th,  1787.  His  learning,  independ- 
ence, and  patriotism  were  constantly  and 
clearly  displayed.  The  works  which  he  has 
left  behind  bear  incontrovertible  proof  of  his 
talents.  He  was  the  particular  friend  of  Dr. 
Cooper  of  Boston,  and  an  anecdote  which 
regards  the  two  gentlemen,  is  worthy  of  pre- 
servation. It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  Dr. 
Chauncy  was  habitually  absent,  like  many 
literary  men,  and  that  Dr.  Cooper  was  famous 
for  inviting  brother  clergymen  to  officiate  for 
him ; so  much  so,  that  it  was  currently  re- 
ported that  he  used  to  walk  out  upon  Boston 
neck  every  Saturday  afternoon,  and  invite 
the  first  gentleman  with  a black  coat  whom 
he  saw  coming  into  town,  to  preach  for  him. 
A negro  servant  of  Dr.  Chauncy  was  in 
want  of  a coat,  but  as  he  had  high  ideas  of 
his  own  importance,  he  wished,  if  possible, 
to  obtain  a new  garment,  instead  of  being 
habited  in  the  dark,  discarded  vestments  of 
his  worthy  master.  After  having,  one  morn- 
ing, brought  the  usual  supply  of  wood  into 
Dr.  Chauncy’s  study,  he  remained  standing, 
and  the  doctor,  although  rather  busy,  was 
not  long  in  noticing  him. 

“Well,  Sambo,  wffiat  do  you  want?” 

“ Want  a coat,  sar.  De  old  one  so  patched 
to  pieces,  I ’fraid  to  go  nowheres.” 

“Very  well,  Sambo,  go  to  Mrs.  Chauncy, 
and  tell  her  to  give  you  one  of  mine.” 

The  doctor  resumed  his  studies,  but  Sambo 
retained  his  position.  His  master  observing 
him  a second  time,  but  forgetting  what  had 
just  passed  between  them,  again  asked, 
“What  do  you  want,  Sambo?” 

“O!  just  a coat,  sar.  Old  coat  full  of 
holes.” 

“Very  well;  go  to  Mrs.  Chauncy,  and  she 
will  give  you  one  of  mine.” 

A second  time  the  doctor  resumed  his  book, 
but  finding  the  black  still  stationary,  he  be- 
gan to  recall  what  had  passed,  and  exclaimed, 


CHA 


HISTORY  AND 

with  some  asperity,  “Well,  sir,  why  don’t 
you  go  ? ” 

“’Cause  I ’fraid,  Massa  Chauncy.” 

“ Afraid  ? of  what  ? ” 

“ Why,  sar,  I ’fraid  to  wear  a black  coat, 
’cause — no — no — it  won’t  do — I can’t  tell  you, 
sar.” 

“ I insist  upon  it.” 

“ Well,  then,  if  I must — sir,  ’fraid,  ’cause — 
oh  no ! massa,  you’ll  be  so  angry.” 

“ I wish  I had  my  cane  here  ! ” exclaimed 
the  doctor. 

Sambo,  finding,  from  his  impatient  glance 
at  the  tongs,  that  there  was  a possibility  of 
seizing  a substitute,  cried  out,  “ Oh ! sar ! 
nebber  mind,  de  cane,  I’ll  tell  you  why  I 
’fraid  to  Wear  one  of  your  coats — I ’fraid  if  I 
had  annoder  black  coat — that  Dr.  Cooper 
will  ask  me  to  preach  for  him  ! ” 

The  doctor  burst  into  laughter.  “ Go,  go, 
Sambo,  and  ask  Mrs.  Chauncy  to  buy  a coat 
of  whatever  color  you  fancy ! ” 

Sambo  hastened  off,  grinning  with  delight, 
to  get  a scarlet  coat,  and  Dr.  Chauncy  ran 
to  Dr.  Cooper  to  tell  him  of  the  whole  affair. 

CHEMISTRY  was  introduced  into  Europe, 
about  1150,  by  the  Spanish  Moors,  who  had 
learned  it  and  distillation  from  the  African 
Moors,  and  these  from  the  Egyptians.  In 
Egypt,  they  had,  in  very  early  ages,  extracted 
salts  from  their  bases,  separated  oils,  and 
prepared  vinegar  and  wine  ; and  embalming 
was  a kind  of  chemical  process.  The  Chi- 
nese also  claim  an  early  acquaintance  with 
chemistry.  The  first  chemical  students  in 
Europe  were  the  alchemists ; but  chemistry 
could  not  be  said  to  exist  as  a science  till  the 
seventeenth  century ; during  which  its  study 
was  promoted  by  the  writings  of  Bacon,  and 
the  researches  of  Hooke,  Mayow  and  Boyle. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Dr.  Stephen  Hales  laid  the  foundation  of 
pneumatic  chemistry,  and  Boerhaave  com- 
bined the  study  of  chemistry  with  medicine. 
These  were  succeeded  by  Black,  Bergman, 
Stahl,  &c.  In  1772,  Priestley  published  his 
researches  on  air,  and  then  commenced  a new 
era.  He  was  ably  seconded  by  Lavoisier, 
Cavendish,  Scheele,  Chaptal,  &c.  The  nine- 
teenth century  opened  with  the  brilliant 
discoveries  of  Davy,  continued  by  Dalton, 
Faraday,  Thomson,  &c.  Organic  chemistry 
has  been  very  greatly  advanced  by  the  labors 


BIOGRAPHY.  201 

of  Berzelius,  Liebig,  Dumas,  Laurent,  Hof- 
mann, &c.,  during  the  last  thirty  years. 

CHERBOURG,  a French  seaport  on  the 
Channel,  containing  24,212  inhabitants.  In 
1418,  it  was  taken  by  Henry  Y.  of  England, 
and  near  it  took  place  the  famous  naval  battle 
of  La  Hogue,  between  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish, May  19th,  1692.  Cherbourg  is  remark- 
able for  its  vast  breakwater,  and  its  extensive 
basin  and  docks,  constructed  by  the  French 
government. 

CHESTERFIELD,  Philip  Dormer  Stan- 
hope, fourth  Earl  of,  born  in  London,  in 
1694.  After  studying  in  his  youth  with  as- 
siduity, at  Cambridge  and  Leyden,  he  entered 
public  life  in  1715,  soon  after  the  accession  of 
George  I.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
lower  house  of  parliament  as  a brilliant  and 
effective  debater,  which  reputation  he  sus- 
tained in  the  House  of  Lords,  after  the  death 
of  his  father.  Till  1748,  when  deafness  com- 
pelled him  to  retire,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
public  life.  He  displayed  great  diplomatic 
skill  in  two  foreign  embassies,  and  his  lord- 
lieutenancy  in  Ireland,  in  1745,  though  last- 
ing only  a few  months,  has  been  always  men- 
tioned with  high  praise.  After  a sickly  and 
melancholy  old  age,  he  died  March  24th, 
1773.  The  only  writings  of  this  accom- 
plished personage  that  are  at  all  remembered, 
are  his  “Letters”  to  his  natural  son,  remark- 
able for  their  ease  of  style  and  their  worldly 
knowledge,  but  deficient  in  the  loftier  points 
of  morality.  They  were  not  intended  for 
publication.  The  character  of  Lord  Ches- 
terfield has  been  much  misrepresented  and 
misunderstood.  He  was  Unequaled  in  his 
time  for  the  solidity  and  variety  of  his  attain- 
ments, for  the  brilliancy  of  his  wit,  for  the 
graces  of  his  conversation,  and  for  the  polish 
of  his  style.  His  embassy  to  Holland  marked 
his  skill,  his  dexterity,  and  his  address  as  an 
able  negociater;  and  his  administration  of 
Ireland  indicated  his  integrity,  his  vigilance, 
and  his  sound  policy  as  a statesman  and  a pol- 
itician. In  the  House  of  Lords  his  speeches 
were  more  admired  and  extolled  than  any 
others  of  the  day.  Horace  Walpole  had 
heard  his  own  father,  had  heard  Pitt,  Pul- 
teney,  Wvndham,  and  Carteret;  yet  in  1743, 
he  declared  that  the  finest  speech  he  had 
ever  listened  to  was  one  from  Chesterfield. 
Dr.  Johnson  called  him  a lord  among  wits, 


202 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  a wit  among  lords.  When  Lord  Ches- 
terfield arrived  in  Ireland,  all  the  Catholic 
places  of  worship  were  closed.  A Mr.  Fitz- 
gerald saying  mass  in  the  obscure  garret  of 
a condemned  house,  an  immense  crowd  had 
assembled,  and  the  floor  giving  way,  the  offi- 
ciating priest,  with  many  of  his  flock,  were 
buried  in  the  ruins,  and  the  greater  number 
were  maimed  and  wounded.  Lord  Chester- 
field, horror  struck  at  the  event,  ordered 
that  all  the  chapels  in  the  capital  should  be 
opened.  A zealous  Protestant  thinking  to 
pay  his  court  to  the  lord  lieutenant,  came  to 
inform  him  that  one  of  his  coachmen  was  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  went  privately  to  mass. 
“Does  he,  indeed  V ” said  his  lordship ; “ then  I 
shall  take  care  that  he  never  drives  me  there ! ” 
The  Bishop  of  Waterford  related  that  the 
vice-treasurer,  Mr.  Gardiner,  a man  of  good 
character  and  considerable  fortune,  waited 
upon  Lord  Chesterfield  one  morning,  and  in 
a great  fright  told  him  that  he  was  assured 
upon  good  authority  that  the  people  in  the 
province  of  Connaught  were  actually  rising ; 
upon  which  the  viceroy  looked  at  his  watch, 
and  with  great  composure  answered  him,  “ It 
is  nine  o’clock  and  time  for  them  to  rise;  I 
believe,  therefore,  that  your  news  is  true.” 
Lord  Chesterfield  preserved  a Catholic  popu- 
lation in  the  most  perfect  peace  and  obedience, 
during  the  whole  of  that  rebellion  which  in 
Episcopal  England  and  Presbyterian  Scot- 
land, had  nearly  restored  the  Stuarts  to  the 
throne  they  had  forfeited  by  their  blind  and 
bigoted  attachment  to  papal  institutions. 

CHILI,  a republic  on  the  western  shore 
of  South  America,  which  has  an  area  of 
180,000  square  miles.  The  eastern  part  of 
Chili  is  mountainous,  and  many  volcanic  sum- 
mits here  elevate  themselves  from  the  lofty 
chain  of  the  Andes.  Innumerable  small  and 
rapid  rivers  irrigate  the  rich  soil,  and  the 
climate  is  remarkable  for  its  healthiness. 
The  mineral  and  vegetable  productions  are 
valuable  and  abundant.  Exclusive  of  the 
independent  Indians,  the  population  has  been 
estimated  at  1, 6 )0,000.  The  Roman  Catholic 
is  the  established  religion. 

Pedro  de  Valdivia  who  was  sent  thither  by 
Pizarro,  overcame  the  opposition  of  the  abo- 
rigines, and  founded  several  cities  in  the 


leader  prisoner,  put  him  to  death.  It  was 
many  years  before  the  Spaniards  were  per- 
mitted by  the  Indians  and  Dutch  to  enjoy 
quiet  possession  of  Chili.  In  1809,  a revolu- 
tionary movement  took  place,  and  the  party 
which  espoused  the  cause  of  independence 
was  at  first  successful ; but  in  1814  nearly 
the  whole  country  was  subdued  by  a Spanish 
army  from  Peru.  Chili  remained  under  the 
control  of  the  royalists  until  1817,  when 
General  San  Martin,  with  a body  of  troops 
from  Buenos  Ayres,  entered  the  country,  and 
being  joined  by  the  people  generally,  de- 
feated the  royalists  in  several  engagements. 
The  independence  of  the  country  was  finally 
achieved  at  the  battle  of  Maypu,  April  5th, 
1818.  The  government  has  since  experienced 
many  changes,  but  Chili  has  been  perhaps 
less  disturbed  than  any  of  its  sister  republics. 

Santiago,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  has 
50,000  inhabitants.  Valparaiso,  the  princi- 
pal port  and  centre  of  commerce,  has  80,000. 
The  southern  part  of  Chili  is  inhabited  by 
the  Araucanians,  a powerful  aboriginal  nation 
over  whom  the  republic  has  only  a nominal 
authority.  They  maintained  their  independ- 
ence through  many  contests  with  the  Span- 
iards. They  subsist  by  cultivating  the  land 
and  raising  cattle.  A Toqui  (hereditary 
noble)  is  at  the  head  of  government,  and  he 
strictly  maintained  the  neutrality  of  his 
people  during  the  South  American  struggle 
for  independence.  Among  the  many  in- 
teresting customs  of  this  people,  we  may 
mention  that  they  amuse  themselves  with  a 
species  of  chess  and  backgammon,  both  of 
which  they  knew  previous  to  the  arrival  ol 
the  Spaniards. 

CHILLING  WORTH,  William,  a celebra- 
ted English  divine  and  Protestant  polemic. 
He  was  born  at  Oxford,  1602,  and  died  in 
1644,  having  been  appointed  chancellor  of 
Salisbury,  in  July,  1688. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS,  a phrase  often 
encountered  in  English  political  history.  It 
is  an  estate  of  the  crown  in  Buckingham- 
shire, the  stewardship  whereof  is  a nominal 
office,  conferred  on  members  of  parliament 
when  they  wish  to  vacate  their  seats ; for  by 
accepting  an  office  under  the  crown,  a mem- 
ber becomes  disqualified,  unless  he  be  again 
returned  by  his  constituents.  This  custom 
has  existed  time  immemorial. 


north  and  south,  but  the  Araucanians  defeat- 
ed the  Spaniards,  and  having  taken  their 

CHI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


203 


CHINESE  LADY  OF  RANK. 


CHINA  is  a vast  country  of  Asia,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Chinese  Tartary,  from  which 
the  famous  Chinese  wall  separates  it ; on  the 
east  by  the  Eastern  Sea ; on  the  south  by 
the  Chinese  Sea  and  Further  India ; and  on 
the  west  by  an  extensive  and  sandy  desert, 
and  long  ridges  of  mountains,  which  divide 
it  from  Western  Tartary  and  Thibet. 

Inclusive  of  the  tributary  countries,  and 
those  states  which  have  voluntarily  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  China, 
the  population  is  estimated  at  353,000,000 
inhabitants,  which  are  scattered  over  a sur- 
face of  about  5,250,000  square  miles.  The 
subjected  countries  are  Mantchouria,  Mon- 
golia, and  Tourfan  ; the  protected  ones,  Thi- 
bet, Bootan,  Corea,  and  Loo-choo.  China 
Proper  is  divided  into  eighteen  provinces. 
The  Yang-tse-kiang  and  the  Hoang-Ho,  or 
Yellow  River,  are  the  two  principal  rivers  of 


China.  The  former  is  more  than  3,000  miles 
long,  the  latter  about  2,500.  The  face  of  the 
country  is  greatly  diversified ; the  northern 
and  western  parts  being  the  most  broken. 

A distinguishing  feature  of  the  climate  is 
the  unusual  excess  in  which  heat  and  cold 
prevail  in  some  parts  of  the  empire  at  oppo- 
site seasons  of  the  year ; as  well  as  the  low 
average  of  the  thermometer  in  comparison 
with  the  latitude.  The  soil  is  diligently 
tilled,  rice  being  the  prevalent  crop.  But  the 
production  of  most  importance  to  ‘outside 
barbarians,’  is  tea,  which  is  the  universal 
beverage  throughout  China.,  while  enough  is 
grown  to  supply  other  countries  with  a hun- 
dred million  pounds  each  year. 

The  commerce  is  very  extensive ; the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  export  being  tea,  silk,  nan- 
kins, porcelain,  and  the  valuable  vegetable 
productions  of  the  east.  The  imperial  canal 


CHI 


204 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  the  Chinese  wall  are  monuments  of 
Chinese  skill  and  industry.  The  religion  of 
China  is  Buddhism,  or  the  religion  of  Fo. 
The  language  of  the  Chinese  is  peculiar,  its 
characters  being  symbols  of  ideas,  instead 
of  sounds.  The  Chinese  are,  to  a certain 
degree,  well  educated,  but  revengeful,  timid, 
vain,  and  deceitful.  Polygamy  is  permitted, 
and  the  condition  of  females  wretched  in  the 
extreme.  Poor  parents  are  permitted  to 
drown  their  female  children,  and  this  is  done 
without  remorse. 

The  Chinese  is,  on  the  whole,  by  far  the 
best  native  government  of  Asia.  It  is  better, 
far,  than  any  of  the  Mohammedan  despo- 
tisms ; it  is  better  than  any  government  that 
the  Hindoos  ever  possessed,  and  it  is  far  pre- 
ferable to  the  theocracies  of  the  Birmans, 
Siamese,  and  other  Chinese  nations.  The 
absence  of  a powerful  and  influential  priest- 
hood, and  of  an  hereditary  and  privileged 
aristocracy,  as  well  as  of  petty  principalities 
with  delegated  and  hereditary  authority, 
may  be  stated  as  among  the  leading  causes 
of  the  prosperity  of  the  Chinese  empire. 

The  government  of  China  is  patriarchal; 
the  emperor  has  the  title  of  “Holy  Son  of 
Heaven,  sole  Governor  of  the  earth,  and  Great 
Father  of  his  people.”  But  it  is  patriarchal 
on  the  largest  scale  of  which  there  is  any 
record,  for  the  family  consists  of  more  than 
three  hundred  million  members.  China  may 
be  considered  as  a huge  school-house,  the 
master  having  the  birch  constantly  in  his 
hand,  frequently  using  it,  and  delegating  his 
authority  to  thousands  of  ushers,  who  are 
equally  liberal  in  its  application.  But  the  rod, 
although  the  chief,  is  not  the  only  instrument 
of  government.  There  is  the  canque , or  wooden 
ruff*,  a kind  of  portable  stocks  or  pillory,  very 
convenient  to  the  executors  of  the  law,  but 
exceedingly  inconvenient  to  the  wearer,  who 
can  neither  sleep  nor  lie  down  for  it.  Then 
there  is  imprisonment  in  cages ; furthermore 
decapitation,  not  however  very  frequent ; and 
in  extreme  cases  their  crucifixion,  or  as  it  is 
technically  called,  the  death  by  painful  and 
slow  means.  The  grand  panacea,  however, 
after  all,  is  the  rod.  The  general  application 
of  this  vigorous  instrument  of  administra- 
tion, is  by  no  means  confined  to  China,  but 
embraces  the  other  countries  of  the  east, 
from  Japan  to  Bengal,  including  nearly  one- 


third  the  human  race.  There  the  rod,  under 
its  various  appellations  of  bamboo,  cane, 
cudgel,  or  birch,  is  actively  at  work  from 
morning  till  night,  and  afterward  from  night 
till  morning.  The  grand  patriarch  canes  his 
first  ministers ; the  prime  minister  canes  his 
secretary  of  state ; the  secretaries  of  state 
admonish  the  lords  of  the  treasury,  by  bela- 
boring their  backs ; these  enforce  their  orders 
to  the  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  by  applying 
what  is  equal  to  the  cat  o’  nine  tails.  Gen- 
erals cane  field-officers,  and  field-officers  the 
captains  and  subalterns.  Of  course  the  com- 
mon soldiers  of  the  celestial  empire  are  caned 
by  everybody.  The  husbands  cane  their 
wives,  and  the  wives  cane  their  children. 
The  Chinese  and  their  neighbors  may  be 
truly  described  as  well-flogged  nations. 

Whatever  may  be  the  actual  antiquity  of 
the  Chinese  nation,  no  doubt  seems  now  to 
exist  that  they  very  early  knew  the  art  of 
printing,  the  composition  of  gunpowder,  and 
the  properties  of  the  magnetic  compass, 
which  have  been  considered  by  European 
nations  three  of  the  most  important  discov- 
eries of  modern . times.  To  these  may  be 
added  two  very  remarkable  manufactures, 
of  which  they  were  unquestionably  the  first 
inventors,  and  in  which  they  yet  excel,  those 
of  silk  and  porcelain.  Their  mode  of  print- 
ing differs  from  ours,  but  its  effect  in  multi- 
plying and  cheapening  books  is  the  same, 
and  it  was  practiced  by  them  as  far  back  as 
the  tenth  century.  Gunpowder  they  did  not 
use  in  fire-arms,  but  for  fireworks,  of  which 
they  are  extremely  fond,  and  with  which 
they  have  amused  themselves  from  a very 
remote  date. 

The  empire  is  very  ancient,  and  is  said  by 
the  Chinese  to  have  existed  forty-one  thou- 
sand years  before  the  Christian  era.  We 
give  a list  of  the  dynasties  which  have  sat 
upon  the  throne  in  more  modern  times. 

The  Hia  dynasty,  2207  to  1767  b.c. 

The  Shang  djmasty,  1767  to  1122  b.c. 

The  Chow  dynasty,  1122  to  256  b.c. 

The  Tsin  dynasty,  256  to  257  b.c. 

The  Hang  dynasty,  207  b.c.  to  220  a.d. 

From  220  to  280,  China  was  divided  into 
three  kingdoms,  the  Shohang  dynasty,  220  to 
263 ; that  of  the  Goei  in  the  north,  220  to 
265,  and  that  of  the  El  in  the  south,  220  to 


280. 

CHI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


205 


GREAT  WALL  OF  CHINA. 


The  Tsin  dynasty,  265  to  420. 

The  XJ-ta  dynasties,  420  to  589. 

The  Sui  dynasty,  589  to  61 7. 

The  Tang  dynasty,  617  to  907. 

The  Hehu-u-ta  dynasty,  907  to  960. 

The  Song  dynasty,  960  to  1279. 

The  Mogul  Khans,  1279  to  1868. 

The  Ming  dynasty  1368  to  1644. 

The  Ta-tsing  dynasty: 

Shun-tchi,  1644  to  1669. 

Kang-hi,  1669  to  1698. 
Yong-tching,1693  to  1736. 

Kien-long,  1736  to  1796. 

Kia-king,  1796  to  1821. 

Taou-kwang,  1821  to  1850. 

Sze-hing,  or  Yih-Chu,  1850. 

With  the  Chow  dynasty,  during  whose 


reign  Confucius  lived,  authentic  history  may 
be  said  to  commence. 

During  the  reign  of  Ching  the  first  empe- 
ror of  the  fourth  dynasty,  b.c.  256,  the  great 
wall  was  built.  Elated  with  his  own  exploits, 
he  formed  the  design  of  making  posterity 
believe  that  he  was  the  first  emperor  that 
filled  the  Chinese  throne,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose ordered  all  the  historical  books,  which 
contained  the  fundamental  records  and  laws 
of  the  ancient  governments,  to  be  burned, 
and  four  hundred  of  the  learned  to  be  put  to 
death,  for  having  attempted  to  save  some  of 
the  proscribed  volumes. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  Chinese  called 
in  the  aid  of  the  Mongols  to  beat  olf  the  east- 
ern Tartars.  These  fierce  allies  soon  subdued 


CHI 


200 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


not  only  the  Tartars,  but  the  people  whom 
they  came  to  defend,  and  seized  the  mastery. 
Kublai  Khan  (he  who  ‘ in  Xanadu  a stately 
pleasure  dome  decreed  ’)  was  a monarch  of 
eminent  talents,  and  endeared  himself  to  the 
Chinese  by  his  equity  and  virtues.  In  less 
than  a century  his  successors  so  degenerated 
that  the  Chinese  regained  the  ascendency. 
Some  of  the  expelled  Mongols  found  refuge 
among  the  Tartars,  and  from  these  united 
strains  came  the  race  known  astheMantchous, 
who  in  1644  expelled  the  last  Chinese  dynas- 
ty, and  founded  a permanent  Tartar  dominion, 
which  is  yet  in  power. 

When  China  was  sundered  into  two  or  three 
states,  the  northern  portion  was  called  by  the 
neighboring  nations  Cathay,  under  which 
name  it  became  known  to  the  Russians  and 
[Mongols ; whilst  the  inhabitants  of  India 
called  the  southern  part  Chin,  under  which 
name  the  Portuguese  and  other  Europeans 
became  acquainted  with  it.  Not  till  the 
seventeenth  century  was  it  discovered  that 
Cathay  was  China. 

The  Chinese  are  passionately  addicted  to 
the  use  of  opium.  The  government  formerly 
prohibited  its  importation,  and  in  attempts  to 
enforce  this  restriction  came  in  collision  with 
the  British,  whose  merchants  were  largely 
engaged  in  the  contraband  traffic.  Hostilities 
commenced  in  1839,  and  continued  till  Aug. 
29th,  1842.  By  the  treaty  of  peace,  the  Chi- 
nese were  to  pay  $21,000,000 ; the  ports  of 
Canton,  Amoy,  Foo-choo-foo,  Ning-po,  and 
Shanghai  were  thrown  open  to  the  British ; 
and  the  island  of  Ilong-kong  was  ceded  to  the 
British  crown;  a great  inroad  being  thus 
made  upon  the  exclusiveness  which  the  Chi- 
nese had  so  rigorously  observed. 

As  to  the  insurrection  that  broke  out  in 
1851,  conflicting  accounts  are  given.  The  in- 
surgents gained  ground  steadily,  capturing 
the  important  cities  of  Nanking,  Amoy, 
Shanghai,  and  besieged  Canton ; but  victory 
afterward  passed  to  the  imperialists,  and  many 
of  the  towns  held  by  the  rebels  were  retaken. 
The  following  is  one  version  of  the  nature  of 
this  outbreak.  Taou-Kwang,  the  last  empe- 
ror, during  the  latter  years  of  his  reign  became 
somewhat  liberal  in  his  views,  and  favored  the 
introduction  of  European  arts.  His  son  and 
successor,  a rash  and  narrow-minded  prince, 


quickly  forsook  this  wise  policy  and  adopted 
reactionary  measures.  An  insurrection  broke 
out  in  consequence,  in  the  southern  province 
of  Quang-si,  August,  1850,  which  quickly  be- 
came of  alarming  importance.  At  first  the 
insurgents  proposed  only  to  expel  the  Tartar 
dynasty.  In  March,  1851,  a leader  arose 
among  them,  first  by  the  name  of  Tien-teh, 
‘celestial  virtue,’  but  afterward  assuming 
other  names.  He  is  said  to  be  a native  of 
Quang-si,  of  obscure  origin,  who  obtained 
some  education  at  Canton,  and  also  became 
acquainted  with  the  principles  of  Christianity 
from  a native  convert,  and  from  the  missionary 
Roberts.  He  announced  himself  as  the  re- 
storer of  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  Shang- 
ti,  and  had  derived  many  of  his  dogmas  from 
the  Scriptures.  He  declared  himself  to  be 
the  monarch  of  all  beneath  the  sky,  the  true 
lord  of  China  (and  thus  of  all  the  world),  the 
brother  of  Jesus,  and  the  second  son  of  God, 
and  demanded  universal  submission. 

In  addition  to  the  dangers  thus  besetting 
th,e  peace  of  China,  new  disturbances  with 
England  broke  out  in  1857,  and  a war  com- 
menced, but  the  attention  of  the  British  was 
diverted  by  the  serious  crisis  in  India. 

Peking,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  has  a 
population  of 2, 000, 000.  The  principal  streets 
vary  fiom  140  to  200  feet  in  width,  but  the 
buildings  do  not  correspond,  few  of  the  houses 
being  above  one  story.  Nanking  was  the 
capital  before  the  time  of  the  Mongols,  and 
had  4,000,000  inhabitants,  now  dwindled  to 
300,000.  It  is  one  of  the  principal  seats  of 
Chinese  learning,  and  is  noted  for  the  porce- 
lain tower  attached  to  one  of  its  pagodas. 
Canton  is  a pla>ce  of  much  commercial  impor- 
tance, from  having  formerly  been  the  only 
port  open  to  American  and  European  vessels. 
It  has  a million  of  inhabitants.  The  surround- 
ing scenery  is  charming,  and  the  eastern  hills 
present  a most  noble  prospect.  The  houses, 
with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  mandarins 
and  wealthy  merchants,  are  low ; the  streets 
long,  narrow,  and  well-paved,  spanned,  here 
and  there,  by  triumphal  arches,  and  shaded 
at  the  sides  by  continuous  ranges  of  piazzas. 
But  the  main  charm  of  the  city  consists  in  its 
beautiful  pleasure  gardens,  which  are  studded 
with  fish-pools.  The  exports  are  tea,  India 
ink,  varnish,  porcelain,  rhubarb,  silk,  nan- 


CHI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


207 


keen,  &c.  The  climate  of  Canton  is  consid- 
ered healthy,  although  the  heat  of  summer 
and  the  warmth  of  winter  are  great. 

CHIPPEWA,  a town  in  Upper  Canada,  on 
a river  of  the  same  name,  two  miles  north-west 
of  Niagara  Falls,  where  the  British  troops  un- 
der Gen.  Riall  were  signally  defeated  by  the 
Americans  under  Gen.  Brown,  July  5th, 
1814.  On  the  25th  of  the  same  month,  a 
second  action  ensued,  in  which  the  British 
were  successful,  though  Riall  was  wounded 
and  captured. 

CHIV ALRY.  The  institution  and  spirit  of 
chivalry,  forming  a prominent  and  important 
feature  of  history,  has  been  regarded  by  wri- 
ters and  men  of  erudition  in  various  points 
of  view,  and  while  some  have  condemned  it  as 
altogether  injurious  and  absurd,  others  have 
dignified  it  with  the  title  of  sublime.  There 
have  been  found  men  of  modern  days,  and 
those  the  fortunate  possessors  of  more  than 
common  abilities,  who  could  sigh  over  the 
degeneracy  of  the  times,  and  lament  that  the 
age  of  chivalry  is  gone.  But  if  the  material 
and  least  worthy  part  of  it  has  passed  away, 
its  spirit  still  remains,  still  Invites  men  to  high 
and  honorable  deeds,  and  is  indeed  imperish- 
able and  immortal.  The  vows  of  knighthood, 
the  ceremonials  of  installation,  the  pomp  and 
ceremony  of  knightly  feats, — these  have  gone ; 
but  the  devotion  of  the  patriot,  the  ardor  of 
the  warrior,  the  warmth  of  the  lover,  the  fi- 
delity of  the  friend,  the  loyalty  and  truth  of 
the  man  of  honor,  do  not  sleep  in  the  graves 
of  Charlemagne,  Roland,  and  Bayard. 

In  seeking  for  the  origin  of  chivalry,  we 
are  led  back  to  the  feudal  ages,  and  the  con- 
sideration of  the  condition  of.  the  Germanic 
tribes,  when  its  peculiar  spirit  first  began  to 
display  itself.  The  tribes  were  composed  not 
of  superiors  and  inferiors,  but  of  masters  and 
slaves ; of  men  whose  birthright  was  ease  and 
honor,  and  of  others  who  inherited  ceaseless 
toil.  By  the  noble-born,  labor  of  any  kind 
was  considered  degrading,  and  the  profession 
of  arms  alone  worthy  of  being  followed ; so 
that  the  lords  of  the  soil  were  a race  of  inde- 
pendent warriors,  whose  thirst  for  fame  was 
a continual  excitement.  The  different  feudal 
sovereigns  were  nominally  subject  to  a legiti- 
mate prince,  and  were  bound  to  follow  his 
banner  into  battle,  at  the  head  of  their  vas- 
sals, and  to  respond  to  his  call  by  bringing, 


at  a moment’s  warning,  an  armed  force  to  his 
support.  Still,  when  removed  from  the  pres- 
ence of  his  sovereign,  the  feudal  lord  was  a 
petty  despot,  whose  vassals  felt  that  he  pos- 
sessed absolute  power  of  life  and  death  over 
them. 

Unlimited  authority  gave  rise  to  various 
abuses,  and  it  was  well  that  chivalry,  with 
its  high  tone  of  honor  and  morality,  sprang 
up  in  ages  of  general  darkness,  fraud,  and 
oppression.  The  commencement  of  chivalry 
may  be  ascribed  to  the  beginning  of  the  tenth 
century.  To  the  feudal  sj^stem  it  owed  its 
origin,  and  with  that  it  died  out.  From  the 
twelfth  to  the  fourteenth  century,  it  had  a 
great  influence  in  refining  the  manners  of 
most  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  The  knight 
swore  to  accomplish  the  duties  of  his  profes- 
sion, as  the  champion  of  God  and  the  ladies. 
He  devoted  himself  to  speak  the  truth,  to 
maintain  the  right,  to  protect  the  distressed, 
to  practice  courtesy,  and  in  every  peril  to  vin- 
dicate his  honor  and  character.  Great  enter- 
prises contributed  to  bind  numbers  of  knights 
together,  and  led  to  the  formation  of  various 
societies  and  orders ; and  when  these  military 
adventurers  were  not  leagued  together  in  any 
of  the  holy  wars,  a reciprocity  of  principle 
and  an  identity  of  religion  held  them  in  a 
common  chain.  Animated  by  a love  of  jus- 
tice, a veneration  for  the  fair  sex,  a high- 
minded  regard  for  truth,  a thirst  for  military 
glory,  and  a contempt  for  danger,  the  knights 
went  forth  to  brave  peril,  to  rescue  the  unfor- 
tunate, and  to  crush  the  oppressor.  Numer- 
ous individuals  set  forth  with  no  fixed  purpose 
but  that  of  discovering  some  wrong  and  right- 
ing it.  These  wandering  champions  were 
called  knights  errant,  and  their  exploits  were 
sung  in  camp  and  court  by  the  minstrels, 
whose  lays  immortalized  the  sons  of  chivalry. 
Chivalry  degenerated,  but  not  rapidly.  After 
the  lapse  of  many  years  from  its  foundation, 
the  number  of  its  ceremonials  increased ; its 
pageantry  was  disgraced  by  frippery  and  folly; 
its  vows  were  unobserved ; a devotion  to  the 
sex  was  succeeded  by  boundless  licentious- 
ness; and  the  wandering  spirit  of  knight- 
errantry  was  displaced  by  an  affectation  of 
eccentricity.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the 
honors  of  knighthood  were  restricted  to  the 
nobility,  and  then  arose  the  various  forms  and 
ceremonies,  which  at  length  concealed  the 


CHI 


208 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


original  design  of  chivalry,  and  brought  on  a 
premature  decline. 

The  knightly  education  of  a youth  generally 
commenced  with  his  twelfth  year ; when  he 
was  sent  to  the  court  of  some  noble  pattern 
of  chivalry,  to  learn  dancing,  riding,  the  use 
of  his  weapon,  &c.,  and  where  his  chief  duty 
was  assiduous  attention  to  the  ladies  in  the 
quality  of  page.  According  to  his  progress 
in  years  and  accomplishments,  he  became 
squire  to  some  knight ; and  when  he  fairly 
merited  the  distinction,  he  was  himself  knight- 
ed. This  honor  was  not  conferred  upon  a 
youth  before  his  twenty-first  year,  unless  high 
birth,  or  extraordinary  valor  and  address, 
seemed  to  warrant  the  setting  aside  of  the 
usual  regulation.  Sometimes  the  honor  was 
won  by  many  a field  of  bloody  toil,  with  many 
drops  of  sweat  and  gore ; and  not  unfrequent- 
ly  one  daring  achievement,  artfully  planned, 
gallantly  carried  into  execution,  procured  the 
wished-for  spurs  and  the  anticipated  accolade. 
The  ceremony  of  conferring  knighthood  was 
often  performed  on  the  field  of  battle  where 
the  honor  had  been  earned ; often  it  required 
and  received  the  most  imposing  preparations 
and  ceremonies.  The  young  candidate  guard- 
ed his  arms  for  a night,  and  this  was  called 
the  vigil  of  arms.  In  the  morning  he  bathed 
in  water,  which  was  the  emblem  of  the  truth 
and  purity  he  swore  to  preserve  sacred.  Clad 
in  spotless  garments,  he  kneeled  before  the 
altar  of  the  nearest  church,  and,  having  pre- 
sented his  sword  to  the  officiating  priest,  re- 
ceived it  again  with  the  benediction  of  the 
reverend  man.  After  taking  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance, he  knelt  before  his  sovereign,  who  gave 
him  the  accolade,  or  blow  upon  the  neck,  with 
the  flat  of  his  sword,  saluted  the  young  war- 
rior, and  said,  “ In  the  name  of  God  and  St. 
Michael  [or,  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost],  I dub  thee  a knight.  Be 
loyal,  brave,  and  fortunate.” 

It  was  customary  for  two  knights  of  the 
same  age  and  congenial  tempers  to  form  a 
friendship,  and  this  brotherhood  in  arms  last- 
ed generally  until  one  of  the  two  was  laid  in 
the  grave.  The  courtesy  of  chivalry  softened 
the  asperity  of  war,  gave  charms  to  victory, 
and  assuaged  to  the  vanquished  the  pain  of  a 
defeat.  All  that  ingenuity  could  plan,  and 
wealth  produce,  to  give  splendor  to  knight- 


Magnificent  tournaments  were  held,  where 
even  kings  entered  the  lists  and  contended 
for  the  prize  of  Valor  before  the  e}^  of  thou- 
sands of  spectators,  among  whom  beautiful 
ladies  appeared  the  most  deeply  interested. 
In  fact,  knights  often  contended  about  the 
charms  of  their  lady-loves,  and  wore  their  fa- 
vors in  their  helmets.  If  the  ladies  of  Rome 
attended  gladiatorial  shows  in  throngs,  we 
can  not  wonder  that  the  beauties  of  the  age  of 
chivalry  looked  forward  to  a tournament  with 
great  impatience,  and  eagerly  strove  for  the 
honor  of  filling  the  post  of  temporary  queen 
and  distributor  of  the  prizes. 

Chivalry  exerted  a powerful  influence  on 
poetry,  and  formed  the  subject  of  the  poems 
of  the  troubadours  of  the  south  of  France,  as 
well  as  supplied  themes  for  the  poetical  con- 
troversies of  the  knights,  which  were  decided 
at  the  Cours  dl  Amour  (courts  of  love),  first 
established  in  Provence.  Even  after  chivalry 
had  died  away,  its  influence  was  not  unfelt  by 
poetry,  which  retained  the  tone  it  had  impart- 
ed for  many  centuries.  The  songs  of  the 
troubadours  were  divided  into  amatory  songs, 
duets,  pastorals,  serenades,  ballads,  poetical 
colloquies,  &c.  In  the  romances  of  chivalry 
we  behold  paladins  and  peers,  sorcerers,  fair- 
ies, winged  and  intelligent  horses,  invisible  or 
invulnerable  men,  magicians  who  are  interest- 
ed in  the  birth  and  education  of  knights,  en- 
chanted palaces ; in  a word,  the  creation  of  a 
new  world  which  leaves  our  vulgar  planet  for 
beneath  it.  Paladins  never  without  arms,  in 
a country  bristling  with  fortresses,  find  their 
delight  and  honor  in  punishing  injustice  and 
defending  weakness.  The  chivalric  romances 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes : those  of 
the  Round  Table ; those  of  Charlemagne ; and 
lastly  those  of  Amadis,  which  belong  to  a later 
century.  It  will  suffice  to  speak  of  the  form- 
er. The  romances  of  the  Round  Table  recount 
tales  of  the  cup  from  which  Jesus  Christ  dr.ank 
with  Joseph  of  Arimathea.  This  cup  had 
performed  such  prodigies,  that  we  are  not  as- 
tonished that  those  valorous  knights  of  the 
Round  Table,  Lancelot,  Perceval,  and  Perce- 
forest,  are  united  with  the  determination  to 
recover  it.  These  preux  chevaliers  are  the 
perpetual  heroes  of  these  romances.  Lancelot 
is  attached  to  Guinevre,  the  wife  of  King  Ar- 
thur, and  his  marvelous  exploits  excite  the 
admiration  of  contemporaries.  Three  centu- 


hood,  was  displayed  in  the  age  of  chivalry. 

CHI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


209 


ries  after,  lords  and  ladies  were  still  delighted 
at  the  recital  of  “ the  very  elegant,  delicious, 
mellifluous,  and  very  pleasant  historie  of  the 
very  noble  and  very  victorious  Perceforest.” 
Amidst  many  pages  of  wearisome  insipidity, 
we  find  some  happy  descriptions  and  situa- 
tions detailed,  and  graphic  portraits  of  feudal 
men  and  manners. 

The  absurdities  of  chivalry  afforded  scope 
for  the  satirical  and  comic  powers  of  Cer- 
vantes, and  the  adventures  of  the  unfortu- 
nate Don  Quixote  are  read  with  an  interest 
which  few  works  of  a similar  character  in- 
spire. Every  feature  of  chivalry  is  happily 
burlesqued,  and  the  Knight  of  La  Mancna 
goes  through  all  the  ceremonials  with  a ludi- 
crous gravity  which  is  perfectly  irresistible. 
The  pertinacity  with  which  the  knights 
maintained  the  pre-eminence  of  the  ladies  of 
their  affections  is  finely  satirized  in  the  elec- 
tion which  Don  Quixote  makes  of  a hideous 
country  wench,  whose  charms  he  celebrates 
after  the  most  approved  fashion  and  with 
unceasing  devotion.  Few  ladies  of  chivalric 
romance  have  attained  a degree  of  reputation 
comparable  to  that  of  the  immortal  Dulcinea 
del  Toboso.  [ See  Knighthood,  Tourna- 

ments.] 

CHOLERA.  The  severe  epidemic  which, 
under  the  name  of  Cholera,  Asiatic  Cholera, 
Malignant  Cholera,  or  Cholera  Asphyxia,  has 
within  a few  years  afflicted  many  parts  of  the 
world,  is  reputed  to  have  originated  in  Aug- 
ust, 1817,  at  Jessore,  the  capital  of  a district 
in  Bengal,  lying  to  the  north-east  of  Calcutta. 
In  the  following  September,  it  invaded 
Calcutta;  soon  after,  many  other  cities  of 
Hindostan ; and  in  a short  time  it  extended 
its  ravages  into  various  other  countries  of 
Asia.  It  has  been  estimated  that  during  four- 
teen years  from  its  commencement  at  Jessore, 
it  carried  off  no  less  than  eighteen  millions 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Hindostan ; and  its 
ravages  are  said  to  have  been  still  greater  in 
China.  In  1830,  it  invaded  European  Russia, 
and  afterward  Poland,  Hungary,  Germany, 
Austria,  and  other  countries  of  Europe.  In 
1831,  in  October,  it  broke  out  at  Sunderland 
in  England ; in  February,  1832,  • in  London  ; 
in  Paris,  near  the  last  of  March ; at  Quebec 
and  Montreal  in  June ; and  at  New  York  in 
July.  The  mortality  was  very  great,  and  the 

14 


steady  march  of  its  ravages  from  the  east  to 
the  west,  created  a general  panic.  Since  then, 
medical  men  have  become  better  versed  in 
its  causes  and  its  treatment,  but  it  has  raged 
at  times  with  much  severity.  It  was  very 
fatal  to  the  allied  French  and  English  army 
at  Varna  in  1854. 

CHRISTINA,  Queen  of  Sweden,  daughter 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  was  born  in  1026,  and 
died  April  19th,  1689.  She  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  1633,  and  in  1654  resigned  it  to  her 
cousin  Charles  Gustavus.  She  was  remark- 
able for  acts  and  habits  foreign  to  her  sex ; 
namely,  learning,  murder,  and  apostasy.  Her 
conduct  was  so  flagrant,  that  she  found  it 
difficult  to  procure  an  asylum  in  any  state, 
after  having  been  excluded  from  her  own. 
She  died  at  Rome. 

CHRISTIANS.  The  name  of  Christians 
was  first  applied  to  the  followers  of  Jesus  at 
Antioch,  about  the  middle  of  the  first  century. 

CHRISTOPHE,  Henri,  King  of  Hayti, 
was  born  Oct.  6th,  1767.  In  early  life  he 
was  a slave  and  passed  from  the  hands  of  one 
master  to  another,  being  successively  a cook 
and  an  overseer.  The  French  were  conquered 
by  the  exertions  of  Dessalines  andChristophe, 
the  latter  of  whom  was  general-in-chief  of 
the  army  during  the  short-lived  imperial 
government  of  the  former.  In  1806,  an  insur- 
rection broke  out  in  Hayti,  in  which  Dessa- 
lines, the  emperor,  was  killed  by  the  negroes  ; 
whom  he  had  provoked  by  his  cruelty  and 
oppression.  His  successor,  Christophe,  as- 
sumed the  humbler  title  of  chief  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  in  that  capacity  opened  the 
commerce  of  his  dominion  to  neutral  nations, 
by  a proclamation  distinguished  for  its  lib- 
eral spirit  and  enlightened  views.  In  1811 
Christophe  changed  the  republic  into  a mon- 
archy, and  proclaimed  himself  King  of  Hayti. 
A short  time  before  his  coronation  he  created 
a nobilit)r  consisting  of  princes,  dukes,  counts, 
and  barons,  to  give  a greater  splendor  to  the 
ceremony.  He  created  a legion  of  honor, 
called  the  order  of  St.  Henri,  and  altered  the 
name  of  his  capital  from  Cape  Francois  to  Cape 
Henri.  His  troops,  at  this  time,  amounted  to 
about  10,000  men,  all  negroes  ; and  his  fleet 
consisted  of  one  frigate,  nine  sloops  of  war, 
and  a number  of  schooners.  In  October, 
1820,  Christophe,  hearing  that  his  troops  had 


CHR 


210 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


abandoned  him,  shot  himself  through  the 
head,  and  the  opposite  party  immediately 
proclaimed  a republican  government. 

CHRYSOSTOM,  John,  one  of  the  fathers 
of  the  church,  an  eloquent  and  pious  man, 
born  at  Antioch,  351 ; was  Bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople ; died  in  exile,  407. 

CHURCH,  Benjamin,  a native  of  Duxbury, 
Mass.,  was  born  in  1639,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  address  and  daring  in  the  In- 
dian wars.  His  services  during  King  Philip’s 
war  were  great,  and  he  commanded  the  party 
that  killed  the  sachem  of  Mount  Hope,  in 
August,  1676.  He  died  in  his  seventy-eighth 
year,  Jan.  17th,  1718.  A descendant,  of  the 
same  name,  was  the  first  traitor  in  our  Revo- 
lution. He  was  a talented  phjosician  in 
Boston.  For  a while  he  was  the  zealous 
coacljutor  of  Warren  and  his  fellow-patriots. 
He  was  detected  in  treasonable  correspond- 
ence with  Gov.  Gage,  and  imprisoned.  His 
health  failing,  he  was  released  in  1776,  and 
lost  at  sea  on  his  way  to  the  West  Indies. 

CHURCHILL,  Charles,  an  English  poet, 
born  1731,  died  in  1764.  His  political  satires 
were  received  with  great  applause,  and  his 
u Prophecy  of  Famine,”  a severe  satire  upon 


offices  of  edile  and  praetor,  and  stood  for  the 
consulship,  at  a time  when  Cataline  was 
making  the  most  vigorous  efforts  to  oppose 
him.  Cataline,  with  many  dissolute  and  des- 
perate Romans,  had  conspired  against  his 
country,  and  planned  the  murder  of  Cicero 
himself.  The  plot  being  discovered,  chiefly 
by  the  efforts  of  Cicero,  he  commanded  Cata- 
line to  leave  the  city,  and  the  desperate  traitor 
marched  forth  to  meet  the  20,000  men  that 
were  assembled  to  support  his  cause.  The 
rebels  were  defeated,  and  the  conspirators  cap- 
itally punished.  After  this  memorable  deliv- 
erance, Cicero  received  the  thanks  of  the 
people,  with  the  title  of  father  of  his  country 
and  second  founder  of  Rome. 

The  vehemence  with  which  he  attacked 
Clodius,  proved  injurious  to  him ; and  when 
his  enemy  was  made  tribune,  Cicero  was  ban- 
ished from  Rome,  though  20,000  young  men 
were  ready  to  attest  his  innocence.  After  an 
absence  of  sixteen  months,  during  which  he 
had  been  favorably  received  wherever  he  pre- 
sented himself,  he  was  recalled,  and  entered 
Rome  to  the  universal  satisfaction.  When 
he  was  sent  with  the  power  of  proconsul  to 


Cilicia,  his  integrity  and  prudence  made  him 
the  Scots,  was  read  with  eagerness,  and  pro-  J successful  against  the  enemy,  and  on  his 
cured  notoriety  for  its  author.  Though  at  first  return  he  was  honored  with  a triumph,  which, 
a clergyman,  the  close  of  his  life  was  marked  ; however,  the  factions  prevented  him  from 
by  gross  debaucheries.  I enjoying. 

CHURUBUSCO,  one  of  the  brilliant  victo-  i During  the  civil  wars  between  Caesar  and 
ries  won  by  the  Americans  under  Scott,  in  Pompey,  he  joined  the  latter,  and  followed 
the  advance  upon  the  city  of  Mexico.  The  , him  to  Greece.  When  victory  had  declared 

in  favor  of  Caesar,  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia, 
Cicero  went  to  Brundusium,  and  was  recon- 
ciled to  the  conqueror,  who  treated  him  with 
great  humanity.  From  this  time,  Cicero 
retired  into  the  country,  and  seldom  visited 
Rome.  After  the  assassination  of  Caesar, 
Cicero  recommended  a general  amnesty,  and 
was  strongly  in  favor  of  having  the  provinces 
decreed  to  Brutus  and  Cassius ; but  finding 
the  interest  of  the  republicans  decrease, 
and  Antony  come  into  power,  he  retired  to 
Athens.  He  soon  after  returned,  but  lived 
in  perpetual  fear  of  assassination.  The  en- 
mity of  Antony  finally  proved  fatal  to  him, 
Antony,  and  Lepidus,  to 
destroy  all  causes  of  quarrel,  and  each  to 
dispatch  his  enemies,  produced  their  lists  of 
proscription.  Cicero  was  among  the  pro- 
scribed. He  fled,  but  was  pursued,  and 


battle  was  fought  Aug.  20th,  1847.  Santa 
Anna’s  strongly  posted  force  numbered 
30,000 ; the  assailants  were  not  a fourth  as 
many.  The  American  loss  in  killed  and 
wounded  was  1,000;  that  of  the  Mexicans 
was  10,000,  one-fourth  of  whom  were  pris- 
oners. 

CIBBER,  Colley,  an  English  actor  and 
dramatist,  was  born  in  London  in  1671,  and 
died  in  1757.  His  comedy  of  “ The  Careless 
Husband”  received  the  approbation  of  even 
the  bitter  Pope.  He  was  made  poet-laureate 
in  1730. 

CICERO,  Marcus  Tullius,  the  celebrated 
orator,  born  at  Arpinum  106  b.c.,  was  the  I when  Augustus, 
son  of  a Roman  knight.  In  Sicily  he  exer- 
cised the  quaestorship  with  equity  and  moder- 
ation, and  freed  the  Sicilians  from  the  tyranny 
and  avarice  of  Yerres.  He  discharged  the 


CIC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


211 


to  death,  in  his  sixty -fourth  year,  b.c.  43. 
Cicero  was  a sincere  patriot,  and  was  unques- 
tionably one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of 
the  age  in  which  he  lived.  His  eloquence 
was  Manning,  and  his  pen  had  the  power  of 
his  tongue.  His  orations  and  philosophical 
works  are  models  of  style.  He  possessed  a 
sparkling  wit. 

CID.  Don  Rodrigo  Diaz,  Count  of  Bivar, 
surnamed  the  Cid  (a  Moorish  word  signifying 
lord),  one  of  the  most  renowned  knights  of 
Spain,  was  born  in  1026.  He  signalized 
himself  against  the  Moors,  winning  the  es- 
teem of  his  countrymen,  who  bestowed  upon 
him  the  title  of  Campeador  (incomparable). 
On  the  accession  of  Sancho  to  the  throne  of 
Castile,  the  knight  of  Bivar  accompanied  him 
to  the  siege  of  Zamora,  whence  he  brought 
back  the  troops  and  the  dead  body  of  the 
warrior  monarch,  who  fell  by  treachery.  Al- 
fonso, the  brother  of  Sancho,  was  then  placed 
on  the  throne,  after  swearing  that  he  had  no 
participation  in  the  murder  of  Sancho.  The 
Cid’s  last  exploit  was  the  capture  of  Sagun- 
tum,  and  he  died  at  Valencia,  1099.  He  was 
buried  at  Castile,  and  near  him  lies  interred 
his  beloved  and  faithful  charger,  Babieca. 

CILICIA,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia  Minor, 
south  of  Mount  Taurus,  and  between  Pam- 
phylia  and  Syria,  the  coast  of  which  M^as 
inhabited  by  a piratical  race.  The  Macedo- 
nians and  Syrians  successively  held  it,  and 
it  was  reduced  by  Pompey  to  the  Roman 
rule. 

CIMBRI,  an  ancient  tribe  of  the  Germans, 
the  first  of  that  people  with  whom  the  Greeks 
became  acquainted.  Their  origin  is  doubt- 
ful ; they  were  warlike,  and  made  themselves 
formidable  to  the  Romans. 

CIMON,  an  Athenian,  son  of  Miltiades, 
famous  for  his  debaucheries  in  his  youth,  and 
the  reformation  of  his  morals  when  he  ar- 
rived at  years  of  discretion.  He  behaved 
with  great  courage  at  the  battle  of  Salamis, 
and  rendered  himself  popular  by  his  munifi- 
cence and  valor.  He  defeated  the  Persian 
fleet  at  Cyprus,  took  tMro  hundred  ships,  and 
totally  routed  their  land-army  near  the  river 
Eurymedon  in  Pamphylia,  on  the  same  day, 
470  b.c.  Cimon  afterward  lost  his  popularity, 
and  was  banished  by  the  Athenians,  who 
declared  war  against  the  Lacedemonians; 
but  having  been  recalled  from  his  exile,  rec- 


onciled Lacedaemon  and  his  country.  He 
was  afterward  appointed  to  carry  on  the  war 
against  Persia,  gave  battle  to  the  enemy  on 
the  coast  of  Asia,  and  totally  destroyed  their 
fleet.  He  died  as  he  was  besieging  the  town 
of  Citium,  in  Cyprus,  b.c.  449,  in  the  fifty  - 
first  year  of  his  age. 

CINCINNATI,  Society  of  the,  founded  in 
1783,  by  the  officers  of  the  Revolutionary 
army  Mrhen  about  disbanding.  Gen.  Wash- 
ington was  the  first  president-general,  and 
continued  such  till  his  death.  His  successors 
were  as  follows:  1800,  Gen.  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton; 1804,  Gen.  Charles  Cotes  worth  Pinck- 
ney, S.  C. ; 1826,  Gen.  Thomas  Pinckney; 
Col.  Aaron  Ogden,  N.  J.  ; 1838,  Gen.  Mor- 
gan LeMris,  N.  Y. ; 1844,  Maj.  Popham,  N.  Y. ; 
1848,  Gen.  Dearborn,  Mass. 

CINCINNATUS,  Lucius  Quintus,  a cele- 
brated Roman.  Having  been  informed,  as  he 
ploughed  his  field,  that  the  senate  had  chosen 
him  dictator,  he  left  his  farm  with  regret,  and 
repaired  to  the  assistance  of  his  countrymen, 
Mrhom  he  found  hard  pressed  by  the  Volsci 
and  iEqui.  He  conquered  the  enemy  and 
returned  to  Rome  in  triumph ; and,  sixteen 
days  after  his  appointment,  laid  doM7n  his 
office,  and  returned  to  his  agricultural  em- 
ployments. In  his  eightieth  year  he  was 
again  summoned,  against  Prseneste,  as  dicta- 
tor, and  after  a successful  campaign,  resigned 
the  unlimited  power  which  had  been  re- 
posed in  him.  He  flourished  about  460 
years  b.c. 

CINNA,  Lucius  Cornelius,  a Roman 
consul  who  leagued  with  Marius  to  deluge 
Rome  with  blood.  He  Mras  stoned  to  death, 
b.c.  84. 

CINQUE  PORTS.  They  were  originally 
the  five  {cinque)  ports  of  Hastings,  Hythe, 
Romney,  Sandwich,  and  Dover,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  regulations  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  were  bound,  at  specified  notice, 
to  furnish  and  man  a certain  number  of 
ships  of  war.  Winch elsea  and  Rye  were 
afterM*ard  added.  These  toMrns  MTere,  to  use 
the  language  of  the  time,  compelled  to  “ find 
the  service  they  owed.”  They  stood  to  the 
crown  in  the  same  relation  that  the  holders 
of  great  estates  did,  only  that  they  were  to 
do  their  services  on  shipboard.  If  a resident 
of  either  of  the  Cinque  Ports  served  as  a 
soldier,  he  was  released  from  his  naval  obli- 


CIN 


212 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


gations.  The  number  of  galleys  these  ports 
were  required  to  furnish,  was  fifty-two.  The 
lord  warden  appears  to  have  had  a general 
charge  of  them  and  their  naval  concerns.  In 
time  the  institution  became  obsolete,  but  the 
wardenship  was  found  a comfortable  place 
for  public  men  who  had  small  means  of 
living,  or,  with  ample  means,  had  yet  greater 
avarice.  Lord  North  filled  it ; so  did  William 
Pitt;  and  also  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  it 
being  one  of  the  many  offices  possessed  by 
him  at  the  time  of  his  death.  It  was  while 
residing  at  Walmer  Castle,  a place  held  by 
him  in  virtue  of  the  wardenship,  that  he  died, 
and,  if  medical  authority  can  be  believed,  in 
consequence  of  his  residence  there,  the  bleak 
air  from  the  British  Channel  and  the  Ger- 
man Ocean  being  too  rude  for  the  soldier  of 
more  than  fourscore  and  three  years.  The 
post  of  warden  has  become  a complete  sine- 
cure, almost  a scandalous  one ; and  it  was 
said  to  have  been  an  understood  thing  among 
men  of  all  parties  in  England,  that  it  should 
be  abolished  upon  the  death  of  the  great 
W ellington ; instead  of  this  it  was  bestowed 
upon  some  one  of  the  titled  barnacles  that 
cluster  to  Britannia’s  ship  of  state. 

CIRCASSIA,  a country  of  Asia,  lying  be- 
tween the  Black  and  Caspian  Sea,  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Caucasus.  The  Cir- 
cassians are  Mohammedans.  They  are  a 
warlike  race.  The  females  are  celebrated  for 
their  beauty,  are  sold  by  their  parents,  and 
are  esteemed  the  brightest  ornaments  of  an 
eastern  seraglio. 

The  Russians  are  nominal  masters  of  Cir- 
cassia, but  for  the  past  twenty  years  the  bold 
mountaineers  have  carried  on  a war  of  inde- 
pendence with  great  success  under  the  lead 
of  the  chief  Schamyl. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.  The  circumnav- 
igation of  the  earth,  at  the  time  it  was  first 
achieved,  was  among  the  greatest  and  most 
daring  of  human  enterprises. 

The  first  was  Magellan,  or  rather  by  his 
fleet,  as  he  was  himself  slain  on  the  vogage, 
1519;  Groalva,  1537;  Alvaradi,  1537;  Men- 
dana,  1567;  Sir  Francis  Drake,  1577;  Cav- 
endish, 15S6;  Lemaire,  1615;  Quiros,  1625; 
Tasman,  1642 ; Cowley,  1683  ; Dampier,  1689 ; 
Cooke,  1708;  Clipperton  and  Sherlock,  1719; 
Anson,  1740;  Byron,  1764;  Wallis,  1766; 


Cook,  1768,  1772,  1776;  his  last  voyage  con- 
tinued by  King,  1779;  Portlocke,  1788; 
Bougainville,  1766;  La  Peyrouse,  1782; 
D’Entrecasteux,  1791. 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC.  This  name 
was  given  by  Bonaparte  to  a republic  which 
received  its  constitution  in  1797,  and  which 
finally  included  a territory  of  more  than 
16,337  square  miles,  inhabited  by  three  and  a 
half  millions  of  inhabitants.  It  included, 
among  other  districts,  Austrian  Lombardy, 
the  Mantua  and  Venetian  Provinces,  Berga- 
mo, Brescia,  Crema,  Verona,  Rovigo,  the 
duchy  of  Modena,  the  principality  of  Massa 
and  Carrara,  Bologna,  Ferrara,  Messola,  and 
Romagna.  It  merged  into  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  in  March,  1805. 

CISTERCIANS,  an  order  of  monkhood 
founded  by  Robert,  a Benedictine,  Abbot  of 
Citeaux  in  France,  1092.  They  became  so 
powerful  that  they  governed  almost  all  Eu- 
rope in  spiritual  and  temporal  concerns. 
They  observed  a continual  silence,  abstained 
from  flesh,  lay  on  straw,  wore  neither  shoes 
nor  shirts,  and  were  most  austere. 

CITATE.  The  Russian  general  Gortscha- 
koff,  intending  to  storm  Kalafat,  threw  up 
redoubts  at  Citate,  close  to  the  Danube,  which 
were  stormed  by  the  Turks  under  Omar 
Pacha,  Jan.  6th,  1854.  The  fighting  con- 
tinued on  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th,  when  the 
Russians  were  compelled  to  retire  to  their 
former  position  at  Krajona,  having  lost  1,500 
killed  and  2,000  wounded.  The  loss  of  the 
Turks  was  338  killed  and  700  wounded. 

CIUDAD  RODRIGO.  This  strong  for- 
tress of  Spain  was  invested  by  the  French, 
under  Massena,  June  11th,  1810,  and  jdelded 
to  them  July  10th.  It  remained  in  their 
possession  until  it  was  stormed  by  the  Brit- 
ish, commanded  by  Lord  Wellington,  Jan. 
19th,  1812.  The  loss  of  the  British  and 
Portuguese  amounted  to  about  1,000  killed 
and  wounded ; the  loss  of  the  garrison  was 
the  same,  besides  1,700  prisoners. 

CLAPPERTON,  Hugh,  an  officer  in  the 
English  navy,  born  at  Annan,  in  Scotland,  in 
1788.  Having  served  with  distinction,  he 
joined  Oudney  and  Denham,  in  their  expedi- 
tion to  Africa.  After  acquiring  a vast  fund 
of  information  in  regard  to  the  interior  of 
Africa,  he  returned  to  England,  but,  died  in 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY  213 


the  vicinity  of  Soccatoo,  while  on  a second 
expedition  of  discovery,  April  13th,  1827. 
Richard  Lander  was  his  servant. 

CLARENDON,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of, 
lord  high  chancellor  of  England,  was  born 
1608,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  became 
chancellor  of  exchequer  and  member  of  the 
privy  council  under  Charles  I.,  and  was  loaded 
with  honors  by  Charles  II.  Having,  how- 
ever, lost  the  royal  favor,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  offices,  threatened  with  impeachment, 
and  compelled  to  fly  to  France,  where  he 
died,  at  Rouen,  in  1674.  His  daughter  Anne 
was  the  first  wife  of  the  Duke  of  York, 
afterward  James  II.  His  “History  of  the 
Rebellion  ” (as  the  royalists  termed  the  civil 
war),  is  much  esteemed  for  the  descriptions 
of  the  author’s  eminent  contemporaries. 

CLARK,  Abraham,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born 
at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  Feb.  15th,  1726. 
He  was  a self-taught,  energetic  man  ; in  1776 
was  elected  to  a seat  in  Congress  ; was  ever 
an  active  public  man  ; and  died  in  1794,  from 
a stroke  of  the  sun. 

CLARK,  Adam,  LL.D.,  F.S.A.,  &c.,  a dis- 
tinguished Methodist  preacher  and  divine,  a 
man  of  great  talents  and  extensive  learning, 
particularly  in  the  oriental  languages  and 
biblical  literature,  and  author  of  a well  known 
and  learned  commentary  on  the  Scriptures, 
and  various  other  publications.  He  was  born 
in  1760,  in  the  county  of  Londonderry,  in 
Ireland,  his  father  being  of  an  English  family, 
and  his  mother  a Scotchwoman.  By  invita- 
tion of  John  Wesley,  he  became  a pupil  in 
Kingswood  school,  then  recently  established, 
and  was  sent  out  by  Mr.  Wesley,  an  itinerant 
preacher,  in  1782,  at  the  early  age  of  nine- 
teen. He  was  greatly  admired  as  a preacher : 
at  first  his  youth  attracted  great  numbers  of 
hearers;  but  afterward  the  extent  of  his 
resources,  from  the  gifts  of  nature  and  the 
fruits  of  study,  commanded  attention  wher- 
ever he  went ; and  hardly  any  man  ever  drew 
so  large  congregations,  or  of  so  mixed  a 
character.  To  his  great  talents  and  learning 
he  united  the  virtues  of  the  humble  Christian ; 
was  greatly  respected  by  all  denominations ; 
and  though  catholic  in  his  feelings,  he  was 
strongly  attached  to  the  body  of  Christians 
with  which  he  was  connected.  He  died  Au- 


gust 26th,  1832,  at  Bayswater,  near  London, 
of  the  cholera. 

CLARKE,  George  Rogers,  an  American 
officer,  who  was  engaged  against  the  Indians, 
throughout  the  Revolutionary  war,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Virginia.  In  1778,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  a force  for  the  protec- 
tion of  Illinois.  He  built  Fort  Jefferson  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in 
1781,  received  a general’s  commission.  He 
died  in  1818,  near  Louisville,  Kentucky,  aged 
seventy-six.  The  following  anecdote  is  re- 
lated of  him  in  an  authentic  work. 

The  Indians  came  in  to  the  treaty  of  Fort 
Washington  in  the  most  friendly  manner, 
except  the  Shawnees,  conceited  and  warlike, 
the  first  in  at  a battle,  the  last  at  a treaty. 
Three  hundred  of  their  finest  warriors  set 
off  in  all  their  paint  and  feathers,  and  filled 
the  council-house.  Their  number  and  de- 
meanor, so  unusual  at  an  occasion  of  this 
sort,  was  altogether  unexpected  and  sus- 
picious. The  United  States  stockade  mus- 
tered seventy  men.  In  the  centre  of  the 
hall,  at  a little  table,  sat  the  commissary- 
general,  Clarke,  the  indefatigable  scourge  of 
these  very  wanderers,  General  Richard  But- 
ler, and  Mr.  Parsons.  On  the  part  of  the 
Indians,  an  old  council-sachem  and  a war- 
chief  took  the  lead.  The  latter,  a tall,  raw- 
boned  fellow,  with  an  impudent  and  villain- 
ous look,  made  a boisterous  and  threatening 
speech,  which  operated  effectually  on  the 
passions  of  the  Indians,  who  set  up  a pro- 
digious whoop  at  every  pause.  He  concluded 
by  presenting  a black  and  white  wampum, 
to  signify  they  were  prepared  for  either 
event,  peace  or  war.  Clarke  exhibited  the 
same  unaltered  and  careless  countenance  he 
had  shown  during  the  whole  scene,  his  head 
leaning  on  his  left  hand,  and  his  elbow  resting 
on  the  table.  He  raised  his  little  cane,  and 
pushed  the  sacred  wampum  off  the  table, 
with  very  little  ceremony.  Every  Indian,  at 
the  same  time,  started  from  his  seat  with  one 
of  those  sudden,  simultaneous,  and  peculiarly 
savage  sounds,  which  startle  and  disconcert 
the  stoutest  heart,  and  can  neither  be  de- 
scribed nor  forgotten.  At  this  juncture, 
Clarke  arose.  The  scrutinizing  eye  cohered 
at  his  glance.  He  stamped  his  foot  on  the 
prostrate  and  insuhed  symbol,  and  ordered 


CLA 


214 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


them  to  leave  the  hall.  They  did  so  appa- 
rently involuntarily.  They  were  heard  all 
that  night,  debating  in  the  bushes  near  the 
fort.  The  raw-boned  chief  was  for  war,  the 
old  sachem  for  peace.  The  latter  prevailed, 
and  the  next  morning  they  came  back  and 
sued  for  peace. 

CLARKE,  Samuel,  a distinguished  divine, 
metaphysician,  and  scholar,  was  born  at 
Norwich,  England,  Oct.  11th,  1675,  and  died 
May  17th,  1729.  Sir  James  Mackintosh  said 
of  him,  that  he  was  “ eminent  at  once  as  a 
divine,  a mathematician,  a metaphysical  phi- 
losopher, and  a philologer ; and,  as  the  inter- 
preter of  Homer  and  Caesar,  the  scholar  of 
Newton,  and  the  antagonist  of  Leibnitz, 
approved  himself  not  unworthy  of  corre- 
spondence with  the  highest  order  of  human 
spirits.” 

CLARKSON,  Thomas,  was  born  at  Wis- 
beach,  in  Cambridgeshire,  March  28th,  1760, 
and  graduated  at  St.  John’s,  Cambridge,  with 
high  honors  of  scholarship.  With  untiring 
benevolence  he  sought  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade,  and  his  life  may  be  said  to  have 
passed  in  labors  for  its  extinction.  He  had 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  it  declared  illegal  by 
the  British  parliament  in  1807.  Mr.  Clark- 
son was  a member  of  the  society  of  Friends. 
He  died  in  September,  1846. 

CLAUDE,  Gelee,  commonly  called  Claude 
Lorraine,  from  the  province  of  his  birth,  was 
born  in  the  year  1600.  His  parents  were 
very  poor,  and  as  Claude  showed  no  disposi- 
tion to  learn  to  read  or  write,  he  was  placed 
with  a pastry-cook.  The  cooks  of  Lorraine 
were  celebrated,  and  found  good  employment 
abroad.  Young  Claude  wandered  to  Rome 
with  some  of  them.  There  he  engaged  him- 
self to  Agostino  Tassi,  a good  landscape 
painter,  as  an  ordinary  domestic.  He  both* 
prepared  his  master’s  meals,  and  ground  his 
colors  for  him ; but  he  acquired  at  the  same 
time  the  rudiments  of  the  art.  From  this 
menial  capacity  his  application  brought  him 
to  be  known  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  land- 
scape painters.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1682. 
Claude  was  extremely  slow  and  careful  in  his 
execution.  He  often  painted  for  a week  or  a 
fortnight  on  one  part  of  a picture,  without 
showing  any  progress.  With  the  human 
figure  or  animals  he  had  great  difficulty,  and 
in  such  parts  of  his  pictures  generally  pro- 


cured the  aid  of  his  friends.  His  chief 
excellence  is  in  aerial  perspective,  and  the 
management  of  light  generally.  His  studies 
are  said  to  have  been  made  from  the  banks 
of  the  Tiber,  and  the  magnificent  prospects 
afforded  by  the  Campagna  di  Roma.  Here 
he  might  be  seen  at  early  dawn,  in  the  brill- 
iancy of  noon-day,  and  at  the  set  of  sun, 
marking  the  different  effects  produced  by  the 
rays  of  the  sun  upon  the  surrounding  objects, 
or  taking  in,  with  an  attentive  and  practiced 
eye,  the  dreamy  hues  which  the  vapory  haze 
cast  upon  the  various  parts  of  the  land- 
scape as  they  slowly  receded  from  his  sight. 
All  these  have  been  traced  upon  his  canvas 
with  a fidelity  and  beauty  which  few  have 
been  able  to  equal  and  none  to  excel.  But 
the  great  charm  of  his  pictures  is  the  exqui- 
site poetry  interwoven  in  them.  In  his  pic- 
tures of  morning,  the  rising  sun  dissipates  the 
dews,  and  the  fields  and  verdure  brighten  at 
the  approach  of  day ; his  evening  skies  expand 
a glowing  splendor  over  the  horizon ; and 
vegetation,  oppressed  by  a sultry  aridity, 
sinks  under  the  heat  of  his  noon-day  suns. 
It  was  his  custom  to  preserve  in  a book  the 
drawings  of  the  paintings  executed  by  him. 
Six  of  these  registers,  termed  by  him  Libri 
di  Verita , were  found  after  his  decease.  This 
curious  collection  was  sold  by  one  of  his 
nephews  for  two  hundred  scudi,  to  a French- 
man, who  took  them  to  Paris  and  offered 
them  to  the  king.  The  purchase  being  de- 
clined, they  were  afterward  bought  by  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  and  now  adorn  the  mag- 
nificent mansion  at  Chatsworth. 

CLAUDIUS  I.,  Emperor  of  Rome,  the  son 
of  Drusus,  and  the  successor  of  the  infamous 
Caligula.  He  made  some  conquests  in  Britain, 
and  built  several  noble  structures  in  Rome. 
Fie  was  poisoned  by  his  wife  Agrippina,  who 
wished  to  place  her  son,  Nero,  on  the  throne, 
a.d.  54.  He  was  then  sixty-three  years  of 
age. 

CLAY,  Henry,  was  born  in  Virginia,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  a region  known  as  the 
Slashes  (whence  his  sobriquet  of  ‘the  mill 
boy  of  the  slashes’),  the  12th  of  April,  1777. 
The  straitened  circumstances  of  his  father, 
who  was  a clergyman,  permitted  him  but  the 
humble  education  of  a district  school.  At 
an  early  age  he  acted  as  copyist  for  the  clerk 
of  the  court  of  chancery  at  Richmond. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGEAPI  7, 


215 


ASHLAND. 


When  nineteen,  he  commenced  the  stud}r  of  and  the  succeeding  congress,  till  in  1814  he 
law,  and  such  were  his  assiduity  in  study  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to 


the  brilliancy  of  his  progress,  that  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  within  one  year.  In  1799, 
he  removed  to  Lexington,  Kentucky.  He 
became  an  active  politician  as  well  as  a popular 
lawyer.  When  a convention  was  called  for 


negotiate  at  Ghent  a treaty  of  peace  with 
Great  Britain.  He  returned  from  Europe  in 
1815,  having  proved  himself  no  less  skillful 
as  a diplomatist  than  he  was  eloquent  as  an 
orator  and  able  as  a debater.  He  was  re- 


the  revision  of  the  constitution  of  Kentucky,  ! elected  to  Congress  from  1815  to  1821 
he  incurred  much  unpopularity  by  his  efforts  ; (being  speaker  of  the  house  during  that  time), 
for  the  election  of  delegates  in  favor  of  the  and  in  1828.  He  became  known  as  a de- 
emancipation of  the  slaves.  His  opposition  | cided  advocate  of  a protective  tariff,  and  took 
to  the  alien  and  sedition  laws  restored  him  to  j an  active  part  in  the  passage  of  the  Missouri 
favor,  and  in  1803  he  was  elected  by  a large  i compromise.  In  1824,  he  received  thirty- 
majority  to  the  legislature.  Such  was  the  i seven  electoral  votes  for  the  presidency.  His 
repute  he  gained,  that  in  1806  he  was  chosen  competitors,  Jackson,  Adams,  and  Crawford, 


United  States  senator  to  fill  a vacancy  caused 
by  the  resignation  of  Gen.  Adair.  After  the 
expiration  of  the  brief  term  (March  3d,  1807), 


each  received  a larger  number  of  votes,  and 
there  being  no  choice  by  the  electors,  their 
names  were  balloted  upon  b)r  the  house  of 


he  returned  to  Lexington,  was  again  chosen  j representatives,  and  Mr.  Adams  was  chosen. 


to  the  legislature,  and  served  as  speaker  of 
the  assembly  two  sessions.  In  1809  he  was 
appointed  to  fill  another  vacancy  in  the 
United  States  senate,  and  served  from  Jan. 
4th,  1810,  till  March  3d,  1811.  In  1811  he 
was  elected  representative  in  Congress  from 
Kentucky,  and  was  chosen  speaker  of  the 
house ; the  duties  of  which  arduous  office  he 
discharged  with  great  ability  through  that 


The  friends  of  Mr.  Clay,  by  his  advice,  sup- 
ported Mr.  Adams.  Upon  the  accession  of 
the  new  president,  Mr.  Clay  was  made  sec- 
retary of  state.  In  the  heat  of  partisan 
animosity  the  charge  was  engendered  that 
his  appointment  was  the  result  of  corruption, 
and  the  payment  in  the  bargain  by  which 
the  adherents  of  Clay  voted  for  Mr.  Adams. 
Time  has  proved  this  to  be  malicious  calumny 


CLA 


216 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


In  1831,  Clay  was  elected  United  States 
senator  from  Kentucky,  and  in  1832  was  an 
unsuccessful  competitor  with  Jackson  for  the 
presidency.  He  was  re-elected  to  the  senate 
in  1836,  and  served  until  his  resignation  in 
1842.  In  1844,  he  was  nominated  by  the 
Whigs  for  the  presidency,  but  was  defeated 
by  Mr.  Polk.  He  returned  to  the  senate  in 
1849,  and  was  active  in  supporting  the  com- 
promise measures  of  1850.  His  health  now 
began  to  decline,  and  after  a voyage  to  the 
W est  Indies  for  its  restoration,  he  came  back 
to  W ashington,  where  he  departed  from  life, 
June  29  th,  1852,  at  the  age  of  seventy -five 
years. 

It  was  the  remark  of  a distinguished  sena- 
tor, that  Mr.  Clay’s  eloquence  was  absolutely 
intangible  to  delineation;  that  the  most  la- 
bored description  could  not  embrace  it ; and 
that  to  be  understood,  it  must  be  seen  and 
felt.  He  was  an  orator  by  nature.  His  eagle 
eye  burned  with  patriotic  ardor,  or  flashed 
indignation  and  defiance  upon  his  foes,  or 
was  suffused  with  tears  of  commiseration  or 
of  pity ; and  it  was  because  he  felt,  that  he 
made  others  feel.  A gentleman,  after  hearing  | 
one  of  his  magnificent  efforts  in  the  senate, 
thus  described  him  : “ Every  muscle  of  the 
orator’s  face  was  at  work.  His  whole  body 
seemed  agitated,  as  if  each  part  was  instinct 
with  a separate  life;  and  his  small  white 
hand,  with  its  blue  veins  apparently  dis- 
tended almost  to  bursting,  moved  gracefully, 
but  with  all  the  energy  of  rapid  and  ve- 
hement gesture.  The  appearance  of  the 
speaker  seemed  that  of  a pure  intellect, 
wrought  up  to  its  mightiest  energies,  and 
brightly  shining  through  the  thin  and  trans- 
parent vail  of  flesh  that  invested  it.” 

The  particulars  of  the  duel  between  Mr. 
Clay  and  Randolph  of  Roanoke  may  be  inter- 
esting to  the  reader.  The  eccentric  descend- 
ant of  Pocahontas  appeared  on  the  ground  in 
a huge  morning  gown.  This  garment  had 
such  a vast  circumference  that  the  precise 
whereabouts  of  the  lean  senator  was  a matter 
of  very  vague  conjecture.  The  parties  ex- 
changed shots,  and  the  ball  of  Mr.  Clay  hit 
the  centre  of  the  visible  object,  but  the  body 
of  Mr.  Randolph  was  untouched.  The  latter 
had  fired  in  the  air.  Immediately  after  the 
exchange  of  shots,  he  walked  up  to  Mr.  Clajq 
parted  the  folds  of  his  gown,  pointed  to  the 


hole  where  the  bullet  had  punctured  his 
coat,  and  exclaimed  in  the  shrillest  tones  of 
his  piercing  voice,  “Mr.  Clay,  you  owe  me  a 
coat — you  owe  me  a coat ! ” To  which  Mr. 
Clay  replied,  with  slow  and  solemn  emphasis, 
pointing  directly  at  Randolph’s  heart,  “Mr. 
Randolph,  I thank  God  that  I am  no  deeper 
in  your  debt ! ” 

CLAYTON,  John,  an  eminent  botanist, 
author  of  “ The  Flora  Virginica,”  was  born 
in  England,  about  1685  ; came  with  his  father 
to  America,  and  in  1722,  became  clerk  of  the 
county  of  Gloucester,  Virginia,  which  office 
he  held  fifty-one  years,  to  his  death,  1773. 

CLAYTON,  John  Middleton,  was  born  in 
Sussex  county,  Delaware,  July  24th,  1796. 
He  was  a learned  lawyer  and  eloquent  advo- 
cate, represented  Delaware  several  terms  in 
the  federal  senate,  and  was  secretary  of  state 
in  the  cabinet  of  President  Taylor.  He  died 
at  Dover,  Del.,  Nov.  $th,  1856. 

CLEMENT.  This  name  has  been  borne 
by  several  popes.  Clement  XIV.  suppressed 
the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  gave  many  proofs 
of  great  liberality  in  religious  matters.  He 
is  best  known  by  his  real  name,  Ganganelli. 
He  died  in  1775. 

CLEOMBROTUS,  a king  of  Sparta,  killed 
in  a battle  fought  with  Epaminondas  at 
Leuctra,  b.c.  371.  There  were  two  others  of 
the  name. 

CLEOMENES.  This  name  was  borne  by 
three  kings  of  Sparta.  The  first  delivered 
Athens  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Pisistratidoe, 
but  killed  himself  in  a fit  of  insanity,  b.c.  491. 

The  reign  of  the  second  was  distinguished 
for  nothing  but  an  uninterrupted  tranquillity. 

Cleomenes  III.  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  Leonidas,  and  began  to  reign  b.c.  230. 
Engaging  in  a war  with  the  Achaians,  he  was 
defeated,  and  obliged  to  fly  into  Egypt,  where 
he  destroyed  himself  in  prison,  b.c.  219. 

CLEOPATRA,  Queen  of  Egypt,  and  one 
of  the  most  famous  and  fascinating  female 
sovereigns  of  antiquity,  was  the  daughter  of  , 
Ptolemy  Auletes,  and  the  sister  and  wife  of 
Ptolemy  Dionysius,  who  deprived  her  of  her 
share  in  the  kingdom,  and  drove  her  to  seek 
protection  of  the  Romans.  She  exerted  all 
the  influence  of  her  beauty  to  win  the  heart 
and  gain  the  favor  of  Caesar,  and  she  was 
successful.  Ptolemy  was  defeated  and  drown- 
ed. He  left  the  throne  to  his  sister,  who 


CLE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


217 


removed  her  younger  brother  by  poison. 
Cleopatra  visited  Rome  during  the  lifetime 
of  Caesar,  but  was  forced  to  quit  it  by  the 
clamors  of  the  populace.  After  the  battle  of 
Philippi,  she  was  summoned  by  Antony  to 
appear  before  him  to  answer  to  the  charge 
brought  against  her  of  having  assisted  Brutus. 
When  she  made  her  appearance  before  An- 
tony, the  charms  of  -her  person  and  mind 
ensnared  him,  and  made  him  forget  the  at- 
tractions of  his  wife.  At  the  battle  of  Actium 
she  fled,  and  her  paramour  was  defeated.  He 
afterward  committed  suicide,  and  died  in  her 
arms.  Cleopatra,  to  avoid  gracing  the  tri- 
umph of  Augustus,  applied  an  asp  to  her 
breast,  and  died  of  the  wound,  b.c.  30.  She 
was  a woman  of  great  talents,  but  of  a most 
ambitious  and  extravagant  spirit.  In  a con- 
vivial contest  with  Antony,  to  see  which  of 
them  could  expend  the ‘most  money  on  an 
entertainment,  she  snatched  one  of  her  pearl 
ornaments,  valued  at  $50,000,  and  dissolving 
it  in  a.  cup  of  vinegar,  swallowed  the  con- 
tents. Few  scenes  of  antiquity  can  have  sur- 
passed the  splendor  of  her  appointments, 
when  she  floated  over  the  waves  of  the  river 
Cydnus,  to  meet  Antony.  She  came  to  judg- 
ment, but  she  came  in  the  pride  of  beauty 
and  anticipated  triumph.  Her  galley  glowed 
with  gold;  odors  filled  its  silken  sails,  and 
the  loveliest  girls  of  Egypt  performed  the 
part  of  mariners.  Beneath  an  awning  on  the 
deck  lay  the  queen,  in  the  slight  drapery 
with  which  painters  and  sculptors  sometimes 
invest  the  goddess  of  beauty.  Silver  oars 
struck  the  water  to  the  dulcet  sound  of 
music,  and  beneath  and  about  them  sported 
the  fair  representatives  of  marine  deities. 

CLERFAYT,  Francis  Sebastian  Charles 
Joseph  de  Croix,  Count  of,  an  Austrian  gen- 
eral. In  1792,  he  commanded  the  Austrian 
troops  against  France,  and  after  taking  Long- 
wy  and  Stenay,  retired  into  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. Here  he  lost  the  famous  battle  of 
Jemappes ; but  his  retreat  across  the  Rhine 
was  a masterpiece  of  skill.  Under  the  com- 
mand of  the  prince  of  Coburg,  he  gained 
considerable  advantages  at  Altenhaven,  Quie- 
vrain,  Hausen,  and  Farmars,  and  decided  the 
victory  of  Nerwinden.  With  General  Pich- 
egru  he  disputed  every  foot  of  ground,  till 
the  inferiority  of  his  forces  obliged  him  to 


abandon  the  country.  In  1795,  he  took  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Mayence,  forced  the 
French  camp,  and  took  a number  of  pris- 
oners. He  was  following  the  victory  with 
ardor,  when  he  received  at  Manheim  an 
order  to  desist.  On  this,  he  gave  in  his  resig- 
nation, and  retired  to  Vienna,  where  he  died 
in  1798. 

CLERKE,  Edward,  an  able  English  naval 
commander,  the  companion,  friend,  and  suc- 
cessor of  Captain  James  Cook,  died  on  the 
coast  of  Kamschatka,  August  22d,  1779,  aged 
thirty-nine. 

CLIFFORD,  George,  the  third  Earl  of 
Cumberland,  a nobleman  distinguished  by 
his  naval  enterprises  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
He  did  great  damage  to  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments and  trade.  He  died  in  1605. 

CLINTON,  Charles,  Col.,  was  born  in  the 
county  of  Longford,  Ireland,  1690;  came  to 
America,  1729 ; died  Nov.  19th,  1773. 

CLINTON,  De  Witt,  the  son  of  Gen. 
James  Clinton,  was  born  in  Orange  county,  N. 
Y.,  in  1769.  He  studied  law,  and  was  elected 
successively  member  of  the  state  legislature, 
of  the  senate  of  the  union,  and  mayor  of 
New  York.  In  1817,  he  was  chosen  governor 
of  New  York,  on  which  occasion  his  previous 
opponents  gave  him  their  votes,  from  a sense 
of  his  merit;  he  was  re-elected  in  1820. 
Clinton  was  one  of  the  prime  movers  of  the 
great  canal  scheme,  and  having  satisfied  him- 
self that  there  was  no  danger  of  that  being 
defeated,  in  1822  he  declined  again  entering 
the  elective  lists.  Having  been  deprived  of 
his  seat  in  the  board  of  canal  commissioners, 
by  the  animosity  of  his  political  opponents, 
a revolution  in  public  feeling  took  place 
which  enabled  his  friends  in  1824  to  elect 
him  governor  over  Colonel  Young,  by  an 
overwhelming  majorit}7.  In  1826,  he  was 
again  elected,  but  died  Feb.  11th,  1828. 

CLINTON,  George,  son  of  Col.  Charles 
Clinton  (above),  was  born  in  Ulster  county, 
N.  Y.,  July  15th,  1739.  In  the  old  French 
war,  and  the  war  of  independence,  he  dis- 
played great  gallantry.  Having  studied  law, 
he  was  admitted  to  practice  in  due  time,  and 
was  chosen  governor  of  New  York,  in  1777, 
and  he  continued  in  office  eighteen  years, 
and  then  declined  re-election.  He  was  again 
elected  governor  in  1801,  and  three  years 


CL1 


218 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


after  Was  chosen  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  holding  the  oflice  till  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1812. 

CLINTON,  Sir  Henry,  was  a son  of  George 
Clinton  (governor  of  New  York  in  1743), 
and  grandson  of  the  Earl  of  Lincoln.  He 
served  on  the  continent  during  the  ‘seven 
years’  war,’  and  came  to  America  with  Gen. 
Howe  ip  the  spring  of  1775,  bearing  the 
commission  of  a major-general.  In  1778,  he 
succeeded  Sir  William  Howe  in  the  supreme 
command,  which  he  retained  till  1782.  He 
was  appointed  governor  of  Gibraltar,  in  1795, 
and  died  Dec.  22d,  the  same  year. 

CLINTON,  James,  another  son  of  Col. 


Charles  Clinton,  was  born  in  Ulster  county, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  9th,  1736.  His  education  was  ex- 
cellent, and  he  served  with  distinction  in 
the  English  and  French  war  of  1756,  and  in 
the  Revolutionary  war  as  brigadier-general. 
After  the  close  of  the  war,  he  became  a sen- 
ator of  the  United  States,  lie  died  Dec. 
22  d,  1812. 

CLIYE,  Robert,  Baron  of  Plassey,  was 
born  in  Shropshire,  September  29th,  1725. 
Bold  and  reckless  in  his  youth,  he  was  sent 
as  a scapegrace  to  Madras  in  his  eighteenth 
year.  His  friends  had  procured  him  a clerk- 
ship in  the  company  service.  Mercantile 
drudgery  he  so  utterly  disrelished  that  twice 


CLI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


219 


he  tried  suicide  by  snapping  a loaded  pistol 
at  his  head.  Each  time  the  pistol  hung  fire. 
A friend  who  entered  the  room  soon  after- 
ward fired  the  weapon  out  the  window. 
Startled  at  his  preservation,  Clive  sprang  up, 
crying  with  an  oath,  “I  must  be  reserved  for 
something  great,”  and  abandoned  his  design. 
War  endangered  the  British  possessions,  and 
Clive  found  more  congenial  employment  in 
the  field,  where  he  became  eminent  for  his 
successes.  He  assisted  in  the  Tanjore  war 
in  1747,  and  in  1751  took  Arcot  by  a coup 
de  main,  and  relieved  Trichinopoly.  He 
afterward  took  Fort  William  in  Bengal,  de- 
feated Surajah  Dowlah,  and  placed  Jaffier  Ali 
Cawn  upon  the  throne.  The  victory  of  Plas- 
sey,  June  23d,  1757,  where  with  little  more 
than  3,000  men  he  defeated  Surajah  Dowlah 
at  the  head  of  70,000,  laid  the  foundation  of 
British  power  and  empire  in  India.  Honors 
were  heaped  upon  him  in  consequence  of 
these  achievements,  and  he  was  made  presi- 
dent of  Bengal.  An  attempt  to  weed  out 
the  gross  abuses  in  India  won  him  many 
foes,  and  on  his  final  return  home  in  1767  he 
was  the  mark  for  much  obloquy.  The  ver- 
dict passed  by  parliament,  in  refusing  to  vote 
that  he  had  abused  his  power,  and  resolving 
that  “Lord  Clive  has  rendered  great  -and 
meritorious  services  to  his  country,”  could 
not  heal  the  wounds  in  his  haughty  spirit. 
He  died  by  his  . own  hand,  November  22d, 
1774. 

CLOVIS,  King  of  the  Franks,  born  465, 
succeeded  his  father  Childeric  in  481.  He 
embraced  Christianity  and  was  publicly  bap- 
tized. He  was  the  founder  of  the  French 
monarchy,  drove  out  the  Romans,  defeated 
the  Goths,  subdued  several  provinces,  and 
fixed  the  royal  residence  at  Paris.  He  died 
in  511.  The  Salique  law  was  published  by 
Clovis.  When  he  was  first  told  of  the  suf- 
ferings of  Christ,  he  exclaimed,  “Oh!  had  I 
been  there  with  my  valiant  Gauls,  how  I 
would  have  avenged  him ! ” 

CLYMER,  George,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born 
at  Philadelphia,  in  1739.  He  became  a mer- 
chant under  the  auspices  of  his  uncle  and 
guardian,  but  he  preferred  science  and  liter- 
ture  to  business.  He  was  chosen  to  Congress 
in  1776,  and  was  several  years  a talented  and 
patriotic  delegate  in  that  body.  Mr.  Clymer 


was  one  of  the  projectors  of  the  bank  estab- 
lished for  the  sole  purpose  of  conveying 
rations  to  the  army.  Perceiving  the  good 
effects  of  a national  bank,  in  1780,  when 
elected  a second  time  to  Congress,  he  stren- 
uously advocated  its  establishment.  In  1784 
he  filled  a se£t  in  the  legislature  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  as  a member  of  the  convention, 
he  assisted  in  framing  the  present  federal 
constitution.  He  was  also  a member  of  the 
first  federal  congress.  When,  in  1791,  the 
famous  bill  imposing  a duty  on  spirits  dis- 
tilled within  the  United  States,  was  passed, 
Clymer  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania excise,  and  rendered  efficient  service 
in  putting  down  the  whiskey  insurrection. 
He  was  engaged,  with  others,  to  negotiate  a 
treaty  with  the  Cherokee  Indians  in  1796. 
He  was  afterward  appointed  president  of  the 
academy  of  fine  arts,  and  of  the  Philadelphia 
bank.  He  died  Jan.  23d,  18i3. 

CLYTEMNESTRA,  daughter  of  Tyndarus, 
King  of  Sparta,  by  Heda,  and  twin-sister  of 
Helen.  In  the  absence  of  her  husband  Aga- 
memnon, at  the  siege  of  Troy,  TEgisthus 
made  his  court  to  her,  and  publicly  lived 
with  her.  Her  infidelity  reached  the  ears  of 
Agamemnon,  but  he  was  prevented  from  car- 
rying his  schemes  of  vengeance  into  execu- 
tion, being  murdered  by  the  traitress  and  her 
paramour  on  his  return  home.  After  this 
crime,  Clymnestra  publicly  married  iEgis- 
j thus,  who  ascended  the  throne  of  Argos. 
She  was  killed  by  her  son  Orestes. 

COBBETT,  William  (1762-1835),  a self- 
taught  man,  and  powerful  political  writer  in 
England.  — r 

COCHIN-CHINA,  called  also  Anam,  a 
country  of  Farther  India,  composed  of  Cam- 
I bodia,  Cochin-China  Proper,  and  Tonquin,  is 
| 1,000  miles  long,  and  from  70  to  220  miles 
broad.  The  government  is  a hereditary  mili- 
I tary  -despotism.  The  inhabitants  are  hardy, 
i but  treacherous,  and  the  country  is  fertile. 

I Little  attention  is  paid  to  religion,  although 
| that  of  Fo  is  professed  by  the  lower  orders, 
j The  commerce  of  the  country  is  Increasing. 
A portion  of  the  country  was  conquered  and 
colonized  by  the  Chinese  b.c.  214,  but  the 
Chinese  yoke  was  afterward  thrown  off. 

CODRUS,  the  son  of  Melanthus,  and  last 
king  of  Athens,  who,  learning  that  the  oracle 
had  assured  the  Heraclidae  that  their  good 


COD 


220 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


fortune  depended  on  sparing  his  life,  rushed 
into  the  midst  of  the  hostile  array  in  dis- 
guise. and  was  slain,  1070  b.c. 

COFFEE.  Its  use  as  a beverage  is  traced 
to  the  Persians.  Some  ascribe  it  to  the  prior 
of  a monastery,  who,  being  told  by  a goat- 
herd that  his  cattle  sometimes  browsed  upon 
the  tree,  and  that  they  would  then  wake  at 
night  and  sport  upon  the  hills,  became  curi- 
ous to  prove  its  virtues.  He  accordingly 
tried  it  upon  his  monks,  to  prevent  their 
sleeping  at  matins,  and  found  that  it  checked 
their  siumbers.  Coffee  came  into  great  re- 
pute in  Arabia  Felix  about  1454,  passed 
thence  to  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  thence  in 
1511  to  Constantinople,  where  coffee  houses 
were  opened  in  1554.  It  was  first  brought 
into  England  by  Nathaniel  Canopus,  a Cre- 
tan, who  made  it  his  common  beverage,  at 
Baliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1641.  The  coffee- 
tree  was  conveyed  from  Mocha  to  Holland, 
in  1616;  carried  to  the  West  Indies  in  the 
year  1726 ; first  cultivated  at  Surinam  by 
the  Hutch,  1718;  its  culture  encouraged  in 
the  British  plantations,  1732.  Some  affirm 
this  tree  to  have  been  originally  a native  of 
Arabia  Felix,  and  certain  it  is  that  the  finest 
specimens  are  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Mocha. 

COIN.  Homer  speaks  of  brass  money  as 
existing  1184  b.c.  The  invention  of  coin  is 
ascribed  to  the  Lydians,  who  cherished  com- 
merce : their  money  was  of  gold  and  silver. 
The  most  ancient  coins  known  are  Macedoni- 
an, of  the  fifth  century  b.c.  Money  was 
coined  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Servius  Tullius, 
9 bout  573  b.c.  Rude  scraps  of  copper  had 
previously  been  used.  Brass  money  only 
was  in  use  there  down  to  269  b.c.  (when  Fa- 
bius  Pictor  coined  silver),  a token  of  little  in- 
tercourse with  the  East,  where  both  gold  and 
silver  had  been  in  use  long  before.  Iron 
money  was  used  in  Sparta,  and  iron  and  tin 
in  Britain.  Julius  Caesar  was  the  first  who 
obtained  the  express  permission  of  the  senate 
to  place  his  image  on  the  Roman  coins.  In 
the  more  simple  days  of  the  Roman  people, 
the  likeness  of  no  living  personage  appeared 
upon  their  money : the  heads  were  those  of 
their  deities,  or  of  those  who  had  received  di- 
vine honors. 

English  coin  was  of  different  shapes,  as 
square,  oblong,  and  round,  until  the  middle 


ages,  when  round  coin  only  was  used.  The 
names  of  various  pieces  now  obsolete,  are  met 
with  in  Shakspeare  and  other  old  English 
authors.  The  angel  was  a gold  coin,  so  called 
from  bearing  the  figure  of  an  angel,  valued  at 
6s.  8 d.  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and  at  10s. 
in  1562.  It  is  said  the  coin  was  so  named 
and  stamped,  in  memory  of  the  tradition  that 
Gregory  the  Great,  shortly  before  his  elevation 
to  the  papal  chair,  chancing  one  day  to  pass 
through  the  slave-mart  at  Rome,  and  seeing 
a group  of  beautiful  youth  set  up  for  sale,  he 
inquired  about  their  origin,  and  finding  they 
were  English,  he  cried,  “ Non  Angli,  sed  An- 
geli  forent,  si  essent  Christiani ; ” that  is, 
“ They  would  not  be  English,  but  angels,  if 
they  were  Christians.”  Edward  IV.  coined 
angels  with  a figure  of  Michael  and  the  dragon, 
the  original  of  George  and  the  dragon.  The 
angelot  was  a gold  coin,  half  the  angel  in  value, 
struck  at  Paris  when  that  city  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  English,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VI.,  1431.  It  had  its  name  from  the  figure 
of  an  angel  supporting  the  escutcheon  of  the 
arms  of  England  and  France.  “ Let  it  be  but 
twenty  nobles,”  plead  the  Hostess  of  East- 
cheap  when  fat  Falstaff  was  wheedling  a loan 
from  her.  The  noble  was  first  struck  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  and  being  stamped  with 
a rose,  was  sometimes  called  a rose  noble. 
Its  value  was  6s.  8<2.  Master  Slender,  too, 
complains  that  swaggering  Pistol  picked  his 
purse  of  seven  groats  in  mill-sixpences.  The 
groat  (meaning  great  coin)  was  so  called  be- 
cause up  to  1351  it  was  the  largest  silver  piece. 
Its  value  was  4 d.  Milled  sixpences  and  shil- 
lings were  first  made  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
The  guinea  was  so  called  from  having  been  at 
first  coined  of  gold  brought  from  the  coast  of 
Guinea,  1673.  They  were  then  valued  at  30s. 
The  original  pieces  bore  the  figure  of  an  ele- 
phant. In  1717,  their  value  was  fixed  at  21s. 
by  act  of  parliament.  None  have  been  coined 
since  1816.  The  ancient  silver  penny  was 
the  first  silver  coin  struck  in  England,  and 
the  only  one  current  among  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
Until  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  it  was  stamped 
with  a cross,  so  deeply  indented  that  it  might 
be  easily  parted  into  two  for  half  pence,  and 
into  four  for  farthings  (fourthmgs  ) ; whence 
those  names. 

COKE,  Sir  Edward,  was  born  at  Mileham 
in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  Feb.  1st,  1552.  He 


COK 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


221 


was  a diligent  student,  from  three  in  the  morn- 
ing till  nine  at  night,  caring  for  no  knowledge 
not  convertible  to  cash,  and  when  called  to 
the  bar  in  1578,  brimful  of  law,  and  fortified 
by  his  hard  discipline  of  study,  he  rose  rap- 
idly in  his  profession.  Before  he  was  thirty 
years  old,  the  desperate  money-seeker  had 
made  himself  master  of  manor  upon  manor, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  enormous  pos- 
sessions which  at  length  alarmed  the  crown, 
lest  they  should  prove  too  magnificent  for  a 
subject.  In  1592  he  was  appointed  solicitor- 
general,  and  in  1594  attorney-general,  tri- 
umphing over  Bacon,  who  was  an  aspirant  for 
that  place.  His  perversions  of  criminal  law, 
as  lawyer  for  the  crown,  are  notorious ; his 
brutality  toward  Essex,  Raleigh,  and  the  ac- 
complices in  the  plot  of  Guy  Faux,  rendered 
him  infamous.  He  was  a man  of  haughty 
manners,  severe  spirit,  and  irritable  temper. 
The  stand  which  he  made  in  the  name  of  the 
people  against  the  encroachments  of  the  crown, 
was  productive  of  great  benefits ; but  it  was 
a soiled  instrument  by  which  they  were  se- 
cured. Upon  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  James 
I.  knighted  him,  and  continued  hint  in  office. 
In  1606  he  was  made  chief-justice  of  the 
court  of  common  pleas,  “fatigued,  if  not  sati- 
ated with  amassing  money  at  the  bar.”  He 
was  stubborn  for  the  rights  of  his  office,  and 
came  in  direct  collision  with  the  pedantic  pre- 
sumption of  the  king.  In  1613  he  was  made 
chief-justice  of  the  king’s  bench ; a change 
which  he  little  liked ; for  though  the  rank  was 
higher,  the  gains  were  much  less,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  it,  his  hated  rival,  Bacon,  who 
had  come  to  be  solicitor-general,  was  promoted 
to  the  attorney -generalship.  Coke  continued 
to  display  independence  in  his  new  seat,  but 
stopped  short  of  any  act  that  might  deprive 
him  of  the  reversion  of  the  chancellorship,  to 
which  his  great  acquirements  and  reputation 
well  entitled  him.  Bacon  was  active  in  op- 
posing this,  and  urged  the  king  to  his  dis- 
missal from  his  post  as  chief-justice,  which 
was  effected  in  1616.  He  heard  his  sentence 
with  dejection  and  tears.  We  must  not  forget 
this  weakness,  when  we  reflect  upon  his  ab- 
ject submission  to  royalty  during  his  days  of 
dependence,  and  as  we  approach  the  more 
stormy  times  when  the  spirit  of  vengeance  in- 
cited him  to  grapple  with  kingly  power  in  the 
temper  of  a rebel. 


As  Coke  fell,  Bacon  rose.  While  the  former 
was  shedding  tears  for  dismissal,  the  latter 
was  intoxicated  with  joy  for  elevation  to  the 
chancellorship.  Coke  was  afterward  partially 
restored  to  royal  favor,  through  influence 
gained  by  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  with 
Sir  John  Yilliers,  eldesTbrother  of  the  power- 
ful Duke  of  Buckingham.  The  marriage  was 
an  unhappy  one ; Sir  John  was  old  enough  to 
be  his  wife’s  father;  and  before  long  she 
eloped  with  a paramour,  traveling  abroad  in 
man’s  attire,  and  dying  young.  But  it  served 
the  ends  of  her  parent,  who  was  restored  to 
the  privy  council,  though  he  got  no  judicial 
promotion.  In  his  seventieth  year  he  was 
chosen  to  parliament.  Failing  to  obtain  the 
office  of  lord  treasurer,  he  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  Puritans,  who  had  been  re- 
turned to  the  house  in  great  numbers.  His 
hate  was  gratified  by  procuring  the  impeach- 
ment of  Bacon,  for  taking  bribes  as  chancellor. 
He  maintained  the  stand  he  had  taken  for  the 
liberties  of  the  people,  after  the  accession  of 
Charles  I.,  till  1628,  when  his  famous  Petition 
of  Right  was  carried ; shortly  after  which  he 
retired  from  public  life.  He  died  in  Septem- 
ber, 1634,  in  the  eighty-third  year  of  his  age 
and  in  the  full  possession  of  his  faculties.  For 
a profound  knowledge  of  the  common  law  he 
was  unrivaled.  His  celebrated  “Institute,” 
which  grew  out  of  a commentary  upon  “ Lit- 
tleton’s Treatise  on  Tenures,”  has  made  him 
the  great  oracle  of  English  law.  Though  so 
devoted  to  money-getting,  as  a judge  he  was 
above  suspicion  of  corruption.  His  services 
for  public  liberty  were  great : to  him  England 
is  greatly  indebted  for  the  movement  which, 
beginning  on  the  30th  of  January,  1621,  ended 
on  that  very  day  eight  and  twenty  years  with 
the  decapitation  Of  Charles  I.  ; but  it  is  unde- 
niable that  the  nation’s  difficulties  would  have 
waited  some  time  longer  for  solution,  had  not 
Coke  been  inoculated  with  an  opposition  to 
despotism  by  the  sudden  application  of  the 
royal  lancet,  whose  sharp  edge  his  judicious 
self-love  would  never  have  provoked. 

He  owed  much  of  his  success  in  early  life 
to  his  marriages.  His  first  wife,  who  brought 
him  fortune,  bore  him  ten  children  and  died. 
His  memorandum-book  feelingly  describes 
her  virtues ; yet  within  four  months  the  dis- 
consolate widower  had  mated  again,  his  sec- 
ond wife  bringing  him  both  wealth  and  valu- 


COK 


222 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


able  connection,  and  Bacon,  her  cousin,  having 
been  a rival  suitor  for  her  hand. 

COLBERT,  Jean  Baptiste,  an  eminent 
financial  minister  of  Louis  XIY.  He  was 
born  at  Rheims  in  1617,  and  died  in  1683, 
neglected  by  the  monarch  whose  power  his 
wise  policy  had  so  much  helped  to  develope. 

COL  DEN,  Cadwallader,  mathematician 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Dense,  in  Scotland, 
Feb.  17th,  1688;  came  to  America,  1708,  and 
settled  in  New  York.  From  1760  till  his 
death  he  was  lieutenant-governor  of  the 
province.  He  died  Sept.  28th,  1776,  the  day 
of  the  conflagration  of  New  York. 

COLE,  Thomas,  a distinguished  painter, 
was  born  in  England,  during  a visit  of  his 
parents  there,  and  brought  while  a child  to 
this  country.  From  humble  beginnings  he 
rose  to  a high  rank  as  a landscape  and  im- 
aginative artist.  He  painted  his  best  produc- 
tions after  returning  from  a visit  to  Italy, 
fixed  his  abode  at  Catskill  amid  the  magnifi- 
cent scenery  of  the  Hudson,  and  died  there 
much  lamented  in  1847 

COLERIDGE,  Samuel  Taylor,  was  a na- 
tive of  Devonshire,  being  born  on  the  20th 
of  October,  1772,  at  Ottery  St.  Mary,  of 
which  place  his  father  was  vicar.  He  was 
educated  at  Christ’s  Hospital  in  London, 
where  he  had  Charles  Lamb  for  a schoolmate. 

He  describes  himself  as  being,  from  eight  to 
fourteen,  “a  playless  day-dreamer,  a helluo 
librorum ,”  and  such  he  was  forever.  At 
fourteen  he  had  a stock  of  erudition  that 
might  have  puzzled  a doctor,  and  a degree  of 
ignorance  of  which  a schoolboy  would  have 
been  ashamed.  He  had  no  ambition,  his 
father  was  dead,  and  he  thought  of  appren- 
ticing himself  to  a shoemaker  near  the  school. 
Head-master  Bowyer  interposed;  Coleridge 
became  deputy-Grecian,  or  head  scholar,  and 
obtained  a presentation  from  Christ’s  Hospi- 
tal to  Jesus’  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
remained  from  1791  to  1793.  Then  creditors 
obnoxious  to  him,  and  a love  of  the  French 
revolution  obnoxious  to  the  ruling  powers  at 
Cambridge,  led  him  to  London  and  to  enlist 
in  the  light-dragoons.  On  his  arrival  at  the 
quarters  of  the  regiment,  the  general  of  the 
district  inspected  the  recruits,  and  looking 
hard  at  Coleridge,  with  a military  air,  in- 
quired, “What’s  your  name,  sir?”  “Com- 
berbach.”  “What  do  you  come  here  for,  I 

COL 


sir  ? ” as  if  very  doubtful  whether  he  had  any 
business  there.  “ Sir,”  said  Coleridge,  “ for 
what  most  other  persons  come — to  be  made 
a soldier.”  “Do  you  think,”  said  the  gen- 
eral, “ you  can  run  a Frenchman  through  the 
body  ?”  “I  don’t  know,”  replied  Coleridge, 
“ as  I never  tried ; but  I’ll  let  a Frenchman 
run  me  through  the  body  before  I’ll  run 
away.”  “That  will  do,”  said  the  general, 
and  Coleridge  was  turned  into  the  ranks. 
“Comberbach”  made  a poor  dragoon,  stick- 
ing in  the  awkward  squad.  He  was  the 
scribe  for  his  comrades,  and  they  cared  for 
his  horse  and  accoutrements.  A Latin  sen- 
tence that  he  wrote  under  his  saddle  on  the 
stable  wall,  “Eheu!  quam  infortunii  miser- 
rimum  est  fuisse  felieem,”  awoke  his  cap- 
tain’s curiosity.  He  was  discovered,  dis- 
charged, and  restored  to  his  friends. 

He  became  acquainted  with  Southey  and 
Lloyd,  and  the  trio  occupied  themselves  at 
Bristol  in  planning  a scheme  for  social  per- 
fection in  the  United  States,  the  realization 
of  which  was  prevented  by  a very  prosaic 
social  imperfection,  the  want  of  funds.  They 
tried  a better  scheme,  and  married  three 
sisters  Fricker  of  Bristol.  Coleridge  was  at 
this  time  an  ardent  republican  and  a strong 
Unitarian.  Later  in  life,  both  his  political 
faith  and  his  religious  were  changed.  He 
had  become  acquainted  with  Wordsworth, 
and  went  to  reside  at  Stowey,  in  whose  vicin- 
ity his  new  acquaintance  was  then  dwelling. 
There  he  wrote  some  of  his  most  beautiful 
poetry,  “Ode  on  the  Departing  Year,”  the 
first  part  of  “ Christabel,”  the  “Ancient 
Mariner,”  &c.  In  1798,  the  munificence  of 
the  Messrs.  Wedgewood  enabled  him  to  dwell 
and  study  fourteen  months  in  Germany.  On 
his  return  he  went  to  reside  with  Southey 
and  Wordsworth  in  the  lake  district.  He 
won  a precarious  subsistence  by  literature. 
His  habits  were  desultory,  and  he  was  under 
the  thralldom  of  opium,  to  whose  fascinations 
he  had  been  driven  by  illness.  For  the  last 
nineteen  years  of  his  life  he  found  an  asylum 
and  relief  from  the  drug,  with  his  friend  Mr. 
Gillman,  surgeon,  at  Highgate.  There,  friends 
clustered  about  him,  eager  listeners  to  the 
rich  strains  of  poetry  and  philosophy  that 
were  born  upon  his  lips.  He  died  July  25th, 
1834. 

COLIGNY,  Gaspard  de,  admiral  of  France, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


223 


born  in  1516.  He  served  with  distinction 
under  the  gallant  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II., 
by  both  of  whom  he  was  honored  and  re- 
warded. He  was  chief  of  the  Calvinists 
against  the  Guises,  to  wliom  he  continued 
formidable  even  after  repeated  defeats.  Co- 
ligny  was  the  first  who  fell  in  the  atrocious 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew’s  day,  in  1572. 
His  head  was  sent  by  Catharine  of  Medicis  to 
the  pope. 

COLLING  WOOD,  Cuthbert,  Baron,  an 
English  admiral,  was  born  at  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  in  1748.  In  1761  he  entered  the 
naval  service,  in  which  he  passed  through  all 
the  regular  steps  of  promotion,  till  he  was 
made  post-captain,  1794.  He  bore  a part 
with  Nelson,  in  the  action  off  Cape  St.  Vin- 
cent, Feb.  14th,  1797.  In  1804  he  was  made 
vice-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  served  with 
Cornwallis  in  the  tedious  but  important 
blockade  of  Brest.  At  length,  after  many 
and  various  services,  Collingwood  became 
second  to  Nelson  in  the  battle  of  Trafalgar. 
On  this  occasion,  his  ship,  the  Royal  Sove- 
reign, commenced  the  fight  in  such  a manner 
as  to  draw  from  Nelson  the  expression,  “Look 
at  that  noble  fellow!  observe  the  style  in 
which  he  carries  his  ship  into  action  ! ” By 
the  loss  of  Nelson,  the  command  devolved 
upon  Collingwood  at  a critical  period,  and 
how  well  he  secured  by  his  prudence  what 
had  been  so  gloriously  won,  needs  not  here 
be  related.  He  was  now  advanced  to  be  vice- 
admiral  of  thfe  red,  confirmed  in  the  command 
of  the  Mediterranean  fleet,  and  created  a 
peer  of  Great  Britain,  by  the  title  of  Baron 
Collingwood.  He  died,  off  Minorca,  March 
7th,  1810;  and  his  body  was  carried  to  Eng- 
land, and  interred  in  St.  Paul’s. 

COLLINS,  William,  an  interesting  Eng- 
lish poet,  was  the  soil  of  a hatter  of  Chiches- 
ter, where  he  was  born  on  Christmas  day, 
1720.  After  completing  his  college  course, 
he  published  his  Oriental  Eclogues,  and  went 
to  London  in  1744.  His  ill  fortunes  having 
driven  him  to  the  bottle  and  nervous  imbe- 
cility, he  died  in  1756. 

COLLOT  D’HERBOIS,  Jean  Marie,  an 
actor  who  was  hissed  from  the  stage,  made 
himself  infamous  during  the  French  revolu- 
tion by  conducting  the  massacres  at  Lyons. 
He  was  banished  to  Cayenne  after  the  fall  of 
Robespjpre,  where  in  1796  he  died  in  horri- 


ble yet  fitting  torment  from  drinking  a bottle 
of  brandy  while  ill  with  the  yellow  fever. 

COLMAN,  George,  a dramatic  writer,  was 
born  at  Florence,  where  his  father  was  Eng- 
lish envoy,  in  1733.  He  was  a fine  scholar 
and  good  comic  dramatist.  His  death  took 
place  in  1794.  His  son,  George  Colman  the 
younger,  born  Oct.  21st,  1762,  was  also  the 
author  of  many  comedies  and  farces,  abound- 
ing in  witty  and  ludicrous  delineations  of 
character,  interspersed  with  bursts  of  tender- 
ness and  feeling.  He  died  Oct.  26th,  1836. 

COLUMBIA,  District  of.  This  tract, 
originally  ten  miles  square,  was  ceded  by 
Maryland  and  Virginia,  to  be  occupied  as  the 
seat  of  the  federal  government.  In  1846,  the 
portion  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac, 
including  the  city  of  Alexandria,  was  retro- 
ceded to  Virginia,  so  that  the  territory  is  now 
only  half  the  original  extent.  The  population 
in  1870  was  131,700.  The  government  of  the 
district  is  vested  in  Congress,  the  inhabitants 
having  no  voice  in  federal  affairs.  Washing- 
ton, the  capital  of  the  United  States,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  the  Potomac,  and 
contained  in  1870  109,199  inhabitants.  Its 
natural  situation  is  pleasant  and  healthy,  and 
it  is  laid  out  on  a plan,  which,  when  com- 
pleted, will  render  it  one  of  the  handsonjest 
and  most  commodious  cities  in  the  world. 
The  scale  of  this  plan  has  given  Washington 
the  name  of  the  ‘city  of  magnificent  distan- 
ces.’ Among  the  public  edifices  of  the  city 
are  the  capitol,  the  president’s  house,  the 
general  post-office,  buildings  for  the  execu- 
tive departments,  and  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitute. Washington  became  the  seat  of 
government  in  1800.  The  city  was  founded 
by  laying  the  corner-stone  of  the  capitol, 
Sept.  18th,  1793.  Washington  was  taken  by 
the  British  under  Gen.  Ross,  and  the  public 
buildings  destroyed  by  a general  conflagra- 
tion, Aug.  24th,  1814.  Part  of  the  capitol, 
and  the  congressional  library,  were  consumed 
by  fire,  Dec.  24th,  1851. 

COLUMBUS,  Christopher,  was  a native 
of  Genoa,  born  about  1435,  of  poor  parents, 
who  educated  him  with  care.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  went  to  sea,  having  evinced  an 
early  attachment  to  a sailor’s  life.  Against 
the  Mohammedans  and  Venetians  he  fought 
with  great  bravery  and  skill.  Having  con- 
ceived the  design  of  a western  passage  to 


224 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


CAPITOL  AT  WASHINGTON. 


India,  he  for  a long  time  sought  for  patronage 
without  avail ; but  after  struggling  eighteen 
years,  was  at  length  aided  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  and  sailed  with  three  small  vessels, 
the  Pinta,  Nina,  and  Pinzon,  August  3d, 
1492.  Land  was  discovered  on  the  11th  of 
October,  which  proved  to  be  the  island  of 
Guanahani,  named  by  Columbus,  St.  Salva- 
dor. Cuba  was  discovered  on  the  28th  of 
October.  Columbus  was  the  first  to  announce 
his,  own  discovery,  and  was  received  in  Spain 
with  signal  favor.  He  was  created  a gran- 
dee of  the  realm,  and  loaded  with  other 
honors.  Sept.  25th,  1493,  he  sailed  from 
Cadiz,  on  his  second  voyage,  with  a fleet  of 
seventeen  sail.  He  built  a town  called  Isa- 
bella on  Hispaniola,  but  encountered  many 
obstacles  and  difficulties  in  his  new  voyage 
of  discovery.  Meanwhile,  that  envy  which 
never  fails  to  pursue  true  merit  stirred  up 
clamors  against  Columbus,  which  were  stifled, 
however,  by  his  return  to  Spain  in  1496, 
with  valuable  treasures.  In  1498  he  departed 
on  his  third  voyage.  Arrived  in  the  new 
world,  he  found  his  enemies  still  exasperated 
against  him,  and  they  scrupled  not  to  repre- 
sent him  to  his  sovereigns  as  endeavoring  to 
make  himself  independent.  Their  stories 
were  believed.  Hon  Francisco  de  Bobadilla, 
was  sent  out  by  the  court,  and  invested  tem- 
porarily with  the  chief  power,  being  permit- 
ted to  use  his  own  judgment  in  quelling  the 
disturbances  of  the  colonies.  This  person 
scrupled  not  to  arrest  Columbus  and  put  him 
in  irons,  from  which  he  would  not  suffer  him- 


self to  be  freed,  when  he  was  carried  on 
board  the  vessel,  which  was  to  bear  him  to 
Spain.  ‘‘No,”  said  he,  when  the  attendants 
offered  to  remove  them ; “ the  truth  must  be 
apparent,  and  my  patrons  are  too  noble,  too 
generous,  to  overlook  me.  Then,  if  fortune 
again  smiles  upon  me,  these  will  serve  as 
affecting  memorials  of  sorrow  past:  I will 
not  part  with  them,  and  I even  wish  that, 
when  I am  no  more,  they  may  be  suspended 
over  my  sepulchre.”  In  irons,  he  and  his  two 
brothers  returned  to  Spain.  There  the  honor 
and  fidelity  of  Columbus  became  apparent, 
a-nd  he  was  nominally  reinstated  in  his  dig- 
nities. But  the  disposition  of  the  sovereigns 
toward  him  was  altered.  Though  Bobadilla 
was  recalled,  Columbus  in  vain  supplicated 
to  be  restored  to  his  government;  he  was 
put  off  by  vague  promises,  and  the  post 
finally  given  to  Don  Nicholas  Ovando,  a prac- 
tical as  well  as  accomplished  man.  Thus, 
after  three  momentous  voyages,  and  the  ac- 
quisition of  much  fame,  he  found  himself 
displaced ; thwarted  in  a point  in  which  he 
conceived  his  honor  concerned,  and  his 
hard-earned  authority  torn  from  his  possess- 
ion. Columbus  now  sought  only  to  obtain 
the  fulfillment  of  the  royal  promises  with 
regard  to  the  furtherance  of  his  expedition, 
imagining  that  the  continent  he  had  discov- 
ered was  Asia,  and  hoping  to  find  a way  to 
the  East  Indies  by  the  isthmus  of  Darien. 
With  four  small  caravels,  the  largest  being 
but  of  seventy  tons  burthen,  he  set  out  on 
his  fourth  voyage  of  discovery.  Reaving 


COL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


225 


Cadiz  on  the  9 th  of  May,  1502,  he  reached  Mar- 
tinique June  15th.  Having  touched  at  Cuba, 
he  pursued  a south-westerly  course,  until  he 
reached  Guanaja,  an  island  on  the  coast  of 
Honduras,  whose  inhabitants  had  attained  a 
pretty  high  degree  of  civilization.  Their 
persons  were  covered  with  cotton  garments, 
dyed  with  a variety  of  bright  and  pleasing 
colors.  He  mentions  a curious  occurrence  as 
taking  place  here.  He  had  been  presented, 
among  other  animals,  with  a peccary,  or 
American  pig,  and  one  of  those  monkeys 
with  prehensile  tails,  indigenous  to  America. 
The  peccary  being  thrown  in  the  way  of  the 
monkey,  the  latter,  by  a dexterous  use  of  its 
tail,  confined  the  jaws  of  the  pig  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  expose  it  helplessly  to  the  action 
of  the  monkey’s  claws.  “ This  appeared  to 
me  so  strange,”  Columbus  writes  to  his 
patrons,  “ that  I thought  fit  to  write  it  down 
for  the  information  of  your  majesties.” 

The  admiral,  in  his  endeavors  to  discover  a 
strait  leading  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  encoun- 
tered great  hardships  and  fatigues,  which  had 
a baneful  influence  upon  his  health,  and  was 
finally  shipwrecked.  Ovando  was  himself 
averse  to  succoring  Columbus,  after  a mes- 
senger had  acquainted  him  with  the  peril  of  his 
situation  ; blit  the  people  of  Hispaniola  were 
so  well  disposed  toward  the  admiral,  that,  for 
the  sake  of  maintaining  his  own  reputation, . 
he  was  forced  to  send  him  relief.  Columbus, 
arrived  at  St.  Domingo,  met  with  a reception 
such  as  to  banish,  for  a brief  space,  the  re- 
membrance of  his  sufferings ; but  his  bodily 
weakness  could  not  be  disguised.  When 
sufficiently  recovered,  he  set  sail  for  Spain, 
arriving  there  on  the  7 th  day  of  November, 
1504. 

The  services  of  this  distinguished  man  were 
indeed  important.  In  his  third  voyage  he 
had  discovered  the  continent  of  America ; in 
his  last,  had  received  intelligence  of  the  im- 
mense wealth  of  Mexico,  which  was  destined 
to  increase,  to  an  enormous  extent,  the  reve- 
nue of  Spain.  Columbus  vainly  looked  for 
the  reward  of  his  services  ; he  had  stipulated 
that  certain  dignities  and  an  income  should  be 
his,  but  he  found  himself  in  hopeless  indi- 
gence. His  kind  patroness,  the  queen,  was 
no  more,  and  her  husband,  stern  and  selfish, 
disregarded  the  claims  of  the  enterprising 
navigator.  He  evaded  the  request  of  Colum- 

15 


bus  to  be  restored  to  the  vice-royalty  of 
which  he  had  been  deprived,  and  repeated 
disappointments,  in  connexion  with  his  bod- 
ily infirmities,  hastened  the  death  of  the 
latter,  which  took  place  at  Valladolid,  on  the 
20th  of  May,  1506.  His  remains  were  after- 
ward removed  to  the  cathedral  of  Havana  in 
Cuba. 

Columbus  was  a man  of  great  and  inventive 
genius.  The  operations  of  his  mind  were 
energetic,  but  irregular;  bursting  forth,  at 
times,  with  that  irresistible  force  which  char- 
acterizes intellects  of  such  an  order.  His 
ambition  was  lofty  and  noble,  inspiring  him 
with  high  thoughts,  and  an  anxiety  to  distin- 
guish himself  by  great  achievements.  He 
«aimed  at  dignity  and  wealth  in  the  same  ele- 
vated spirit  with  which  he  sought  renown ; 
they  were  to  rise  from  the  territories  he  should 
discover,  and  be  commensurate  in  importance. 
The  vast  gains  that  he  anticipated  from  his  dis- 
coveries, he  intended  to  appropriate  to  princely 
purposes  ; to  institutions  for  the  relief  of  the 
poor  of  his  native  city,  to  the  foundation  of 
churches,  and  above  all,  to  crusades  for  the 
recovery  of  the  holy  sepulchre.  He  was  tena- 
cious of  his  rank  and  privileges,  not  from  a 
mere  vulgar  love  of  titles,  but  because  he 
prized  them  as  testimonials  and  trophies  of 
his  illustrious  deeds.  Every  question  of  com- 
promise concerning  them  he  repulsed  with 
disdain.  “These  things,”  said  he,  nobly, 
“ concern  my  honor.”  In  his  testament,  he 
enjoined  on  his  son  Diego,  and  whoever  after 
him  should  inherit  his  estates,  whatever 
other  titles  might  be  granted  by  the  king, 
always  to  sign  himself  simply  “The  Admi- 
ral,” by  way  of  perpetuating  in  the  family 
the  source  of  its  real  greatness.  He  was 
naturally  irritable  and  impetuous,  and  keenly 
sensible  to  injury  and  injustice;  yet  the 
quickness  of  his  temper  was  counteracted  by 
the  benevolence  and  generosity  of  his  heart. 
The  magnanimity  of  his  nature  shone  forth 
through  all  the  troubles  of  his  stormy  career. 

COMETS.  The  first  comet  that  was  dis- 
covered and  described  accurately  was  by 
Nicephorus.  At  the  birth  of  the  great  Mith- 
ridates,  135  b.c.,  two  large  comets  appeared, 
which  were  seen  for  seventy-two  days  to- 
gether, whose  splendor  eclipsed  that  of  the 
noonday  sun,  and  which  occupied  forty-five 
degrees,  or  a fourth  part  of  the  heavens.  The 


COM 


> 


226 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


appearance  of  comets  was  supposed  to  be  the 
forerunner  of  wars,  famine,  pestilence,  the 
deaths  of  great  men,  earthquakes,  inunda- 
tions, and  other  calamities.  The  splendid 
comet  of  1456  was  believed  by  Pope  Calix- 
tus  to  be  at  once  the  sign  and  instrument  of 
divine  wrath,  and  the  affrighted  pontiff  or- 
dered public  prayers  to  be  raised  in  every 
town,  and  the  bells  to  be  tolled  at  the  noon 
of  each  day,  to  warn  the  people  to  supplicate 
the  divine  mercy.  He  at  the  same  time  ex- 
communicated both  the  comet  and  the  Turks, 
whose  arms  had  lately  proved  victorious  over 
the  Christians.  In  more  modern  times  cer- 
tain natural  effects  have  been  Vulgarly  at- 
tributed to  the  influence  of  comets  ; such  as 
tempests,  hurricanes,  volcanic  eruptions,  cold 
or  hot  seasons,  floods,  the  dysentery,  the 
plague,  the  cholera,  and  other  disorders. 
Much  alarm  has  also  prevailed  at  times  from 
fear  that  a comet  might  encounter  the  earth 
and  destroy  it.  Tycho  Brahe  was  the  first  to 
rationally  explain  the  phenomena  of  comets, 
about  1577.  Newton  discovered  that  their 
orbits  are  ellipses.  A most  brilliant  comet, 
moving  with  immense  swiftness,  appeared  in 
1769  ; it  passed  within  two  million  miles  of 
the  earth.  Behind  its  nucleus  a vast  stream 
of  light,  thirty-six  millions  of  miles  in  length, 
stretched  across  the  heavens,  a prodigious 
luminous  arch.  A comet  still  more  brilliant 
appeared  in  1811,  and  was  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  all  the  autumn.  Ilersehel  com- 
puted the  length  of  its  tail  at  a hundred 
millions  of  miles ! Halley  was  the  first  to 
fix  the  identity  of  comets,  and  predict  their 
periodical  return.  He  demonstrated  that 
the  comet  of  1682  was  that  which  was  seen 
in  1456,  1531,  and  1607.  The  revolution 
of  Halley’s  comet  is  accomplished’  in  about 
76  years  ; it  appeared  in  1759  and  1835.  The 
comet  of  1680,  was  one  of  remarkable  splen- 
dor. The  great  comet  of  1843  came  within 
60,000  miles  of  the  sun,  and  at  this  point  of 
its  orbit  its  heat  was  twenty- five  times  greater 
than  that  of  the  most  powerful  blast  furnace. 

COMMODUS  ANTONINUS,  Lucius  Mlivs 
Aurelius,  Emperor  of  Rome,  son  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  was  born  a.d.  161.  At  sixteen 
years  of  age  he  was  associated  with  his  father 
in  the  government,  and  in  180  ascended  the 
throne.  He  surpassed  in  profligacy  and  cru- 
elty all  his  wicked  predecessors.  He  maimed 


and  disemboweled  his  subjects  for  pleasure. 
From  his  great  strength,  he  bore  a striking 
resemblance  to  the  statues  of  Hercules,  in  the 
dress  of  whom  he  appeared.  He  debauched 
his  own  sisters,  and  mixed  with  the  vilest  and 
most  degraded  of  the  human  race.  Having 
exhausted  the  treasury  by  his  extravagance, 
he  replenished  it  by  imposing  enormous  taxes 
on  the  people.  Habited  like  a slave,  he  drove 
his  own  chariot,  and  fought  as  a gladiator,  735 
times.  He  was  poisoned  by  his  favorite  mis' 
tress,  Martia,  in  192. 

COMPASS,  Mariner’s.  The  date  of  one  of 
the  greatest  of  human  discoveries  is  uncertain, 
and  there  are  as  great  discrepancies  in  the 
accounts  of  its  origin.  Some  have  supposed 
it  to  have  been  known  to  the  Chinese  in  the 
remotest  ages.  Marcus  Paulus,  a Venetian, 
is  said  to  have  discovered  it  a.d.  1260.  By 
others  it  is  claimed  it  wTas  in  use  in  Europe  as 
early  as  1180.  Roger  Bacon  (1294)  is  said  to 
have  known  the  polarity  of  the  loadstone ; it 
was  known  in  Norway  previous  to  1266  ; and 
it  is  mentioned  in  a French  poem  of  1150. 
Until  the  time  of  Flavio  Gioja,  a Neapolitan 
mariner,  the  needle  was  laid  upon  a couple  of 
pieces  of  straw,  or  small  splinters,  in  a vessel 
of  water ; he  suspended  it  on  a point,  as  we 
now  have  it.  Columbus  noticed  the  variation 
of  the  compass,  in  1492  ; the  dip  of  the  needle 
was  discovered  in  1576. 

COMTE,  Auguste,  a celebrated  French 
thinker,  and  the  founder  of  the  Positive  phi- 
losophy, was  born  in  1797,  and  died  in  1857. 

CONCORD,  a village  of  Massachusetts, 
twenty  miles  north-west  of  Boston.  At  Con- 
cord and  Lexington  the  first  armed  resistance 
was  made  to  the  troops  of  Great  Britain, 
April  19th,  1775.  [See  Lexington.] 

CONDE,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  Prince  of,  was 
the  son  of  Charles  of  Bourbon,  Duke  of  Ven- 
dome,  and  was  born  in  1530.  He  signalized 
himself  at  the  battle  of  St.  Quintin,  and  be- 
came leader  of  the  discontented  Huguenots. 
He  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Dreux,  in 
1562,  and  slain  in  that  of  Jarnac,  in  1569. 

CONDE,  Louis,  Prince  of,  commonly  called 
the  Great,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1621.  At  the 
age  of  twenty -two  he  gained  the  battle  of  Ro- 
croi  against  the  Spaniards,  and  captured  Thi- 
onville  and  other  places.  He  next  entered 
Germany,  where  he  gained  innumerable  lau- 
rels. Being  recalled  thence,  he  was  sent  into 


CON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


227 


Catalonia,  but  failed  in  his  attempt  to  take 
Lerida.  In  1648,  he  defeated  the  Imperialists 
in  Flanders  with  prodigious  slaughter.  In 
the  civil  war  Conde  at  first  adhered  to  the 
court,  but  afterward  opposed  it  without  suc- 
cess. He  refused  to  accede  to  the  peace,  and 
entered  into  the  service  of  the  Spaniards  in 
the  Low  Countries,  where  his  military  ex- 
ploits were  uncommonly  splendid.  At  the 
peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  in  1659,  he  obtained 
his  pardon,  and  served  his  country  with  his 
wonted  activity  and  success.  He  contended 
with  the  Prince  of  Orange  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  was  wounded  in  the  memorable  passage 
of  the  Rhine.  The  conquest  of  Franche 
Compte  was  also  chiefly  owing  to  him.  After 
the  death  of  Turenne,  he  carried  on  the  war 
against  Germany  with  advantage.  He  died  in 
1687  at  Fontainebleau. 

CONDILLAC,  EtienneBonnetde,  a French 
metaphysician,  died  in  1780,  aged  sixty-five. 

CONDORCET,  Marie  Jean  Antoine,  Mar- 
quis de  Caritat,  an  eloquent  man,  a good 
mathematician,  an  earnest  political  writer 
among  the  Girondins,  and  a victim  of  the  reign 
of  terror.  Born  in  Picardy  in  1743,  in  1794 
he  poisoned  himself  in  prison  to  avoid  the 
guillotine. 

CONFEDERATION  OF  THE  RHINE.  In 
1806,  Napoleon,  determined  that  there  should 
not  exist,  on  the  continent,  any  power  capable 
of  opposing  his  designs,  contrived  to  dismem- 
ber the  German  empire,  and  induce  the  em- 
peror to  abandon  his  title  of  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many. In  pursuance  of  these  views,  a new 
union  was  formed  by  several  of  the  German 
princes,  under  the  name  of  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine.  The  Kings  of  Bavaria  and 
Wirtemberg,  the  Elector  of  Baden,  the  Duke 
of  Berg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  Darmstadt, 
and  others,  published  at  Ratisbon  a declara- 
tion, that  as  the  Germanic  constitution  then 
existing  could  afford  no  guarantee  for  the 
public  tranquillity,  the  contracting  parties 
had  agreed,  that  their  states  should  be  forever 
separated  from  the  Germanic  body,  and  united 
by  a particular  confederation,  under  the  title 
of  “The  Confederate  States,”  of  which  the 
Emperor  of  the  French  was  constituted  the 
head  and  protector.  The  treaty  of  confeder- 
ation was  projected  and  drawn  up  at  Paris, 
and  ratified  at  Munich,  on  the  25fh  of  July, 
1806 : it  contained  forty  articles  relative  to 


the  territories  which  each  of  the  contracting 
parties  was  to  possess,  and  other  important 
particulars.  Every  continental  war,  in  which 
either  France  or  any  of  the  confederate  states 
should  be  engaged,  was  to  be  common  to  all ; 
the  contingent  to  be  furnished  by  each  of  the 
members,  was  determined  in  the  following 
proportion:  France,  200,000  men,  Bavaria 
30,000,  Wirtemberg  12,000,  Baden  8,000, 
Berg  5,000,  Darmstadt  4,000,  Nassau  and  the 
other  states  4,000.  By  this  confederation, 
the  Germanic  body  was  completely  dissolved, 
and  a very  considerable  part  of  its  members 
ranged  themselves  under  the  banners  of 
France.  Francis  II.,  in  consequence  of  this 
organization,  resigned  his  title  of  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  took  that  of  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria. Thus  was  dissolved  the  German,  or  as 
it  was  stj'led  in  diplomatic  language,  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  1006  years  after  Charlemagne 
received  the  imperial  title  and  crown  from 
the  hands  of  the  pope.  [ See  Germany.] 

CONFUCIUS,  the  celebrated  Chinese  phi- 
losopher, lived  about  550  b.c. 

CONGO,  a kingdom  of  Africa,  in  Lower 
Guinea,  which  is  under  the  sway  of  the  Por- 
tuguese. It  is  rich  and  fertile.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  1484  by  Diego  Cam,  a Portuguese. 
The  native  government  is  despotic. 

CONGRESS,  Continental.  The  first  met 
in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  5th,  1774;  Oct.  8th, 
resolve  to  support  Massachusetts.  Second 
congress  assembled  May  10th,  1775,  in  Phil- 
adelphia; June  7th,  style  the  colonies  “The 
Twelve  United  Colonies,”  Georgia  not  having 
yet  acceded  to  the  Union;  June  22d,  1775, 
appoint  eight  major-generals  ; May  5th,  1776, 
declare  the  authority  of  England  abolished ; 
July  4th,  declare  independence ; Dec.  12th, 

1776,  adjourn  from  Philadelphia  to  meet  at 
Baltimore  ; 30th,  resolve  to  send  commission- 
ers to  Prussia,  Austria,  Spain,  &c. ; Sept.  18th, 

1777,  on  the  approach  of  the  British  army 
toward  Philadelphia,  adjourn  to  meet  in  Lan- 
caster, whence  they  again  adjourn  on  the  30th 
of  the  same  month  to  meet  in  Little  York ; 
meet  again  in  Philadelphia,  July  2d,  1778. 
Sept.  14th,  1778,  appoint  Benjamin  Franklin 
minister  to  France,  the  first  regularly  consti- 
tuted ambassador  from  the  United  States,  the 
former  foreign  agents  being  styled  commis- 
sioners ; Oct.  4th,  1782,  resolve  against  a sep- 
arate peace;  June  26th,  1783,  adjourn  to 


CON 


223 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Princeton,  and  thence  to  Annapolis,  where 
they  meet  November  2Gth ; Nov.  1st,  1784, 
meet  at  Trenton,  N.  J.  ; Jan.  11th,  1785,  at 
New  York,  which  continued  to  be  the  place 
of  meeting  till  the  adoption  of  the  federal  con- 
stitution. From  1781  to  1788,  Congress  met 
annually  on  the  first  Monday  in  November, 
pursuant  to  the  articles  of  confederation. 
April  1st,  1789,  Congress  first  assembled  un- 
der the  federal  constitution;  Sept.  22d,  1790, 
pass  an  act  to  remove  to  Washington  city  in 
1800. 

CONGREVE,  William,  a celebrated  Eng- 
lish dramatist  and  poet,  born  in  1672,  died 
in  1729.  His  plays  are  replete  with  wit  and 


glitter,  but  are  blemished  by  a lack  of  morality. 
The  dramatist  was  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
Duchess  of  Marlborough  (daughter  of  the 
great  duke),  and  left  her  the  bulk  of  his  for- 
tune, about  £10,000.  She  honored  him  with 
a stately  funeral,  and  converted  the  bequest 
into  a superb  diamond  necklace,  which  she 
wore  in  his  honor.  It  is  said  that  she  had  a 
statue  of  him  in  ivory,  moved  by  clockwork, 
and  placed  daily  at  her  table ; that  she  had  a 
wax  doll  made  in  imitation  of  him,  and  that 
the  feet  of  this  doll  were  regularly  blistered 
and  anointed  by  the  doctors,  as  poor  Con- 
greve’s feet  had  been  when  he  suffered  from 
the  gout. 


CONNECTICUT,  one  of  the  New  England 
states,  has  an  area  of  4,674  square  miles. 
Population  in  1860,  460,147.  The  surface  is 
for  the  most  part  hilly,  but  nowhere  moun- 
tainous. The  state  is  well  watered,  mostly  by 
small  streams,  which  are  sources  of  important 
power  for  manufactures.  The  Connecticut, 
which  passes  through  nearly  the  centre  of  the 
state  from  north  to  south,  is  navigable  as  far 
as  Hartford.  The  Thames  in  the  east,  and  the 
Housatonic  in  the  west,  are  the  other  largest 
streams.  The  soil  is  generally  productive, 
but  not  highly  fertile,  and  in  general  is  more 
suited  for  grazing  than  tillage.  Along  the 
river  valleys,  however,  fine  rich  meadows 
lie.  Connecticut  does  better  in  manufactur- 
ing than  in  agriculture.  Her  clocks,  her 
pistols,  her  rifles,  her  axes,  her  gunpowder, 
and  her  rubber  goods  find  a market  through- 
out the  world  ; while  along  her  streams,  and 


in  her  busy  villages,  are  myriads  of  estab- 
lishments, in  which  other  ingenious  wares 
and  fabrics  are  wrought  by  industrious  and 
prosperous  artisans. 

The  present  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1818,  till  which  time  the  charter  granted  by 
Charles  II.,  in  1662,  was  the  basis  of  the 
government.  All  state  officers,  and  the 
members  of  both  branches  of  the  legislature, 
are  elected  annually  by  the  people.  The 
legislature  convenes  at  Hartford  and  New 
Haven  in  alternate  Mays.  Every  male  citi- 
zen, who  has  gained  a settlement  in  the  state, 
attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  resided 
in  the  town  six  months,  has  a good  moral 
character,  and  can  read  the  constitution  of 
the  state,  shall,  upon  taking  the  oath  pre- 
scribed, be  an  elector. 

The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a supreme 
court  of  errors,  a superior  court  and  such  other 


CON 


history  and  biography. 


229 


inferior  courts  as  the  general  assembly  shall 
from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The 
supreme  court  of  errors  consists  of  a chief 
judge  and  four  associates ; the  superior  court 
of  eight  judges,  all  chosen  by  the  legislature 
for  terms  of  eight  years.  This  commonwealth 
has  long  been  eminent  for  the  attention  giveii 
to  education.  The  school  fund  is  over  two 
million  dollars.  A normal  school  for  the 
instruction  of  teachers,  and  a reform  school 
for  juvenile  delinquents,  are  maintained  by 
the  state.  The  state  has  three  colleges ; 
Yale  at  New  Haven,  Trinity  at  Hartford,  and 
Wesleyan  at  Middletown.  The  American 
Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Hartford, 
was  the  first  institution  of  the  kind  on  this 
continent. 

The  towns  of  Windsor,  Hartford  and 
Wethersfield  were  settled  in  1685  and  1636 
by  emigrants  from  the  Massachusetts  colony. 
It  was  in  the  following  year  that  the  Pequots 
were  extirpated.  The  emigrants  had  at  first 
considered  themselves  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  parent  colony  at  Boston  Bay,  but  on 
the  14th  of  January,  1639,  the  planters  con- 
vened at  Hartford,  and  decided  for  a distinct 
commonwealth.  The  instrument  adopted 
upon  this  occasion  is  the  earliest  precedent 
of  a written  constitution,  proceeding  from  a 
people,  and  in  their  name  establishing  and 
defining  a government,  and  is  the  germ  of 
the  free  representative  plan  which  now  dis- 
tinguishes our  country  in  the  eyes  of  the 
world.  So  wisely  did  Ludlow,  Haynes  and 
Hooker  lay  the  foundations,  that  the  people 
of  Connecticut  have  found  no  necessity  for 
any  fundamental  change  in  the  polity  which 
the  fathers  ordained.  The  colony  of  New 
Haven  had  been  founded  in  1638  by  Eaton, 
Hopkins,  Davenport,  and  others.  By  the 
charter  granted  by  Charles  II.  in  1662,  the 
two  colonies  of  Hartford  and  New  Haven 
were  united.  This  was  the  instrument  after- 
ward hidden  in  the  Charter  Oak  from  the 
clutch  of  Andros.  Curiously  enough  for  a 
document  coming  from  a Stuart,  it  sanctioned 
the  democracy  which  the  quiet  independence 
of  the  colonists  had  framed  for  themselves  a 
quarter  of  a century  before.  The  common- 
wealth suffered  under  King  Philip’s  war,  sus- 
tained its  due  burden  in  the  wars  against  the 
French  in  America,  and  yet  grew,  in  strength, 
and  wealth,  and  numbers,  till  the  contest  for 


independence  came.  Only  one  of  the  thir- 
teen colonies  contributed  a larger  quota  of 
men  to  the  patriot  army  during  that  struggle. 
Her  venerable ''governor  during  this  crisis, 
the  patriotic  Trumbull,  the  original  ‘Brother 
Jonathan,’  was  one  of  AYashington’s  chief 
supports.  Irving  says : “ There  could  be  no 
surer  reliance  for  aid  in  time  of  danger  than 
the  patriotism  of  Governor  Trumbull ; nor 
were  there  men  more  ready  to  obey  a sudden 
appeal  to  arms  than  the  yeomanry  of  Con- 
necticut ; however  much  their  hearts  might 
subsequently  yearn  toward  the  farms  and 
firesides  they  had  so  promptly  abandoned. 
No  portion  of  the  Union  was  more  severely 
tasked,  throughout  the  Revolution,  for  mili- 
tary service;  and  AYashington  avowed,  when 
the  great  struggle  was  over,  that  ‘ if  all  the 
states  had  done  their  duty  as  well  as  the  little 
state  of  Connecticut,  the  war  would  have 
been  ended  long  ago.’” 

Connecticut  is  divided  into  eight  counties. 
The  city  of  Hartford  is  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Connecticut  River,  fifty  miles  from  its 
mouth.  It  is  a handsome  town,  noted  for  its 
manufacturing  and  insurance  interests,  and 
has  a population  of  40,000.  New  Haven,  the 
sister  capital,  is  at  the  head  of  a small  bay 
opening  upon  Long  Island  Sound,  and  has 
50,000  inhabitants.  The  many  and  noble 
trees  that  adorn  its  ways  have  gained  it  the 
name  of  the  Elm  City.  Other  prominent 
towns  of  Connecticut  are  Norwich,  New  Lon- 
don, Bridgeport,  and  Middletown. 

CONSPIRACIES  and  Insurrections, 
the  most  remarkable  in  ancient  or  modern  his- 
tory. A conspiracy  was  formed  against  the 
infant  republic  of  Rome,  to  restore  the  ban- 
ished Sextus  Tarquin,  and  the  regal  govern- 
ment, in  which  the  two  sons  of  Junius  Brutus, 
the  first  consul,  being  concerned,  were  pub- 
licly condemned  and  put  to  death  by  their 
father,  507  b.c.  Another  by  the  Tarquin 
faction  against  the  Roman  senators ; Publius 
and  Marcus  discover  it ; the  other  conspira- 
tors are  put  to  death,  496  b.c.  Of  Cataline 
and  his  associates,  to  murder  the  consuls  and 
senate,  and  to  burn  the  city  of  Rome,  detected 
by  Cicero,  63  b.c.  An  insurrection  in  Spain 
cost  the  lives  of  30,000  Spaniards,  and  double 
that  number  of  Moors,  a.d.  1560.  At  Malta, 
to  destroy  the  knights,  for  which  125  slaves 
suffered  death,  June  26th,  1749.  At  Lisbon, 


CON 


230 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


by  several  of  the  nobility,  who  shot  the  king, 
1758.  At  St.  Domingo  and  the  other  French 
West  India  Islands,  where  near  16,000  ne- 
groes were  slain,  and  400  whites,  and  550 
plantations  destroyed,  1794.  Of  Moreau, 
Pichegru,  and  Cadoudal  against  Bonaparte, 
Feb.  15th,  1804.  Of  the  Prince  of  Asturias 
against  his  father,  1807.  Of  the  inhabitants 
of  Madrid  against  the  French,  in  which 
many  persons  were  killed,  1808.  In  Paris, 
for  which  the  conspirators,  three  ex-generals 
and  eleven  officers  were  executed,  October 
30th,  1812.  At  Travencore,  to  massacre  the 
European  officers  at  an  entertainment,  1812. 
At  Lisbon  to  overturn  the  Portuguese  gov- 
ernment, May,  1817. 

Conspiracies  and  insurrections  in  England. 
Of  the  barons  against  Henry  III.  for  cancel- 
ing Magna  Charta,  1258.  Of  the  Duke  of 
Exeter  and  others,  against  the  life  of  Henry 
IV.,  discovered  by  dropping  a paper  acci- 
dentally, 1400.  Of  Richard,  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester, against  his  nephews,  Edward  Y.  and 
his  brother,  whom  he  caused  to  be  murdered, 
1483.  Of  the  Earl  of  Suffolk  and  others 
against  Henry  VII.,  1506.  Insurrection  of 
the  London  apprentices,  1515.  Against 
Queen  Elizabeth,  by  Dr.  Story,  1571 ; by 
Anthony  Babington  and  others,  in  behalf  of 
Mary  of  Scotland,  1586  ; by  Lopez,  a Jew, 
and  others,  1593  ; by  Patrick  York,  an  Irish 
fencing-master,  employed  by  the  Spaniards 
to  kill  the  queen,  1594 ; of  Walpole,  a Jesuit, 
who  engaged  one  Squire  to  poison  the  queen’s 
saddle,  1598;  all  the  conspirators  were  exe- 
cuted. Against  James  I.,  by  the  Marchioness 
de  Yerneuil,  his  mistress,  and  others,  1604. 
The  Gunpowder  plot  discovered,  Nov.  5th, 
1605.  Of  Sindercomb  and  others  to  assassin- 
ate Oliver  Cromwell ; discovered  by  his  as- 
sociates ; Sindercomb  was  condemned,  and 
poisoned  himself  the  day  before  he  was  to 
have  been  executed,  1656.  An  insurrection 
of  the  Puritans,  1657.  An  insurrection  of 
the  fifth-monarchy  men  against  Charles  II., 
1660.  A conspiracy  of  Blood  and  his  asso- 
ciates, who  seized  the  Duke  of  Ormond, 
wounded  him,  and  would  have  hanged  him 
if  he  had  not  escaped ; they  afterward  stole 
the  crown,  1670  and  1671.  The  pretended 
plot  of  the  French,  Spanish,  and  English 
Jesuits,  countenanced  by  the  pope,  to  assassi- 
nate Charles  II.,  discovered  by  Dr.  Tongue 


and  the  infamous  Titus  Oates,  1678  ; another 
to  assassinate  him  at  the  Rye-house  farm, 
near  Hoddesdon,  Hertfordshire,  in  his  way 
from  Newmarket,  called  the  Rye-house  plot, 
1683.  Of  Lord  Preston,  the  Bishop  of  Ely, 
and  others  to  restore  King  James,  1691.  Of 
Granvil,  a French  chevalier  and  his  associates, 
to  assassinate  King  William  in  Flanders, 
1692.  A conspiracy  by  the  Earl  of  Ayles- 
bury and  others,  to  kill  the  king  near  Rich- 
mond, as  he  came  from  hunting,  discovered 
by  Pendergrass,  called  the  Assassination  plot, 
1696.  Of  Simon  Fraser,  Lord  Lovat,  in  favor 
of  the  Pretender,  against  Queen  Anne,  1703. 
Of  the  Marquis  Guiscard,  1710.  To  assassi- 
nate George  I.  by  James  Sheppard,  an  enthu- 
siastic youth,  who  had  been  taught  to  consider 
the  king  as  an  usurper,  1718.  Of  Layer  and 
others  to  bring  in  the  Pretender,  1722.  Of 
Col.  Despard  and  his  associates  to  assassinate 
George  III.  and  overturn  the  government, 
1802.  Of  Robert  Emmet  in  Dublin,  1803. 
Of  Thistlewood  and  a gang  of  desperate  pol- 
iticians, commonly  called  the  Cato  Street  con- 
spiracy, 1820. 

(For  Southern  Rebellion,  see  the  Chro- 
nology, end  of  this  work.) 

CONSTANTINE  the  Great,  son  of  the 
Emperor  Constantius  Chlorus,  by  Helena, 
was  born  at  York,  about  the  year  274.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  306,  he  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  by  the  army.  He  defeated 
the  Franks,  after  which  he  crossed  the  Rhine, 
and  committed  great  ravages  in  Belgium. 
Constantine  married  Fausta,  the  daughter  of 
Maximian,  in  306.  His  father-in-law,  taking 
advantage  of  his  absence  from  Arles,  where 
he  held  his  court,  seized  the  treasury,  and 
assumed  the  imperial  title,  but  being  taken 
prisoner  by  Constantine,  strangled  himself. 
A war  now  broke  out  between  Constantine 
and  Maxentius,  the  son  of  Maximian ; the 
former  reduced  Italy,  and  defeated  Maxen- 
tius, who  was  drowned  in  the  Tiber.  At  this 
period  the  era  of  Constantine’s  conversion  to 
Christianity  is  fixed.  As  he  was  riding  at 
the  head  of  his  troops,  an  immense  cross  of 
exceeding  brightness  is  said  to  have  appeared 
above  the  horizon,  bearing  the  inscription, 
“In  this  conquer.”  Constantine  was  no 
longer  an  infidel.  He  now  entered  Rome  in 
triumph,  and  received  from  the  senate  the 
title  of  Augustus,  in  conjunction  with  Licin- 


CON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


231 


ius  and  Maximin,  the  former  of  whom  mar- 
ried his  sister,  Constantia.  A civil  war 
shortly  broke  out  between  Licinius  and  Max- 
imin, in  which  the  latter  was  slain.  Licin- 
ius then  formed  a conspiracy  against  Con- 
stantine, which  being  discovered,  war  ensued 
between  them,  in  which  Constantine  was 
successful,  and  peace  was  concluded.  A sec- 
ond war  broke  out  in  323,  and  terminated  in 
the  defeat  of  Licinius,  and  his  resignation  of 
the  imperial  dignity.  Not  long  afterward 
he  was  strangled.  Constantine  now  began 
to  show  his  regard  for  the  religion  he  had 
adopted,  by  destroying  the  heathen  temples, 
building  numerous  churches,  and  journeying 
to  Jerusalem  to  visit  the  Holy  Land,  where 
he  erected  a magnificent  church  at  Bethle- 
hem. With  this  zeal  for  religion  he  blended 
courage  and  justice.  He  conquered  the 
Goths,  founded  Constantinople,  removing  the 
seat  of  empire  thither,  and  performed  many 
actions  that  entitle  him  to  the  name  of  Great. 
But  he  sullied  his  character  by  putting  to 
death  his  son  Crispus.  He  died  in  337. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  called  by  the  Turks 
Stamboul,  is  situated  on  the  European  side 
of  the  Bosphorus.  Its  circuit,  including  the 
suburbs,  is  about  thirty-five  miles,  and  the 
number  of  inhabitants,  by  the  most  moder- 
ate computation,  630,000  Greeks,  Armenians, 
Jews,  and  Turks.  It  was  built  upon  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Byzantium*  by  Constan- 
tine the  Great.  It  became  afterward  the 
capital  of  the  Greek  empire;  and,  having 
escaped  the  destructive  rage  of  the  barbarous 
nations,  it  was  the  greatest  as  well  as- the 
most  beautiful  city  in  Europe,  and  the  only 
one,  during  the  Gothic  ages,  in  which  there 
remained  any  image  of  the  ancient  elegance 
in  manners  and  arts.  It  derived  great  advan- 
tages from  its  being  the  rendezvous  of  the 
crusaders ; and,  being  then  in  the  zenith  of 
its  glory,  the  European  writers,  in  that  age, 
speak  of  it  with  astonishment.  During  the 
third  crusade,  a revolution  happened  at  Con- 
stantinople, which  divided  the  eastern  empire 
for  fifty-eight  years.  Alexius  Angelus,  sur- 
named  the  tyrant,  having  dethroned  Isaac 
II.,  placed  himself  upon  the  throne  of  Con- 
stantinople, in  1195  ; and  Alexius,  the  son  of 
Isaac,  applied  to  the  French  and  Venetians, 
who  passed  that  way  to  the  Holy  Wars,  to 
assist  him  in  the  recovery  of  his  father’s  em- 


pire. They  accordingly,  in  1203,  reduced 
Constantinople,  after  a siege  of  eight  days, 
and  replaced  Isaac  on  the  throne.  The  next 
year,  Alexius  Dacus  Murzoufle  assassinated 
the  emperor,  whom  the  crusaders  had  re-es- 
tablished, and  seized  the  crown.  On  hearing 
this,  the  French  returned,  attacked  the  city, 
reduced  it  in  three  days,  deposed  Murzoufle, 
and  chose  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  em- 
peror. 

He  had  four  successors,  the  last  of  whom, 
Baldwin  II.,  was  deposed  in  1262,  by  Michael 
Paleologus.  In  the  mean  time  Theodore  Las- 
caris,  who  had  been  charged  by  the  clergy  to 
take  arms  against  the  tyrant  Murzoufle,  find- 
ing Constantinople  in  the  power  of  the  French, 
retired  with  his  wife  and  family  to  Nice, 
where,  in  1204,  he  was  crowned  emperor,  and 
formed  a small  empire  out  of  that  of  Constan- 
tinople. He.  had  but  three  successors,  the 
last  of  whom,  John  Ducas,  was  deprived  of 
his  sight  in  1255  by  order  of  Michael  Paleo- 
logus, his  preceptor,  who  usurped  the  throne 
in  1259,  and  in  1262  made  himself  master  of 
Constantinople,  so  that  the  empire  was  re- 
united. It  continued  till  1453,  when  Con- 
stantinople was  taken  by  Mohammed  II.,  sul- 
tan of  the  Ottoman  Turks  ; since  which  it  has 
remained  the  seat  of  their  empire. 

Constantinople  is  at  this  day  one  of  the 
finest  cities  in  the  world,  from  its  situation 
and  port.  It  is  frequently  called  the  Porte 
by  way  of  eminence.  The  city  has  met  with 
many  disasters  from  convulsions,  earthquakes, 
and  the  plague. 

CONSTITUTION,  the  English,  which 
owes  its  foundation  to  the  era  of  the  con- 
quest, has  been  made  the  model  of  most  of 
the  constitutions  enjoyed  by  republican 
states.  The  Bill  of  Rights,  which  was  the 
basis  of  the  English  constitution,  was  passed 
in  the  time  of  the  revolution,  and  contained 
the  following  provisions : 1.  The  pretended 
power  of  suspending  laws,  or  the  execution 
of  laws  by  regal  authority,  without  the  con- 
sent of  parliament,  is  illegal.  2.  That  the 
pretended  power  of  dispensing  with  laws,  or 
the  execution  of  laws  by  regal  authority,  as 
it  hath  been  assumed  and  exercised  of  late, 
is  illegal.  3.  That  the  commission  for  erecting 
the  late  court  of  commissioners  for  ecclesias- 
tical causes,  and  all  other  commissions  and 
courts  of  like  nature,  are  illegal  and  perni- 


CON 


232 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


cious.  4.  That  levying  money  for,  or  to  the 
use  of  the  crown,  by  pretense  of  prerogative, 
without  grant  of  parliament,  for  longer  time, 
or  in  all  other  manner  than  the  same  is,  and 
shall  be  granted,  is  illegal.  5.  That  it  is  the 
right  of  the  subjects  to  petition  the  king,  and 
that  all  commitments  and  prosecutions  for 
such  petitioning,  are  illegal.  6.  That  the  rais- 
ing or  keeping  a standing  army  within  the 
kingdom  in  time  of  peace,  unless  it  be  with 
consent  of  parliament,  is  against  law.  7.  That 
the  subjects  which  are  Protestants,  may  have 
arms  for  their  defense,  suitable  for  their  con- 
ditions, and  as  allowed  by  law.  8.  That 
election  of  members  of  parliament  ought  to 
be  free.  9.  That  freedom  of  speech,  and 
debates  or  proceedings  in  parliament,  ought 
not  to  be  impeached  or  questioned  in  any 
court  or  place  out  of  parliament.  10  That 
excessive  bail  ought  not  to  be  required,  nor 
excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  un- 
usual punishments  inflicted.  11.  That  ju- 
rors ought  to  be  duly  empannelcd  and 
returned ; and  that  jurors  which  pass  upon 
men  in  trials  for  high  treason,  ought  to 
be  freeholders.  12.  That  all  grants  and 
promises  of  fines  and  forfeitures  of  particular 
persons,  before  conviction,  are  illegal  and 
void.  13.  And  that  for  the  redress  of  all  griev- 
ances, and  for  the  amending,  strengthening, 
and  preserving  of  laws,  parliaments  ought  to 
be  held  frequently. 

The  English  constitution  comprehends  the 
whole  body  of  laws  by  which  the  British 
people  are  governed,  and  to  which  it  is  pre- 
sumptively held  that  every  individual  has 
assented. — Lord  Somers.  This  assemblage 
of  laws  is  distinguished  from  the  term  gov- 
ernment in  this  respect — that  the  constitution 
is  the  rule  by  which  the  sovereign  ought  to 
govern  at  all  times,  and  government  is  that 
by  which  he  does  govern  at  any  particular 
time.— -Lord  Bolingbroke.  The  king  of  Eng- 
land is  not  seated  on  a solitary  eminence  of 
power ; on  the  contrary,  he  sees  his  equals  in 
the  co-existing  branches  of  the  legislature, 
and  he  recognizes  his  superior  in  the  law. — 
Sheridan.  The  beautiful  pile  of  the  British 
constitution  is  the  work  of  ages ; the  produc- 
tion of  a happy  concurrence  and  succession 
of  circumstances,  growing  by  degrees,  and 
accommodating  itself,  in  accordance  with  its 


growth,  to  the  tempers  and  manners,  the 
customs  and  character  of  the  British  people. — 

Montesquieu. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES,  as  proposed  to  the  convention  held 
at  Philadelphia,  Pith  September,  1787,  and 
since  ratified  by  the  several  states  with 
amendments. 

We  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in 
order  to  form  a more  perfect  union,  establish 
justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide 
for  the  common  defense,  promote  the  general 
welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty 
to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United 
States  of  America. 

Article  I.  Section  1.  All  legislative  pow- 
ers herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist 
of  a senate  and  house  of  representatives. 

Sec.  2.  The  house  of  representatives  shall 
be  composed  of  members  chosen  every  second 
year  by  the  people  of  the  several  states,  and 
the  electors  in  each  state  shall  have  the  quali- 
fications requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  state  legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a representative  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a citizen  of 
the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when 
elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  state  in  wrhich 
he  shall  be  chosen. 

Kepresentatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be 
apportioned  among  the  several  states  which 
may  be  included  within  this  union,  according 
to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be 
determined  by  adding  to  the  wrhole  number 
of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  ser- 
vice for  a term  of  years,  and  excluding  In- 
dians not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other  per- 
sons. The  ac  jual  enumeration  shall  be  made 
within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of 
the  congress  of  the  United  States,  and  w ithin 
every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such 
manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The 
number  of  representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  state 
shall  have  at  least  one  representative. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representa- 
tion from  any  state,  the  executive  authority 
thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill 
such  vacancies. 


CON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


238 


The  house  of  representatives  shall  choose 
their  speaker  and  other  officers ; and  shall 
have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Sec.  3.  The  senate  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  composed  of  two  senators  from  each 
state,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for 
six  years ; and  each  senator  shall  have  one 
vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled 
in  consequence  of  the  first  election,  they 
shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into 
three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  senators  of 
the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at 
the  expiration  of  the  fourth  }rear,  and  of  the 
third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year, 
so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second 
year  ; and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation, 
or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  any  state,  the  executive  thereof  may 
make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next 
meeting  of  the  legislature,  which  shall  then 
fill  such  vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a senator  who  shall  not 
have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and 
been  nine  years  a citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  in- 
habitant of  that  state  for  which  he  shall  be 
chosen. 

The  vice-president  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  president  of  the  senate,  but  shall 
have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

The  senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers, 
and  also  a president  pro  tempore,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  vice-president,  or  when  he  shall 
exercise  the  office  of  president  of  the  United 
States. 

The  senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to 
try  all  impeachments.  When  sitting  for  that 
purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  president  of  the  United  States  is 
tried,  the  chief  justice  shall  preside:  and  no 
person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall 
not  extend  further  than  to  removal  from 
office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy 
any  office  of  honor,  trust  or  profit  under  the 
United  States  : but  the  party  convicted  shall 
nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indict- 
ment, trial,  judgment  and  punishment,  accord- 
ing to  law. 

Sec.  4.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of 


holding  elections  for  senators  and  representa- 
tives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  state  by  the 
legislature  thereof;  but  the  congress  may  at 
any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regula- 
tions, except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing 
senators. 

The  congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once 
in  every  year,  and  such  meeting  shall  be  on 
the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a different  day. 

Sec.  5.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of 
the  elections,  returns  and  qualifications  of 
its  own  members,  and  a majority  of  each  shall 
constitute  a quorum  to  do  business ; but  a 
smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day, 
and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attend- 
ance of  absent  members,  in  such  manner, 
and  under  such  penalties  as  each  house  may 
provide. 

Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its 
proceedings,  punish  its  members  for  disor- 
derly behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of 
two-thirds,  expel  a member. 

Each  house  shall  keep  a journal  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, and  from  time  to  time  publish  the 
same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and 
nays  of  the  members  of  either  house  on  any 
question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth  of 
those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  con- 
gress, shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  other, 
adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any 
other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses 
shall  be  sitting. 

Sec.  6.  The  senators  and  representatives 
shall  receive  a compensation  for  their  services, 
to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the 
treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in 
all  cases,  except  treason,  felony  and  breach 
of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during 
their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  re- 
spective houses,  and  in  going  to  or  returning 
from  the  same ; and  for  any  speech  or  debate 
in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be  questioned 
in  any  other  place. 

No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during 
the  time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  appoint- 
ed to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  cre- 
ated, or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have 
been  increased  during  such  time;  and  no 
person  holding  any  office  under  the  United 


23 1 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


States,  shall  be  a member  of  either  house 
during  his  continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  V.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall 
originate  in  the  house  of  representatives ; but 
the  senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amend- 
ments as  on  other  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the 
house  of  representatives  and  the  senate,  shall, 
before  it  become  a law,  be  presented  to  the 
president  of  the  United  States ; if  he  approve 
he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return  it, 
with  his  objections  to  that  house  in  which  it 
shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  ob- 
jections at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed 
to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  reconsidera- 
tion two-thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to 
pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with 
the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by  which 
it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  ap- 
proved by  two-thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall 
become  a law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the 
votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by 
yeas  and  nays  ; and  the  names  of  the  persons 
voting  for  and  against  the  bill,  shall  be  entered 
on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.  If 
any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  president 
within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it 
shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same 
shall  be  a law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had 
signed  it,  unless  the  congress  by  their  adjourn- 
ment prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall 
not  be  a law. 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which 
the  concurrence  of  the  senate  and  house  of 
representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on 
a question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented 
to  the  president  of  the  United  States;  and 
before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  ap- 
proved by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him, 
shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  senate 
and  house  of  representatives,  according  to  the 
rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of 
a bill. 

Sec.  8.  The  congress  shall  have  power — To 
lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts  and  ex- 
cises, to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the 
common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the 
United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts  and 
excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  Uni- 
ted States; 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  Uni- 
ted States ; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations, 


and  among  the  several  states,  and  with  the 
Indian  tribes ; 

To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturaliza- 
tion, and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bank- 
ruptcies throughout  the  United  States  ; 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof, 
and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of 
weights  and  measures ; 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counter- 
feiting the  securities  and  current  coin  of  the 
United  States; 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads  ; 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  use- 
ful arts,  by  securing  for  limited  times  to  au- 
thors and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to 
their  respective  writings  and  discoveries ; 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  su- 
preme court ; 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies 
committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  offenses 
against  the  law  of  nations  ; 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  captures 
on  land  and  water ; 

To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appro- 
priation of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a 
longer  term  than  two  years  ; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a navy ; 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  reg- 
ulation of  the  land  and  naval  forces ; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to 
execute  the  laws  of  the  union,  suppress  insur- 
rections and  repel  invasions ; 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  dis- 
ciplining, the  militia,  and  for  governing  such 
part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  states 
respectively,  the  appointment  of  the  officers, 
and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  ac- 
cording to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  con- 
gress ; 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases 
whatsoever,  over  such  district  (not  exceeding 
ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  par- 
ticular states,  and  the  acceptance  of  congress, 
become  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority 
over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of 
the  legislature  of  the  state  in  which  the  same 
shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines, 
arsenals,  dock-yards,  and  other  needful  build- 
ings ; — and 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary 


CON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


235 


and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the 
foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  constitution  in  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer 
thereof. 

Sec.  9.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such 
persons  as  any  of  the  states  now  existing  shall 
think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited 
by  the  congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a tax  or  duty 
may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  ex- 
ceeding ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when  in  cases 
of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may 
require  it. 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law 
shall  be  passed. 

No  capitation,  or  other  direct,  tax  shall  be 
laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enu- 
meration herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  ex- 
ported from  any  state. 

No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regula- 
tion of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports  of 
one  state  over  those  of  another:  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  state,  be  obliged 
to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury, 
but  in  consequence  of  appropriations  made  by 
law ; and  a regular  statement  and  account  of 
the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public 
money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the 
United  States:  and  no  pefson  holding  any 
office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall, 
without  the  consent  of  the  congress,  accept 
of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of 
any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or 
foreign  state. 

Sec.  10.  No  state  shall  enter  into  any  treaty, 
alliance,  or  confederation ; grant  letters  of 
marque  and  reprisal ; coin  money ; emit  bills 
of  credit ; make  anything  but  gold  and  silver 
coin  a tender  in  payment  of  debts ; pass  any 
bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  im- 
pairing the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant 
any  title  of  nobility. 

No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
congress,  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  imports 
or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws : 
and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts, 


laid  by  any  state  on  imports  or  exports,  shall 
be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States ; and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to 
the  revision  and  control  of  the  congress.  No 
state  shall,  without  the  consent  of  congress, 
lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep  troops,  or  ships 
of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agree- 
ment or  compact  with  another  state,  or  with 
a foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  ac- 
tually invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger 
as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

Article  II.  Section  1.  The  executive 
power  shall  be  vested  in  a president  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his 
office  during  the  term  of  four  years,  and,  to- 
gether with  the  vice-president,  chosen  for  the 
same  term,  be  elected  as  follows : 

Each  state  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as 
the  legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a number 
of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  sen- 
ators and  representatives  to  which  the  state 
may  be  entitled  in  the  congress : but  no  sen- 
ator or  representative,  or  person  holding  an 
office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States, 
shall  be  appointed  an  elector.  [ The  electors 
shall  meet  in  their  respective  states , and  vote 
by  ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least 
shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  state 
with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a list 
of  all  the  persons  voted,  for,  and  of  the  number 
of  votes  for  each ; which  list  they  shall  sign 
and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States , di- 
rected to  the  president  of  the  senate.  The 
president  of  the  senate  shall,  in  the  presence 
of  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  open 
all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be 
counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  shall  be  the  president,  if  such 
number  be  a majority  of  the  whole  number  of 
electors  appointed  ; and  if  there  be  more  than 
one  who  have  such  majority , and  have  an  equal 
number  of  votes,  then  the  house  of  representa- 
tives shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one 
of  them  for  president ; and  if  no  person  have 
a majority,  then  from  the  five  highest  on  the 
list  the  said  house  shall  in  like  manner  choose 
the  president.  But  in  choosing  the  president, 
the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  repre- 
sentation from  each  state  having  one  vote ; a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a 
member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the 
states,  and  a majority  of  all  the  states  shall 


CON 


236 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


be  necessary  to  a choice.  In  every  case , after 
the  choice  of  the  president,  the  person  having 
the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors 
shall  be  the  vice-president.  But  if  there 
should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal 
votes , the  senate  shall  choose  from  them  by 
ballot  the  vice-president .]  \See  12th  Amend- 
ment. 

The  congress  may  determine  the  time  of 
choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day  on  which 
they  shall  give  their  votes ; which  day  shall 
be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

No  person  except  a natural  born  citizen,  or 
a citizen  of  the  United  States,  at  the  time  of 
the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall  be 
eligible  to  the  office  of  president;  neither 
shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty -five 
years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a resident 
within  the  United  States. 

In  the  case  of  the  removal  of  the  president 
from  office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  in- 
ability to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the 
vice-president ; and  the  congress  may  by  law 
provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resig- 
nation, or  inability,  both  of  the  president  and 
vice-president,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then 
act  as  president ; and  such  officer  shall  act 
accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed, 
or  a president  shall  be  elected. 

The  president  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive 
for  his  services,  a compensation,  which  shall 
neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elect- 
ed, and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  pe- 
riod any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them. 

Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  of- 
fice, he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or  affirm- 
ation : — 

“I  do  solemnly  swear  [or  affirm]  that  I 
will  faithfully  execute  the  office* of  president 
of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of 
my  ability,  preserve,  protect  and  defend  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States.” 

Sec.  2.  The  president  shall  be  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  states, 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the 
United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion, 
in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject 


relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offi- 
ces, and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves 
and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the  United 
States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  ad- 
vice and  consent  of  the  senate,  to  make  trea- 
ties, provided  two-thirds  of  thesenators present 
concur ; and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate, 
shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  min- 
isters and  consuls,  judges  of  the  supreme 
court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United 
States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be 
established  by  law : but  the  congress  may 
by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 
officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  president 
alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of 
departments. 

The  president  shall  have  power  to  fill  up 
all  vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the  re- 
cess of  the  senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next 
session. 

Sec.  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to 
the  congress  information  of  the  state  of  the 
union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration 
such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and 
expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occa- 
sions, convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them ; 
and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them, 
with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall 
think  proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors 
and  other  public  ministers  ; he  shall  take  care 
that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall 
commission  all  the  officers  of  the  UnitedStates. 

Sec.  4.  The  president,  vice-president  and 
all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States,  shall  be 
removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and 
conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

Article  III.  Sectionl.  The  judicial  power 
of  the  United  States,  shall  be  vested  in  one 
supreme  court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as 
the  congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain 
and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  su- 
preme and  inferior  court,  shall  hold  their 
offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at 
stated  times,  receive  for  their  services,  a com- 
pensation, which  shall  not  be  diminished 
during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  2.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to 


CON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


237 


all  cases,  in  law  and  equity,  arising  under 
this  constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  their  authority ; — to  all  cases 
affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers, 
and  consuls  ; — to  ail  cases  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction  ; — to  controversies  to 
which  the  United  States  shall  be  a party  ; — to 
controversies  between  two  or  more  states ; — 
[between  a state  and  citizens  of  another 
state] ; — between  citizens  of  different  states, — 
between  citizens  of  the  same  state  claiming 
lands  under  grants  of  different  states,  and  be- 
tween a state,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and 
foreign  states,  citizens  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other 
public  ministers  and  consuls,  and  those  in 
which  a state  shall  be.  party,  the  supreme 
court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all 
the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  supreme 
court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both 
as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and 
under  such  regulations  as  the  congress  shall 
make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury;  and  such 
trial  shall  be  held  in  the  state  where  the  said 
crimes  shall  have  been  committed  ; but  when 
not  committed  within  any  state,  the  trial 
shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  con- 
gress may  by  law  have  directed. 

Sec.  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States, 
shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  against  them, 
or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them 
aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  con- 
victed of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of 
two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on 
confession  in  open  court. 

The  congress  shall  have  power  to  declare 
the  punishment  of  treason,  but  no  attainder 
of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or 
forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of  the  person 
attainted. 

Article  IV.  Section  1.  Full  faith  and 
credit  shall  be  given  in  each  state  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings 
of  every  other  state.  And  the  congress  may 
by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in 
which  such  acts,  records  and  proceedings 
shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Sec.  2.  The  citizens  of  each  state  shall  be 
entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of 
citizens  in  the  several  states. 


A person  charged  in  any  state  with  trea- 
son, felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from 
justice,  and  be  found  in  another  state,  shall 
on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the 
state  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to 
be  removed  to  the  state  having  jurisdiction  of 
the  crime. 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one 
state,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping  into 
another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or 
regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such 
service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on 
claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or 
labor  may  be  due. 

Sec.  3.  New  states  may  be  admitted  by  the 
congress  into  this  union  ; but  no  new  state 
shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  juris- 
diction of  any  other  state ; nor  any  state  be 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  states, 
or  parts  of  states,  without  the  consent  of  the 
legislature  of  the  states  concerned  as  well  as 
of  the  congress. 

The  congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose 
of  and  make  all  needful  rules  and  regulations 
respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  be- 
longing to  the  United  States;  and  nothing  in 
this  constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to 
prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or 
of  any  particular  state. 

Sec.  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee 
to  every  state  in  this  Union  a republican  form 
of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  invasion ; and  on  application  of  the 
legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when  the 
legislature  can  not  be  convened)  against 
domestic  violence. 

Article  V.  The  congress,  whenever  two- 
tliirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it  necessary, 
shall  propose  amendments  to  this  constitu- 
tion, or,  on  the  application  of  the  legislatures 
of  two-thirds  of  the  several  states,  shall  call 
a convention  for  proposing  amendments, 
which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  consti- 
tution, when  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of, 
three-fourths  of  the  several  states,  or  by  con- 
ventions in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one 
or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  pro- 
posed by  the  congress ; provided  that  no 
amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight 
shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth 
clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  art! 

I 


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238 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


cle ; and  that  no  state,  without  its  consent, 
shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the 
senate. 

Article  VI.  All  debts  contracted  and 
engagements  entered  into,  before  the  adoption 
of  this  constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against 
the  United  States  under  this  constitution,  as 
under  the  confederation. 

This  constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  which  shall  be  made  in  pursu- 
ance thereof;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which 
shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of 
the  land ; and  the  judges  in  every  state 
shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  con- 
stitution or  laws  of  any  state  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding. 

The  senators  and  representatives  before 
mentioned,  and  the  members  of  the  several 
state  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judi- 
cial officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  several  states,  shall  be  bound  by  oath 
or  affirmation,  to  support  this  constitution ; 
but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as 
a qualification  to  any  office  or  public  tr.  st 
under  the  United  States. 

Article  VII.  The  ratification  of  the  con- 
ventions of  nine  states,  shall  be  sufficient  for 
the  establishment  of  this  constitution  be- 
tween the  states  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Amendments.  Article  the  first.  Congress 
shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment 
of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof ; or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press ; or  the  right  of  the  people 
peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the 
government  for  a redress  of  grievances. 

Article  the  second.  A well-regulated  mili- 
tia, being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a free 
state,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear 
arms,  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Article  the  third.  No  soldier  shall,  in  time 
of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war, 
but  in  a manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Article  the  fourth.  The  right  of  the  peo- 
ple to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses, 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable 
searches  and  secures,  shall  not  be  violated, 
and  no  warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  proba- 
ble cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation, 
and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be 


searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be 
seized. 

Article  the  fifth.  No  person  shall  be  held 
to  answer  for  a capital,  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a presentment  or  indictment 
of  a grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the 
land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when 
in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public 
danger ; nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for 
the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy 
of  life  or  limb ; nor  shall  be  compelled  in 
any  criminal  case  to  be  a witness  against  him- 
self, nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  prop- 
erty, without  due  process  of  law ; nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use, 
without  just  compensation. 

Article  the  sixth.  In  all  criminal  prosecu- 
tions, the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury 
of  the  state  and  district  wherein  the  crime 
shall  have  been  committed,  which  district 
shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by 
law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and 
cause  of  the  accusation  ; to  be  confronted  with 
the  witnesses  against  him  ; to  have  compul- 
sory process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his 
favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel 
for  his  defense. 

Article  the  seventh.  In  suits  at  common 
law',  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall 
exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by 
jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by 
a jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any 
court  of  the  United  States,  than  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

Article  the  eighth.  Excessive  bail  shall 
not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

Article  the  ninth.  The  enumeration  in  the 
constitution,  of  certain  rights,  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained 
by  the  people. 

Article  the  tenth.  The  powers  not  dele- 
gated to  the  United  States  by  the  constitu- 
tion, nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  states,  are 
reserved  to  the  states  respectively,  or  to  the 
people. 

Article  the  eleventh.  The  judicial  power 
of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed 
to  extend  to* any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  com- 
menced or  prosecuted  agaffist  one  of  the 
United  States  bj-  citizens  of  another  state, 


CON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


239 


or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign 
state. 

Article  the  twelfth.  The  electors  shall 
meet  in  their  respective  states,  and  vote  by 
ballot,  for  president  and  vice-president,  one 
of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  same  state  with  themselves ; they  shall 
name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
president,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person 
voted  for  as  vice-president;  and  they  shall 
make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as 
president,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as 
vice-president,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for 
each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify, 
and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the 
president  of  the  senate ; — The  president  of  the 
senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  senate 
and  house  of  representatives,  open  all  the  certi- 
ficates, and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted ; — 
The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  for  president,  shall  be  the  president, 
if  such  number  be  a majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed ; and  if  no  per- 
son have  such  majority,  then  from  the  per- 
sons having  the  highest  numbers  not  ex- 
ceeding three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as 
president,  the  house  of  representatives  shall 
choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  president. 
But  in  choosing  the  president,  the  votes  shall 
be  taken  by  states,  the  representation  from 
each  state  having  one  vote ; a quorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a member  or  mem- 
bers from  two-thirds  of  the  states,  and  a 
majority  of  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary 
to  a choice.  And  if  the  house  of  representa- 
tives shall  not  choose  a president  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them, 
before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  follow- 
ing, then  the  vice-president  shall  act  as  pres- 
ident, as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other 
constitutional  disability  of  the  president. 

The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  as  vice-president,  shall  be  the  vice- 
president,  if  such  number  be  a majority  of 
the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and 
if  no  person  have  a majority,  then  from  the 
two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  senate 
shall  choose  the  vice-president:  a quorum 
for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of 
the  whole  number  of  senators,  and  a major- 
ity of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to 
a choice. 


But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to 
the  office  of  president  shall  be  eligible  to  that 
of  vice-president  of  the  United  States. 

Article  the  Thirteenth , Section  1.  Neither 
slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as 
a punishment  for  crime,  whereof  the  party 
shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  in 
the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to 
their  jurisdiction. 

Sec.  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  en- 
force this  by  appropriate  legislation. 

Article  Fourteenth.  See  Appendix,  p 971. 

Article  Fifteenth.  See  Appendix,  p.  972. 

CONSULS.  These  officials  were  appointed 
at  Rome,  509  b.  c.,  and  held  office  one  year. 
At  first  they  were  both  patricians,  but  in 
588  b.  c.  the  people  obtained  the  privilege  of 
choosing  one  from  their  own  number,  and 
sometimes  both  were  plebeians.  A consular 
government  was  set  up  in  France,  Nov.  9th, 
1799,  when  Bonaparte,  Cambaceres,  and  Le- 
brun were  made  consuls. 

CONTI,  Armand  de  Bourbon  first  an  ec- 
clesiastic, then  a- soldier,  opposed  his  brother 
the  great  Conde.  After  being  successively 
governor  of  Guienne,  general  of  the  armies  in 
Catalonia,  and  governor  of  Languedoc,  he 
died  in  1666. 

CONTRERAS.  In  this  engagement,  fought 
early  in  the  morning  of  the  20th  of  August, 
1847,  a part  of  Scott’s  army  commanded  by 
Gen.  Persifer  F.  Smith,  stormed  Gen.  Valen- 
cia’s intrenched  camp.  More  than  a thousand 
prisoners  were  captured,  and  some  fifteen 
hundred  Mexicans  killed  and  wounded.  The 
American  loss  in  killed,  wounded  and  miss- 
ing was  about  one  hundred.  The  battle  of 
Cherubusco  was  fought  later  in  the  same  day. 

COOK,  James,  a famous  English  navigator, 
born  in  Yorkshire,  in  1728,  early  went  to  sea. 
He  was  employed  in  several  important  ser- 
vices, and  explored  the  South  Sea  Islands  in 
1769.  From  New  Zealand  he  sailed  to  New 
Holland,  New  Guinea,  and  Batavia,  returning 
home  in  1771.  His  next  voyage  to  the 
southern  hemisphere  was  commenced  in 
1772,  in  two  ships,  the  Resolution  and  Ad- 
venture. On  this  voj^age  Cook  discovered 
the  island  of  New  Georgia,  and  returning, 
July  30th,  1775,  was  well  received  and 
rewarded  for  his  services.  In  July,  1776, 
he  sailed  to  determine  the  long  agitated  ques- 
tion of  a northwest  passage  to  the  Pacific 


COO 


240 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Ocean,  but  the  attempt  was  abandoned  as  I 
impracticable,  and  the  Resolution  and  Discov- 
ery anchored  at  the  Sandwich  Islands,  on  their 
return,  Nov.  26th,  1778.  Their  reception 
was  at  first  favorable,  but  when  Cook  went 
on  shore  to  seize  the  king  of  Owhyhee,  wdth 
the  intention  of  keeping  him  as  a hostage,  till 
one  of  the  English  boats  stolen  by  the  sava- 
ges was  restored,  he  was  attacked  by  the 
natives,  one  of  whom  felled  him  by  a club, 
and  then  dispatched  him  with  a dagger.  This 
event  occurred  on  the  14th  of  February, 
1779. 

COOPER,  Sir  Astley  Paston,  an  eminent 
English  surgeon,  born  in  1768,  died  in  1841. 

COOPER,  James  Fenimore,  a distinguished 
American  novelist,  died  at  Cooperstown,  N. 
Y.,  Sept.  14th,  1851.  He  was  born  at  Bur- 
lington, N.  J.,  Sept.  15th,  1789;  his  father 
being  a judge  of  some  distinction,  and  a large 
landholder  in  Otsego  county.  After  grad- 
uating at  Yale  College,  he  entered  the  navy 
as  a midshipman  in  1805.  In  1810,  he  left 
the  service,  married,  soon  settled  at  Coopers- 
town, and  commenced  his  brilliant  career  in 
fiction,  publishing  the  series  of  tales  of  early 
American  life  which  won  him  such  enviable 
distinction.  In  1826,  he  visited  Europe, 
everywhere  meeting  with  a most  ^ordial 
reception.  During  his  stay  of  several  years 
abroad,  he  wrote  several  of  his  best  sea 
stories.  Some  of  his  later  works,  after  his 
return  home,  embodied  political  opinions  and 
strictures  upon  the  faults  of  American  life 
and  character,  which  subjected  him  for  some 
years  to  a warm  and  bitter  hostility. 

COPERNICUS,  Nicolas,  the  illustrious 
astronomer,  was  born  at  Thorn  in  Prussia, 
Feb.  19th,  1473.  Till  his  time  the  Ptolemaic 
theory,  which  made  the  earth  the  centre  of 
the  planetary  system  and  of  the  universe,  had 
been  implicitly  believed.  Contrary  teaching 
was  afterward  denounced  as  not  only  a heresy 
in  science  but  in  religion,  and  a contempt  of 
Scripture.  The  astronomical  studies  of  Co- 
pernicus convinced  him  of  the  earth’s  annual 
motion  and  the  sun’s  immobility  as  the  centre 
of  our  solar  system.  Dreading  the  prejudices 
of  the  world,  he  long  delayed  the  publication 
of  his  theory.  A printed  copy  of  the  work  in 
which  he  embodied  it  was  only  placed  in  his 
hands  a few  hours  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  May  22d,  1543. 


COPLEY,  John  Singleton,  a self-taught 
painter,  a native  of  Boston,  where  he  was  born 
in  1738.  He  went  to  England  in  1776,  where 
he  met  with  great  encouragement,  and  died  in 
London  in  1815.  The  painting  of  the  death 
of  Lord  Chatham  in  the  House  of  Lords,  after 
his  immortal  speech  in  favor  of  America,  was 
one  of  his  best  performances.  His  son,  John 
Singleton  Copley,  born  in  Boston,  May  21st, 
1772,  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Lynd- 
hurst  upon  his  appointment  as  lord  chancellor 
in  1827,  and  occupied  an  eminent  position 
among  the  statesmen  of  his  adopted  country. 

CORD  AY,  Charlotte,  one  of  those  rare 
characters  in  history  who  by  an  utter  sacrifice 
of  self  have  gained  a world’s  admiration,  was 
born  in  1768.  The  blood  of  Corneille,  the 
great  dramatist,  coursed  in  her  veins.  She 
was  educated  in  a convent,  and  seems  to  have 
formed  her  naturally  enthusiastic  mind  upon 
the  classic  models  of  antiquity.  Her  assassin- 
ation of  Marat,  one  of  the  atrocious  triumvi- 
rate, is  one  of  the  most  startling  passages  in 
the  bloody  drama  of  the  French  revolution. 
Not  awTare  that  he  wTas  but  the  tool  of  Danton 
and  Robespierre,  to  him  she  ascribed  the  woes 
of  the  republic,  and  on  him  she  resolved  to 
avenge  her  ill-fated  country.  She  left  home 
secretly,  and  proceeded  to  Paris,  where  she 
calmly  remained  near  Marat’s  dwelling  two 
days,  before  she  attempted  to  execute  her 
bloody  intent.  With  difficulty  she  obtained 
admittance  to  Marat  (who  stood  in  great  fear 
of  assassination),  on  the  evening  of  July  13th, 
1793  ; having  previously  written  him  in  a note 
that  she  was  from  the  seat  of  rebellion,  and 
would  “put  it  in  his  power  to  d6  France  a 
great  service.”  Marat  wTas  in  a bath ; a soiled 
handkerchief  was  bound  around  his  head,  in- 
creasing his  natural  hideousness;  a coarse 
covering  was  thrown  across  the  bath ; a board 
placed  transversely  supported  his  papers. 
Entering  into  conversation  with  Charlotte,  he 
penned  with  ferocious  joy  the  fresh  list  of  vic- 
tims with  which  she  pretended  to  supply  him ; 
crying,  with  a malignant  smile,  “Before  a 
week  they  shall  have  perished  on  the  guillo- 
tine.” “ These  words,”  Charlotte  said  after- 
ward, “sealed  his  fate.”  Drawing  from  be- 
neath the  handkerchief  that  covered  her  bosom 
the  knife  she  had  hidden  there,  with  desperate 
determination  she  plunged  it  to  the  hilt  in  the 
monster’s  heart.  One  loud,  dying  shriek  for 


COR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


241 


help  he  gave,  and  then  sank  back  dead  in  the 
bath.  She  left  the  closet,  and  sat  down  calmly 
in  the  next  apartment.  The  household  of 
Marat  rushed  to  the  fatal  spot;  the  tumult 
spread ; a crowd  gathered,  who  gazed  with 
wonder  upon  the  murderess,  as  she  stood  be- 
fore them  with  still  disordered  garments, 
flushed  cheeks,  and  her  long  dark  disheveled 
hair,  loosely  bound  by  a broad  green  ribbon, 
falling  around  her ; so  calm,  so  serenely  lovely, 
that  those  who  most  abhorred  the  deed  she 
had  wrought,  gazed  upon  her  with  involuntary 
admiration.  She  submissively  surrendered 
herself  to  arrest.  Her  self-possession,  sincer- 
ity, and  maidenly  modesty  at  the  trial,  which 
immediately  ensued,  were  marvelous  in  the 
midst  of  the  tumult  that  agitated  Paris.  At 
the  very  commencement  of  the  prosecution, 
“ All  these  details  of  form  are  needless,”  she 
said.  “It  was  I who  killed  Marat.”  “I 
killed  one  man  to  save  a hundred  thousand.” 
“I  was  a republican  before  the  revolution; 

I never  wanted  energy.  I mean  by  energy 
the  feeling  of  those  who  are  willing  to  forget 
their  own  interest  for  the  sake  of  their  coun- 
try.” She  was  condemned.  A heavy  storm 
broke  forth  as  the  car  of  the  doomed,  on  which 
she  sat  clothed  in  a red  smock  as  a murderess, 
went  from  the  prison  to  the  guillotine.  An 
immense  crowd  lined  every  street  through 
which  she  passed.  Hootings  and  execrations 
at  first  were  her  portion  ; but  as  her  pure  and 
serene  beauty  dawned  on  the  throngs ; as  the 
exquisite  loveliness  of  her  countenance,  and 
the  sculptural  beauty  of  her  figure,  became 
more  fully  revealed,— pity  and  admiration  su- 
perseded every  other  feeling.  Her  bearing 
was  so  gracefully  calm  and  dignified  as  to 
rouse  sympathy  in  the  hearts  of  those  who 
detested  not  only  her  crime,  but  the  cause  for 
which  it  had  been  committed.  Manjr  men  of 
every  party  uncovered  their  heads  and  bowed 
as  the  cart  passed  before  them,  and  one  young 
man  cried  out  for  the  erection  of  a monument 
to  her  memory,  that  should  bear  the  inscrip- 
tion, “ Greater  than  Brutus.” 

CORDELIERS,  friars  of  the  order  of  St. 
Francis;  clothed  in  coarse  gray  cloth,  with  a 
small  cowl  and  cloak  of  the  same  stuff,  having 
a girdle  of  cord  or  rope,  tied  with  three  knots, 
whence  their  name,  which  was  first  given  to 
them  by  St.  Louis  of  France,  1227. 

CORINTH,  a famous  city  of  ancient  Greece, 

16 


situated  on  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name. 
It  was  founded  b.c.  1520.  Corinthus,  son  of 
Pelops,  gave  his  name  to  the  city.  The  in- 
habitants were  once  famed  for  their  power, 
wealth,  intelligence,  and  voluptuousness. 
They  founded  Syracuse  in  Sicily,  which  they 
afterward  delivered  from  oppression.  Corinth 
was  destroyed,  by  the  Roman  consul  Mum- 
mius,  146  b.c.  The  consul,  who  was  no  judge 
of  the  fine  arts,  assured  the  soldiers  who  had 
charge  of  the  incomparable  paintings  sent 
from  Corinth  to  Rome,  that  if  they  injured 
them,  he  should  make  them  furnish  new  ones. 
Julius  Caesar  attempted  to  restore  the  city  to 
its  former  importance.  The  government,  at 
first  monarchical,  was  changed  757  b.c.,  and 
it  became  the  head  of  the  Achaean  league.  In 
1453  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  Co- 
rinth is  now  a small  town  of  2,000  inhabitants. 

CORIOLANUS,  the  surname  of  Caius  Mar- 
cius,  given  him  for  his  victory  over  Corioli. 
After  having  served  his  country  faithfully, 
and  received  many  wounds  in  her  service,  he 
was  refused  the  consulship ; indignant  at 
the  ingratitude  of  his  countrymen,  who  ban- 
ished him,  he  joined  the  Yolsci,  a warlike  na- 
tion hostile  to  the  Romans.  Coriolanus  ter- 
rified the  Romans  by  approaching  their  capital 
at  the  head  of  a powerful  army  of  Yolscians.  . 
The  offended  Roman  refused  to  listen  to  pro- 
posals made  in  the  hope  of  inducing  him  to 
withdraw,  and  pitched  his  camp  within  five 
miles  of  the  city.  His  enmity  against  his 
country  would  have  been  fatal,  had  not  his 
wife,  Yolumnia,  and  his  mother,  Yeturia,  aided 
by  the  presence  of  his  children,  prevailed  upon 
him  to  withdraw  his  army.  Coriolanus,  in 
yielding  to  his  mother,  and  raising  her  from 
her  suppliant  posture,  pronounced  a sentence 
which  was  prophetic  of  his  fate:  “Oh!  my 
mother,  you  have  saved  Rome,  but  you  have 
destroyed  your  son.”  The  Yolscians,  indig- 
nant at  the  treachery  of  Coriolanus,  put  him 
to  death,  b.c.  488. 

CORNEILLE,  Pierre,  a French  author 
who  flourished  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIY.,  and 
was  the  founder  of  French  tragedy. 

CORNELIA,  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus 
the  elder,  mother  of  the  Gracchi,  a Roman 
matron  who  lived  about  130  b.c.  A lady  of 
Campania  having  shown  her  jewels  to  Corne- 
lia, in  paying  a visit  to  the  latter  requested  to 
see  her  jewels  in  return.  At  that  moment 


COR 


242 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


her  boys  entered  the  room,  and  the  noble  Cor- 
nelia, pointing  them  out  to  her  visitors,  ex- 
claimed, “ These  are  my  jewels ! ” At  her 
death  the  Romans,  mindful  of  her  worth, 
erected  a monument  to  her  memory. 

CORNWALLIS,  Charles,  Marquis  of,  born 
in  1738,  entered  the  English  army  at  an  early 
age,  and  rose  rapidly.  He  commanded  the 
British  army  in  the  South  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  was  finally  captured  at  York  town. 
In  1786,  he  was  made  governor-general  of  In- 
dia, where  he  reduced  Tippoo  Saib.  From 
1798  to  1801  he  was  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
and  was  of  eminent  service  in  restoring  quiet 
to  that  distracted  country.  In  1805,  he  was 
once  more  made  governor-general  of  India, 
but  died  at  Ghazepore,  soon  after  his  arrival 
out,  Oct.  5th  of  that  year. 

CORREGGIO.  Antonio  Allegri,  com- 
monly called  Correggio  from  his  birth-place,  a 
small  town  in  Modena,  was  born  in  the  winter 
of  1493-4.  In  1519,  we  find  him  a master  of 
established  reputation  at  Parma.  His  frescoes 
in  the  churches  of  Parma  are  his  greatest 
works,  but  he  likewise  produced  many  cele- 
brated paintings  in  oil.  His  proverbial  grace 
— apparent,  not  only  in  his  undulating  forms 
and  soft  transitions,  but  in  the  action  and  ex- 
pression of  his  figures — is  a distinctive  char- 
acteristic of  his  works ; and  he  is  still  unri- 
valed in  a certain  harmony  which  results  from 
delicate  gradations  of  light  and  shade.  He 
died  of  a fever  at  Correggio,  March  5th,  1534. 

CORSICA,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean, 
north  of  Sardinia.  Its  area  is  3,377  square 
miles,  and  the  population  in  1856  was  240,183. 
It  is  mountainous,  but  the  numerous  valleys 
are  extremely  fertile/  The  Corsicans  know 
not  how  to  develope  the  resources  of  their 
island.  They  are  in  an  almost  barbarous 
state,  recklessly  brave,  revengeful,  fond  of 
freedom,  and  indolent.  Corsica  has  been 
successively  occupied  by  the  Carthaginians, 
the  Romans,  the  Goths,  the  Saracens,  the 
Franks,  the  Pope,  the  Pisanese,  the  Genoese, 
the  French,  and  the  English,  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  last  in  1794.  The  English, 
however,  did  not  long  retain  possession  of  the 
island,  and  it  was  again  restored  to  France. 
Ajaccio  is  the  chief  town  and  port. 

CORTEZ,  Fernando,  the  conqueror  of 
Mexico,  was  born  in  1485,  in  Estremadura. 
He  came  to  the  West  Indies  in  high  hopes, 


and  Velasquez,  governor  of  Cuba,  gave  him 
the  command  of  an  expedition  designed  for 
the  reduction  of  Mexico,  which  consisted  of 
ten  ships,  six  hundred  men,  ten  small  field- 
pieces,  and  eighteen  horses.  With  this  small 
armament  he  accomplished  his  enterprise,  in 
151-9,  and  added  the  empire  of  Mexico  to 
that  of  Spain.  He  took  Montezuma  prisoner, 
although  received  with  hospitality,  and  the 
unfortunate  king  was  killed  by  his  own  sub- 
jects in  an  attack  on  the  Spaniards.  The 
conduct  of  the  conquerors  so  exasperated 
the  Indians  that  they  compelled  Cortez  to 
quit  the  city  with  great  loss,  but  he  regained 
it  after  some  hard  fighting.  On  the  capture 
of  Guatimozin,  son  of  Montezuma,  the  city 
surrendered,  and  the  empire  of  Mexico  was 
at  an  end.  A commission  arrived  to  deprive 
Cortez  of  his  command,  and  he  returned  to 
Spain  in  1528  to  procure  redress.  He  died 
in  obscurity,  in  1554. 

CORUNNX,  a seaport  in  the  north-west 
of  Spain.  Sir  John  Moore’s  army,  amounting 
to  about  15,000,  had  just  accomplished  a safe 
retreat  hither  when  they  were  attacked  by 
Soult  with  20,000  troops,  Jan  16th,  1809. 
The  French  were  repulsed,  but  the  loss  of 
the  British  was  immense.  Their  illustrious 
commander  was  struck  by  a cannon-ball, 
which  carried  away  his  left  shoulder  with 
part  of  the  collar-bone,  leaving  the  arm  hang- 
ing by  the  flesh,  and  died  in  the  arms  of  vic- 
tory. In  the  evening  his  corpse,  wrapped 
in  a cloak,  was  interred  by  the  officers  of  his 
staff,  and  the  remnant  of  the  army  hastily 
embarked. 

COSSACKS,  the  name  of  several  warlike 
tribes  that  inhabit  the  south-western  prov- 
inces of  Russia,  and  form  an  effective  portion 
of  the  Russian  cavalry.  Their  horses  are 
small  but  hardy,  and  will  travel  for  a whole 
campaign  from  fifty  to  seventy  miles  a day. 
They  fight  in  little  bands,  and  their  arms  are 
long  lances,  bows  and  arrows,  sabres,  and 
pistols  or  guns.  The  chief  is  called  a hetman. 

COUNCILS  OF  THE  CHURCH.  The 
following  are  among  the  most  memorable 
ecclesiastical  councils  of  ancient  days.  Of 
the  apostles  at  Jerusalem,  a.d.  50.  Arles  in 
France,  314;  the  western  bishops  met  to  sup- 
press the  Donatists;  three  fathers  of  the 
English  church  were  * present.  Nice,  325; 
the  first  (Ecumenical  or  General  Nicene; 


COU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


243 


Constantine  the  Great  presided ; Arius  and 
Eusebius  were  condemned  for  heresy ; this 
council  composed  the  Nicene  creed.  Tyre, 
335,  when  the  doctrine  of  Athanasius  was 
canvassed.  Constantinople,  337,  when  the 
Arian  heresy  gained  ground.  Rome,  342; 
concerning  Athanasius;  it  lasted  eighteen 
months.  Sardis,  347.  Rimini,  359 ; four 
hundred  fathers  attended,  and  Constantine 
obliged  them  to  sign  a new  confession  of 
faith.  Constantinople,  the  second  general, 
381 ; Pope  Damasius  presided.  Ephesus, 
the  third,  431  ; Pope  Celestine  presided. 
Chalcedon,  the  fourth,  451 ; Pope  Leo  pre- 
sided, and  Marcian  and  his  empress  attended. 
Constantinople,  the  fifth,  553  ; and  the  sixth 
in  680.  Authority  of  the  six  general  coun- 
cils re-established  by  Theodosius,  715.  Nice, 
second  Nicene  and  seventh  general,  787. 
Constantinople,  eighth,  869.  Clermont  in 
France,  1094 ; convened  by  Urban  II.  to  au- 
thorize the  first  crusade ; Philip  I.  of  France 
was  excommunicated.  The  Lateran  councils 
were  so  called  because  held  in  the  basilica  of 
the  Lateran  at  Rome.  First  Lateran,  ninth 
general,  1122  ; the  right  of  investitures  set- 
tled by  treaty  between  Pope  Calixtus  II.  and 
the  Emperor  Henry  Y.  Second  Lateran, 
tenth  general,  1139;  Innocent  II.  presided.; 
the  preservation  of  the  temporal  ties  of  eccle- 
siastics was  the  principal  subject,  and  occa- 
sioned the  attendance  of  one  thousand  fathers. 
Third  Lateran,  eleventh  general,  1179;  held 
against  schismatics.  Fourth  Lateran,  twelfth 
general,  1215 ; four  hundred  bishops  and  a 
thousand  abbots  attended.  Lyons,  thirteenth 
general,  under  Innocent  IY.  1245.  Lyons, 
fourteenth  general,  under  Gregory  X.,  1274. 
Yienne,  in  Dauphiny,  fifteenth. general,  1311 ; 
Clement  Y.  presided,  and  the  kings  of  France 
and  Aragon  attended;  the  order  of  knight- 
templars  was  suppressed.  Pisa,  sixteenth 
general,  1409 ; Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict 
XIII.  deposed,  and  Alexander  elected.  Con- 
stance, seventeenth  general,  1414 ; Martin  Y. 
elected  pope,  John  XXIII.  being  deposed. 
This  council  condemned  Jerome  of  Prague 
and  John  Buss  to  be  burned  alive,  a sentence 
executed  upon  the  latter  July  6th,  1415,  and 
on  the  other  the  6th  of  May  following,  in  a 
suburb  of  Constance  called  Paradise  ! Huss, 
in  violation  of  a safe-conduct  from  the  Empe- 


ror Sigismund,  was  cast  into  prison  Jerome 
hastened  to  Constance  to  defend  h m,  and 
finally  shared  the  fate  of  h'.s  friend  Basle, 
eighteenth  general,  1431.  Fifth  Lateran, 
nineteenth  general,  begun  by  Julius  II  , 1512, 
and  continued  under  Leo  X.,  till  151  7,  for  the 
suppression  of  the  pragmatic  sanction  of 
France  against  the  council  of  Pisa.  Trent, 
the  twentieth  general  council  styled  oecumen- 
ical, 1545  ; it  was  held  to  condemn  the  doc- 
trines of  Luther,  Zuinglius,  and  Calvin;  it 
continued  with  intervals  till  1563.  The  last, 
the  ^Ecumenical  council  of  1869,  was  opened 
by  Pius  IX.,  and  attended  by  700  Bishops. 
The  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  was  adopted 
in  this  council  by  a vote  of  450  to  88. 

COURTRAI,  anciently  Cortoriacum,  a town 
of  Belgium,  twenty -two  miles  south-west  of 
Ghent,  famous  for  the  battle  fought  in  its 
vicinity,  in  1302,  between  the  Flemings  and 
French.  The  latter  were  defeated  with  great 
loss,  and,  from  the  fact  that  four  thousand 
gilt  spurs  were  found  upon  the  field,  the  en- 
gagement was  called  the  Battle  of  the  Spurs. 

COWLEY,  Abraham,  an  English  poet,  the 
son  of  a grocer,  born  in  1618,  died  in  1667. 
He  was  an  easy  writer,  and  patronized  by 
royalty. 

COWPENS,  S.  C.  Here,  Jan.  17th,  1781, 
a British  force  led  by  Tarleton  was  brilliantly 
defeated  by  the  Americans  under  Gen.  Daniel 
Morgan.  This  was  an  important  check  to 
the  plans  of  Cornwallis. 

COWPER,  William,  the  poet,  son  of  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Cowper,  was  born  at  Berkhamstead, 
Herts,  Nov.  15th,  1731.  His  education  was 
acquired  at  a public  school,  where  girlish 
timidity  and  delicacy  subjected  him  to  con- 
stant agony  from  the  tyranny  and  roughness 
of  his  school-fellows.  He  studied  law,  and 
obtained  the  place  of  clerk  of  the  House  of 
Lords ; but  when  the  time  approached  for 
him  to  enter  upon  the  duties  of  his  office,  his 
terror  at  presenting  himself  before  the  peer- 
age, not  only  induced  him  to  relinquish  the 
place,  but  produced  a fit  of  sickness.  About 
this  time  his  religious  fears  brought  on  a 
temporary  derangement.  He  led  the  life  of 
a despondent  recluse,  at  Olney,  now  and  then 
afflicted  by  a recurrence  of  his  insanity, 
which  in  his  last  years  settled  into  a constant 
shadow  of  religious  agony  and  terror.  His 


2M 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


death  took  place  April  25th,  1800.  Of  all 
his  poems  the  humorous  ballad  of  “John 
Gilpin,”  and  “ The  Task,”  are  the  best. 

CRABBE,  George,  a popular  British  poet, 
was  born  Dec.  24th,  1754,  at  Aldborough  in 
Suffolk.  He  was  intended  for  a surgeon,  and 
actually  opened  a shop,  to  which  he  confined 
himself  for  some  time,  although  barely  making 
his  expenses.  In  1778  he  went  to  London 
as  a literary  adventurer,  but  was  for  a long 
time  unsuccessful.  When  a prison  was  in 
near  view,  and  ruin  appeared  to  threaten  him, 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  writing  to  Edmund 
Burke,  for  assistance  and  advice.  That  great 
man  at  once  became  his  friend  and  patron, 
urged  him  to  persevere,  and  induced  him  to 
study  divinity  and  take  orders.  Thenceforth 
his  circumstances  were  comfortable.  He 
married  the  object  of  his  early  affections, 
devoted  himself  to  literature,  and  received 
the  applause  due  to  a genius  of  the  highest 
order,  and  continued  to  use  his  pen  till  his 
death  in  1882.  Crabbe  excelled  in  descrip- 
tions of  humble  life,  and  his  poems  are  marked 
by  a sombre  strength  and  pathos.  Byron 
called  him, 

“Nature’s  sternest  painter,  but  her  best.” 

CRANMER,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, who  aided  the  progress  of  the  refor- 
mation in  England,  was  yet  the  slave  of  the 
king,  and  never  permitted  conscience  to 
interfere  with  the  wishes  of  the  crowned 
tyrant.  He  joined  the  partisans  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  and  was  accordingly  sent  to  the 
Tower  on  the  accession  of  Mary.  Hav- 
ing been  accused  of  blasphemy,  perjury,  in- 
continence, and  heresy,  he  was  burnt  at 
Oxford,  March  21st,  1556.  Cranmer  was  born 
in  1489.  He  was  at  once  a divine  and  a 
statesman.  In  his  character  of  divine  he  was 
perfectly  ready  to  go  as  far  in  the  way  of 
change  as  any  Swiss  of  Scottish  reformer.  In 
his  character  of  statesman  he  was  desirous  to 
preserve  that  organization  which  had,  during 
many  ages,  admirably  served  the  purposes  of 
the  bishops  of  Rome,  and  might  be  expected 
now  to  serve  equally  well  the  purposes  of  the 
English  kings  and  of  their  ministers.  His 
temper  and  his  understanding  eminently  fitted 
him  to  act  as  mediator.  Saintly  in  his  pro- 
fessions, unscrupulous  in  his  dealings,  Zealous 
for  nothing,  bold  in  speculation,  a coward 


and  a time-server  in  action,  a placable  enemy 
and  a lukewarm  friend,  he  was  in  every  way 
qualified  to  arrange  the  terms  of  the  coalition 
between  the  religious  and  the  worldly  ene- 
mies of  poperjr.  He  was  more  courageous  at 
the  stake  than  he  had  been  in  life.  The 
night  before  martyrdom  his  enemies  seduced 
him  by  hope  of  life  to  sign  a written  recan- 
tation. When  the.  fire  was  lit  about  him,  he 
thrust  his  right  hand,  with  which  he  had 
signed,  into  the  flame  before  it  could  reach 
his  body,  sometimes  saying,  “This  unworthy 
hand!”  and  then,  “Lord  Jesus,  receive  my 
spirit.” 

CRASSUS,  Marcus  Licinius,  a Roman  con- 
sul, distinguished  for  some  gallant  actions, 
and  active  in  crushing  the  gladiatorial  revolt 
which  was  headed  by  Spartacus.  He  was 
slain  by  the  Parthians,  b.c.  58.  He  was  the 
colleague  of  Caesar  and  Pompey  in  the  first 
triumvirate,  b.c.  60. 

CRAWFORD,  Thomas,  an  eminent  sculp- 
tor, was  born  in  New  York,  N.  Y.,  March 
22d,  1814.  From  an  early  age  he  manifested 
a remarkable  fondness  for  art,  which  his 
father  lost  no  opportunity  of  encouraging. 
His  tendency  being  manifestly  toward  the 
plastic  .arts,  in  1834,  at  twenty  years  of  age, 
he  was  sent  to  Italy,  where  he  was  so  fortu- 
nate as  to  gain  admittance  into  the  studio  of 
Thorwaldsen,  to  whose  instruction  and  friend- 
ship he  became  indebted  for  much  of  his 
subsequent  success.  The  purity  of  form  and 
severe  classicism  of  this  eminent  master  are 
reflected  in  many  of  his  pupil’s  works.  After 
a few  years  of  study,  Crawford  established 
his  studio  in  Rome,  and  soon  received  abund- 
ant employment.  A malignant  tumor  in  his 
eye  caused  his  death,  Oct.  7th,  1857. 

CREBILLON,  the  elder,  French  tragic 
poet,  died  1762,  aged  eighty-eight. 

CRESSY,  or  CRECY,  a town  of  France  ten 
miles  north  of  Abbeville,  where  was  fought 
a famous  battle  between  the  French  under 
Philip  and  the  English,  in  which  the  latter,  led 
by  Edward  III.  and  his  son  the  brave  Black 
Prince,  were  completely  victorious,  August 
26th,  1346.  Over  30,000  French  were  slain, 
while  the  loss  of  the  English  was  very  small. 
The  crest  of  John,  the  Bohemian  king  (who 
fell  fighting  for  the  French),  three  ostrich 
feathers,  with  the  motto  Ich  dien , “ I serve,” 


CRE 


history  and  biography. 


245 


was  adopted  by  the  Black  Prince,  and  has 
ever  since  been  borne  by  the  heir  to  the 
English  crown. 

CRICHTON,  James,  a Scotch  gentleman, 
born  in  1 550,  of  a good  family,  who,  from  his 
proficiency  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  particu- 
larly music  and  manly  exercises,  was  styled 
the  Admirable.  He  traveled  in  France  and 
Italy,  and  in  Mantua,  having  pleased  the 
duke,  was  appointed  preceptor  to  his  son. 
During  the  carnival  of  1583,  Crichton,  while 
playing  upon  his  guitar,  was  attacked  in  the 
streets  by  a masked  band,  against  which 
he  defended  himself  with  his  accustomed 
spirit,  until  he  recognized  his  pupil  in  the 
leader.  Throwing  himself  upon  his  knees, 
he  presented  his  sword  to  the  young  noble- 
man, who  stabbed  his  preceptor  to  the  heart. 
The  motives  which  impelled  him  are  un- 
known. 

CRILLON,  Louis  de  Balbe,  surnamed  the 
Fearless,  a celebrated  French  commander, 
bora  of  a noble  family,  in  Provence,  in  1541. 
He  was  the  friend  of  Henry  IY.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  siege  of  Calais,  and 
against  the  Huguenots  and  the  Turks.  “Hang 
thyself,  brave  Crillon;  we  have  fought  at 
Arques,  and  thou  wast  absent,”  was  Henry’s 
laconic  announcement  of  one  of  Ms  most 
brilliant  victories  to  his  favored  friend.  In 
1592,  he  successfully  defended  Villeboeuf 
with  an  inferior  force  against  Marshal  Villars, 
and  when  called  upon  to  surrender,  gallantly 
answered,  “Crillon  is  within,  and  Villars 
without.”  The  assailants  were  unsuccessful. 
One  day,  hearing  a sermon  in  which  the  suf- 
ferings of  Christ  were  forcibly  described,  he 
seized  the  handle  of  his  sword  and  cried, 
“AVhere  wert  thou,  Crillon?”  He  died  in 
1616. 

CRCESUS,  the  last  king  of  Lydia,  famed 
for  his  immense  wealth.  Being  defeated  by 
Cyrus,  b.c.  548,  he  was  conducted  to  the 
stake,  but  saved  his  life  by  repeating,  in  the 
hearing;  of  Cyrus,  the  saying  of  Solon,  that 
no  man  could  be  pronounced  happy  till  his 
death. 

CROMWELL,  Oliver,  was  born  of  a good 
family  at  Huntingdon,  April  25th,  1599,  and 
received  a careful  education.  The  excesses 
in  which  he  indulged  on  quitting  the  univer- 
sity, were  ended  at  his  marriage  with  Eliz- 
abeth Bouchier,  daughter  of  a baronet  of 


Essex,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one.  He  was 
chosen  to  a seat  in  parliament  in  1628,  and 
again  in  1640.  He  was  a strong  opponent  of 
the  measures  of  the  court.  In  1642,  when 
hostilities  were  determined  upon,  Cromwell 
raised  a troop  of  horse,  and  seized  the  plate 
of  the  university  at  Cambridge  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  the  war.  He  soon  acquired  the 
rank  of  colonel,  and  the-  superior  courage  of 
his  troops,  procured  for  them  at  Marston 
Moor  the  name  of  ironsides.  He  also  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Newbury, 
1643.  He  had  now  gained  so  great  an  in- 
fluence, that  when  the  famous  self-denying 
ordinance  was  passed,  by  which  all  mem- 
bers of  either  house  of  parliament  were  ex- 
cluded from  command  in  the  army,  Crom- 
well was  particularly  excepted.  He  was 
constituted  lieutenant-general,  and  by  his 
skill  and  courage  the  battle  of  Naseby  was 
won  in  1645,  followed  by  a series  of  suc- 
cesses which  decided  the  fate  of  the  roy- 
alists. 

The  parliamentary  troops  had  been  at  fir^t 
far  inferior  to  the  high-spirited  cavaliers. 
But  the  army  which  grew  up  under  the  rigid 
discipline  of  Cromwell,  was  irresistible.  The 
stubborn  courage  of  the  English  was,  by  the 
system  of  Cromwell,  at  once  regulated  and 
stimulated.  Other  leaders  have  maintained 
order  as  strict ; other  leaders  have  inspired 
their  followers  with  a zeal  as  ardent ; but  in 
his  camp  alone  the  most  rigid  discipline  was 
found  in  company  with  the  fiercest  enthu- 
siasm. His  troops  moved  to  victory  with  the 
precision  of  machines,  while  burning  with  the 
wildest  fanaticism  of  crusaders.  From  the 
time  when  the  army  was  remodeled  to  the 
time  when  it  was  disbanded,  it  never  found, 
either  in  the  British  islands  or  on  the  conti- 
nent, an  enemy  who  could  stand  its  onset 
In  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Flanders,  the 
Puritan  warriors,  often  surrounded  by  diffi- 
culties, sometimes  contending  against  three- 
fold odds,  not  only  never  failed  to  conquer, 
but  never  failed  to  destroy  and  break  in 
pieces  whatever  force  was  opposed  to  them. 
They  at  length  came  to  regard  the  day  of  bat- 
tle as  a day  of  certain  triumph,  and  marched 
against  the  most  renowned  battalions  of  Eu- 
rope with  disdainful  confidence.  Turenne 
was  startled  by  the  shout  of  stern  exultation 
with  which  his  English  allies  advanced  to  th^ 


CRO 


246  COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


combat,  and  expressed  the  delight  of  a true 
soldier  when  he  learned  that  it  was  ever  the 
fashion  of  Cromwell’s  pikemen  to  rejoice 
greatly  when  they  beheld  the  enemy ; and  the 
banished  cavaliers  felt  an  emotion  of  national 
pride  when  they  saw  a brigade  of  their  coun- 
trymen, outnumbered  bj’-  foes  and  abandoned 
by  allies,  drive  before  it  in  headlong  route 
the  finest  infantry  of  Spain,  and  force  a pas- 
sage into  a counterscarp  which  had  just  been 
pronounced  impregnable  by  the  ablest  of  the 
marshals  of  France.  But  that  which  chiefly 
distinguished  the  army  of  Cromwell  from 
other  armies  was  the  austere  morality  and  the 
fear  of  God  which  pervaded  all  ranks.  It  is 
acknowledged  by  the  most  zealous  royalists 
that,  in  that  singular  camp,  no  oath  was 
heard,  no  drunkenness  or  gambling  was  seen, 
and  that,  during  the  long  dominion  of  the 
soldiery,  the  property  of  the  peaceable  citizen 
and  the  honor  of  woman  were  held  sacred. 
If  outrages  were  committed,  they  were  out- 
rages of  a very  different  kind  from  those  of 
which  a victorious  army  is  generally  guilty. 
No  servant  girl  complained  of  the  rough  gal- 
lantry of  the  red-coats ; not  an  ounce  of  plate 
was  taken  from  the  shops  of  the  goldsmiths ; 
but  a Pelagian  sermon,  or  a window  on  which 
the  Virgin  and  Child  were  painted,  produced 
in  the  Puritan  ranks  an  excitement  which  it 
required  the  utmost  exertions  of  the  officers 
to  quell.  One  of  Cromwell’s  chief  difficulties 
was  to  restrain  his  pikemen  and  dragoons 
from  invading  by  main  force  the  pulpits  of 
ministers  whose  discourses,  to  use  the  lan- 
guage of  that  time,  were  not  savory  ; and  too 
many  cathedrals  still  bear  the  marks  of 
the  hatred  with  which  those  stern  spirits 
regarded  every  vestige  of  popery. — Macaulay. 

Charles  I.  was  betrayed  by  the  Scotch,  and 
brought  to  the  scaffold.  For  this  step  Crom- 
well should  not  alone  be  held  responsible. 
He  acquiesced  in  what  he  could  not  have 
prevented,  had  he  desired  a quieter  result. 
England  was  declared  a commonwealth. 
Ireland  and  Scotland  raised  the  standard  of 
the  second  Charles.  Cromwell,  in  1649, 
went  to  Ireland,  which  he  subdued,  and  leav- 
ing Ireton  as  deputy,  returned  to  England  in 
1650.  Against  the  Scots,  he  gained  the  battle 
of  Dunbar,  Sept.  3d,  1650,  and  that  day  twelve- 
month,  defeated  the  royal  forces  at  Worcester. 


The  Rump  parliament  and  the  army  came 
in  collision.  Armed  jnen  cleared  the  house, 
and  the  victorious  general  was  declared  lord 
high  protector  of  the  commonwealth,  Dec. 
12th,  1653,  by  the  Barebones  parliament. 
Opposed  as  he  was  by  both  royalists  and 
republicans,  he  could  be  safe  only  by  being 
absolute.  The  government,  in  form  a re- 
public, was  in  truth  a military  despotism, 
moderated  by  the  wisdom,  the  sober-minded- 
ness, and  the  magnanimity  of  the  protector. 
The  laws  were  violated  only  when  demanded 
for  the  safety  of  his  person  or  government. 
The  cavalier  who  refrained  from  disturbance 
was  unmolested.  Justice  was  administered 
with  exactness  and  purity  not  before  known. 
Never,  since  the  reformation,  had  there  been 
so  little  religious  persecution. 

Cromwell’s  foreign  policy  extorted  the 
ungracious  approbation  of  those  who  most 
detested  him.  England  had  been  of  scarcely 
more  weight  in  European  politics  than  Ven- 
ice or  Saxony.  She  at  once  became  the  most 
formidable  power  in  the  world,  dictated  terms 
of  peace  to  Holland,  avenged  the  common 
injuries  of  Christendom  on  the  pirates  of 
Barbary,  vanquished  the  Spaniards  by  sea 
and  land,  seized  one  of  the  finest  West 
India  islands,  and  acquired  on  the  Flemish 
coast  a fortress  which  consoled  the  national 
pride  for  the  loss  of  Calais.  She  was  su- 
preme on  the  ocean.  She  was  the  head  of 
the  Protestant  interest.  All  the  Protestant 
churches  scattered  over  Roman  Catholic 
kingdoms  acknowledged  Cromwell  as  their 
guardian.  The  pope  himself  was  forced  to 
preach  humanity  and  moderation  to  popish 
princes ; for  a voice  which  seldom  threatened 
in  vain  had  declared  that,  unless  favor  were 
shown  to  the  people  of  God,  English  guns 
should  be  heard  in  the  castle  of  Saint  Angelo. 

The  protector  had  thus  conquered  peace 
at  home  and  triumph  abroad.  The  death 
of  his  favorite  daughter  smote  him  sorely ; he 
became  depressed  in  spirits,  was  seized  with  a 
slow  fever,  and  died,  Sept.  3d,  1658.  This 
best  and  greatest  ruler  that  England  has  ever 
had  was  buried  with  more  than  regal  pomp 
ia  Westminster  Abbey.  In  mean  revenge, 
after  the  restoration,  his  body  was  torn 
from  its  sanctuary  and  exposed  upon  the 
gallows  at  Tyburn. 


CRO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


247 


CROMWELL,  Richard,  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther as  protector  of  England,  was  soon  deposed 
by  the  army,  and  lived  a quiet  life  as  a coun- 
try gentleman. 

CROMWELL,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Essex,  son 
of  a blacksmith  at  Putney,  in  Surrey,  was 
born  about  the  year  1490.  Early  in  life  he 
became  clerk  to  the  English  factory  at  Ant- 
werp, which  he  left  to  serve  in  Italy,  where 
he  fought  beneath  the  banners  of  the  Consta- 
ble of  Bourbon.  Returning  home,  he  was 
taken  into  the  service  of  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
who  procured  him  a seat  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  When  Wolsey  fell,  Cromwell  be- 
came a servant  of  the  king,  was  raised  to  the 
office  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  in 
1534  made  secretary  of  state  and  master  of 
the  rolls.  About  this  time  he  was  also  elected 
chancellor  of  Cambridge.  The  next  year  he 
was  appointed  visitor-general  of  the  monaste- 
ries. In  1536  he  was  made  lord  keeper  of 
the  privy-seal,  and  the  same  year  advanced  to 
the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Lord  Cromwell ; 
and  the  papal  supremacy  being  abolished,  he 
was  nominated  the  king’s  vicar-general  in  the 
convocation.  In  1537  he  was  appointed  chief- 
justice  itinerant  of  all  the  forests  beyond 
Trent,  elected  knight  of  the  garter,  and  made 
dean  of  Wells.  To  these  honors  was  added 
the  grant  of  many  manors  after  the  dissolution 
of  the  monasteries,  and  in  1539  he  was  cre- 
ated Earl  of  Essex.  Soon  after,  his  fortune 
declined  as  fast  as  it  had  risen.  His  ruin  was 
hastened  by  the  marriage  which  he  projected 
between  Henry  and  Anne  of  Cleves,  and  he 
was  sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  deserted 
by  all  his  friends  except  Cranmer,  who,  how- 
ever, could  not  save  him  from  the  scaffold, 
and  he  suffered  death  with  fortitude,  July 
28th,  1540. 

CRUDEN,  Alexander,  author  of  a well- 
known  biblical  concordance,  was  born  in  Ab- 
erdeen, May  31st,  1701.  He  was  exceedingly 
eccentric,  and  at  times  insane.  He  was  found 
dead  in  his  chamber  in  the  attitude  of  prayer, 
Nov.  1st,  1770. 

CRUSADES,  the  name  given  to  the  expe- 
ditions fitted  out  by  the  Christian  warriors  of 
Europe,  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land, 
from  the  end  of  the  eleventh  to  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  centary.  The  crusaders  derived 
their  name  from  the  badge  of  the  cross  which 
was  wrought  upon  their  mantles  and  appeared 


in  various  parts  of  their  equipments.  The 
age  was  one  in  which  the  people  were  pecul- 
iarly adapted  to  the  reception  of  enthusiastic 
religious  impulses.  The  Christians  could  not 
bear  to  think  that  the  places  which  they  held 
so  dear,  and  which  the  history  of  their  religion 
hallowed,  should  be  desecrated  by  the  pres- 
ence of  infidels,  and  rendered  dangerous  to 
those  pilgrims  whom  reverence  called  to  Pal- 
estine. The  church  called  upon  the  chivalry 
of  Europe,  and  the  knights  responded  to  the 
summons. 

The  rise  of  the  crusades  is  immediately  at- 
tributable to  the  enthusiasm  of  a wandering 
pilgrim,  called  Peter  the  Hermit,  who,  having 
experienced  the  tyrannical  exactions  imposed 
on  the  visitors  of  the  holy  sepulchre,  repre- 
sented them  to  Urban  II.  in  such  lively  colors, 
that  the  prelate  selected  him  as  the  instrument 
of  a grand  design  which  he  had  formed  to 
overthrow  the  Mohammedan  power,  and  Peter, 
armed  with  the  holy  commission,  went  from 
province  to  province,  to  kindle  up  that  enthu- 
siasm by  which  he  was  himself  consuming. 
When  the  feelings  of  the  people  and  the  po- 
tentates appeared  ripe  for  some  wild  project, 
Urban  held  a council  in  the  open  fields  at  Pi- 
acenza, and  proposed  his  scheme,  which  was 
warmly  applauded,  but  not  as  warmly  em- 
braced. Another  council  was  therefore  held 
at  Clermont,  graced  by  the  presence  of  am- 
bassadors from  all  nations,  and  the  result  was 
as  favorable  as  he  could  have  anticipated.  The 
pope  held  out  to  the  crusaders  the  promise  of 
spiritual  pardon,  and  imposed  on  them  only 
the  penance  of  plunder  for  their  sins.  Thus 
excited,  the  enthusiasm  became  general ; no- 
blemen sold  their  estates  for  outfits ; the 
meanest  lords  of  the  manors  set  forth  at  their 
own  expense ; the  poor  gentlemen  followed 
them  as  esquires ; and  above  80,000  collected 
under  the  banners  of  the  cross.  Godfrey  of 
Boulogne  was  at  the  head  of  70,000  foot,  and 
10,000  horse,  splendidly  armed,  were  under 
the  command  of  many  lords,  who  were  joined 
by  Hugh,  brother  to  Philip  I.  of  France,  Ray- 
mond of  Toulouse,  Bohemond,  King  of  Sicily, 
and  others  of  equal  and  less  note.  A propo- 
sal was  made  to  the  pope  to  put  himself  at 
their  head,  but  he  refused.  This  refusal, 
however,  did  not  damp  their  ardor. 

Confiding  in  their  cause,  their  numbers, 
and  their  equipments,  they  traversed  Germany 


CRU 


248 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  Hungary,  took  Nice,  Antioch,  and  Edessa,  ; ious  fury  no  less  absorbing  than  that  which 
and  arrived  at  Jerusalem.  The  city  was  taken  filled  the  breast  of  the  crusaders,  threw  him- 
by  storm,  after  five  weeks’  siege,  July  15th,  | self  upon  Jerusalem,  which,  unable  to  hold 
1099.  The  numerous  inhabitants  and  garri-  out  against  him,  once  more  echoed  to  the 
son  were  put  to  the  sword.  Neither  arms  shouts  of  Saracen  conquerors,  as  the3r  again 
defended  the  valiant  nor  submission  the  timid ; I erected  their  crescent  on  the  ramparts  of  the 


no  age  or  sex  was  spared ; infants  on  the 
breast  were  pierced  by  the  same  blow  with 
their  mothers  who  implored  for  mercy.  Even 
a multitude  to  the  number  of  ten  thousand, 
who  had  surrendered  themselves  prisoners, 
and  were  promised  quarter,  were  butchered  in 
cold  blood  by  these  ferocious  conquerors. 
The  streets  of  Jerusalem  were  covered  with 
corpses ; and  the  triumphant  warriors,  after 
every  enemy  was  subdued  or  slaughtered,  im- 
mediate^ turned  themselves  in  humiliation 
toward  the  holy  sepulchre ! They  threw  away 
their  weapons  still  streaming  with  blood ; they 
advanced,  with  bowed  heads,  and  naked  feet 
and  hands,  to  that  sacred  monument ; they 
sung  anthems  to  their  Saviour,  who  had  there 
purchased  their  salvation  by  his  death  and 
agony  ; and  their  devotion  so  overcame  their 
fury,  that  they  dissolved  in  tears,  and  bore 
the  appearance  of  every  soft  and  tender  sen- 
timent. So  inconsistent  is  human  nature  with 
itself!  and  so  easily  does  superstition  ally, 
both  with  the  most  heroic  courage  and  with 
the  fiercest  barbarity ! Godfrey  of  Boulogne, 
not  without  opposition  from  the  priests,  was 
elected  King  of  Jerusalem,  but  died  in  1100. 
In  1102,  an  immense  army  which  departed 
for  the  Holy  Land,  was  defeated,  and  no  fewer 
than  200,000  men  lost  to  Europe  by  the  en- 
terprise. The  capture  of  Baldwin  and  the  loss 
of  Edessa  occasioned  a new  crusade  in  1147. 

France  again  gave  the  impulse  to  the  relig- 
ious excitement.  Pope  Eugenius  III.  induced 
St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  to  act  the  part  of 
Peter  the  Hermit,  and  the  consequence  was 
that  Louis  the  Young,  accompanied  by  his 
wife,  Eleanor  of  Guicnne,  departed  for  the 
Holy  Land,  and  Conrad  III.,  in  whose  hands 
the  red  cross  was  placed,  led  a large  army  into 
Asia.  Both  of  them,  however,,  were  unsuc- 
cessful. 

The  unfortunate  issue  of  the  second  crusade 
was  precipitated  by  the  dissensions  of  the 
Christians,  and  the  uncommon  abilities  ofSa- 
ladin,  who,  advancing  at  the  head  of  an  army 
that  placed  implicit  confidence  in  the  courage 
and  skill  of  their  leader,  animated  by  a relig- 


city.  The  Christians  lost  all  their  possessions 
but  Antioch,  Tripoli,  Joppa,  and  Tyre. 

The  leaders  of  the  third  crusade  (1189)  were 
Frederick  I.  of  Germany,  surnamed  Barbaros- 
sa,  the  chivalric  Philip  Augustus  of  France, 
and  the  lion-hearted  Richard  I.  of  England. 
Barbarossa  was  ultimately  unsuccessful,  but 
the  monarchs  of  France  and  England  took 
possession  of  Ptolemais  or  Acre.  Philip  Au- 
gustus, from  motives  of  jealousy,  left  the  field 
to  Richard,  who  proved  himself  a worthy  rival 
of  Saladin,  and  the  two  commanders  performed 
wonderful  feats  of  arms  which  were  the  ad- 
miration of  both  armies.  The  fourth  crusade 
was  conducted  by  Andrew  II.  of  Hungary, 
and  the  fifth  by  Frederick  II.  of  German}^. 
The  results  of  these  ought  to  have  shown 
that  the  Christians  could  not  hope  to  gain 
permanent  possession  of  the  country.  In 
1270  St.  Louis,  King  of  France,  undertook 
the  sixth  and  last  crusade,  which,  though 
well  conceived,  and  vigorously  carried  on, 
was  unsuccessful.  In  this  last  crusade  no 
fewer  than  150,000  persons  perished:  add  to 
this  the  numbers  that  died  in  former  expedi- 
tions, and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  east  was  the 
tomb  of  above  two  millions  of  Europeans ; 
and  several  countries  were  depopulated  and 
impoverished  by  the  crusades.  Yet  the  holy 
wars  were  not  without  good.  They  created 
an  intimate  connection  and  a constant  inter- 
course between  the  nations  of  Europe,  which, 
as  it  was  favorable  to  commercial  enterprise, 
increased  the  wealth,  improved  the  arts,  and 
contributed  to  establish  the  civilization  of  the 
Christian  world. 

CUBA,  subject  to  Spain,  is  the  largest  of 
the  West  Indies.  Its  area  is  42,883  square 
miles,  and  its  population  exceeds  a million,  of 
whom  about  one-half  are  slaves.  The  island 
is  rich  and  fertile,  producing  sugar,  coffee, 
and  tobacco  abundantly.  Havana,  the  capital 
of  Cuba,  is  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  island ; 
population,  composed  of  whites,  mulattocs, 
and  negroes,  150,000.  The  streets  of  the  city 
are  dirty,  but  the  strongly  fortified  harbor  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  public 


CUB 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


249 


edifices  of  the  city,  particularly  the  Catholic 
churches,  are  very  splendid.  The  commerce 
of  Havana  is  extensive  and  increasing.  It 
was  founded  in  1511,  by  Diego  Velasquez, 
and  has  been  twice  taken  by  the  English,  but 
was  restored  to  Spain  in  1763.  The  bones  of 
Columbus  repose  in  the  cathedral  at  Havana. 
Cuba  is  badly  governed,  and  is  the  scene  of 
frequent  revolutions. 

Cuba  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492, 
In  1511  it  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards. 
In  1762  a powerful  expedition  for  the  conquest 
of  the  island  was  fitted  out  by  the  British, 
and  Havana  capitulated  in  August.  The 
plunder  obtained  by  the  British  was  immense. 
By  the  treaty  of  1763,  Cuba  was  restored  to 
the  Spaniards.  An  expedition  headed  by  Lo- 
pez, to  wrest  Cuba  from  Spanish  dominion, 
landed  on  the  island  May  17th,  1850,  and 
ended  in  defeat  and  disaster.  Lopez  made  a 
second  attempt  in  August,  1851.  His  party 
was  taken,  fifty  of  them  shot,  and  he  himself 
garrotted  at  Havana. 

CULLODEN  MUIR,  a heath  in  Scotland, 
where  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  defeated  the 
young  Pretender,  after  an  obstinate  resistance, 
on  the  16th  of  April,  1746.  Prince  Charles 
sought  safety  in  flight  among  the  Highland 
wilds.  The  duke’s  troops  practiced  great 
cruelties  upon  the  vanquished,  as  well  as  upon 
the  defenseless  inhabitants  near  the  field  of 
battle.  The  defeat  quenched  the  hopes  of  the 
house  of  Stuart  forever. 

CUMBERLAND,  William  Augustus,  Duke 
of,  second  son  of  George  IT.,  was  born  in 
1721.  He  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Det- 
tingen,  but  refused  the  assistance  of  a surgeon 
until  the  latter  had  finished  dressing  the 
wound  of  a poor  soldier  who  had  been  shot 
at  the  same  time  with  himself.  He  com- 
manded the  British  army  at  the  battles  of 
Fontenoy  and  Val,  which  were  lost  through 
the  cowardice  of  the  Dutch  troops.  In  1746 
he  defeated  the  Pretender  at  Culloden,  but 
disgraced  his  character  by  his  cruel  treatment 
of  the  vanquished.  He  died  in  1765. 

CUMBERLAND,  Richard,  an  English 
dramatist  and  miscellaneous  author,  son  of 
the  Bishop  of  Clonfert,  was  born  in  1732,  and 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
died  in  London,  May  7th,  1811.  His  fame 
rests  altogether  on  his  comic  dramas.  He 
was  extremely  sensitive,  self-conceited,  and 


jealous,  and  Sheridan,  considering  him  as 
fair  game,  held  him  up  to  ridicule  as  Sir  Fret- 
ful Plagiary  in  “The  Critic.”  He  was  much 
annoyed  at  the  success  of  the  “School  for 
Scandal,”  and  it  was  only  for  fear  of  exciting 
ridicule  by  refusing  to  witness  it,  that  he 
carried  two  of  his  children  to  see  the  play. 
Cumberland  sat  behind  them,  the  picture  of 
jealousy  and  envy.  When  they  laughed  at 
any  witticisms,  in  common  with  the  audience, 
Cumberland  wrould  gravely  extend  a finger 
and  thumb,  inflict  a severe  pinch,  and  say, 
“What  are  you  laughing  at,  my  dears?  I 
don’t  see  anything  to  laugh  at.” 

CUNNERSDORF,  a village  on  the  Oder, 
at  no  great  distance  from  Frankfort,  where 
Frederick  the  Great  with  50,000  men  attacked 
the  Russian  and  Austrian  army  of  90,000  in 
their  camp,  and  at  first  gained  considerable 
advantages  ; but  pursuing  them  too  far,  the 
Austrians  and  Russians  rallied,  and  retrieved 
a complete  victory.  The  Prussians  lost  two 
hundred  guns,  and  20,000  men  in  killed  and 
wounded,  Aug.  12th,  1759. 

CURIUS  DENTATUS,  Marcus  Annius,  a 
Roman  consul,  famous  for  his  fortitude  and 
frugality.  He  gained  several  victories,* and 
defeated  Pyrrhus,  b.c.  272.  The  Samnite 
ambassadors  found  him  cooking  some  vege- 
tables for  his  dinner  in  an  earthen  pot,  yet  he 
indignantly  refused  the  vessels  of  gold  with 
which  they  attempted  to  bribe  him. 

CURRAN,  John  Piiilpott,  was  born  of 
humble  parents,  near  Cork,  in  1750.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1775.  In  his  boyhood  he 
had  been  afflicted  like  Demosthenes,  and  his 
nickname  at  school  was  “stuttering  Jack 
Curran.”  This  impediment,  like  Demos- 
thenes, he  overcame,  and  became  famous  for 
his  forensic  and  parliamentary  oratory.  He 
entered  the  Irish  parliament  about  1785. 
His  eloquence  shone  in  his  conversation  as 
well,  and  was  rivaled  by  his  wit  and  sarcasm. 
Byron  said  that  Curran  spoke  more  poetry 
than  any  man  had  ever  written.  This  admira- 
tion the  Irishman  did  not  fully  reciprocate. 
He  constantly  objected  to  Byron’s  moody 
egotism  as  the  great  drawback  on  his  poetry. 
“Any  subject,”  said  Curran,  “but  that  eter- 
nal one  of  self.  I weary  of  knowing  once  a 
month  the  state  of  any  man’s  hopes  or  fears, 
rights  or  wrongs.  I would  as  soon  read  a 
register  of  the  weather,  the  barometer  up  so 


CUR 


250 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


many  inches  to  day,  and  down  so  many  inches 
to-morrow.  I feel  skepticism  all  over  me  at 
the  sight  of  agonies  on  paper,  things  that 
come  as  regular  and  notorious  as  the  full  of 
the  moon.  The  truth  is,  his  lordship  weeps 
for  the  press,  and  wipes  his  eyes  with  the 
public.” 

In  the  Irish  parliament,  when  once  merci- 
lessly exposing  the  corruption  of  the  place- 
men, Curran  spoke  of  the  immaculate  virtue 
of  “those  saints  on  the  pension  list;  they 
toil  not,  neither  do  they  spin,  but  they  are 
arrayed  like  Solomon  in  his  glory.”  At 
another  time  he  used  this  strong  figure  con- 
cerning those  whose  path  to  power  had  lain 
through  treachery  to  Ireland : “ Those  found- 
lings of  fortune,  overwhelmed  in  the  torrent 
of  corruption  at  an  early  period,  lay  at  the 
bottom  like  drowned  bodies,  while  soundness 
or  sanity  remained  in  them ; but  at  length 
becoming  buoyant  by  putrefaction,  they  rose 
as  they  rotted,  and  floated  to  the  surface  of 
the  polluted  stream,  where  they  were  drifted 
along,  the  objects  of  terror,  and  contagion, 
and  abomination.” 

Of  his  wit  many  tales  are  related.  Lundy 
* Foot,  a celebrated  tobacconist,  set  up  a car- 
riage, and  asked  Curran  for  a Latin  motto. 

Quid  rides,”  said  Curran.  Being  told  that 
a very  stingy  and  slovenly  barrister  had 
started  for  the  continent  with  a shirt  and  a 
guinea,  “ He’ll  not  change  either  till  he  comes 
back,”  said  Curran.  He  was  cross-examin- 
ing a witness : “My  lord,  my  lord,”  cried  the 
fellow  to  the  judge,  “ I can’t  answer  yon  little 
gentleman,  he’s  putting  me  in  such  a dol- 
drum.”  “A  doldrum!  Mr.  Curran,  what 
does  he  mean  by  a doldrum ! ” exclaimed 
Lord  Avonmore.  “Oh,  my  lord,  it’s  a very 
common  complaint  with  persons  of  this  sort : 
it’s  merely  a confusion  of  the  head  arising 
from  the  corruption  of  the  heart.”  Once 
when  he  was  arguing  for  the  defense  in  a 
state  trial,  the  judge  shook  his  head  in  doubt 
or  denial  at  one  of  his  points.  “ I see,  gen- 
tlemen,” said  Curran  to  the  jury,  “I  seethe 
motion  of  his  lordship’s  head.  Common  ob- 
servers might  imagine  it  implied  a difference 
of  opinion ; but  they  would  be  mistaken : it 
is  merely  accidental.  Believe  me,  gentlemen, 
if  you  remain  here  many  days,  you  will  your- 
selves perceive  that  when  his  lordship  shakes 
his  head,  there  is  nothing  in  it.” 


Curran  died  in  London  in  1817. 

CURTIUS,  Marcus,  a noble  Roman  youth, 
of  whom  it  is  related,  thav/  when  a pestilential 
chasm  opened  in  the  Roman  forum,  862  b.  c., 
and  the  oracle  declared  that  it  could  only  be 
closed  when  the  most  precious  thing  in  Rome 
was  thrown  into  it,  Curtius,  saying  that  arms 
and  courage  were  invaluable,  assumed  his 
military  dress,  and  mounting  an  armed  horse, 
sprang  into  the  abyss,  which  closed  over  him 
forever. 

CUSHING,  Thomas,  a patriotic  American, 
born  in  1725.  He  early  obtained  a seat  in 
the  general  court  of  Massachusetts,  and  was 
chosen  speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives. 
The  supposed  extent  of  his  influence  induced 
Doctor  Johnson,  in  his  pamphlet  “Taxation 
no  Tyranny,”  to  remark,  “ One  object  of  the 
Americans  is  said  to  be,  to  adorn  the  brows 
of  Mr.  Cushing  with  a diadem.”  Mr.  C.  was 
a member  of  the  two  first  continental  con- 
gresses, and  of  the  council  of  Massachusetts, 
and  was  created  judge  of  the  court  of  com- 
mon pleas,  and  of  probate  in  the  county  of 
Suffolk.  Having  been  honored  with  the  post 
of  lieutenant-governor  of  his  native  state,  he 
died  in  1788. 

CUTLER,  Timothy,  a talented  American 
divine,  some  time  president  of  Yale  College. 
He  became  rector  of  Christ  Church,  in  Bos- 
ton, and  died  in  his  eighty-second  year,  Aug. 
17th,  1765. 

CUYIER,  George  Leopold  Christian 
Frederic  Dagobert,  Baron  of,  a celebrated 
French  naturalist,  born  at  Montbeliard,  Aug. 
25th,  1769.  His  researches  are  well  known 
to  the  generality  of  readers.  He  died  at  Paris, 
May  18th,  1832. 

CYCLADES,  in  ancient  geography  a name 
given  to  certain  islands  in  the  iEgean  Sea, 
particularly  those  that  surround  Delos  as 
with  a circle.  They  were  subjected  by  Mil- 
tiades,  but  revolted  during  the  Persian  inva- 
sion. 

CYPRUS,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean, 
famed  among  the  ancients  for  its  uncommon 
fertility  and  the  mildness  of  its  climate.  It 
now  contains  140,000  wretched  inhabitants. 
Yenus  was  worshiped  here,  and  the  ancient 
Cyprians  were  much  given  to  love  and  pleas- 
ure. Its  original  colonists  are  unknown. 
The  Egyptians  took  it  in  550  b.c.,  and  the 
Romans,  58  b.c..  It  was  occupied  for  some 


CYP 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


251 


time  by  the  Arabs  on  the  decline  of  the  Ro- 
man empire.  They  were,  however,  driven 
from  it  daring  the  crusades,  and  the  title  of 
King  of  Cyprus  was  for  some  time  held  by 
Richard  I.  of  England.  In  1480,  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Y enetians,  from  whom  it  was 
wrested,  in  1571,  by  the  Turks. 

CYRUS.  Concerning  this  monarch  there 
are  two  distinct  and  irreconcilable  accounts, 
those  of  Herodotus  and  Xenophon.  The 
latter,  in  his  “ Cyropedia,”  has  rather  given 
us  the  picture  of  what  a monarch  should 
be,  than  of  what  a monarch  was,  and  the 
account  of  Herodotus  is  generally  adhered  to 
in  historical  narratives.  Cyrus,  King  of  Per- 
sia, was  the  son  of  Cambyses  and  Maudane, 
the  daughter  of  Astyages,  the  last  monarch 
of  Media.  From  a belief  that  he  was  fated 
to  dethrone  his  grandfather,  he  was  exposed 
as  soon  as  born ; but  was  preserved  by  a 
shepherdess,  who  educated  him  as  her  own 
son.  As  he  was  playing  with  his  equals  in 
years,  he  was  elected  a king  in  one  of  their 
sports,  and  he  exercised  his  power  with  such 
independent  spirit,  that  he  ordered  one  of  his 
companions  to  be  whipped  severely  for  diso- 
bedience. The  father  of  the  boy,  who  was  a 
nobleman,  complained  to  the  king  of  the  ill 
treatment  which  his  son  had  received  from  a 
shepherd’s  boy.  Astyages  ordered  Cyrus 
before  him,  and  discovered  that  he  was  Mau- 
dane’s  son,  from  whom  he  had  so  much  to 
apprehend.  He  therefore  treated  him  with 
suspicious  coldness  ; and  Cyrus,  unable  to 
bear  his  tyranny,  escaped  from  his  confine- 
ment and  began  to  levy  troops  to  dethrone 
his  grandfather.  He  was  assisted  and  en- 
couraged by  the  ministers  of  Astyages,  who 
were  displeased  with  his  oppression. 


marched  against  and  defeated  Astyages  ju  a 
battle  fought  b.c.  560.  From  this  victory  the 
empire  of  Media  became  tributary  to  the  Per- 
sians. Cyrus  subdued  the  eastern  parts  of 
Asia,  and  made  war  against  Croesus,  King  of 
Lydia,  whom  he  conquered  b.c.  548.  He 
invaded  the  kingdom  of  Assyria,  and  took 
the  city  of  Babylon  by  turning  the  course 
of  the  Euphrates,  and  marching  his  troops 
through  the  bed  of  the  river  under  the  walls, 
while  the  people  were  celebrating  a grand 
festival.  He  afterward  led  his  troops  against 
Tomyris,  the  queen  of  the  Massagetae,  a Scyth- 
ian nation,  but  was  defeated  in  a bloody 
battle,  b.c.  529.  The  victorious  queen,  who 
had  lost  her  son  in  a previous  encounter,  was 
so  incensed  against  Cyrus,  that  she  cut  off 
his  head,  and  threw  it  into  a vessel  filled 
with  human  blood ; crying,  “ Satisfy  thyself 
with  the  blood  for  which  thou  hast  thirsted.” 
CYRUS,  the  Younger,  was  the  son  of 
Darius  Nothus,  and  brother  of  Artaxerxes. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  he  attempted  the 
life  of  his  brother,  to  obtain  the  throne,  but 
was  pardoned  through  the  intercession  of 
his  mother,  Parysatis.  He  then  obtained  the 
governorship  of  Lydia,  whence  he  marched 
against  his  brother.  The  war  ended  with 
the  death  of  Cyrus,  b.c.  400.  Several  thou- 
sand Greeks  accompanied  Cyrus  in  his  ex- 
pedition, and  their  retreat,  led  by  Xenophon, 
and  by  him  described,  is  a memorable  chap- 
ter of  ancient  history. 

CYTHERA,  the  ancient  name  of  an  island 
in  the  Ionian  sea,  now  Cerigo,  containing 
a population  of  12,000.  Yenus  was  wor- 
shiped here,  and  here  was  one  of  her  most 
splendid  temples;  hence  she  was  called 
Cytherea. 


Cyrus 
CYT 


3 


252 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


DACIER,  Anna  Lefevre  (the  wife  of  An- 
drew Dacier),  was  born  in  France  in  1651. 
She  was  celebrated  for  her  learning  and 
beauty.  She  edited  and  translated  several 
of  the  ancient  classics,  and  distinguished  her- 
self by  her  defense  of  Homer  in  answer  to 
Lamotte.  She  died  in  1720. 

DzEDALUS,  an  artist  and  machinist  of 
Athens,  who  lived  three  generations  before 
the  Trojan  war.  He  was  the  builder  of  the 
Cretan  labyrinth.  Being  imprisoned  with 
his  son,  Icarus,  he  is  said  to  have  invented 
wings  cemented  with  wax,  by  which  they 
soared  high  in  the  air.  Icarus,  neglecting 
the  instructions  of  his  father,  fell  into  the  sea, 
which  was  named  from  him  the  Icarian. 
His  father  reached  Sicily,  and  founded  a town 
there. 

DAGUERRE,  L.  J.  M.,  an  artist  of  France, 
eminent  for  the  discovery  of  the  process  for 
taking  pictures  upon  metal  plates,  through 
the  action  of  light.  He  was  born  in  1789, 
and  died  July  10th,  1851. 

DAHOMY,  a fertile  kingdom  of  western 
Africa,  the  people  of  which  are  ferocious. 
The  king’s  sleeping-chamber  is  paved  with 
the  skulls,  and  ornamented  with  the  jaw- 
bones, of  his  vanquished  enemies. 

DALE,  Richard,  a commodore  in  the 
American  navy,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1756. 
He  served  on  board  the  Bon  Homme  Richard 
under  Paul  Jones,  and  was  the  first  to  spring 
to  the  deck  of  the  Serapis  in  the  bloody  en- 
gagement which  resulted  in  her  capture.  He 
died  at  Philadelphia,  Feb.  24th,  1826. 

D’ALEMBERT,  Jean  le  Rond,  a distin- 
guished mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
at  Paris  in  1717,  died  in  1783.  He  was  the 
son  of  Madame  de  Tencin  and  the  poet  Des- 
touches,  who  exposed  him  while  an  infant. 
At  ten  years  of  age,  the  principal  of  the 
school  in  which  he  received  his  early  educa- 
tion, declared  that  his  pupil  had  learned  all 
that  he  could  teach  him.  He  undertook  to 
write  the  mathematical  part  of  the  “ Diction- 
naire  Encyclopedique,”  and  contributed  many 
admirable  articles  to  it,  which,  however,  in- 
volved him  in  the  attacks  made  upon  the 
Work.  He  refused  the  brilliant  offers  of  Fred- 


eric II.  of  Prussia,  and  Catherine  of  Rus- 
sia, tempting  him  to  settle  in  their  respective 
capitals. 

DALLAS,  Alexander  James,  a native  of 
Jamaica,  an  able  lawyer,  who  came  to  this 
country,  in  1783,  and  held  various  responsi- 
ble offices  under  our  government,  being  made 
secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1814.  In  1815, 
he  assumed  the  duties  of  secretary  of  war,  and 
on  him  devolved  the  task  of  reducing  the 
army.  He  died  Jan.  16th,  1817,  aged  fifty- 
seven. 

DAMIENS,  Robert  Francois,  a crazy  fa- 
natic, who  stabbed  Louis  XV.,  at  Versailles, 
on  the  5th  of  January,  1757.  He  had  long 
meditated  the  deed,  and  took  opium  to  pre- 
pare himself.  After  the  most  cruel  tortures, 
he  was  broken  on  the  wheel,  March  28th, 
1757. 

DAMON  and  PYTHIAS,  two  Syracusans, 
who  were  devotedly  attached  to  each  other. 
Dionysius  condemned  Pythias  to  death,  but 
allowed  him  to  absent  himself  in  order  to 
arrange  his  affairs,  on  condition  that  Damon 
should  remain  as  hostage.  The  appointed 
time  having  expired,  Damon  was  led  to  the 
scaffold,  and  the  executioner  was  about  to 
raise  his  axe,  when  Pythias  arrived,  breath- 
less with  haste,  threw  himself  into  the  arms 
of  his  friend,  and  embraced  him  tenderly. 
Dionysius,  moved  by  the  scene,  in  common 
with  the  people,  restored  both  the  friends  to 
the  enjoyment  of  life  and  liberty,  387  b.c. 

DAMP1ER,  William,  an  English  circum- 
navigator, born  in  1652,  known  for  his 
adventures  in  both  hemispheres. 

DANDOLO,  Henry,  a doge  of  Venice,  filled 
that  highest  office  in  the  gift  of  the  republic 
in  1192,  being  then  eighty -four  years  old. 
Neither  his  age  nor  his  defective  vision  pre- 
vented him  from  discharging  his  duties  with 
honor.  Joining  the  fourth  crusade,  he  was 
the  first  to  spring  on  shore  with  the  standard 
of  St.  Mark,  at  the  storming  of  Constantino- 
ple. He  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-seven. 
There  were  several  other  doges  of  this 
family. 

DANTE.  The  city  of  Florence  ranks  next 
to  Athens  in  its  classic  associations.  There 


DAN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


253 


certainly  is  no  city  so  modern,  yet  so  linked 
to  the  past.  Time  seems  here  almost  to  have 
spared  the  footprints  of  the  great  men  whose 
fame  has  defied  him.  In  the  rooms  of  Mi- 
chael Angelo,  his  staff  leans  in  the  corner,  his 
unfinished  sketches  lie  upon  the  table.  One 
may  press  the  same  stairs  which  John  Milton 
ascended  when  he  visited  Galileo.  Among 
the  great  names  associated  with  this  city, 
there  is  one  other,  before  which  every  man 
bows  who  has  been  touched  by  the  tragedy 
of  life, — Alighieri  Durante,  better  known  as 
Dante,  who  in  Italian  literature  is  the  Homer 
and  the  Shakspeare.  Dante  was  born  in  1265. 
He  was  provided  by  his  early  widowed  mother 
with  the  best  education  which  could  be 
obtained  in  that  age.  It  was  a custom  in 
Florence  to  celebrate  the  return  of  spring 
by  May-day  festivities ; and  it  was  probably 
upon  one  of  these  occasions,  at  her  father’s 
house,  that  he  was  inspired  with  the  beauty 
of  Beatrice  Portinari.  He  tells  us  that  she 
was  so  beautiful  that  all  the  citizens  crowded 
to  see  her  when  she  walked  in  the  city,  and 
so  pure  that  they  bent  down  their  eyes  in  her 
presence.  She  became  the  wife  of  another 
person,  and  died  in  1290,  when  Dante  was  in 
his  twenty -fifth  year.  He  was  married  the 
year  after,  but  he  never  forgot  her.  At  the 
time  of  the  troubles  between  the  Bianchi  and 
Neri,  two  factions  of  the  Guelphs  in  Florence, 
Dante  espoused  the  cause  of  the  former.  The 
latter  gained  the  mastery.  He  was  banished 
in  1302.  and  his  property  confiscated.  He 
went  from  place  to  place,  restless  and  un- 
happy, loathing  a state  of  dependence,  yet 
unable  to  retrieve  his  fortune.  He  died  at 
Ravena,  Sept.  14th,  1321.  The  fame  of  his 
“Divina  Commedia”  is  imperishable,  and 
the  Florentines,  who  had  persecuted  him 
during  his  lifetime,  paid  him  the  highest 
honors  at  his  death.  His  characters  were 
those  of  his  own  period,  with  whose  history 
the  public  were  acquainted,  and  whose  fami- 
lies and  descendants  were  alive,  and  fre- 
quently in  the  enjoyment  of  wealth  and  | 
power.  But  the  position  in  which  he  placed 
them,  threw  an  interest  round  their  story, 
stronger  than  could  have  been  produced  by  the 
adventures  of  any  individual,  however  illus- 
trious, of  a more  remote  date.  The  terror  and 
pity,  and  in  some  cases  the  vengeance,  of  the 
Italians  were  awakened,  when  the  shadowy 


forms  of  their  contemporaries  were  made  to 
pass  in  review  before  them,  stripped  of  those 
external  advantages  which  while  living  had 
rendered  them  respected,  and  had  cast  a veil 
over  their  crimes.  The  cruel  husband  shrunk 
from  the  picture  of  his  murdered  wife,  herself 
condemned  to  perdition,  yet  prophesying  that 
for  him  was  destined  the  lowest  pit  in  hell. 
The  son  beheld  his  father  plunged  in  eternal 
woe,  yet  continuing  to  feel  a tender  interest 
in  his  welfare.  The  treacherous  assassin, 
who  still  occupied  his  place  among  the  nobles 
of  the  land,  trembled  at  seeing  himself  rep- 
resented as  in  hell,  while,  according  to  the 
bold  supposition  of  the  poet,  a demon  ani- 
mated his  body.  The  ‘ mighty  mantle  ’ itself 
was  no  protection  to  the  wearer : Pope  Nich- 
olas III.,  plunged  headforemost  in  the  flames, 
was  represented  as  waiting  there  for  the 
arrival  of  his  guilty  successors.  The  effect 
was  indescribable.  Some,  unable  to  endure 
the  contempt  of  their  countrymen,  condemned 
themselves  to  voluntary  exile ; some,  struck 
with  terror  and  despair,  died  broken-hearted  ; 
and  others  fell  victims  to  the  private  ven- 
geance of  the  poet’s  friends. 

DANTON,  Geokge  Jacques,  a foremost 
actor  in  the  French  revolution,  was  born  at 
Arcis-sur-Aube,  October  28th,  1759.  After 
the  assassination  of  Marat  and  the  fall  of  the 
Girondins,  Danton  and  Robespierre  came  in 
conflict,  and  the  former  was  guillotined, 
April  5 th,  1794.  He  combined  some  of  the 
greatest  and  most  odious  qualities.  He  has 
been  called  the  colossus  of  the  revolution, 
“head  of  gold,  bosom  of  flesh,  loins  of  brass, 
feet  of  clay,”  and  characterized  as  a “ gigan- 
tic mass  of  valor,  ostentation,  fury,  affection, 
and  wild  revolutionary  force  and  manhood.” 

DARDANELLES,  are  the  fortifications  on 
the  European  and  Asiatic  sides  of  the  Helles- 
pont, which  is  hence  called  the  ‘ Strait  of  the 
Dardanelles.’ 

DARIUS.  The  name  of  several  sovereigns 
of  Persia,  of  whom  the  first  is  the  most  cele- 
brated. Darius  I.,  a noble  satrap  of  Persia, 
was  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  and  conspired  with 
six  other  noblemen,  to  destroy  Smerdis,  the 
usurper  of  the  Persian  crown.  After  the 
death  of  the  usurper,  it  was  agreed  among 
the  conspirators  that  he  whose  horse  first 
neighed  should  be  appointed  king.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  singular  resolution,  the 


DAR 


254 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


groom  of  Darius  led  his  master’s  horse  with 
a mare  to  the  place  near  which  the  seven 
noblemen  were  to  pass.  On  the  morrow 
before  sunrise,  wThen  they  proceeded  all  to- 
gether, the  horse  of  Darius  neighed,  and  he 
was  saluted  by  his  companions  king,  b.c.  522. 
He  soon  showed  himself  fit  to  grace  the 
throne.  He  took  Babylon,  and  conquered 
Thrace ; was  defeated  by  the  Scythians,  but 
favored  by  fortune  in  his  campaign  against 
the  Indians.  The  burning  of  Sardis,  which 
was  a Grecian  colony,  incensed  the  Athenians, 
and  a war  was  kindled  between  them  and 
the  Persians,  in  which  the  latter  were  un- 
successful. Undismayed  at  the  disaster  at 
Marathon  and  his  immense  losses,  Darius 
resolved  to  lead  his  troops  to  Greece  in  person, 
but  died  in  the  midst  of  his  warlike  prepara- 
tions, b.c.  485.  Darius  II.,  or  Darius  Nothus, 
reigned  423-404  b.c.  Darius  III.,  surnamed 
Codomanus,  the  son  of  Arsanes  and  Sysi- 
gambis,  was  descended  from  Darius  Nothus. 
He  was  no  sooner  seated  on  the  throne  than 
Alexander  of  Macedon  invaded  his  kingdom. 
The  Persians  were  defeated  in  the  battles  of 
the  Gramcus  and  Issus ; in  the  last  of  which, 
Darius,  leaving  his  wife,  children,  and  mother, 
fled  in  disguise  on  the  horse  of  his  armor- 
bearer,  and  was  saved  by  the  darkness  of  the 
night.  Being  again  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Arbela,  Darius  in  despair  fled  to  Media, 
where  he  was  killed  l?y  Bessus,  the  perfidious 
governor  of  Bactria,  and  was  found  by  the 
Macedonians  in  his  chariot,  expiring  of  his 
wounds,  b.c.  331.  For  this  murder  Bessus 
suffered  a horrible  death.  Four  trees  having 
been  with  great  exertion  bent  down  to  the 
ground,  he  was  bound  upon  them,  a limb 
tied  to  each.  The  trees  being  loosed  flew 
back  with  great  violence,  rending  his  body  in 
pieces. 

DARKE,  William,  usually  called  Major 
Darke,  a brave  veteran  officer,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia county,  1736,  served  in  the  war  of 
1755-63;  again  in  the  Revolutionary  war, 
and  finally  in  the  Indian  war,  under  Gen.  St. 
Clair,  and  died  November  26th,  1801. 

DARLING,  Grace.  Off  the  coast  of  North- 
umberland in  England,  there  lies  a group  of 
small  islets  or  rocks,  some  of  which  can  be 
seen  only  at  low  water ; they  are  called  the 
Fame  Islands.  Their  aspect  is  wild  and  des- 
olate in  no  common  degree.  Composed  of 


rock,  with  a slight  covering  of  herbage,  and 
in  many  places  ending  in  sheer  precipices, 
they  are  the  residence  of  little  else  than  wild 
fowl.  Between  the  smaller  islets  the  sea 
makes  with  great  force,  and  many  a ship  in 
times  past  has  laid  her  bones  upon  the  pitiless 
rocks  which  every  ebb  tide  exposes  to  view. 
Upon  Longstone,  one  of  the  outer  cluster 
known  as  the  Staples,  there  stands  a light- 
house, which  at  one  time  was  kept  by  William 
Darling,  a worthy  and  intelligent  man,  of 
quiet  manners,  with  resources  of  mind  and 
character  sufficient  to  turn  to  profitable  use 
the  many  lonely  hours  which  his  position  nec- 
essarily entailed  upon  him.  He  had  a numer- 
ous family  of  children  ; among  them  a daugh- 
ter Grace,  who  had  reached  the  age  of  twenty- 
two  years  when  the  incident  occurred  which 
has  made  her  name  so  famous.  She  had 
passed  most  of  her  life  upon  the  little  island 
of  Longstone,  and  is  described  as  having  been 
of  a retiring  and  somewhat  reserved  disposi- 
tion. In  personal  appearance,  she  was  about 
the  middle  size,  of  a fair  complexion  and 
pleasing  countenance,  with  nothing  masculine 
in  her  aspect,  but  gentle  and  feminine,  and, 
as  might  be  supposed,  with  a winning  expres- 
sion of  benevolence  in  her  face.  Her  smile 
was  particularly  sweet.  She  had  a good  un- 
derstanding, and  had  been  respectably  edu- 
cated. 

On  Wednesday  evening,  Sept.  5th,  1838, 
the  steamer  Forfarshire,  of  about  three  hun- 
dred tons’  burden,  under  the  command  of 
Captain  John  Humble,  sailed  from  Hull  for 
Dundee  in  Scotland.  She  had  a valuable 
cargo  of  bale  goods  and  sheet  iron ; and  her 
company,  including  twenty-two  cabin  and 
nineteen  steerage  passengers,  comprised  sixty- 
three  persons.  On  the  evening  of  the  next 
day,  when  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Fame 
Islands,  she  encountered  a severe  storm  of 
wrind,  attended  with  a heavy  rain  anf  a dense 
fog.  She  leaked  to  such  a degree  that  the 
fires  could  not  be  kept  burning,  and  her  en- 
gines soon  ceased  to  work.  She  became 
wholly  unmanageable,  and  drifting  violently, 
at  the  mercy  of  the  winds  and  waves,  struck 
on  one  of  the  reefs  of  Longstone  Island,  about 
four  o’clock  on  Friday  morning. 

As  too  often  happens  in  such  fearful  emer- 
gencies, the  master  lost  his  self-possession, 
order  and  discipline  ceased,  and  nothing  but 


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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


255 


self-preservation  was  thought  of.  A portion 
of  the  crew,  including  the  first  mate,  lowered 
one  of  the  boats  and  left  the  ship.  With 
them  was  a single  cabin  passenger,  who  threw 
himself  into  the  boat  by  means  of  a rope. 
These  men  were  picked  up,  after  some  hours, 
and  carried  into  the  port  of  Shields.  The 
scene  on  board  was  fearful : men  paralyzed 
by  despair ; women  wringing  their  hands  and 
shrieking  with  anguish ; and  among  them  the 
helpless  and  bewildered  master,  whose  wife, 
clinging  to  him,  frantically  besought  the  pro- 
tection he  could  no  longer  give.  The  vessel 
struck  aft  the  paddle  boxes ; and  not  above 
three  minutes  after  the  passengers  (most  of 
whom  had  been  below,  and  many  of  them  in 
their  berths)  had  rushed  upon  the  deck,  a 
second  shock  broke  her  into  two  pieces.  The 
after  part,  with  most  of  the  passengers  and 
the  captain  and  'his  wife,  was  swept  away 
through  a tremendous  current,  and  the  thirty- 
five  or  forty  wretches  perished  in  the  waves. 
The  fore  part,  on  which  were  five  of  the  crew 
and  four  passengers,  stuck  fast  to  the  rock. 
These  few  survivors  remained  in  their  dreadful 
situation  till  daybreak,  with  a fearful  sea  run- 
ning around  them,  and  expecting  every  mo- 
ment to  be  swept  into  the  deep.  With  what 
anxious  eyes  did  they  wait  for  the  morning 
light ! and  yet  what  could  mortal  help  avail 
them  even  then?  Craggy  and  dangerous 
rocky  islets  lay  between  them  and  the  nearest 
land,  and  around  these  rocks  a sea  was  raging 
in  which  no  boat  was  likely  to  live.  But, 
through  the  providence  of  God,  a deliverance 
was  in  store  for  them ; a deliverance  wrought 
by  the  strong  heart  of  an  heroic  girl.  As  soon 
as  day  broke  on  the  morning  of  the  7th,  they 
were  descried  from  the  Longstone  light,  by 
the  Darlings,  at  nearly  a mile’s  distance. 
None  of  the  family  were  at  home,  except  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Darling  and  Grace.  Although  the 
wind  had  somewhat  abated,  the  sea  (never 
calm  among  these  jagged  rocks)  was  still 
fiercely  raging ; and  to  have  braved  its  perils 
would  have  done  the  highest  honor  to  the 
strong  muscles  and  well-tried  nerves  of  the 
stoutest  man.  But  what  shall  be  said  of  the 
errand  of  mercy  having  been  undertaken  and 
accomplished  mainly  through  a female  heart 
and  arm  ! Mr.  Darling  was  reluctant  to  ex- 
pose himself  to  what  seemed  certain  destruc- 
tion; but  the  earnest  entreaties  of  his  daugh- 


ter determined  him  to  make  the  attempt.  At 
her  solicitation  the  boat  was  launched,  with 
the  mother’s  assistance ; and  father  and 
daughter  entered  it,  each  taking  an  oar.  It 
is  worthy  of  notice  that  Grace  never  had  oc- 
casion to  assist  in  the  boat  previous  to  the 
wreck  of  the  Forfarshire,  others  of  the  family 
being  always  at  hand. 

It  was  only  by  the  exertion  of  great  mus- 
cular strength,  as  well  as  by  the  utmost  cool- 
ness and  resolution,  that  the  father  and  daugh- 
ter rowed  the  boat  up  to  the  rock.  And  when 
there,  a greater  danger  arose  from  the  diffi- 
culty of  so  managing  it  as  to  prevent  its  being 
dashed  to  pieces  upon  the  sharp  ridge  which 
had  proved  fatal  to  the  steamer.  With  much 
difficulty  and  danger,  the  father  scrambled 
upon  the  rock,  and  the  boat  was  left  for  a 
while  to  the  unaided  strength  and  skill  of  the 
daughter.  However,  the  nine  sufferers  were 
safely  rescued.  The  delight  with  which  the 
boat  was  first  seen  was  converted  into  amaze- 
ment when  they  perceived  that  it  was  guided 
and  impelled  by  an  old  man  and  a slight  young 
woman.  Owing  to  the  violence  of  the  storm, 
the  rescued  persons  were  obliged  to  remain  at 
the  lighthouse  of  the  Darlings  from  Friday 
morning  till  Sunday,  during  which  time  Grace 
was  most  assiduous  in  her  kind  attentions  to 
the  sufferers,  giving  up  her  bed  to  one  of  them, 
a poor  woman  who  had  seen  her  two  children 
perish  in  her  arms,  while  on  the  wreck. 

This  heroic  deed  of  Grace  Darling’s  shot  a 
thrill  of  sympathy  and  admiration  through 
all  Great  Britain,  and  indeed  through  all 
Christendom.  The  Humane  Society  sent  her 
a flattering  vote  of  thanks  and  a piece  of  plate, 
and  a considerable  sum  of  money  was  raised 
for  her  from  the  voluntary  contributions  of  an 
admiring  public.  The  lonely  lighthouse  be- 
came the  centre  of  attraction  to  thousands  of 
curious  and  sympathizing  travelers ; and 
Grace  was  pursued,  questioned,  and  stared  at 
to  an  extent  that  became  a serious  annoyance 
to  her  gentle  and  retiring  spirit.  But  in  all 
this  hot  blaze  of  admiration,  and  in  her  im- 
proved fortunes,  she  preserved  unimpaired  the 
simplicity  and  modesty  of  her  nature.  Her 
head  was  not  in  the  least  turne.d  by  the  world- 
wide fame  she  had  earned,  or  by  the  flattering 
caresses  of  the  wealthy,  the  fashionable,  and 
the  distinguished,  which  were  lavished  upon 
her.  The  meekness  with  which  she  bore  her 


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256 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


honors  equaled  the  courage  which  had  won 
them.  She  resumed  her  former  way  of  life, 
and  her  accustomed  duties,  as  quietly  as  if 
nothing  had  happened.  Several  advantageous 
offers  of  marriage  were  made  to  her,  but  she 
declined  them  all ; usually  alleging  her  deter- 
mination not  to  leave  her  parents  while  they 
lived. 

She  was  not  destined  long  to  enjoy  the  ap- 
plause she  had  earned,  or  the  more  substantial 
tokens  of  regard  which  had  been  bestowed 
upon  her.  She  began  to  show  symptoms  of 
consumption  toward  the  close  of  the  year 
1841 ; and  although  all  the  means  of  restora- 
tion which  the  most  affectionate  care  and  the 
best  medical  advice  could  suggest  were  re- 
sorted to,  she  gradually  declined,  and  breathed 
her  last,  in  calm  submission  to  the  will  of 
God,  Oct.  20th,  1842.  Her  funeral  was  very 
numerously  attended,  and  a monument  has 
been  erected  to  her  memory  in  Bamborough 
church-yard,  where  she  was  buried. 

DARNLEY,  Henry  Stuart,  Earl  of,  the 
husband  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  came  to  an 
untimely  death ; his  house  being  blown  up  in 
the  night,  Feb.  10th,  1567.  He  was  the  fa- 
ther of  James  I.  of  England.  [ See  Stuarts.] 

DARWIN,  Erasmus,  an  English  physician 
and  poet,  born  in  1781,  at  Elton,  was  the 
author  of  the  “Botanic  Garden”  and  other 
works.  He  died  in  1802. 

DAUN,  Leopold,  Count,  marshal  of  the 
German  empire,  and  during  the  seven  years’ 
war  the  most  successful  opponent  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  died  in  1766,  aged  sixty-one. 

DAYENANT,  Sir  William,  an  English 
poet  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  author 
of  “ Gondibert,”  a heroic  poem,  and  a the- 
atrical writer  and  manager  under  Charles  II. 
He  was  born  in  1605,  and  died  in  1668.. 
He  succeeded  Ben  Jonson  as  poet-laureate. 
Scandal  hinted  that  he  was  the  natural  son 
of  Shakspeare. 

DAVID,  Jacques  Louis,  a French  painter, 
born  at  Paris  in  1750,  died  at  Brussels  in 
1825.  David,  though  an  uncompromising 
democrat,  voting  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI., 
was  the  favorite  painter  of  Napoleon ; he 
was  exiled  on  the  emperor’s  fall.  Among 
his  finest  works  are  “Paris  and  Helen,”  the 
“Rape  of  the  Sabine  Women,”  and  “Napo- 
leon crossing  the  Alps.”  His  best  perform- 
ances in  portrait-painting  are  the  numerous 


likenesses  of  his  imperial  patron.  The  orig. 
inal  sketch  for  one  of  these,  which  indeed 
was  never  afterward  finished,  was  taken 
during  the  last  few  hours  of  unlimited  power 
possessed  by  Napoleon  in  Paris.  The  greater 
part  of  the  preceding  day  and  night  had  been 
spent  in  arranging  the  final  operations  of  the 
campaign  which  terminated  in  the  battle  of 
Waterloo.  When  now  past  midnight,  instead 
of  retiring  to  repose,  the  emperor  sent  for 
David,  to  whom  he  had  promised  to  sit,  and 
who  was  in  waiting  in  an  apartment  of  the 
Tuileries.  “My  friend,”  said  Napoleon  to 
the  artist,  “there  are  yet  some  hours  till 
four,  when  we  are  finally  to  review  the  de- 
fenses of  the  capital ; in  the  mean  time,  do 
your  utmost,  while  I read  these  dispatches.” 
But  exhausted  nature  could  hold  out  no 
longer ; the  paper  dropped  from  the  nerveless 
hand,  and  Napoleon  sank  to  sleep.  In  this 
attitude  the  painter  has  represented  him : 
the  pale  and  lofty  forehead,  the  care-worn  fea- 
tures, the  relaxed  expression,  the  very  accom- 
paniments, bear  an  impress  inexpressibly 
tender  and  melancholy.  With  the  dawn 
Napoleon  awoke,  and  springing  to  his  feet 
was  about  to  address  David,  when  a taper 
just  expiring  in  its  socket  arrested  his  eye. 
Folding  his  arms  on  his  breast,  a usual  pos- 
ture of  thought  with  him,  he  contemplated 
its  dying  struggles,  when,  with  the  last  gleam, 
the  rays  of  the  morning  sun  penetrated 
through  the  half-closed  window-curtains. 
“Were  I superstitious,”  said  Napoleon,  a 
faint  smile  pla}ring  about  his  beautiful  mouth, 
“the  first  object  on  which  my  sight  has 
rested  this  day  might  be  deemed  ominous ; 
but,”  pointing  to  the  rising  sun,  “ the  augury 
is  doubtful : at  least  the  prayer  of  the  Gre- 
cian hero  will  be  recorded : we  shall  perish 
in  light.” 

DAVIDSON,  Lucretia  Maria,  displayed 
great  talents  for  composition  at  the  age  of 
four  years.  She  died  of  incessant  applica- 
tion, August  27th,  1825.  She  was  born  at 
Plattsburg,  on  Lake  Champlain,  September 
27th,  1808.  She  was  a beautiful  girl,  and 
her  poetic  genius  was  of  a high  order. 

DAVIDSON,  William,  a native  of  Lan- 
caster county,  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in 
1746,  and  in  1750,  removed  by  his  parents  to 
Mecklenburg,  N.  C.  At  the  opening  of  the 
Revolution,  he  entered  the  army,  in  which 


DAY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


257 


he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and 
fell  defending  the  passage  of  the  Catawba 
River  at  Cowan’s  Ford,  against  Lord  Corn- 
wallis, Feb.  1st,  1781. 

DAVIE,  William  Richardson,  a distin- 
guished character  in  the  American  Revolu- 
tion. He  reached  the  rank  of  general,  and 
was  afterward  governor  of  North  Carolina, 
and  envoy  to  France.  He  was  born  in  Eng- 
land, 1756,  and  died  at  Camden,  S.  C.,  in 
1820.  He  was  a member  of  the  convention 
that  framed  the  federal  constitution. 

DAVIES,  Samuel,  a distinguished  Ameri- 
can divine,  president  of  Nassau  Hall  (now 
Princeton  College),  born  in  Delaware,  Nov. 
3d,  1724,  died  in  1762. 

DAVIS,  John,  an  English  navigator,  who 
gave  his  name  to  the  straits  at  the  entrance 
of  Baffin’s  Bay,  which  he  entered  in  endeav- 
oring to  discover  the  north-west  passage  in 
1585.  He  afterward  made  two  more  voyages 
for  the  same  purpose,  and  five  to  the  East 
Indies  in  the  Dutch  service.  He  was  killed 
by  Japanese  pirates  on  the  coast  of  Malacca 
in  1605. 

DAVOUST,  Louis  Nicholas,  Duke  of 
Auerstadt  and  Prince  of  Eckmuhl,  marshal 
and  peer  of  France,  born  in  1770,  died  in 
1823.  He  studied  wTith  Bonaparte,  and 
served  under  him  in  his  most  brilliant  cam- 
paigns. He  only  submitted  to  Louis  XVII. 
when  the  hopes  of  Napoleon  were  irretrieva- 
bly destroyed. 

DAVY,  Sir  Humphrey,  a distinguished 
English  chemist,  born  in  1779,  at  Penzance, 
Cornwall,  died  at  Geneva,  May  29th,  1829. 
His  experiments  on  the  nature  of  explosive 
gas,  to  which  his  attention  was  directed  by 
the  frequent  accidents  occurring  to  mines 
from  fire  damps,  resulted  in  the  invention 
of  the  safety -lamp.  Other  important  discov- 
eries were  made  by  this  distinguished  man. 

DAY,  John,  the  first  printer  who  intro- 
duced the  Greek  and  Saxon  characters  into 
England,  died  in  1584.  Stephen  Day  was 
the  first  printer  in  New  England,  about  1638. 

DEAD  SEA,  the  ancient  Lacus  Asphaltites , 
a piece  of  water  in  Palestine,  180  miles  in 
circuit,  which  occupies  the  space  whereon 
the  condemned  cities  of  the  vale  of  Siddim 
stood.  The  following  account  of  it  is  from  the 
pen  of  a traveler.  w After  the  pilgrims  had 
bathed  in  the  Jordan,  we  left  them  and  turned 

17 


down  to  the  south,  in  company  with  three  or 
four  other  English  travelers,  and  a guard  from 
the  governor,  to  visit  the  Dead  Sea.  We 
rode  across  plains  of  barren  sand  for  an  hour 
and  a half,  when  we  stood  upon  the  banks  of 
this  memorable  lake.  Without  any  reference 
to  what  others  have  said,  I can  testify  to  the 
following  facts.  The  water  is  perfectly  clear 
and  transparent.  The  taste  is  bitter,  and 
salt  far  beyond  that  of  the  ocean.  It  acts 
upon  the  tongue  and  mouth  like  alum,  and 
smarts  in  the  eye  like  camphor,  and  produces 
a burning  pricking  sensation  over  the  whole 
body.  It  stiffened  the  hair  of  the  head  much 
like  pomatum.  The  water  has  a much 
greater  specific  gravity  than  the  human  body, 
and  hence,  no  efforts  cause  us  to  sink  below 
the  surface;  and  standing,  perpendicularly, 
you  would  not  descend  lower  than  the  arms. 
Although  there  was  evidence  in  the  sands 
thrown  upon  the  beach,  that  in  great  storms 
there  were  waves,  yet  there  appeared  to  be 
some  foundation  for  the  reports  of  its  immo- 
bility. Notwithstanding  there  was  a consid- 
erable breeze,  the  water  lay  perfectly  lifeless. 
Historians  say  that  large  quantities  of  bitu- 
men were  gathered  from  the  surface  of  this 
lake ; and  is  it  not  quite  possible,  to  say  the 
least,  that  it  formerly  existed  in  such  quanti- 
ties as  to  spread  over  the  whole  face  of  the 
sea,  and  thus  effectually  prevent  the  wind 
from  interrupting  its  death-like  quietude  ? 
Modern  travelers  state  that  there  is  very  little 
of  this  substance  now  to  be  found,  and  cer- 
tainly we  saw  nothing  like  it.  We  saw  no 
fish  or  living  animals  in  the  water,  though 
birds  were  flying  over  it  in  various  directions 
unharmed.  We  all  noticed  an  unnatural 
gloom  hanging,  not  merely  over  the  sea,  but 
also  over  the  whole  plain  below  Jericho. 
This  is  mentioned  also  by  ancient  historians. 
According  to  the  measurement  of  Capt.  Wil- 
son in  1865,  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  in 
winter  1,289  feet,  and  in  summer  1,298  feet 
below  that  of  the  Mediterranean. 

DEANE,  Silas,  was  a native  of  Groton, 
Conn.  He  was  a member  of  the  first  con- 
gress, 1774.  In  June,  1776,  he  was  sent  to 
France  as  agent  for  the  colonies,  and  the 
ensuing  autumn  was  associated  with  Frank- 
lin and  Lee  as  commissioner.  His  manage- 
ment was  unsatisfactory,  and  he  was  recalled 
at  the  close  of  1777.  He  was  charged  with 


DEA 


258 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


using  his  official  position  for  purposes  of 
private  gain.  Returning  to  Europe  after 
peace  came,  he  died  at  Deal,  England,  in 
1789,  in  great  destitution. 

DEARBORN,  Henry,  was  born  at  Hamp- 
ton, N.  H.,  1751.  He  served  with  distinction 
through  the  Revolution.  At  the  battle  of 
Monmouth,  Washington  noticing  his  efficien- 
cy, sent  to  inquire  what  troops  he  com- 
manded. “ Full-blooded  Yankees  from  New 
Hampshire,”  was  the  answer.  From  1801  to 
1809,  Gen.  Dearborn  was  secretary  of  war. 

As  the  senior  major-general  he  commanded 
the  army  in  1812  and  1818.  From  1822  to 
1824,  he  was  minister  to  Portugal.  He  died 
in  1829. 

DECATUR,  Stephen,  an  American  naval 
commander,  born  in  Maryland,  January  5th, 
1779.  Soon  after  his  entrance  into  the  navy 
(1798),  he  received  a first-lieutenancy,  and  for 
his  gallant  conduct  in  recovering  the  frigate 
Philadelphia  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli,  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain.  He  suc- 
cessively commanded  the  Constitution,  the 
Congress,  the  Chesapeake,  and  the  United 
States.  With  the  latter  he  captured  the 
Macedonian,  October  25th,  1812.  In  the 
war  with  Algiers  in  1815,  Decatur  terrified 
the  regency  into  submission  in  forty-eight 
hours ; was  equally  successful  at  Tripoli ; 
and  procured  the  renunciation  of  tribute,  and 
an  agreement  on  the  part  of  the  Barbary 
powers,  to  regard  captives  as  prisoners  of 
war,  and  not  slaves.  Decatur  was  killed 
in  a duel  by  Commodore  Barron,  March  22d, 
1820. 

DECIUS,  the  name  of  a Roman  consul 
who  devoted  himself  to  death  in  battle  to  save 
his  country,  b.c.  340.  Also  a Roman  empe- 
ror of  this  name,  who  reigned  from  a.d.  249 
till  December,  251.  He  persecuted  the 
Christians. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

At  an  early  period  in  the  contest  between  the 
mother  country  and  her  colonies,  sagacious 
men  saw  that  complete  emancipation  of  the 
latter  from  the  royal  rule  must  come.  Many 
of  the  patriots  did  not  anticipate  this,  but  the 
progress  of  events  brought  about  the  mea- 
sure which  men  like  Patrick  Henry,  Benja- 
min Franklin,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  Thomas 
Paine,  Timothy  Dwight,  had  long  foreseen 
and  desired.  North  Carolina  wa'  the  first 

DEC 


colony  that  formally  instructed  her  delegates 
to  sustain  such  a measure,  in  April,  1776. 
Indeed,  in  Mecklenburg  county,  a year  pre- 
vious, the  lovers  of  liberty  had  declared  them- 
selves independent  of  the  crown,  and  framed 
a republican  government.  The  lead  of  North 
Carolina  was  followed  by  Massachusetts, 
Virginia,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New 
Hampshire,  and  New  Jersey.  Maryland 
positively  forbade  her  delegates  to  vote  for 
independence.  The  delegates  of  the  other 
colonies  were  left  to  act  as  they  thought  best. 
Virginia  had  taken  a step  in  advance  of  her 
sisters:  she  had  desired  her  delegates  to 
propose  a declaration  of  independence.  Ac- 
cordingly, on  the  7th  of  June,  1776,  Richard 
Henry  Lee  moved  the  resolution,  “ That  these 
united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be, 
free  and  independent  states ; that  they  are 
absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British 
crown ; and  that  all  political  connection  be- 
tween them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain 
is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved.”  John 
Adams  seconded  it.  This  bold  and  concise 
resolve  made  great  inroad  upon  the  doubt  and 
delay  and  hesitation  which  had  clung  about 
the  subject  in  the  minds  of  many.  A com- 
mittee was  selected  to  draught  a declaration ; 
it  consisted  of  Thomas  Jefferson  of  Virginia, 
John  Adams  of  Massachusetts,  Benjamin 
Franklin  of  Pennsylvania,  Roger  Sherman 
of  Connecticut,  and  Robert  R.  Livingston  of 
New  York.  Mr.  Lee  had  been  summoned 
away  by  the  illness  of  his  wife,  and  hence  Mr. 
Jefferson  was  put  upon  the  committee  in  his 
stead.  To  Mr.  Jefferson  was  assigned  the 
writing  of  the  document,  and  his  draught, 
after  a few  slight  emendations  by  Adams  and 
Franklin,  was  unanimously  adopted  by  the 
committee.  It  met  more  criticism  and  altera- 
tion in  Congress,  to  which  body  it  was  re- 
ported on  the  1st  of  July.  Mr.  Lee’s  resolu- 
tion was  adopted  on  the  2d,  and  the  declara- 
tion on  the  4th. 

In  the  subjoined  copy  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  those  portions  in  italic  are  the 
passages  of  the  original  draught  which  were 
omitted  or  changed  by  Congress,  and  the  sub- 
stitutions follow  within  brackets. 

“ A Declaration  by  the  Representatives  of  the 

United  States  of  America,  in  general  Con- 
gress assembled. 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


259 


becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve 
the  political  bands  which  have  connected 
them  with  another,  and  to  assume,  among 
the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and 
equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and 
of  nature’s  God  entitle  them,  a decent  respect 
to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they 
should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them 
to  the  separation. 

“We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident : 
that  all  men  are  created  equal ; that  they  are 
endowed  by  their  Creator  with  inherent  and 
inalienable  [certain  unalienable]  rights  ; that 
among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit 
of  happiness.  That,  to  secure  the  serights, 
governments  are  instituted  among  men,  deriv- 
ing their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the 
governed ; that,  whenever  any  form  of  gov- 
ernment becomes  destructive  of  these  ends, 
it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abol- 
ish it,  and  to  institute  a new  government, 
laying  its  foundations  on  such  principles,  and 
organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them 
shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safety 
and  happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dic- 
tate, that  governments,  long  established, 
should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient 
causes;  and,  accordingly,  all  experience 
hath  shown  that  mankind  are  more  disposed 
to  suffer,  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to 
right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to 
which  they  are  accustomed.  But  when  a long 
train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  begun  at  a 
distinguished  period,  and  pursuing  invaria- 
bly the  same  object,  evinces  a design  to  reduce 
them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their 
right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  gov- 
ernment, and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their 
future  security.  Such  has  been  the  patient 
sufferance  of  these  colonies ; and  such  is  now 
the  necessity  which  constrains  them  to  ex- 
punge [alter]  their  former  systems  of  govern- 
ment. The  history  of  the  present  king  of 
Great  Britain  is  a history  of  unremitting  [re- 
peated] injuries  and  usurpations ; among 
which  appears  no  solitary  fact  to  contradict 
the  uniform  tenor  of  the  rest ; but  all  have, 
[having]  in  direct  object,  the  establishment 
of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these  states.  To 
prove  this,  let  facts  be  submitted  to  a candid 
world ; for  the  truth  of  which  we  pledge  a 
faith  yet  unsullied  by  falsehood . 


“ He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most 
wholesome  and  necessary  for  the  public  good. 

“ He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass 
laws  of  immediate  and  pressing  importance, 
unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his 
assent  should  be  obtained ; and  when  so  sus- 
pended, he  has  neglected  utterly  [utterly 
neglected]  to  attend  to  them. 

“He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the 
accommodation  of  large  districts  of  people, 
unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the 
right  of  representation  in  the  legislature ; a 
right  inestimable  to  them,  and  formidable  to 
tyrants  only. 

“ He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies 
at  places  unusual,  uncomfortable,  and  distant 
from  the  repository  of  their  public  records, 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into 
compliance  with  his  measures. 

“He  has  dissolved  representative  houses 
repeatedly  and  continually,  for  opposing  with 
manly  firmness  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of 
the  people. 

“ He  has  refused,  for  a long  time  after  such 
dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be  elected ; 
whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of 
annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at 
large  for  their  exercise,  the  state  remaining 
in  the  mean  time  exposed  to  all  the  dangers 
of  invasion  from  without  and  convulsions 
within. 

“He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  popula- 
tion of  these  states ; for  that  purpose  ob- 
structing the  laws  for  the  naturalization  of 
foreigners ; refusing  to  pass  others  to  encour- 
age their  migration  hither ; and  raising  the 
conditions  of  new  appropriations  of  lands. 

“ He  has  suffered  the  administration  of 
justice  totally  to  cease  in  some  of  these  states, 
[He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of 
justice  by]  refusing  his  assent  to  laws  for 
establishing  judiciary  powers. 

“ He  has  made  our  judges  dependent  on  his 
will  alone,  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices  and 
the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

“ He  has  created  a multitude  of  new  offices 
by  a self-assumed  power,  and  sent  hither 
swarms  of  officers  to  harass  our  people  and 
eat  out  their  substance. 

“He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace, 
standing  armies  and  ships  of  war,  without  the 
consent  of  our  legislatures. 


DEC 


260 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


“ He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  inde- 
pendent of,  and  superior  to,  the  civil  power. 

“ He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us 
to  a jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  constitutions, 
and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws  ; giving  his 
assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation  : 

“For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed 
troops  among  us ; 

“For  protecting  them,  by  a mock  trial, 
from  punishment  for  any  murders  which  they 
should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these 
states  ; 

“ For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of 
the  world ; 

“For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our 
consent ; 

“For  depriving  us  [in  many  cases]  of  the 
benefits  of  trial  by  jury  ; 

“For  transporting  us  beyond  seas  to  be 
tried  for  pretended  offenses ; 

“ For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English 
taws  in  a neighboring  province,  establishing 
therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarg- 
ing its  boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once 
an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introduc- 
ing the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  states 
[colonies] ; 

“ For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing 
our  most  valuable  laws,  and  altering  funda- 
mentally the  forms  of  our  governments ; 

“ For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and 
declaring  themselves  invested  with  power  to 
legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

“He  has  abdicated  government  here,  with- 
drawing his  governors , and  [by]  declaring  us 
out  of  his  allegiance  and  protection,  and 
waging  war  against  us. 

“ He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our 
coasts,  burned  our  towns,  and  destroyed  the 
lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  ar- 
mies of  foreign  mercenaries  to  complete  the 
works  of  death,  desolation,  and  tyranny, 
already  begun  with  circumstances  of  cruelty 
and  perfidy  [scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most 
barbarous  ages,  and  totally]  unworthy  the 
head  of  a civilized  nation. 

“He  has  constrained  others  [our  fellow- 
citizens],  taken  captive  on  the  high  seas,  to 
bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become 
the  executioners  of  their  friends  and  breth- 
ren, or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

[He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections 


among  us,  and]  he  has  endeavored  to  bring 
on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  mer- 
ciless Indian  savages,  whose  known  rule  of 
warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of 
all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions  of  existence ; 
he  has  excited,  treasonable  insurrections  of 
our  fellow-citizens  with  the  allurements  of 
forfeiture  and  confiscation  of  our  property. 

“ He  has  waged  cruel  war  against  human 
nature  itself  violating  its  most  sacred  rights 
of  life  and  liberty  in  the  persons  of  a distant 
people,  who  never  offended  him , captivating 
and  carrying  them  into  slavery  in  another 
hemisphere,  or  to  incur  miserable  death  in 
their  transportation  thither.  This  piratical 
warfare,  the  opprobrium  of  infidel  powers,  is 
the  warfare  of  the  Christian  Icing  of  Great 
Britain.  Determined  to  keep  open  a market 
where  men  should  be  bought  and  sold,  he  has 
prostituted  his  negative  for  suppressing  every 
legislative  attempt  to  prohibit  or  to  restrain 
this  execrable  commerce.  And  that  this  as- 
semblage of  horrors  might  want  no  fact  of 
distinguished  dye,  he  is  now  exciting  those 
very  people  to  rise  in  arms  among  us,  and  to 
purchase  that  liberty  of  which  He  has  de- 
prived them  by  murdering  the  people  upon 
whom  He  obtruded  them : thus  paying  off 
former  crimes  committed  against  the  liber- 
ties of  one  people  with  crimes  which  he  urges 
them  to  commit  against  the  lives  of  another. 

“In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions,  we 
have  petitioned  for  redress  in  the  most  humble 
terms : our  repeated  petitions  have  been 
answered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A prince 
whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act 
which  may  define  a tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the 
ruler  of  a people  who  mean  to  be  free  [free 
people].  Future  ages  will  scarce  believe  that 
the  hardiness  of  one  man  adventured , within 
the  short  compass  of  twelve  years  only , to 
build  a foundation , so  broad  and  undis- 
guised, for  tyranny  over  a people  fostered 
and  fixed  in  principles  of  freedom. 

“ Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attentions 
to  our  British  brethren.  We  have  warned 
them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their 
legislature  to  extend  a [an  unwarrantable] 
jurisdiction  over  these  our  states  [us].  We 
have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances  of 
our  emigration  and  settlement  here,  no  one 
of  which  could  warrant  so  strange  a preten- 
sion ; that  these  were  effected  at  the  expense 


DEC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


261 


of  our  own  "blood  and  treasure,  unassisted  by 
the  wealth  or  strength  of  Great  Britain ; 
that  in  constituting,  indeed,  our  several 
forms  of  government,  we  had  adopted  one 
common  hing,  thereby  laying  a foundation 
for  perpetual  league  and  amity  with  them ; 
but  that  submission  to  their  parliament 
was  no  part  of  our  constitution,  nor  ever  in 
idea,  if  history  may  be  credited;  and  We 
[have]  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and 
magnanimity,  as  well  as  to  [and  we  have 
conjured  them  by]  the  ties  of  our  common 
kindred,  to  disavow  these  usurpations  which 
were  likely  to  [would  inevitably]  interrupt 
our  connection  and  correspondence.  They 
too  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and 
consanguinity  ; and  when  occasions  have  been 
given  them,  by  the  regular  course  of  their 
laws,  of  removing  from  their  councils  the 
disturbers  of  our  harmony,  they  have,  by 
their  free  election,  re-established  them  in 
power.  At  this  very  time,  too,  they  are  per- 
mitting their  chief  magistrate  to  send  over, 
not  only  soldiers  of  our  common  blood,  but 
Scotch  and  foreign  mercenaries  to  invade  and 
destroy  us.  These  facts  have  given  the  last 
stab  to  agonizing  affection,  and  manly  spirit 
bids  us  to  renounce  forever  these  unfeeling 
brethren.  We  must  endeavor  to  forget  our 
former  love  for  them.  [We  must  therefore 
acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces 
our  separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold 
the  rest  of  mankind,  enemies  in  war;  in 
peace,  friends.  ] 

“ We  might  have  been  a free  and  great 
people  together ; but  a communication  of 
grandeur  and  of  freedom,  it  seems,  is  below 
their  dignity.  Be  it  so,  since  they  will  have 
it.  The  road  to  happiness  and  to  glory  is 
open  to  us  too  ; we  will  climb  it  apart  from 
them,  and  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which 
denounces  our  eternal  separation. 

“We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  general  congress 
assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge 
of  the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  inten- 
tentions,  do,  in  the  name,  and  by  the  author- 
ity, of  the  good  people  of  these  states,  reject 
and  renounce  all  allegiance  and  subjection 
to  the  kings  of  Great  Britain,  and  all  others 
who  may  hereafter  claim  by,  through,  or 
under  them  ; we  utterly  dissolve  all  political 
connection  which  may  heretofore  have  sub- 


sisted between  us  and  the  parliament  or 
people  of  Great  Britain  ; and  finally,  we  do 
assert  the  colonies  to  be  free  and  independent 
states ; [colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  de- 
clare that  these  united  colonies  are,  and  of 
right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states ; 
that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to 
the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  con- 
nection between  them  and  the  state  of  Great 
Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved  •] 
and  that,  as  free  aqd  independent  sf^es, 
they  have  full  power  t$.rlevy  way,  conclude 
peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce, 
and  to  do  all  other  acts  and  things  which 
independent  states  may  of  right  do.  And 
for  the  support  of  this  declaration,  [with  a 
firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of  Divine  Prov- 
idence,] we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our 
lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor.” 
The  Declaration  was  signed  by  John  Han- 
cock, president  of  Congress,  on  the  day  of 
its  adoption.  It  was  suitably  engrossed  on 
parchment,  and  on  the  2d  of  August  the 
delegates  set  their  names  to  it.  The  signers 
were  as  follows : New  Hampshire,  Josiah 
Bartlett,  William  Whipple,  Matthew  Thorn- 
ton. Massachusetts,  John  Hancock,  John 
Adams,  Samuel  Adams,  Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridgc  Gerry.  Rhode  Island,  Stephen  Hop- 
kins, William  Ellery.  Connecticut,.  Roger 
Sherman,  Samuel  Huntington,  William  Wil- 
liams, Oliver  Wolcott.  New  York,  William 
Floyd,  Philip  Livingston,  Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris.  New  Jersey,  Richard  Stock- 
ton,  John  Witherspoon,  Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart,  Abraham  Clark.  Pennsylvania, 
Robert  Morris,  Benjamin  Rush,  Benjamin 
Franklin,  John  Morton,  George  Clymer, 
James  Smith,  George  Taylor,  James  AVilson, 
George  Ross.  Delaware,  Ceesar  Rodney, 
George  Read,  Thomas  M’Kean.  Maryland, 
Samuel  Chase,  Thomas  Stone,  William  Paca, 
Charles  Carroll  of  Carrolton.  Virginia, 
George  Wythe,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Benjamin  Harrison,  Thomas  Nel- 
son, Jr.,  Francis  Lightfoot  Lee,  Carter  Brax- 
ton. North  Carolina,  William  Hooper,  Joseph 
Hewes,  John  Penn.  South  Carolina,  Ed- 
ward Rutledge,  Thomas  Hayward,  Jr., 
Thomas  Lynch,  Jr.,  Arthur  Middleton.  Geor- 
gia, Button  Gwinnett,  Lyman  Hall,  George 
Walton.  Sketches  of  these  patriotic  and  brave 
men  will  be  found  in  their  appropriate  places. 


DEC 


262 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


The  declaration  thus  put  forth  was  made 
good  through  an  arduous  struggle  and  des- 
perate endurance,  and  a prosperous  people 
reverently  look  to  the  4th  of  July,  1776,  as 
the  birthday  of  their  freedom  and  happiness. 

DEFOE,  Daniel,  the  father  of  the  English 
novel,  born  at  London  in  1661,  was  intended 
to  be  a Presbyterian  minister,  but  turned  aside 
to  commercial  enterprises,  in  which  he  was 
unsuccessful.  He  became  a vigorous  political 
pamphleteer,  offended  the  ruling  powers,  and 
reaped  a plentiful  crop  of  fines,  pillory,  and 
prison.  Dear-bought  experience  led  him  to 
abandon  politics,  and  in  1709  there  came  forth 
“Robinson  Crusoe,”  that  freshest  and  most 
fascinating  of  romances.  This  was  followed 
by  various  other  fictions,  some  almost  as  vivid, 
till  his  life  closed  in  1731.  There  is  a curious 
instance  of  the  wonderful  air  of  truth  with 
which  he  could  invest  his  fictions.  For  a 
heavy  theological  book  he  wrote  an  elaborate 
puff,  entitled,  “A  true  Relation  of  the  Appa- 
rition of  one  Mrs.  Veal,  the  next  day  after  her 
Death,  to  one  Mrs.  Bargrave,  at  Canterbury, 
the  Eighth  of  September,  1705,  which  Appa- 
rition recommends  the  perusal  of  Drelincourt’s 
Book  of  Consolations  against  the  Fears  of 


Death.”  The  circumstantial  account  was 
widely  credited,  and  the  ghostly  recommend- 
ation worked  off*  a large  edition  of  a volume 
otherwise  wholly  unsalable. 

DEJANIRA,  daughter  of  yEneus,  king  of 
Calydon,  an  ^Btolian  city,  was  the  wife  of 
Hercules,  and  the  innocent  cause  of  his  death. 
The  centaur  Nessus,  whom  Hercules  killed 
for  insulting  Dejanira,  in  dying,  gave  her  a 
tunic  dipped  in  his  blood,  which  he  said  would 
restore  to  her  the  affections  of  her  husband  if 
he  put  it  on.  When  she  considered  herself  in 
danger  from  his  inconstancy,  she  sent  Hercules 
the  garment,  which  he  no  sooner  put  on  than 
a mortal  poison  penetrated  to  his  vitals,  and 
he  died  in  agony. 

DE  KALB,  Baron,  was  a native  of  Alsace. 
He  had  served  forty-two  years  in  the  French 
service  when  he  came  to  America  with  La- 
fayette in  the  spring  of  1777.  Congress  at 
once  gave  the  silver-haired  and  vigorous  vet- 
eran a major-general’s  commission.  His  ex- 
perience was  of  much  service  to  the  Americans. 
In  the  battle  of  Camden,  Aug.  16th,  1780, 
while  trying  to  rally  his  scattered  troops,  he 
fell  pierced  with  eleven  wounds. 


DELAWARE  has  the  bay  of  the  same  name 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  east,  Maryland 
on  the  south  and  west,  and  Pennsylvania  on 
the  north.  Having  a length  from  north  to 
south  of  ninety-two  miles,  and  varying  in 
width  between  ten  and  thirty-six  miles,  its 
area  is  2,120  square  miles.  It  is  thus  the 
smallest  state  in  the  Union  with  the  exception 


of  Rhode  Island,  and  in  point  of  population 
it  falls  behind  that  state.  The  population  of 
Delaware  in  1870  was  125,015,  of  whom 
102,221  were  whites,  and  22,794  colored. 
The  surface  is  very  level,  in  the  south  marshy, 
and  in  the  north  slightly  undulating.  The 
Brandywine  is  a fine  mill-stream.  The  com- 
merce of  Delaware  is  inconsiderable.  Agri- 


DEL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


263 


culture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabit 
ants,  and  grain  and  Hour  are  the  principal  ex- 
ports. A canal  navigable  for  steamers  and 
ships  crosses  the  state,  connecting  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Delaware  Bays.  It  was  completed 
in  1829  at  a cost  of  $2,250,000. 

Delaware  was  first  settled  by  the  Swedes 
and  Fins,  in  1627.  The  Dutch  gained  posses- 
sion of  it,  but  the  English  in  1664  became  the 
masters  of  it.  It  was  granted  to  Wiliiam  Penn, 
and  it  formed  a part  of  Pennsylvania  till  1776, 
though  from  1701  with  a distinct  legislative 
assembly.  It  was  generally  styled  the  Three 
Lower  Counties  upon  Delaware.  The  name 
‘ Delaware  ’ was  given  to  the  bay  and  river  in 
honor  of  Lord  De  La  Ware,  who  was  governor 
of  Virginia  in  1611. 

The  general  assembly  of  Delaware  consists 
of  a senate  of  nine  members,  and  a house  of 
twenty-one  representatives.  Its  sessions  and 
the  general  elections  are  biennial.  The  gov- 
ernor is  elected  for  four  years,  and  is  not  eli- 
gible for  a second  term.  The  right  of  suffrage 
is  granted  to  every  male  citizen  of  the  age 
of  twenty-two  or  more,  who  has  resided 
within  the  state  one  year,  and  paid  a county 
tax ; and  every  male  citizen  under  twenty- 
two  and  over  twenty-one,  who  has  resided 
in  the  State  a year,  can  vote  without  pay- 
ment of  such  tax.  The  state  is  divided  into 
three  counties,  which  are  subdivided  into 
hundreds.  Judicial  power  is  vested  in  five 
judges  (one  of  whom  is  chief-justice,  the  others 
associate  law  judges,  residents  of  separate 
counties)  and  a chancellor,  all  appointed  by 
the  governor,  and  holding  office  during  good 
behavior.  The  chief-justice  and  two  associates 
constitute  the  superior  court.  No  associate 
judge  can  sit  within  his  own  county.  Such 
inferior  courts  as  are  needed  may  be  estab- 
lished by  the  general  assembly.  The  whole 
bench,  including  the  chancellor,  form  a court 
of  error  and  appeal,  and  the  powers  of  a court 
of  chancery  are  vested  in  the  latter  magistrate 
together  with  the  resident  judge  of  the  county. 
Among  religious  sects,  the  Presbyterians  and 
Methodists  are  the  most  numerous ; there  are 
also  many  Episcopalians  and  Baptists,  some 
Roman  Catholics,  and  a few  Quakers. 

Dover  (pop.  6,394)  is  the  capital,  but  Wil- 
mington is  the  most  important  town.  Its 
population  in  1860,  was  21,508.  The  broad 


and  airy  streets  cross  at  right  angles;  the 
houses  are  generally  brick.  The  flouring 
mills  of  Wilmington  are  among  the  largest 
in  the  country ; gunpowder  is  extensively 
made ; and  the  valuable  water-power  of  the 
Brandywine  moves  the  busy  machinery  of 
many  other  thriving  manufactories.  New- 
castle, five  miles  from  Wilmington,  and  once 
the  capital,  has  nearly  4,000  inhabitants. 
Lewiston  is  a small  village,  near  Cape  Henlo- 
pen,  opposite  which  a breakwater  has  been 
built  by  the  general  government  at  a cost  of 
little  less  than  $2,250,000. 

DELHI,  an  ancient  city  of  Hindostan,  on 
the  river  Jumna.  It  contains  many  splendid 
edifices.  It  was  taken  by  the  Mohammedans 
m 1193.  Once  it  was  the  great  capital  of  the 
Mogul  empire,  and  so  late  as  1700  it  had  a 
million  inhabitants.  It  is  now  in  decay.  In 
1738,  when  Nadir  Shah  invaded  Hindostan, 
he  conquered  Delhi,  and  dreadful  massacres 
and  famine  followed.  In  1803,  the  Mahrattas, 
aided  by  the  French,  got  possession  of  the 
place,  but  they  were  afterward  expelled  by 
Gen.  Lake.  In  1857,  the  Sepoy  rebels  made 
Delhi  their  headquarters.  A small  force  of 
British  besieged  it.  After  standing  their 
ground  for  months  before  an  overwhelming 
array  of  native  forces,  the  Europeans  assaulted 
the  city,  although  containing  at  least  twice 
their  number  of  enemies,  and  after  a stout  re- 
sistance, carried  it  on  the  20th  of  September. 

DELOS,  the  smallest  island  of  the  Cyclades, 
was  famed  in  ancient  times  for  the  number 
and  skill  of  its  artists,  and  for  the  splendid 
temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  Apollo  and  his  sister  Diana,  according 
to  fable,  being  raised  as  an  asylum  to  their 
mother,  Latona,  when  she  was  pursued  from 
place  to  place  by  the  implacable  Juno. 

DELPHI,  the  seat  of  a famous  oracle  of 
Apollo,  situated  in  Phocis,  on  the  southern 
side  of  Parnassus.  The  fount  of  inspiration 
was  said  to  be  a chasm  from  which  issued  an 
intoxicating  vapor.  A temple  was  built  over 
this,  and  the  tripod  of  the  priestess  (sometimes 
called  the  Pythoness  from  Pythius,  the  sur- 
name of  Apollo)  was  placed  where  she  could 
breathe  the  ascending  vapor.  She  was  agita- 
ted with  extreme  fury  ; she  howled  and  vowed, 
her  eyes  sparkled,  and  she  gave  every  evi- 
dence of  being  possessed  by  a spirit.  The 


DEL 


264 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Pythian  games  were  celebrated  in  the  vicinity 
of  Delphi,  which  is  now  the  village  of  Castri. 
[See  HLsop,  Oracles.] 

DELUGE,  the  flood  or  inundation  of  waters 
by  which  God  destroyed  mankind  and  animals 
>n  the  time  of  Noah,  and  in  which,  as  St.  Pe- 
ter says,  only  eight  persons  were  saved.  Ac- 
cording to  the  received  chronology,  this  great 
event  was  threatened  in  the  year  of  the  world 
1536.  It  began  Dec.  7th,  1656,  and  continued 
three  hundred  and  seventy -seven  days.  The 
ark  rested  on  Mount  Ararat,  May  6th,  1657, 
and  Noah  left  the  ark  Dec.  18th  following. 
The  year  corresponds  with  that  of  2348  b.c. 
Almost  all  savage  nations,  even  those  sunk 
the  deepest  in  barbarism,  have  a tradition  of 
an  universal  deluge.  A traveler  among  the 
Indians  of  the  north-west  coast  of  America 
heard  of  it  from  one  of  the  savages,  and  asked 
him  how  long  ago  it  occurred  ? The  savage 
scooped  up  from  the  floor  of  his  cabin  a hand- 
ful of  sand,  and  promptly  replied,  “As  many 
moons  ago  as  there  are  grains  of  sand  in  this 
heap.”  The  Araucanians  in  Chili  preserve 
the  tradition  of  a universal  deluge  from  w'hich 
a few  persons  were  saved  upon  the  top  of  a 
mountain  having  three  peaks,  called  Thegtheg, 
or  ‘ thundering  mountain,1  which  floated  upon 
the  waves.  The  Aztecs  supposed  that  a uni- 
versal deluge  occurred,  in  which  all  mankind 
except  one  man  and  one  woman  were  changed 
into  fishes.  This  lucky  pair  were  saved  in 
the  hollow  of  a tree.  Their  children  w'ere  all 
born  mute,  were  taught  speech  by  a dove, 
and  each  learned  a different  language.  In 
1524,  alarm  was  spread  quite  widely  in  Eu- 
rope by  the  prediction  that  another  general 
deluge  was  at  hand,  and  arks  were  everywhere 
built  for  refuge  against  the  fluvial  calamity  ; 
but  the  appointed  time  happened  to  be  un- 
commonly dry  and  fine. 

DEMETRIUS,  surnamed  Soter,  son  of  Se- 
leucus  Philopater,  the  son  of  Antiochus  the 
Great,  King  of  Syria.  His  father  gave  him  as 
a hostage  to  the  Romans.  After  the  death  of 
Seleucus,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  deceased 
monarch’s  brother,  usurped  the  kingdom  of 
Syria,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Anti- 
ochus Eupater.  This  usurpation  displeased 
Demetrius,  who  was  detained  at  Rome;  he 
therefore  procured  his  liberty  on  pretense  ot 
going  to  hunt,  and  fled  to  Syria,  where  the 
troops  received  him  as  their  lawful  sovereign, 


b.  c.  1 62.  He  put  to  death  Eupater  and  Lysias, 
and  established  himself  on  his  throne  by  cru- 
elty and  oppression.  Alexander  Balas,  the 
son  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  laid  claim  to  the 
crown  of  Syria,  and  slew  Demetrius  in  battle 
in  the  twelfth  year  of  his  reign. 

DEMETRIUS,  a Macedonian,  son  of  Antigo- 
nus  and  Stratomca,  surnamed  from  his  suc- 
cesses, Pohorcetes,  or  the  ‘ destroyer  of  towns.1 
At  the  age  of  twenty-two,  he  wras  sent  by  his 
father  against  Ptolemy,  who  had  invaded 
Syria.  He  was  defeated  near  Gaza,  but  soon 
repaired  his  loss  by  a victory  over  one  of  the 
generals  of  the  enemy.  He  afterward  sailed 
with  a fleet  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  ships  to 
Athens,  and  restored  the  Athenians  to  liberty, 
by  freeing  them  from  the  power  of  Cassander 
and  Ptolemy,  and  expelled  the  garrison  which 
was  stationed  there  under  Demetrius  Phale- 
reus.  After  this  successful  expedition,  he 
besieged  and  took  Munj^chia,  and  defeated 
Cassander  at  Thermopylae..  This  uncommon 
success  raised  the  jealousy  of  the  successors 
of  Alexander ; and  Seleucus,  Cassander,  and 
Lysimachus,  united  to  destroy  Antigonus  and 
his  son.  Their  hostile  armies  met  at  Ipsus, 
b.c.  391.  Antigonus  was  killed  in  the  battle ; 
and  Demetrius,  after  a severe  loss,  retired  to 
Ephesus.  His  ill  success  raised  him  many 
enemies ; the  fickle  Athenians,  who  had  lately 
adored  him  as  a god,  refused  to  admit  him 
into  their  city.  He  soon  after  ravaged  the 
territories  of  Lysimachus,  and  reconciled  him- 
self to  Seleucus,  to  whom  he  gave  his  daughter 
Stratonice  in  marriage.  Athens  now  labored 
under  tyranny ; and  Demetrius  relieved  it  and 
pardoned  its  inhabitants.  The  loss  of  his 
Asiatic  possessions  recalled  him  from  Greece, 
and  he  established  himself  on  the  throne  of 
Macedonia,  294  b.  c.  Here  he  was  continually 
at  war  with  the  neighboring  states ; and  the 
superior  powder  of  his  adversaries  obliged  him 
to  leave  Macedonia,  after  he  had  filled  the 
throne  seven  years.  He  passed  into  Asia  and 
attacked  some  of  the  provinces  of  Lysimachus 
with  various  success ; but  famine  and  pesti- 
lence destroyed  the  greatest  part  of  his  army, 
and  he  retired  to  the  court  of  Seleucus  for 
support  and  assistance.  He  met  with  a kind 
reception,  but  hostilities  between  them  soon 
began ; and  after  he  had  gained  some  advan- 
tages over  his  son-in-lawr,  Demetrius  was  to- 
tally forsaken  by  his  troops  in  battle,  and  be- 


DEM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


265 


came  an  easy  prey  to  the  enemy.  Though 
he  was  kept  in  confinement  by  his  son-in-law, 
yet  he  lived  like  a prince,  and  passed  his  time 
in  hunting,  and  in  every  laborious  exercise. 
His  son  Antigonus  offered  Seleucus  all  his 
possessions,  and  even  his  person,  to  procure 
his  father’s  liberty ; but  all  proved  unavailing, 
and  Demetrius  died  in  the  fifty -fourth  year  of 
his  age,  b.c.  284. 

DEMOCRITUS,  a philosopher  of  Abdera, 
who  was  born  about  494  b.c.  He  is  com- 
monly called  the  laughing  philosopher,  be- 
cause he  is  said  to  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
amusing  himself  with  the  follies  of  mankind, 
while  Heraclitus  (the  weeping  philosopher) 
wept  at  them.  He  placed  the  chief  good  in 
a tranquil  mind. 

DEMOSTHENES,  an  Athenian  orator,  son 
of\.a  sword-cutler,  born  about  381  b.c.,  famous 
to  have  risen  to  the  highest  reputation  by  per- 
severance in  overcoming  the  apparently  insur- 
mountable obstacles  which  opposed  him.  He 
was  the  determined  opponent  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  continually  urging  the  Athenians  to 
resist  him.  The  orations  which  he  delivered 
on  these  occasions  were  termed  Philippics,  a 
name  since  applied  to  all  invective  declama- 
tion. He  was  banished  from  Athens,  and 
suddenly  died  319  b.c. 

DENHAM,  Dixon,  lieutenant-colonel  in  the 
British  army,  associated  with  Captain  Clap- 
perton  #nd  Doctor  Oudney,  in  exploring  Cen- 
tral Africa.  Soon  after  being  appointed  lieu- 
tenant-governor  of  Sierra  Leone,  he  died  in 
1828,  at  the  age  of  forty -two. 

DENHAM,  Sir  John,  author  of  “ Cooper’s 
Hill”  and  other  poems,  born  in  Dublin  1615, 
died  in  1668. 

DENMARK  (the  land  or  mark  of  the  Dane), 
also  called  the  Danske  Stat  (the  States  of  Den- 
mark), is  in  form  a slender  peninsula,  with  an 
area  of  21,900  square  miles,  and  a population 
of  2,605,024  in  1SGG  . Its  colonial  possessions 
are  the  Faroe  Islands,  Iceland,  Greenland,  and 
the  West  Indian  isles  of  Santa  Cruz,  St. 
Thomas,  and  St.  John’s.  The  surface  of  Den- 
mark presents  an  almost  uniform  plain,  eleva- 
ted only  a few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
but  occasionally  relieved  by  small  groups  of 
hills,  whose  wooded  summits  break  the  mo- 
notony of  the  landscape,  and  with  the  numer- 
ous small  lakes  and  inlets  from  the  sea  give 
the  country  a very  pleasing  appearance.  Den- 


mark is  an  agricultural  country,  and  in  gen- 
eral the  soil  is  well  suited  to  tillage.  The  cli- 
mate is  temperate.  Among  the  vegetable  pro- 
ductions are  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  beans, 
pease,  and  potatoes.  The  commercial  exports 
are  principally  grain,  horses,  cattle,  beef,  pork, 
butter,  and  cheese.  The  herring  and  other 
fisheries  form  an  important  branch  of  industry. 
The  Lutheran  is  the  predominant  religion, 
but  every  other  is  tolerated.  Much  attention 
is  paid  to  education.  By  law  every  child  be- 
tween the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  must  at- 
tend some  school ; and  free  schools  are  pro- 
vided for  all  whose  parents  are  unable  to  pay 
tuition.  The  press  is  under  rather  strict  cen- 
sorship. The  government  was  formerly  an 
absolute  hereditary  monarchy  ; in  1848  a con- 
stitution somewhat  limiting  the  royal  power, 
wTas  promulgated.  Another  constitution  was 
granted  in  1854.  As  Duka  of  Holstein  and 
Lauenburg,  the  king  is  a member  of  the  Ger- 
manic confederation. 

The  capital  of  the  kingdom  is  Copenhagen 
(Kjdbenhavn,  ‘ merchants’  haven  ’),  which  had 
a population  of  143,591  in  1855.  It  stands  on 
the  east  coast  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  and 
has  a good  harbor,  and  an  extensive  commerce, 
although  formerly  but  a poor  fishing  village. 
It  was  threatened  by  Charles  XII.,  who,  how- 
ever, gave  up  the  idea  of  capturing  it.  The 
city  has  suffered  severely  from  several  confla- 
grations. In  April,  1801,  it  was  bombarded 
by  the  British  under  Lord  Nelson.  The  Dan- 
ish fleet  wTas  taken,  and  a flag  of  truce  alone 
saved  the  city  from  destruction.  It  was  again 
attacked  in  1807  by  the  English  under  Admi- 
ral Gambier,  and  Lord  Cathcart.  After  severe 
firing,  which  commenced  on  the  2d  of  Septem- 
ber, a capitulation  was  settled  on  the  8th,  and 
the  citadel,  dock-yards,  batteries,  vessels,  and 
naval  stores  were  taken  possession  of  by  the 
British.  Altona  (population  33,000)  is  the 
second  city  in  the  kingdom.  Its  suburbs  and 
those  of  Hamburg  are  only  separated  by  a 
held.  Though  not  so  active  as  its  neighbor, 
its  commerce  is  yet  important. 

The  early  history  of  Denmark  is  obscure 
and  uninteresting,  containing  merely  the  ad- 
ventures of  predatory  warriors,  whose  pre- 
eminence consisted  in  ferocity  and  courage. 
During  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  they 
established  their  dominion  in  parts  of  England, 
which  they  scourged  by  their  invasions  until 


DEN 


266 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  ; a band 
of  them  under  Rollo  planted  themselves  in 
Normandy ; they  colonized  the  Orkneys,  the 
Hebrides,  and  Iceland,  and  pushed  their  set- 
tlements as  far  south  as  Spain,  Italy,  and 
Sicily. 

Canute  the  Great,  who  sat  on  the  Danish 
throne  in  the  early  years  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, possessed  himself  of  the  whole  of  Eng- 
land, a part  of  Scotland,  and  all  Norway.  To 
this  monarch  Denmark  was  indebted  for  laws, 
internal  organization,  an  era  of  might,  and  the 
ordination  of  Christianity  as  the  religion  of 
the  country.  His  successors  were  of  weaker 
mettle,  till  the  time  of  Margaret,  the  daughter 
of  Waldemar,  often  called  the  Semiramis  of 
the  north,  who  in  1397  united  in  her  own 
person,  the  crowns  of  Sweden,  Denmark,  and 
Norway.  This  union,  however,  did  not  con- 
tinue longer  than,  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  when  Christian  II.  was  obliged 
to  renounce  all  claims  to  Sweden.  Christian 
II.  was  nicknamed  the  Wicked.  The  crown 
was  transferred  to  Frederick,  Duke  of  Schles- 
wig and  Holstein ; whence  these  duchies  be- 
came united  with  the  kingdom.  During  the 
wars  of  the  French  revolution  Denmark  re- 
mained neutral ; but  on  contesting  the  right 
of  search  as  to  her  mercantile  shipping,  in- 
sisted upon  b}r  England,  which  led  her  into  a 
defensive  alliance  with  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
Sweden,  she  sacrificed  her  colonies  in  the  East 
and  West  Indies,  and  suffered  severely  off 
Copenhagen  in  1801,  as  we  have  already  men- 
tioned. Her  colonies  were  restored  to  her  by 
the  treaty  of  peace  that  followed.  In  the 
treaty  of  Tilsit,  in  1807,  were  secret  articles, 
providing  that  the  Danish  navy  should  be  de- 
livered to  Napoleon,  to  aid  him  in  his  threat- 
ened descent  upon  England.  This  occasioned 
a fresh  rupture  with  England,  and  a second 
attack  upon  Copenhagen.  By  the  treaty  of 
Kiel  in  1814,  Denmark  accepted  Pomerania 
from  Sweden  in  exchange  for  Norway.  Pom- 
erania, the  next  year,  she  turned  over  to 
Prussia  for  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg  and  a 
large  sum  of  money.  In  1845,  she  sold  her 
African  and  East  Indian  colonies  to  England. 

The  Duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein, 
peopled  mostly  by  Germans,  after  long  quar- 
reling, revolted  from  Denmark  in  1849,  and 
were  compelled  to  submit  by  the  interposi- 
tion of  Prussia  and  Austria.  A similar  diffi- 


culty arose  in  1864,  from  an  attempt  to  fuse 
the  Duchies  thoroughly  with  Denmark ; and 
Austria  and  Prussia  now  interfered  on  the 
other  side,  and  easily  forced  Denmark  to  give 
up  the  Duchies. 

KINGS  OF  DENMARK. 

883.  Gormo,  the  old. 

935.  Harald  II.,  surnamed  Blue-tooth. 

985.  Suenon,  or  Sweyn,  surnamed  the  Forked- 
beard. 

1014.  Canute  II.,  the  Great,  King  of  Denmark, 
England,  and  Norway. 

1036.  Canute  III.,  his  son,  the  Hardicanute  of 
England. 

1042.  Magnus,  surnamed  the  Good,  of  Norway. 
1047-  Suenon,  or  Sweyn  II. 

1073.  [Interregnum.] 

1077.  Harald,  called  the  Simple. 

1080.  Canute  IV. 

1086.  Olaus  IV.,  the  Hungry. 

1095.  Eric  III.,  styled  the  Good. 

1103.  [Interregnum.] 

1105.  Nicholas  I.,  killed  at  Sleswick. 

1135.  Eric  IV.,  surnamed  Harefoot. 

1137.  Erick  V.  the  Lamb, 
n 4*7  j Suenon,  or  Sweyn  III.,  beheaded. 

' "I  Canute  V.,  until  1154. 

1157.  Waldemar,  styled  the  Great. 

1182.  Canute  VI.,  surnamed  the  Pious. 

1202.  Waldemar  II.,  the  Victorious. 

1241.  Eric  VI. 

1250.  Abel;  assassinated  his  elder  brother  Eric; 

killed  in  an  expedition  against  the  Pri- 
sons. 

1252.  Christopher  I.,  poisoned. 

1259.  Eric  VII. 

1286.  Eric  VIII. 

1230.  Christopher  II.  # 

1334.  [Interregnum.] 

1340.  Waldemar  III. 

1376.  Olaus  V. 

1387.  Margaret,  styled  the  Semiramis  of  the 
North,  Queen  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden. 

1397.  Margaret,  and  Eric  IX.  (Eric  XIII.  of 
Sweden),  jointly. 

1412.  Eric  IX.  reigns  alone;  obliged  to  resign 
both  crowns. 

1438.  [Interregnum.] 

1440.  Christopher  III.,  King  of  Sweden. 

1448.  Christian  I.,  Count  of  Oldenburg,  elected 
King  of  Scandinavia,  which  compre- 
hended Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway ; 
• succeeded  by  his  son. 

1481.  John,  succeeded  by  his  son. 

1513.  Christian  II.,  called  the  Cruel,  and  the 
Nero  of  the  North  ; among  other  enor- 
mous crimes  he  caused  all  the  Swedish 
nobility  to  be  massacred ; dethroned  for 
his  tyranny  in  1523  ; died  in  a dungeon, 
1559.  [In  this  reign  Sweden  succeeded 
in  sundering  itself  from  the  crown  of 
Denmark.] 

1523.  Frederick,  Duke  of  Holstein,  uncle  to 
Christian  II. ; a liberal  ruler. 


DEN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


267 


1534.  Christian  III.,  son  of  Frederick ; estab- 
lished the  Lutheran  faith ; esteemed 
the  ‘Father  of  his  People.1 
1559.  Frederick  II.,  son  of  Christian  III. 

1588.  Christian  IV.,  son  of  Frederick  II. ; chosen 
head  of  the  Protestant  league  against 
the  emperor. 

1648.  Frederick  III.;  changed  the  government 
from  an  elective  to  an  hereditary  mon- 
archy, vested  in  his  own  family. 

1670.  Christian  V.,  son  of  Frederick  III.;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son. 

1699.  Frederick  IV.;  leagued  with  the  Czar 
Peter  and  Poland  against  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden. 

1730.  Christian  VI.,  his  son. 

1746.  Frederick  V.,  his  son. 

1766.  Christian  VII.,  son  of  the  preceding;  mar- 
ried Caroline  Matilda,  sister  of  George 
III.,  of  England.  In  a spasm  of  jeal- 
ousy, 1772,  he  banished  his  wife  to 
Zell  (where  she  died),  and  put  to  death 
his  ministers  Brandt  and  Struensee. 
1784.  [Regency.]  The  Crown-Prince  Frederick 
declared  regent  in  consequence  of  the 
insanity  of  his  father. 

1808.  Frederick  VI.,  previously  regent. 

1839.  Christian  VIII  , his  son. 

1848.  Frederick  VII,  his  son,  born  October  6th, 
1808;  died  Nov.  15,  1863. 

1868.  Christian  IX.,  his  son,  born  April  8, 1816, 
•became  King,  Nov.  16,  1863. 

DANNEWITZ,  Battle  of.  In  this  con- 
flict a remarkable  victory  was  obtained  by 
Marshal  Bernadotte,  then  Crown-Prince  of 
Sweden,  over  Marshal  Ney,  Sept.  6th,  1813. 
The  loss  of  the  French  exceeded  16,000. 

DENNIE,  Joseph,  born  at  Boston,  in  1768, 
and  educated  at  Harvard  College,  possessed 
brilliant  genius,  which  he  evinced  in  several 
papers  that  he  edited,  the  Portfolio  among 
others.  He  wanted  industry  and  discretion, 
and  died  in  1812,  of  disease  produced  by 
irregularity  and  anxiety. 

D’EON,  the  Chevalier.  This  extraordinary 
personage,  who  had  been  acting  in  a diplo- 
matic capacity  in  several  countries,  and  who 
was  for  some  time  the  minister  of  Louis  XV. 
in  London,  was  proved  to  be  a woman,  on  a 
trial  in  an  action  to  recover  wagers  as  to  his 
sex,  in  1777.  He  subsequently  wore  female 
attire  for  many  years : yet  at  his  death,  in 
London,  1800,  it  was  manifest,  by  the  dissec- 
tion of  his  body,  and  other  undoubted  evi- 
dence, that  he  was  a male. 

DESAIX  DE  VOYGOUX,  Louis  Charles 
Antoine,  a French  general,  was  born  of  a 
noble  family  at  St.  Hilaire  de  Agat,  in  Bre- 
tagne, in  1768.  He  served  under  Pichegru 


and  Moreau,  and  commanded,  under  Bona- 
parte in  Upper  Egypt,  a division  of  troops 
destined  to  pursue  and  keep  in  awe  the  Mam- 
elukes, whom  he  attacked  and  put  to  flight 
near  the  pyramids  of  Saccara,  in  Upper  Egypt. 
At  the  battle  of  Marengo,  the  splendid  suc- 
cess of  which  was  the  result  of  the  opportune 
arrival  of  his  columns  on  the  field,  he  was 
killed,  June  14th,  1800.  His  last  words  were, 
“Tell  the  first  consul  that  my  only  regret  in 
dying  is  that  I perish  before  having  done 
enough  to  live  in  the  recollection  of  posterity.” 
When  Napoleon  heard  of  his  death,  he  cried, 
“Victory  at  such  a price  is  dear.”  At  night 
Bourrienne  said  to  Napoleon,  “What  a glo- 
rious day!”  “Yes,”  was  the  sad  reply, 
“ very  glorious,  could  I this  evening  but  have 
embraced  Desaix  upon  the  field  of  battle.” 
On  the  same,  day  that  the  fatal  bullet  pierced 
the  heart  of  Desaix,  an  assassin  in  Egypt 
plunged  a dagger  into  the  bosom  of  Kleber. 
At  St.  Helena  Napoleon  said,  “Of  all  my 
generals,  Desaix  and  Kleber  had  the  greatest 
talent.  In  particular  Desaix,  as  Kleber  loved 
glory  only  as  the  means  of  acquiring  wealth 
and  pleasure ; Desaix  loved  glory  for  itself. 
To  him  riches  and  luxury  were  of  no  value. 
He  was  a little  black  man,  an  inch  shorter 
than  myself,  always  badly  dressed,  sometimes 
even  ragged,  and  despising  alike  comfort  and 
convenience.  Wrapped  in  a cloak,  he  slept 
under  a gun  as  contentedly  as  in  a palace. 
Frank  and  honest  in  all  his  ways,  the  Arabs 
called  him  the  just  sultan.  Nature  intended 
him  to  figure  as  a consummate  general.  De- 
saix and  Kleber  wer.e  irreparable  losses  to 
France.” 

DESCARTES,  Rene,  born  at  La  Haye,  in 
Touraine,  in  1596,  and  died  at  Stockholm  in 
1650.  As  a soldier,  mathematician,  and  ori- 
ginal philosopher,  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself 

DESIEZE,  Raymond,  the  talented  advocate 
who  defended  the  unfortunate  Louis  XVI. 
On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he  was 
loaded  with  honors,  1750-1828. 

DESMOULINS,  Benoit  Camille,  a French 
revolutionist,  who  was  condemned  to  death 
by  the  revolutionary  tribunal  in  April,  1794, 
at  the  age  of  thirty-three. 

DESSAIX,  Joseph  Marie,  Count,  a native 
of  Savoy,  where  he  was  born  in  1764,  and 
distinguished  for  his  military  services  in  the 


268 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


French  army.  At  the  siege  of  Toulon,  he 
bore  a part.  He  was  appointed  Napoleon 
general  of  division,  and  grand  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honor.  He  died  in  1825. 

DESSALINES,  Jean  Jacques,  Emperor  of 
Hayti,  was  originally  a slave.  After  the 
French  had  been  expelled  from  the  island  in 
1808,  Dessalines  was  appointed  governor- 
general,  but  assumed  the  title  and  state  of 
emperor ; and  having  been  guilty  of  many  at- 
rocities, he  was  killed  by  a soldier,  Oct.  17th, 
1806. 

DETTINGEN,  Battle  of,  between  the 
British,  Hanoverian,  and  Hessian  army,  52,000 
strong,  commanded  by  George  II.  and  the 
Earl  of  Stair,  and  the  French  army,  60,000 
strong,  under  Marshal  Noailles  and  the  Due 
de  Grammont,  June  16th,  1743.  The  French 
were  defeated. 

DE  WITT,  John,  grand-pensionary  of  Hol- 
land, a famous  statesman,  was  born  in  1625. 
He  imbibed  from  his  father  a hatred  for  the 
house  of  Orange.  Accordingly,  in  the  war  be- 
tween England  and  Holland,  he  attempted  to 
abolish  the  stadtholdership,  and  succeeded  in 
separating  that  office  from  that  of  captain- 
general.  He  was  forced,  however,  to  make 
some  concessions,  and  beheld,  with  mortifica- 
tion, William  of  Orange  procure  the  post  of 
commander-in-chief.  De  Witt  resigned  his 
employments  when  William  was  chosen  stadt- 
holder,  to  the  joy  of  all,  and,  being  thrown 
into  prison,  was  murdered  by  the  populace, 
who  broke  in  upon  him,  August  20th,  1672. 
When  De  Witt  was  once  asked  how  it  hap- 
pened that  he  got  through  so  much  business 
and  of  such  varied  kind,  for  he  was  not  only 
a great  statesman  and  a minister,  but  also  a 
most  eminent  mathematician  and  literary 
man ; his  answer  was  that  it  was  by  two 
rules  which  he  always  observed : to  do  one 
thing  only  at  a time,  and  never  to  put  off  till 
to-morrow  what  he  could  do  to-day.  These 
were  his  golden  rules. 

DEXTER,  Samuel,  a distinguished  orator, 
lawyer,  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  1761,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard 
College.  He  studied  law,  but  was  soon 
chosen  to  the  state  legislature,  and  thence 
transferred  to  Congress  where  his  ability  and 
patriotism  were  properly  appreciated.  Under 
President  Adams  he  was  at  first  secretary  of 
war,  and  then  of  the  treasury.  Declining 


the  public  offices  which  were  afterward 
offered  him,  he  employed  himself  in  the 
lucrative  and  honorable  profession  of  the  law, 
being  intrusted  with  cases  of  the  utmost 
importance.  He  died  at  Athens,  N.  Y.,  in 
1816. 

DIAMONDS  were  first  polished  and  cut  at 
Bruges,  1489.  Diamond  mines  were  discov- 
ered in  Brazil,  1728 ; those  at  Coulour  in  the 
East  Indies,  1640;  those  at  Golconda,  in 
1584.  A diamond  was  sent  from  Brazil  for 
the  court  of  Portugal,  weighing  1680  carats, 
or  fourteen  ounces,  and  was  valued  at  £224,- 
000,000;  it  is  not  very  brilliant,  and  its  true 
value  is  only  £400,000.  Governor  Pitt’s 
weighed  126  carats,  and  106  after  cutting, 
and  sold  for  £125,000,  to  the  king  of  France. 
That  which  belonged  to  Aurung  Zebe  weighed 
793  carats,  in  a rough  state,  and  when  cut 
279  carats,  worth  £779,244.  The  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany’s  weighed  139  carats.  The 
celebrated  diamond  called  the  Koh-i-noor,  or 
‘ Mountain  of  Light,’  was  found  in  the  mines 
of  Golconda  in  1550.  Precisely  three  centu- 
ries after,  it  was  brought  to  England.  Its 
original  weight  was  nearly  eight  hundred 
carats.  Unskillful  cutting  reduced  it  to  two 
hundred  and  seventy-nine.  Its  value  has 
been  estimated  at  two  millions  sterling. 

DIANA,  in  mj'thology  the  daughter  of 
Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  twin  sister  of  Apollo, 
born  at  Delos.  She  was  the  goddess  of  hunt- 
ing, chastity,  and  marriage,  though  she  re- 
mained unmarried.  She  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  Isis  of  the  Egyptians. 

DICKENSON,  John,  was  born  in  Mary- 
land, Nov.  13th,  1732.  He  was  bred  to  the 
law  in  Philadelphia  and  at  the  Temple  in 
London.  He  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  the 
rights  of  the  colonies.  He  had  been  a mem- 
ber of  the  stamp-act  congress  of  1765,  and 
he  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  earlier 
continental  congresses.  Opposed  to  political 
separation  from  Great  Britain,  as  too  prema- 
ture, he  yet  would  not  vote  against  his 
brother  patriots,  and  on  the  memorable  4th  of 
July  he  was  absent  from  his  seat.  Independ- 
ence once  declared,  he  defended  it  both  by 
word  and  sword.  He  helped  to  frame  the 
federal  constitution,  and  was  its  warm  friend. 
He  died  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  Feb.  14th,  1808. 

DIDO,  the  founder  of  the  city  of  Carthage, 
also  called  Elisa,  was  a daughter  of  Belus, 


DID 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


269 


monarch  of  Tyre,  and  married  Sichseus,  or 
Sicharbas,  her  uncle,  a priest  of  Hercules. 
Pygmalion,  the  successor  of  Belus,  murdered 
the  husband  of  Dido,  for  the  sake  of  his 
wealth,  and  with  a number  of  Tyrians  the 
unhappy  queen  set  sail  to  lound  a colony  in 
some  distant  land.  A storm  drove  them 
upon  the  African  shore,  where  Dido  built  her 
citadel,  869  b.c.,  and  soon  had  the  satisfaction 
of  finding  the  colony  in  a thriving  condition. 
The  persecutions  of  Jarbas,  the  Mauritanian 
king,  who  wished  to  marry  her,  proved  fatal 
to  her,  for  having  vowed  to  her  husband 
never  to  wed  a second  time,  she  ascended  a 
funeral  pile,  and  perished  in  the  flames.  For 
this  action  she  was  called  Dido,  or  ‘valiant 
woman.’  Her  connection  with  iEneas  was 
an  invention  of  Virgil,  for  they  were  not 
even  contemporaries. 

DIEMEN,  Anthony  van,  governor-general 
of  the  Dutch  East  India  settlements,  born  in 
1598.  He  went  to  the  Indies  as  a clerk, 
but  rose  with  great  rapidity.  His  adminis- 
tration was  judicious  and  successful.  He 
died  in  1645.  [ See  Van  Diemen’s  Land. 

DIGBY,  Sir  Kenelm  (son  of  Sir  Everard 
Digby,  who  was  condemned  and  executed  for 
his  participation  in  the  gunpowder  plot),  was 
born  at  Gothurst,  in  Buckinghamshire,  in 
1608.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was 
originally  a Protestant,  but  was  converted  to 
the  Romish  religion  in  1636.  He  was  one 
of  the  gentlemen  of  the  bed-chamber  to 
Charles  I.,  commissioner  of  the  navy,  and 
governor  of  the  Trinity-house.  He  fought 
against  the  V enetians  at  Scuderoon.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  philosophical  treatises. 

DIOCLETIAN,  a famous  Roman  emperor, 
born  of  an  obscure  family  of  Dalmatia,  first 
a common  soldier,  then  general,  and  pro- 
claimed emperor,  284  a.d.  He  made  Maxi- 
man a comrade,  his  colleague,  and  created 
two  subordinate  emperors,  Galerius  and  Con 
stantius,  with  the  title  of  Caesars.  Some  of 
the  acts  of  his  reign  are  meritorious,  but  he 
disgraced  himself  by  a persecution  of  the 
Christians.  After  a reign  of  twenty-one 
years,  he  voluntarily  and  publicly  abdicated 
the  throne  at  Nicomedia,  May  1st,  a.d.  305, 
and  his  colleague  shortly  after  followed  his 
example.  He  found  sufficient  pleasure  in 
the  cultivation  of  his  little  garden,  and  died 
in  313. 


DIODATI,  John,  a Protestant  divine,  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Geneva,  where  he  died 
in  1649. 

DIODORUS  SICULUS  (Diodorus  the  Si- 
cilian), a Greek  historian  of  the  time  of  Julius 
Caesar  and  Augustus. 

DIOGENES  (born  at  Sinope  in  Pontus, 
413  b.c.)  was  a famous  Cynic  philosopher, 
one  of  that  sect  that  sternly  opposed  luxury 
and  immorality,  discarding  all  superfluities. 
Diogenes  humorously  ridiculed  Lie  follies  of 
human  nature,  and  made  even  tne  objects  of 
his  satire  laugh  at  his  practical  jests  and 
lessons.  He  perambulated  the  streets  of 
Athens  in  the  garb  and  manner  of  a sturdy 
beggar,  and  slept  in  a tub.  He  was  rigidly 
temperate,  and  despised  the  forms  of  polite 
society.  While  at  Corinth  Alexander  the 
Great  paid  him  a visit,  but  was  astonished  at 
the  indifferent  air  of  the  philosopher.  He 
made  an  offer  of  service,  but  Diogenes  re^ 
plied,  “ I only  want  you  to  stand  out  of  my 
sunshine.”  His  independence  made  such 
an  impression  on  the  Macedonian  that  he 
cried,  “If  I were  not  Alexander,  I should 
wish  to  be  Diogenes.”  He  once  carried  a 
lantern  about  Athens  at  mid-day,  and  being 
asked  why  he  was  doing  so,  answered,  “ I am 
looking  for  a man.”  Being  asked  what  was 
the  most  dangerous  animal  ? he  answered, 
“Among  wild  ones,  the  slanderer;  among 
tame,  the  flatterer.”  Plato  having  described 
man  as  a two-legged  animal  without  feathers, 
and  received  applause  for  the  definition, 
Diogenes  plucked  a live  fowl,  and  carrying  it 
to  the  Academy,  exclaimed,  “ Here  is  Plato’s 
man!”  He  died  at  a great  age,  324  b.c. 
Had  this  itinerant  philosopher  lived  in  these 
degenerate  days,  he  would  have  become  ob- 
noxious to  the  police  as  a vagrant,  and  found 
it  extremely  difficult  to  avoid  the  stocks,  the 
work-house,  or  the  treadmill ! 

DIOMEDES,  a king  of  Bistones,  who  is 
fabled  to  have  fed  his  horses  upon  human 
flesh,  and  to  have  therefore  been  killed  by 
Hercules. 

DIOMEDES,  a Grecian  hero,  king  of  Argos, 
who  led  his  subjects  to  the  siege  of  Troy. 
After  the  war  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  lived  to  a good  old  age. 

DION,  of  Syracuse,  was  related  to  Dio- 
nysius, and  often  gave  him  advice.  The 
tyrant  banished  him  to  Greece,  where  he 


DIO 


270 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


raised  troops,  and  entering  the  harbor  of 
Syracuse  with  only  two  ships,  reduced  it  in 
three  days.  The  tyrant  fled,  and  Dion  re- 
tained the  power  in  his  own  hands,  but  was 
murdered  by  a false  friend,  Calippus  of 
Athens,  b.c.  354. 

DIONYSIUS  I.,  or  the  Elder,  from  the 
rank  of  a common  soldier  raised  himself  to 
the  throne  of  Syracuse.  He  was  inimical  to 
the  Carthaginians,  and  fought  against  them 
with  various  success.  His  tyranny  and  cru- 
elty rendered  him  so  odious  to  his  subjects, 
that  he  lived  in  constant  dread  of  assassina- 
tion, and  never  permitted  even  his  wife  and 
children  to  enter  his  presence  until  their  gar- 
ments had  been  searched  for  concealed  weap- 
ons. He  is  said  to  have  built  a subterraneous 
cave,  called  the  ear  of  Dionysius,  because  it 
was  built  in  the  form  of  a human  ear,  con- 
centrated the  sound  of  voices  within  it,  and 
conveyed  them  distinctly  to  his  hearing. 
The  artists  employed  upon  the  work  were 
killed  for  fear  of  their  disclosing  the  secrets 
of  its  construction,  and  the  use  to  which  it 
was  applied. 

Dionysius  was  constantly  betraying  his 
unhappiness.  When  one  of  his  flatterers, 
Damocles,  was  discoursing  on  his  magnifi- 
cence, riches,  and  power,  Dionysius  said  to 
him,  “These  things  seem  to  delight  you; 
make  a trial  of  my  place,  by  way  of  experi- 
*ment.”  Damocles  was  instantly  arrayed  in 
the  imperial  purple,  and  surrounded  by  the 
king’s  guards,  while  every  knee  wTas  bent  to 
do  him  homage.  In  the  midst  of  this  show, 
Dionysius  ordered  a naked  sword  to  be  hung 
from  the  ceiling  by  a horse-hair,  directly  over 
the  royal  throne,  where  Damocles  was  sitting 
at  a feast.  From  that  moment  the  courtier- 
king  lost  his  appetite,  his  joy  vanished,  and 
he  begged  to  be  restored  to  the  security  of 
his  former  condition.  Dionysius  thus  tacitly 
acknowledged  that  his  happiness  was  poisoned 
by  a dread  of  the  punishment  which  was 
due  to  his  iniquity  and  cruelty.  He  died  of 
poison  administered  at  the  instigation  of  his 
son,  b.c.  368.  He  was  very  vain,  and  im- 
agined that  he  possessed  literary  talents  of 
a high  order,  although  his  poetical  effusions 
were  lamentable  failures. 

DIONYSIUS,  the  Younger,  was  the  son  of 
Dionysius  I.  By  the  advice  of  Dion,  Plato 
was  invited  to  court,  and  the  philosopher 


endeavored  to  instill  into  the  tyrant’s  mind 
some  of  those  precepts  which  were  his  own 
guide  through  life.  The  king  neglected  his 
advice,  and,  after  suffering  for  frankness,  Plato 
quitted  him  in  disgust.  Driven  from  the 
throne  he  had  disgraced,  b.c.  357,  he  again 
returned  to  it  after  an  absence  of  ten  years, 
but  lost  it  a second  time,  and  finally  went  to 
Corinth,  where  to  support  himself  he  kept 
a school,  that,  as  Cicero  observes,  he  might 
still  be  a tyrant.  We  can  readily  imagine 
the  sufferings  of  the  wretched  urchins  upon 
the  interior  and  exterior  of  whose  heads  the 
ex  king  .labored.  His  pupils,  we  are  told, 
were  few,  nor  can  we  wonder  that  the  peda- 
gogue was  so  poorly  patronized. 

DIONYSIUS,  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
Areopagus  at  Athens,  was  converted  to 
Christianity  by  the  apostle  Paul,  and  was  the 
first  Bishop  of  Athens.  He  was  the  author 
of  some  polemical  writings,  and  suffered 
martyrdom. 

DISCOVERIES,  in  modern  times. 

861.  Faroe  Islands — discovered  about  this 
time  by  a Norwegian  vessel. 

871.  Iceland — discovered  by  some  Norwe- 
gian chiefs  who  were  compelled  to  leave  their 
native  country.  According  to  some  accounts, 
it  had  been  visited  before  this,  by  a Scandi- 
navian pirate,  Naddodd, 

980.  Greenland — discovered  by  the  Ice- 
landers about  this  period.  The  first  colony 
established  there  was  destroyed  by  a pesti- 
lence in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  by  the 
accumulation  of  ice  which  prevented  all  com- 
munication between  Iceland  and  Greenland. 

1000.  Winenland — a part  of  the  continent 
of  America,  from  Labrador  as  far  south  as 
Rhode  Island,  is  supposed  to  have  been  dis- 
covered by  the  Icelanders.  It  was  called 
Winenland,  or  Vinland,  from  the  abundance 
of  a species  of  vine  found  there.  The  Ice- 
landic chronicles  are  full  and  minute  respect- 
ing this  discovery. 

1330.  Canary  Isles— discovered  by  a French 
ship  driven  among  them  by  stress  of  weather, 
having  been  known  to  the  ancients. 

1344.  Madeira — The  discovery  of  this 
group  is  attributed  to  an  Englishman,  Robert 
Macham ; it  was  revisited  in  1419  by  Juan 
Gonzales,  and  Tristan  Vaz,  Portuguese. 

1364.  Guinea — the  coast  of,  discovered  by 
some  seamen  of  Dieppe,  about  this  period. 


DIS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


271 


1434.  Cape  Bojador — doubled  for  the  first 
time  by  the  Portuguese. 

1439.  Azores — discovered  by  Vanderberg  ; 
settled  by  the  Portuguese  in  1448. 

1449.  Cape  Verde  Islands — discovered  by 
Antonio  de  Noli,  a Genoese  in  the  service  of 
Portugal. 

1484.  Congo — discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese, under  Diego  Cam. 

1486.  Cape  of  Good  Hope — discovered  by 
Bartholomew  Diaz.  It  was  originally  called 
‘ The  Cape  of  Tempests,’  and  was  also  named 
‘The  Lion  of  the  Sea,’  and  ‘The  Head  of  Af- 
rica.’ The  appellation  was  changed  by  John 
II.,  King  of  Portugal,  who  augured  favorably 
of  future  discoveries  from  Diaz  having  reached 
the  extremity  of  Africa. 

1492.  Bahamas. — These  islands  were  the 
first  points  of  discovery  by  Columbus.  San 
Salvador  was  first  seen  by  this  great  naviga- 
tor, on  the  night  between  the  11th  and  12th 
of  October  in  this  year. 

Cuba  and  Hispaniola  or  St.  Domingo  were 
also  discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  first  voy- 
age. 

1493.  Jamaica , St.  Christopher's,  and  Do- 
minica— discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  sec- 
ond voyage. 

1497.  Cape  of  Good  Hope — doubled  by 
Vasco  di  Gama,  and  the  passage  to  India  dis- 
covered. 

1497.  Newfoundland — -discovered  by  John 
Cabot,  who  first  called  it  Prima  Vista  and 
Baccalaos.  The  title  of  Prima  Vista  still  be- 
longs to  one  of  its  capes,  and  an  adjacent  island 
is  still  called  Baccalao.  Cabot  sailed  down 
the  coast  and  touched  upon  Florida,  thus 
reaching  the  continent  before  Columbus. 

1498.  Continent  of  America — discovered 
by  Columbus. 

Malabar , Coast  of — discovered  by  Vasco  di 
Gama. 

Mozambique , Island  of — discovered  by 
Vasco  di  Gama. 

1500.  Brazil — discovered  April  24th,  by 
Alvarez  de  Cabral,  a Portuguese,  who  was 
driven  on  its  coast  by  a tempest.  He  called 
it  the  Land  of  the  Holy  Cross.  It^as  subse- 
quently called  Brazil,  on  account  of  its  red 
wood ; and  was  carefully  explored  by  Amerigo 
Vespucci,  from  1500  to  1504. 

1501.  Labrador  and  River  St.  Lawrence — 
discovered  by  Cortereal,  who  sailed  from  Lis- 


bon on  a voyage  of  discovery  for  the  Portu- 
guese. The  Cabots  had  entered  the  St.  Law- 
rence in  1499. 

1502.  Gulf  of  Mexico. — Some  of  the  shores 
of  this  gulf  were  explored  by  Columbus  on 
his  last  voyage. 

St.  Helena — discovered  by  Jean  de  Nova, 
a Portuguese. 

1505.  Ceylon — discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese. Ceylon  was  known  to  the  Romans  in 
the  time  of  Claudius,  a.d.  41. 

1506.  Madagascar — discovered  by  Lorenzo 
Almeida ; revisited  by  the  Portuguese  navi- 
gator Fernandez  Pereira,  in  1508.  This  island 
was  first  called  St.  Lawrence,  having  been 
discovered  on  the  day  of  that  saint. 

1509.  Sumatra — reached  by  Diego  Lopez 
Sigueira,  a Portuguese  navigator. 

1510.  Molucca  Isles — discovered  by  the 
Portuguese. 

Sunda  Isles — discovered  by  Abreu,  a Por- 
tuguese. 

1512.  Maldives. — A Portuguese  navigator, 
who  was  wrecked  on  these  islands,  found 
them  in  possession  of  Arabians. 

Florida — discovered  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  a 
Spanish  navigator. 

1513.  Borneo  and  Java. — The  Portuguese 
became  acquainted  with  these  islands. 

1513.  South  Sea. — The  Pacific  Ocean,  or 
South  Sea,  was  discovered  this  year  from  the 
mountains  of  Darien,  by  Nunez  de  Balboa, 
and  subsequently  navigated  by  Magellan. 
The  supposition  that  the  New  World  was  part 
of  India  now  ceased. 

1513.  Peru— discovered  by  Perez  de  la  Rua. 

1516.  Rio  de  la  Plata — entered  by  Diaz  de 
Solis. 

1517.  China — Fernand  Perez  d’Andrada 
reached  China  by  sea. 

1518.  Mexico — discovered  by  the  Span- 
iards; conquered  by  Cortes,  in  1521. 

1519.  Magellan,  Straits  of — passed  by  Ma- 
gellan with  a fleet  of  discovery  fitted  out  by 
Charles  V.  The  first  voyage  round  the  world 
was  undertaken  by  this  navigator ; and  his 
vessel  performed  the  enterprise,  although  he 
perished  by  the  way. 

1520.  Terra  del  Fuego — discovered  by  Ma- 
gellan. 


1520.  Ladrone  Islands — discovered  by  Ma- 
gellan. 

1521.  Philippines. — This  archipelago  dis- 
DIS 


272 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


covered  by  Magellan,  who  lost  his  life  here  in 
a skirmish. 

1524.  New  France. — The  first  voyage  of 
discovery  made  by  the  French  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  Francis  I. ; one  of  whose  ships,  after 
reaching  Florida,  coasted  along  as  far  as  50 ^ 
N.  lat.,  and  gave  to  this  part  the  name  of  New 
France. 

1524.  North  America — traveled  over  from 
Florida  to  Newfoundland  by  Yerazzani,  a 
Florentine,  in  the  service  of  France. 

1527.  New  Guinea — discovered  by  Saave- 
dra, a Spaniard,  sent  from  Mexico,  by  Cortez. 

1530.  Guinea — tlie  first  voyage  to,  made 
by  an  English  ship  for  elephants’  teeth. 

1535.  Canada — visited  by  Jacques  Cartier, 
of  St.  Malo ; a settlement  having  previously 
been  made  in  1523,  by  Yerazzani,  who  took 
possession  in  the  name  of  Francis  I.  of  France. 

1535.  California — discovered  by  Cortez. 

1537.  Chili — discovered  by  Diego  de  Al- 
magro,  one  of  the  conquerors  of  Peru. 

1542.  Japan — discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese, Antonio  de  Meta  and  Antonio  de  Pey- 
xoto,  who  were  cast  by  a tempest  on  its  coasts. 

1552.  Spitzbergen — observed  by  the  Eng- 
lish, but  mistaken  for  part  of  Greenland. 
Yisited  by  Barentz,  a Dutch  navigator,  in 
search  of  a north-east  passage,  in  1595. 

1553.  White  Sea. — This  sea,  which  had 
not  been  visited  since  the  time  of  Alfred,  was 
now  supposed  to  be  discovered  by  Chancellor, 
an  English  navigator. 

1575.  Solomon's  Isles — discovered  by  Men- 
dana,  a Spaniard,  sent  by  the  governor  of  Peru. 

1576.  Frobisher's  Strait — discovered  by 
the  English  navigator  whose  name  it  bears. 

Greenland — further  explored  by  Frobisher, 
who  also  penetrated  further  between  this 
country  and  Labrador. 

1577.  New  Albion — discovered  by  Drake, 
who  was  the  second  to  attempt  a voyage  round 
the  world,  which  he  performed  in  three  years. 
He  gave  the  name  of  New  Albion  to  the  north- 
west coast  of  America. 

1580.  Siberia — first  made  knowrn  to  Europe 
by  Yermak  Timopheievitch,  a Cossack  chief. 

1585.  Davis's  Strait — discovered  by  the 
English  navigator  whose  name  it  bears,  in  his 
voyage  for  the  discovery  of  a north-west 
passage. 

1594.  Falkland  Islands — discovered  by  the 
English  navigator,  Hawkins. 


1595.  Marquesas— discovered  by^  Mendana, 
a Spaniard,  on  his  voyage  from  Peru  to  found 
a colony  in  the  Solomon  Isles. 

Solitary  Island — discovered  by  Mendana 
on  the  same  voyage. 

1606.  Australia — by  the  Dutch. 

Archipelago  del  Espiritu  Santo— discovered 

by  Quiros,  a Spaniard,  sent  from  Peru. 
These  islands  are  the  Cyclades  of  Bougainville, 
and  the  New  Hebrides  of  Cook. 

Otaheite — ^supposed  to  be  discovered  by 
Quiros,  who  named  it  Sagittaria. 

1 607-1 0.  Hudson's  Bay — discovered  by  the 
celebrated  English  navigator,  Hudson,  on  his 
third  voyage.  Venturing  to  pass  the  winter 
in  this  bay  on  his  fourth  voyage,  he  was,  with 
four  others,  thrown  by  his  sailors  into  a boat, 
and  left  to  perish.  It  is  probable  that  Sebas- 
tian Cabot  entered  and  partially  explored  this 
bay  in  1512. 

1607.  Chesapeake  Bay — discovered  by 
John  Smith. 

1615.  Straits  of  Le  Maire — discovered, 
with  the  island  of  Staten  on  the  east,  by  Le 
Maire,  a merchant  of  Amsterdam,  and  Schou- 
ten,  a merchant  of  Horn. 

1616.  Cape  Horn — doubled  by  Le  Maire 
and  Schouten,  Dutch  navigators,  wTho  called  it 
after  the  town  of  which  Schouten  was  a native. 
These  enterprising  men  performed  a voyage 
round  the  world  in  about  two  years. 

1616.  Baffin's  Bay — discovered  by  William 
Baffin,  an  Englishman.  The  nature  and  ex- 
tent of  this  discovery  wrere  much  doubted,  till 
the  expeditions  of  Ross  and  Parry  proved  that 
Baffin  was  substantially  accurate  in  his  state- 
ment. 

1636.  Arctic  Ocean. — In  this  year  the  Rus- 
sians discovered  that  this  ocean  washed  and 
bounded  the  north  of  Asia.  The  first  Russian 
ship  sailed  down  the  Lena  into  this  sea. 

1642.  New  Zealand — with  the  southern 
part  of  Yan  Diemen’s  Land,  discovered  by 
Tasman,  a Dutch  navigator. 

1686.  Easter  Island — discovered  by  Rog- 
gewein,  a Dutch  navigator. 

1690.  Kamscliatka — discovered  by  a Cos- 
sack chie^Morosko.  This  country  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  Russians  in  1697.  It 
was  not  known  to  be  a peninsula  until  visited 
by  Behring  in  1728. 

1699.  Japan — visited  by  Kampfer,  a Ger- 
man. 


DIS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


273 


1699.  New  Britain. — This  island,  and  the 
straits  which  separate  it  from  New  Guinea, 
discovered  by  Dumpier.  This  enterprising 
seaman  made  a voyage  round  the  world  at  the 
period  of  this  discovery. 

1728.  Behring's  Strait — explored  and  des- 
ignated by  a Danish  navigator  in  the  service 
of  Russia,  whose  name  it  bears.  Behring  thus 
established  that  the  continents  of  Asia  and 
America  are  not  united,  but  are  distant  from 
each  other  about  thirty-nine  miles. 

1741.  Aleutian  Isles — on  the  coast  of  North 
America,  discovered  by  Behring. 

1765.  Duke  of  York's  Island — discovered 
by  Byron. 

Isles  of  Danger — discovered  by  Byron. 

1767.  Otaheite — discovered  by  Wallis. 

1768.  Cook's  Strait — discovered  by  Capt. 
Cook  on  his  first  voyage  round  the  world, 
which  occupied  from  1768  to  1771. 

1770.  New  South  Wales — discovered  by 
Captain  Cook. 

1 772.  Island  of  Desolation — the  first  land 
south  of  India,  discovered  by  Kerguelen,  and 
called  by  his  name.  Subsequently  called  the 
Island  of  Desolation  by  Captain  Cook. 

1774.  New  Caledonia — discovered  by  Cook 
in  his  second  voyage,  1772-1775. 

1778.  Icy  Cape — discovered  by  Captain 
Cook. 

1778.  Sandwich  Islands — discovered  by 
Cook  in  his  third  voyage,  which  commenced 
in  1776.  He  lost  his  life  at  Owhyhee  in  1779. 

1797.  Bass's  Straits. — Mr.  Bass,  surgeon 
of  H.  B.  M.  S.  Reliance,  penetrated  as  far  as 
Western  Port,  in  a small  open  boat,  from  Port 
Jackson,  and  was  of  opinion  that  a strait  ex- 
isted between  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Die- 
man’s  Land.  In  1799,  Lieut.  Flinders  cir- 
cumnavigated Van  Dieman’s  Land,  and  named 
the  strait  after  Mr.  Bass. 

1804-6.  Missouri  River — explored  to  Its 
sources  by  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke,  and 
the  origin  and  source  of  the  Columbia  ascer- 
tained. 

1819.  New  South  Shetland — discovered  by 
Capt.  Smith,  of  the  brig  William,  bound  to 
Valparaiso. 

1821.  Asia — the  northern  limits  of,  deter- 
mined by  Baron  Wrangel.  [See  Africa  and 
Arctic  Discoveries.] 

DJEZZAR,  Achmet,  Pacha  of  Acre,  origin- 
ally a slave ; aided  by  the  English,  he  checked 

18  DOD 


the  career  of  Napoleon,  in  Syria.  He  died  in 
1804.  Djezzar  signifies  ‘butcher,’  and  the 
pacha  won  the  name  by  his  cruelties. 

DODD,  William,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  1729  ; he  was  popular  as  a preacher, 
and  as  an  author,  and  was  appointed  one  of 
the  king’s  chaplains,  which  place  he  lost  by 
being  convicted  of  offering  a bribe  to  obtain 
preferment.  The  Magdalen  hospital  in  London 
was  erected  under  his  supervision.  His  ex- 
travagant excesses  led  him  into  continual  em- 
barrassments. In  1777,  he  was  convicted  of 
forging  a bond  for  £4,200  in  the  name  of  his 
patron,  Lord  Chesterfield.  High  influence 
was  exerted  and  great  interest  made  to  save 
him,  but  when  the  case  came  before  the  coun- 
cil, the  minister  of  the  day  said  to  George  III., 
“ If  your  majesty  pardon  Dr.  Dodd,  you  will 
have  murdered  the  Perreaus.”  These  were 
two  unfortunate  wine-merchants  who  had  been 
executed  for  forgery  less  than  a year  before. 
The  doctor  was  accordingly  hanged  at  Ty- 
burn, June  27 th.  Forgery  is  no  longer  a cap- 
ital crime  in  England. 

DODDRIDGE,  Philip,  D.D.,  a distin- 
guished divine  among  the  English  dissenters, 
was  born  in  London,  June  26th,  1702.  His 
pious  parents  early  instructed  him  in  religious 
knowledge.  The  chimney  in  the  room  where 
the  family  were  wont  to  sit,  was  ornamented 
with  quaint  Dutch  tiles,  and  from  these  the 
good  mother  taught  her  boy  the  history  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  before  he  could 
read.  Under  such  training  he  early  entered 
the  ministry,  and  at  twenty  preached  his 
first  sermon.  He  settled  at  Northampton, 
where  as  pastor,  an  instructor  of  students  in 
theology,  and  the  author  of  many  pious 
works,  he  led  an  arduous  and  faithful  life  till 
1751,  when  ill  health  sent  him  to  Portugal. 
He  survived  his  arrival  at  Lisbon  but  five 
days,  dying  the  26th  of  October,  1751.  Dr. 
Johnson  pronounced  an  epigram  by  Dr. 
Doddridge  one  of  the  finest  in  the  English 
language.  The  subject  is  his  family 
motto,  “ Dum  vivimus  vivamus.” 

“Live  while  you  live,  the  epicure  would  say, 

And  seize  the  pleasures  of  the  present  day. 

Live  while  you  live,  the  sacred  preacher  cries, 
And  give  to  God  each  moment  as  it  flies. 

Lord,  in  my  views  let  both  united  be ; 

I live  in  pleasure  when  I live  to  thee.” 

DODINGTON,  George  Bubb  (Lord  Mel- 


274 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


combe  Regis),  was  the  son  of  a gentleman  of 
fortune,  and  was  born  in  1691.  He  enjoyed 
many  posts  of  honor  and  emolument  under 
different  parties,  and  he  did  not  scruple  to 
avow  openly  his  political  tergiversations.  He 
was  advanced  to  the  peerage  in  1761,  and  died 
in  the  following  year.  Bubb  Dodington  was 
eccentric,  generous,  convivial,  and  magnifi- 
cent in  private  life.  Many  anecdotes  are 
related  of  him.  For  the  amusement  of  the 
young  Prince  of  Wales  he  used  to  suffer  him- 
self to  be  rolled  up  in  blankets,  and  trundled 
down  the  stairs.  Before  he  took  the  name 
of  Dodington,  he  was  one  day  lamenting  to 
Lord  Chesterfield  the  shortness  of  his  patro- 
nymic, Bubb.  “ You  can  easily  remedy  it,” 
said  his  lordship ; “ call  yourself  Sillybub, 
and  that  will  do  very  well.”  He  winced 
under  the  whimsical  satire  which  an  oppo- 
nent issued,  with  the  title  of  “ A Grub  upon 
Bubb.”  When  his  fortune  increased,  he 
built  himself  a splendid  villa,  which  if  cost 
constituted  elegance  would  have  been  a 
model.  But  Bubb  had  no  taste,  and  his 
villa  was  a failure.  The  second  story  ap- 
peared much  too  heavy  for  the  first;  for, 
while  the  latter  was  ornamented  in  the  light- 
est style,  the  suite  of  rooms  above  was  adorned 
with  marble  fire-places,  marble  slabs,  and 
massy  wainscoting.  The  proprietor,  in 
showing  this  to  a friend  one  day,  said,  “ They 
tell  me,  sir,  that  this  is  out  of  place,  and  ought 
to  be  down-stairs.”  “Make  yourself  per- 
fectly easy,”  was  the  consolatory  answer ; “ it 
will  soon  be  there ! ” 

DODSLEY,  Robert,  wras  born  at  Mans- 
field, Notts,  in  1703.  He  was  at  first  a stock- 
ing weaver,  then  a footman,  and  his  first 
volume  was  a collection  entitled  “ The  Muse 
in  Livery.”  He  acquired  a very  handsome 
fortune  by  his  efforts  as  author  and  book- 
seller, and  retired  to  Durham,  where  he  died 
in  1764.  His  “Economy  of  Human  Life” 
is  an  excellent  little  moral  treatise.  As  a 
public-spirited  publisher,  he  wras  of  good 
service  to  literature  and  literary  men. 

DOLCE,  Carlo,  an  eminent  Florentine 
painter,  1616-1686. 

DOMENICHINO  is  the  name  by  which 
Dominico  Zampiere  is  best  known.  He  was 
born  at  Bologna  in  1581.  He  studied  paint- 
ing in  the  school  of  the  Carracci,  and  is  ac- 
counted the  ablest  of  all  their  scholars.  At 


Rome,  he  earned  a high  reputation.  He 
received  only  fifty  scudi  (about  fifty  dollars) 
for  his  “ Communion  of  St.  Jerome,”  consid- 
ered the  best  altar-piece  in  Rome,  with  the 
exception  of  Raphael’s  “Transfiguration.” 
In  1630,  he  removed  to  Naples,  was  much 
persecuted  by  his  rivals  there  and  in  Rome, 
and  died  April  15th,  1641,  not  without  sus  - 
picion of  having  been  poisoned. 

DOMINIC  DE  GUZMAN,  St.,  was  born 
in  Spain  in  1170,  and  died  at  Bologna  in  1221. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  order  of  Domini- 
cans, whose  powrer  and  influence  were  at  one 
time  almost  universal.  They  wrere  called  in 
France  Jacobins,  and  in  England  Black 
Friars.  The  inquisition  was  at  first  in  their 
hands. 

DOMITIAN,  Titus  Flavius  Sabinus,  son 
of  Vespasian,  and  brother  of  Titus,  whom, 
according  to  some  accounts,  he  destroyed  by 
poison,  was  born,  a.d.  51,  and  ascended  the 
throne,  a.d.  81.  The  beginning  of  his  reign 
promised  tranquillity  to  the  people,  but  their 
hopes  were  soon  swamped  in  his  cruelty  and 
debauchery.  He  perished  by  the  hands  of 
an  assassin,  the  18th  of  September,  a.d.  96, 
in  the  forty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  and  the 
fifteenth  of  his  reign.  He  wras  the  last  of  the 
twelve  Caesars. 

DONIZETTI,  Gaetano,  a popular  operatic 
composer,  born  at  Bergamo,  in  1798,  died 
there  insane,  April  8th,  1848.  He  wrote 
sixty-three  operas,  of  wrhich  the  most  famous 
are,  “Anna  Bolena,”  “ Lucrezia  Borgia,” 
“ Lucia  di  Lammermoor,”  “ La  Fille  du  Regi- 
ment,” “ La  Favorita,”  “Linda  di  Chamouni,” 
and  “ Don  Pasquale.” 

DONNE,  John,  an  English  poet  and  divine 
of  some  celebrity,  was  the  son  of  a merchant, 
and  wras  born  in  London  in  1573.  His 
education  was  obtained  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  Originally  a Catholic,  in  his 
nineteenth  year  he  abjured  the  Romish  re- 
ligion, and  was  made  secretary  to  the  Lord 
Chancellor  Ellesmere,  whose  favor  he  lost  for 
a time  by  a clandestine  marriage  with  his 
niece.  The  juvenile  pair  appear  to  have  fore- 
seen all  the  consequences  of  their  union,  for 
the  doctor  indorsed  a paper  in  the  following 
manner,  “ John  Donne,  Anne  Donne,  un- 
done.” His  prospects,  howrever,  brightened ; 
he  took  orders,  became  one  of  King  James’s 
chaplains,  and  died  in  March,  1631. 


DON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY- 


275 


DORIA,  Andrea,  a Genoese  commander, 
born  in  1468.  After  having  been  employed 
by  several  princes,  he  received  a command  in 
Corsica,  which  island  he  completely  reduced. 
He  gained  wealth  and  honor  in  his  attacks 
upon  the  Barbary  states.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  revolution  in  Genoa,  he  went  into 
the  service  of  France,  and  next  into  that  of 
the  pope ; but  on  the  capture  of  Rome  he 
returned  to  Francis  I.,  who  made  him  the 
general  of  his  galleys,  and  admiral  of  the 
Levant.  The  French  having  become  masters 
of  Genoa,  in  1528,  Doria  succeeded  in  deliv- 
ering the  republic  from  a foreign  yoke,  re- 
ceived the  office  of  doge  for  life,  and  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  father  of  his  coun- 
try. He  next  carried  arms  through  the  Med- 
iterranean in  the  service  of  Charles  V.,  and 
died  in  1560,  full  of  years  and  honors. 

DORIS  was  a small  district  of  ancient 
Greece,  the  seat  of  the  Dorians,  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Hellenic  tribes.  About  b.c. 
1104,  the  Dorians  migrated  to  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. They  sent  out  many  colonies.  They 
invented  the  Doric  order  of  architecture,  the 
most  ancient  of  the  five.  The  tyric  poets  of 
Greece  in  general  wrote  in  the  Doric  dialect. 

DORSET,  Thomas  Sackville,  Lord  Buck- 
hurst  and  Earl  of  Dorset,  was  the  son  of  Sir 
Richard  Sackville,  and  was  born  at  Witham, 
in  Sussex,  in  1527.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  whence  he  removed  to  Cambridge, 
and  n^xt  to  the  Inner  Temple.  On  leaving 
the  Temple,  he  went  abroad ; and  after  his 
return,  was  made  Lord  Buckhurst.  In  1587 
he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  United 
Provinces.  After  this  he  was  made  knight 
of  the  garter,  and  chosen  chancellor  of  Ox- 
ford. On  the  death  of  Burleigh  he  was 
appointed  lord  treasurer ; and  in  the  next 
reign  created  Earl  of  Dorset.  He  died  in 
1608.  Edward  (1590-1652),  his  grandson, 
bearing  the  same  titles,  was  a partisan  of 
Charles  I.,  and  regent  during  the  king’s 
absence  in  Scotland. 

Charles  Sackville,  sixth  Earl  of  Dorset 
and  Middlesex,  was  born  in  1637.  In  his 
youth  he  was  one  of  the  most  notorious 
libertines  of  the  wild  time  which  followed 
the  Restoration.  He  was  the  lover  of  Nell 
Gwynn  before  she  became  a royal  mistress : 
she  called  him  her  Charles  the  First.  Yet,  in 
the  midst  of  follies  and  vices,  his  courageous 


spirit,  his  fine  understanding,  and  his  natu- 
ral goodness  of  heart,  had  been  conspicuous, 
and  with  all  his  errors  he  was  a general 
favorite.  In  1665,  he  volunteered  on  board 
the  fleet  under  the  Duke  of  York  in  the  war 
against  the  Dutch,  and  there,  the  night 
before  an  engagement,  wrote  that  song,  un- 
equaled in  its  kind,  “To  all  you  ladies 
now  at  land.”  The  judgment  of  the  world 
became  still  more  favorable  to  Dorset  when 
he  had  been  sobered  by  time  and  marriage. 
His  graceful  manners,  his  brilliant  conversa- 
tion, his  soft  heart,  his  open  hand,  were  uni- 
versally praised.  No  day  passed,  it  was  said, 
in  which  some  distressed  family  had  not 
reason  to  bless  his  name.  And  yet,  with  all 
his  good  nature,  such  was  the  keenness  of  his 
wit,  that  scoffers  whose  sarcasm  all  the  town 
feared  stood  in  craven  fear  of  the  sarcasm  of 
Dorset.  All  political  parties  esteemed  and 
caressed  him  ; but  politics  were  not  much  to 
his  taste.  He  took  just  so  much  part  in  par- 
liamentary and  diplomatic  business  as  suf- 
ficed to  show  that  he  wanted  nothing  but  in- 
clination to  rival  the  leading  statesmen  of  the 
age,  and  turned  away  to  pursuits  which 
pleased  him  better.  He  was  the  best  judge 
of  painting,  of  sculpture,  of  architecture,  of 
acting,  that  the  court  could  show.  More 
than  one  clever  play  which  had  failed  on  the 
first  representation  was  supported  by  his 
single  authority  against  the  whole  clamor  of 
the  pit,  and  came  forth  successful  from  the- 
second  trial.  He  was  a munificent  patron  of 
the  letters.  Drydep  was  saved  from  ruin  by 
his  almost  princely  generosity  ; he  was  the 
first  to  call  attention  to  Butler’s  “Hudibras  ; ” 
and  by  him  Montague  and  Prior  were  intro- 
duced into  public  life.  The  few  songs  and 
satires  he  occasionally  composed  show  that, 
with  more  industry,  he  might  have  been  a 
rival  where  he  was  content  to  be  a benefac- 
tor. He  died  at  Bath,  January  19th,  1706. 

DORT,  a commercial  town  in  the  south  of 
Holland.  The  resolutions  of  the  synod  of 
Dort,  held  here  by  the  Protestants  in  1618 
and  1619,  form  the  present  code  of  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church.  This  synod  was  attended 
by  deputies  from  the  reformed  churches 
throughout  Europe.  Its  object  was  to  settle 
the  difficulties  between  the  doctrines  of  Lu- 
ther, Calvin,  and  Arminius.  The  tenets  of 
the  latter  were  condemned. 


DOR 


276 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


DOUGLAS,  Stephen  Arnold,  was  born 
in  Brandon,  Vt.,  April  23,  1813.  Ilis  father, 
a physician,  died  leaving  his  wife  and  son  in 
indigent  circumstances.  Young  Douglas 
attended  school  only  one  third  of  the  year, 
working  on  the  farm  or  in  a cabinet  shop  the 
remainder.  In  1820  he  removed  to  Illinois, 
taught  school  for  a support  and  studied  law. 
Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834,  though  im- 
perfectly trained,  yet  he  displayed  such  abili- 
ties, that  the  next  year  he  was  elected  State  At- 
torney. From  that  period  till  his  death,  June 
3,  1861,  he  was  in  public  life,  as  Secretary  of 
State,  Judge  of  Supreme  Court  of  Illinois, 
Representative  to  Congress,  and  three  suc- 
cessive times  U.  S.  Senator.  He  was  for  a 
long  time  at  the  head  of  the  Committee  on 
Territories.  Though  not  the  originator  he 
was  the  mover  and  advocate  of  the  famous 
“ Kansas  and  Nebraska  Bill,”  and  of  the 
repeal  of  the  “Missouri  Compromise.”  He 
was  the  advocate,  if  not  the  originator,  of  the 
“Squatter  Sovereignty”  doctrine,  giving  to 
the  settlers  of  a territory  the  power  to  deter- 
mine, its  status  in  regard  to  slavery.  He  was 
a Democratic  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in 
1 880.  At  the  commencement  of  the  rebellion 
he  took  a decided  stand  in  support  of  the 
Union,  and  his  last  letters  and  dying  words 
evinced  his  patriotism  and  his  hostility  to  the 
foes  of  the  republic.  He  was  a man  of  ex- 
traordinary talent,  energy  and  determination. 
He  possessed  that  genial,  electric  nature  which 
drew  around  him  a host  of  political  and  per- 
sonal friends.  The  West  gave  him  the  sou- 
briquet of  “Little  Giant.” 

DOW,  Gerard,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  Dutch  genre  painters,  was  born  at 
Leyden  in  1013.  In  1628,  he  was  placed 
with  Rembrandt,  whose  pupil  he  continued 
three  years.  His  works  are  remarkable  for 
high  finish  and  for  lightness  of  handling. 
He  died  at  L.  in  1680. 

DOW,  Lorenzo,  an  eccentric  Methodist 
preacher,  was  born  in  Coventrjq  Conn.,  Oct. 
16th,  1777.  Traveling  extensively  over  the 
United  States,  England  and  Ireland,  he  is 
supposed  to  have  preached  to  more  persons 
than  any  other  man  of  his  time.  He  died 
Feb.  2d,  1834. 

DRACO,  archon  and  lawgiver  of  Athens, 
flourished  about  600  b.  c.  He  was  very  pop- 
ular, and  fell  a victim  to  the  favor  of  his 


countrymen,  for,  being  in  the  theatre  at  Mgi- 
na,  the  people  gave  him  the  customary  token 
of  approbation  by  throwing  their  caps  and 
garments  upon  him,  and  such  was  the  number 
of  these  that  he  was  smothered  under  their 
weight.  He  was  buried  under  the  theatre. 
His  code  (623  b.c.),  on  account  of  its  severity, 
was  said  to  be  written  in  letters  of  blood. 
Idleness  was  punished  as  heavily  as  murder. 
The  smallest  transgression,  he  said,  deserved 
death,  and  he  could  not  find  any  punishment 
more  rigorous  for  atrocious  crimes. 

DRAKE,  Sir  Francis,  the  first  Englishman 
to  circumnavigate  the  globe  in  a single  voy- 
age, was  born  in  1546,  near  Tavistock  in  Dev- 
onshire. He  took  to  the  sea  while  a lad,  and 
early  became  a skillful  mariner.  In  1565  and 
1566,  he  undertook  a trading  voyage  to  the 
West  Indies,  during  which  he  was  much  de- 
spoiled by  Spanish  cruisers.  An  expedition 
with  Sir  John  Hawkins  to  the  Spanish  main, 
was  also  destroyed  by  the  Spaniards,  and  in 
1572,  Drake  with  three  small  vessels  sailed  to 
seek  reprisals.  He  captured  a large  treasure 
on  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  During  this  ad- 
venture he  climbed  a “ goodlie  and  great  high 
tree,”  from  which  he  saw  the  broad  Pacific, 
whose  waters  none  of  Europe  but  the  Span- 
iards yet  had  sailed,  and  whose  shores  were 
supposed  to  be  garners  of  almost  exhaustless 
treasures.  The  bold  mariner,  while  he  gazed, 
“besought  God  to  give  him  health  and  life 
once  to  sail  an  English  ship  in  those^seas.” 
With  a squadron  of  five  little  vessels  he  sailed 
from  England,  Nov.  13th,  1577,  and  entered 
the  Pacific  through  the  dangerous  straits  of 
Magellan  the  following  May.  In  the  severe 
storms  that  were  encountered,  his  consorts 
either  forsook  him  or  perished.  Captures  of 
Spanish  galleons  soon  filled  the  Golden  Hind 
with  treasure,  and  the  enraged  sufferers  col- 
lected a large  force  at  the  south  to  catch  him 
on  his  way  home.  He  tried  to  find  a passage 
round  the  north  of  America,  but  the  severity 
of  the  high  latitudes  which  he  reached,  turned 
him  back.  He  crossed  the  Pacific,  doubled 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  dropped  anchor 
in  Plymouth  harbor  Nov.  3d,  1580,  having 
been  not  quite  three  years  away,  and  in  that 
time  circumnavigated  the  world,  in  the  very 
teeth  of  that  old  Egyptian  monk  Cosmos,  who 
had  no  patience  with  the  unscriptural  and  im- 
pious doctrine  of  the  earth’s  sphericity,  argu- 


DRA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


277 


ing  stoutly  that  it  is  a plain  surrounded  by  an 
immense  wall,  at  whose  north  side  is  a great 
mountain,  behind  which  the  sun  is  hidden 
every  night.  England  rang  with  the  renown 
of  Drake’s  exploits  and  treasures.  Queen 
Elizabeth  knighted  him,  and  Spain  prayed  for 
the  privilege  of  hanging  him  as  a pirate.  In 
the  war  which  soon  occurs  between  the  two 
countries,  Drake  does  great  service,  attacking 
and  burning  the  Spanish  fleet  in  Cadiz  harbor. 
So  the  armada  can  not  sail  till  next  year,  and 
when  it  does  put  forth  to  be  shattered  by  the 
winds  and  waves,  Vice-Admiral  Drake  is 
active  in  completing  its  destruction.  In  1595, 
with'  his  old  comrade  Sir  John  Hawkins, 
Drake  sails  on  an  expedition  against  the  Span- 
ish West  Indies,  falls  a victim  to'  the  climate, 
and  dies  off  Portobello,  January  28th,  1596. 

DRAYTON,  William  Henry,  a native  of 
South  Carolina,  was  born  in  1742.  In  1775, 
he  was  chosen  president  by  the  provincial 
congress,  and  the  next  year  chief-justice  of 
the  colony.  In  1777,  he  was  made  president 
of  South  Carolina,  and  the  next  year  was 
chosen  member  of  congress.  His  death  took 
place  in  September,  1779. 

DRESDEN,  the  capital  of  Saxony,  on  the 
Elbe,  contains  10°, 000  inhabitants.  Here,  on 
the  28th  of  August,  1813,  Napoleon  defeated 
the  allies  and  forced  them  to  retire  to  the  Bo- 
hemian frontier.  In  this  battle  Moreau  re- 
ceived his  mortal  wound,  while  conversing 
with  the  Russian  emperor.  On  the  6th  of 
November,  Marshal  St.  Cyr  was  blockaded  in 
Dresden,  and  after  an  ineffectual  negotiation 
with  Schwartzenberg,  surrendered  his  whole 
force,  amounting  to  30,000  men. 

DRESS.  Excess  in  dress  was  restrained  by 
a law  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV., 
1465,  and  again  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  1574. 
That  brave  gallant,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  we 
are  told,  wore  a white  satin-pinked  vest,  close- 
sleeved to  the  wrist,  and  over  the  body  a 
brown  doublet  finely  flowered,  and  embroid- 
ered with  pearls.  In  the  feather  of  his  hat  a 
large  ruby  and  pearl  drop  at  the  bottom  of 
the  sprig  in  place  of  a button.  His  breeches, 
with  his  stockings  and  ribbon  garters,  fringed 
at  the  end,  all  white ; and  buff  shoes,  which 
on  great  court  days  were  so  gorgeously  cov- 
ered with  precious  stones,  as  to  have  exceeded 
the  value  of  £6,600;  and  he  had  a suit  of 
armor  of  solid  silver,  with  sword  and  belt 


blazing  with  diamonds,  rubies,  and  pearls. 
Sir  Walter’s  garb  was  outdone  by  the  coat 
glittering  with  diamonds  that  Prince  Ester- 
hazy  sported  at  Paris  in  1815.  Accounts  of 
magnificent  attire  come  to  us  from  remote  an- 
tiquity. The  costume  of  the  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man women  was  comely  and  graceful.  Ovid 
sings  that  the  women  of  Cos,  whose  country 
was  famous  for  the  silkworm,  wore  white  gar- 
ments of  cotton  and  silk,  so  clear  and  thin, 
and  so  beautiful  and  delicate  in  texture,  that 
their  bodies  could  be  seen  through  the  vesture. 

The  Romans  went  for  many  ages  without 
any  regular  covering  for  the  head,  and  hence 
the  heads  of  all  the  ancient  statues  are  bare. 
But  at  one  period  the  cap  was  a symbol  of 
liberty,  and  when  the  Roman  bestowed  it  upon 
a slave  he  had  his  freedom.  Sometimes  the 
cap  has  been  a mark  of  infamy.  In  Italy 
Jews  were  distinguished  by  a yellow  cap,  and 
in  France  those  who  had  been  bankrupts  were 
forever  after  obliged  to  wear  a green  cap. 
History  first  mentions  the  general  use  of  caps 
and  hats,  in  place  of  the  hoods  and  chaperons 
before  worn,  at  the  triumphal  entry  of  Charles 
VII.  into  Rouen,  in  1449.  The  monarch  wore 
a hat  lined  with  red  velvet,  and  surmounted 
with  a rich  plume.  Hats  were  first  manufac- 
tured in  England  in  1510,  by  Spaniards;  be- 
fore which  time  both  men  and  women  wore 
close-knit  woolen  caps.  Breeches  were  a 
badge  of  servitude  among  the  Greeks.  The 
garment  was  worn  by  the  Dacians,  Parthians, 
and  other  northern  nations,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  worn  in  Italy  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
Caesar.  Shirts  were  not  generally  worn  in 
the  west  of  Europe  till  the  eighth  century. 
Woolen  shirts  were  commonly  worn  in  Eng- 
land until  about  1253,  when  linen  began  to 
be  used.  Shoes  were  made  of  leather,  linen, 
rush,  or  wood,  among  the  Jews.  The  Jewish 
women  wore  moons  as  ornaments  in  their 
shoes  (Isaiah  iii.  18).  Pythagoras  would  have 
his  disciples  wear  shoes  made  of  the  bark  of 
trees ; that  they  might  not  wear  those  from 
skins,  as  they  refrained  from  the  use  of  aught 
that  had  had  life.  Sandals  were  worn  by 
Grecian  women  of  rank.  The  Romans  wore 
an  ivory  crescent  on  their  shoes,  and  those  of 
Caligula  were  enriched  with  precious  stones. 
The  Egyptians  made  theirs  from  the  bark  of 
•the  papyrus.  Our  English  ancestors  had  an 
odd  way  of  adorning  their  feet.  They  wore 


DRE 


278 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  beaks  or  points  of  their  shoes  so  long  that 
they  were  cumbersome  in  walking  and  must 
be  tied  up  to  the  knees.  Fine  gentlemen  fast- 
ened theirs  with  chains  of  silver,  or  silver  gilt, 
and  others  with  laces.  This  fashion  was  pro- 
hibited in  1467,  on  forfeiture  of  twenty  shil- 
lings and  on  pain  of  being  cursed  by  the  clergy. 
Shoes  as  at  present  worn  were  introduced 
about  1633,  and  shoe-buckles  in  1668.  Boots 
are  said  to  have  been  the  invention  cfthe  Ca- 
rians,  and  were  made  of  iron,  brass,  or  leajther. 
Leathern  boots  are  mentioned  by  Homer. 

DRUIDS.  Among  the  ancient  Germans, 
Gauls,  and  Britons,  the  Druids  were  priests 
or  ministers  of  religion.  They  were  also  the 
instructors  of  the  young,  and  the  only 
learned  men  of  the  nations  to  which  they 
belonged,  and  also  acted  as  judges.  They  did 
not  make  use  of  writing,  but  their  scholars 
were  obliged  to  get  by  heart  all  their  lessons 
from  hearing  them  repeated.  This  was  a 
very  tedious  way  of  getting  forward,  and  we 
are  not  at  all  surprised  that  it  took  twenty 
years  of  a man’s  life  to  acquire  a very  lim- 
ited stock  of  learning. 

In  general,  little  was  known  about  very 
ancient  tribes  and  nations,  until  the  Romans 
invaded  their  countries,  and  conquered,  them. 
So  it  is  from  the  Romans  that  we  have  de- 
rived our  knowledge  of  the  habits,  character, 
and  religion  of  the  Druids.  It  is  very  scan- 
ty, for  the  precautions  of  these  singular  men 
were  too  successful  in  preventing  their  secrets 
from  being  divulged.  The  Druids  of  Britain 
were  very  celebrated.  There  has  been  much 
dispute  about  the  derivation  of  the  word 
‘druid,’  but  it  is  most  probable  that  it  comes 
from  an  old  British  word,  derw,  meaning 
‘oak,’  because  the  Druids  held  the  oak-tree 
almost  sacred ; it  was  their  favorite  tree,  and 
their  groves  contained  no  other.  Little  is 
known  concerning  them  before  the  age  of 
Julius  Caesar,  who  invaded  Britain  after  hav- 
ing subdued  Gaul,  about  54  b.c.  Caesar  says 
that  they  were  divided  into  several  classes ; 
the  priests,  the  soothsayers,  the  poets,  and 
the  judges,  and  instructors  of  youth. 

The  priests,  those  Druids  who  were  called 
so  by  way  of  distinction,  had  the  charge  of 
the  religious  ceremonies.  They  worshiped 
their  gods,  and  offered  sacrifices  to  them 
upon  altars.  Their  temples  or  places  of  wor- 
ship, were  very  singular.  They  were  gener- 


ally circles  of  vast  standing  pillars,  over 
which  they  sometimes  laid  huge  stones  mak- 
ing a circle  in  the  air.  In  the  middle  stood 
the  altar-stone.  Of  this  kind  was  the  cele- 
brated Stonehenge,  near  Salisbury,  in  Eng- 
land. In  the  island  of  Anglesey,  near  the 
northern  extremity  of  Wales,  there  are  dru- 
idical  pillars  yet  remaining.  This  island  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  residence  of  the 
chief  Druid  ot  Britain.  The  religion  of  the 
Druids,  when  stripped  of  its  mysteries  and 
unmeaning  practices,  adapted  for  the  gratifi- 
cation of  the  ignorant,  seems  to  have  been  a 
belief  in  one  supreme  being.  They  had  a 
doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and 
it  was  among  the  strongest  incitements  to 
virtue  and  courage.  As  teachers  of  morali- 
ty, they  sustained  their  precepts  by  their 
own  example.  Their  austerity  and  contem-* 
plative  habits  inspired  the  populace  with  • 
reverence  and  awe.  A Druid’s  robe  was 
pure  white,  indicating  holiness  and  truth. 
Like  the  priests  of  other  rude  nations,  they 
were  compelled  to  clothe  religion  with  csre- 
monies  and  customs  calculated  to  stir  the 
wonder  and  fear  of  their  votaries. 

The  poets,  or  bards,  according  to  some,  did 
not  properly  belong  to  the  class  of  Druids, 
because  they  did  not  mix  religion  with  their 
songs.  They  inspired  the  people  to  warlike 
actions,  sang  the  praises  of  patriotism  and 
bravery,  and  preserved  the  oral  chronicles 
of  the  nation. 

The  Druids  studied  astronomy,  and  made 
great  proficiency  in  the  science.  We  all 
know  what  terror  and  astonishment  an 
eclipse,  or  any  singular  appearance  in  the 
sky,  creates  among  an  ignorant  people  who 
do  not  know  the  causes  of  these  things,  or 
the  means  of  finding  out  beforehand  at  what 
time  they  will  happen.  Among  such  people, 
persons  who  can  foretell  any  occurrence,  are 
looked  upon  as  inspired  with  a knowledge 
more  than  human.  By  such  arts,  the  Druids 
extended  and  strengthened  their  influence 
over  the  people.  The  Roman  soothsayers, 
or  fortune-tellers,  pretended  to  foretell  events 
by  the  appearance  of  the  entrails  of 
beasts  that  were  sacrificed  on  their  altars. 
In  the  same  way,  but  with  much  greater 
cruelty,  the  druidical  soothsayers  examined 
the  bleeding  bodies  of  human  victims,  who 
had  been  immolated  in  sacrifice. 


DRU 


STONEHENGE. 


When  the  Roman  general,  Suetonius,  de- 
termined to  put  an  end  not  only  to  the  cere- 
monies of  the  Druids,  but  to  the  priests 
themselves,  they  took  refuge  in  the  island  of 
Anglesey.  Here  they  were  determined  to 
make  a bold  resistance.  Having  some  hopes 
of  gaining  a victory  over  the  Romans,  they 
kindled  large  fires,  in  which  they  intended 
to  consume  the  Roman  prisoners,  should  they 
take  any.  Suetonius  landed  nea  * Parthamel. 
The  Druids,  in  great  numbers,  encircled  the 
army  of  their  countrymen,  urging  them  to 
be  brave  and  praying  for  the  vengeance  of 
heaven  upon  the  invaders.  The  scene  was 
rendered  more  terrific  to  the  Romans  by  the 
appearance  of  the  British  women,  who  were 
dressed  in  black,  and  ran  yelling  to  and  fro, 
with  disheveled  hair,  brandishing  torches. 
However,  the  Romans  were  brave  men,  and 
they  conquered.  They  cut  down  the  sacred 
groves  of  oak ; they  demolished  the  temples 
of  the  Druids,  and  cruelly  threw  them  into 
their  own  fires. 

The  Druids,  who  were  the  judges  in  all 


cases  which  required  a recourse  to  law,  set- 
tled these  matters  by  their  opinion,  from 
which  there  was  no  appeal  except  to  the 
Arch-Druid.  As  the  Druids  were  thought 
to  receive  knowledge  and:  instruction  directly 
from  the  gods,  they  had  the  power  of  mak- 
ing, altering,  and  executing  laws.  Any  per- 
son, who  desired  to  possess  the  great  power 
of  the  order,  could  become  a Druid  only  by 
a long  course  of  very  strict  study,  and  a life 
of  privation  which  not  many  had  patience 
to  go  through. 

The  schools  of  the  Druids  in  Britain  were 
very  famous,  before  the  invasion  of  the 
Romans.  Even  youth  from  Gaul  came  thith- 
er. Scholars  took  an  oath  not  to  betray 
the  secrets  and  learning  which  they  were 
taught.  Students  always  resided  with  their 
teachers  and  school-fellows,  and  were  forbid- 
den to  converse  with  any  others.  Acade- 
mies were  numerous,  one  being  attached  to 
almost  every  temple  of  note.  Instruction 
was  conveyed  in  verse.  The  whole  circle  of 
the  sciences  with  which  the  Druids  were 


DRU 


280 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


acquainted  was  taught  in  twenty  thousand 
verses,  which  pupils  were  twenty  years  in 
committing  to  memory.  Besides  an  ac- 
quaintance with  geometry,  astrology,  astron- 
omy, geography,  natural  philosophy,  and 
politics,  they  professed  a knowledge  of  the 
arts  of  magic,  and  whosoever  refused  obedi- 
ence was  declared  accursed. 

The  Druidesses,  or  female  priests,  were  di- 
vided into  classes.  The  first  class  was  com- 
posed of  those  who  never  married,  and  who 
pretended  to  have  the  power  of  foretelling 
events,  and  performing  miracles.  These 
were  held  in  great  regard.  Then  there  was 
a second  class  of  married  women,  who  spent 
the  greater  part  of  their  lives  in  the  perform- 
ances of  religious  ceremonies,  among  the 
Druids.  The  third  class  consisted  of  those 
who  did  the  meanest  work  about  the  temples. 

The  Druids  measured  time,  not  by  the 
days  but  the  nights,  guided  by  the  changes 
of  the  moon.  They  had  so  great  a venera- 
tion for  the  oak,  that  they  never  performed 
any  ceremony  without  being  adorned  with 
garlands  woven  of  its  leaves.  Those  who 
professed  a knowledge  of  medicine  would 
never  betray  the  secrets  by  which  they  cured 
the  sick.  They  were,  without  doubt,  only 
acquainted  with  the  healing  powers  of  a few 
herbs.  They  placed  great  faith  in  the  vir- 
tues of  the  mistletoe,  probably  from  its 
growing  on  the  oak.  They  called  it  by  a 
name  meaning  ‘all-heal.’  The  efficacy  of 
this  plant  they  thought  depended  on  certain 
ceremonies  to  be  observed  in  gathering  it. 
Among  the  annual  festivals  of  the  Gauls  and 
Britons,  was  that  in  which  the  Arch-Druid 
cut  the  mistletoe  from  the  oak.  This  cere- 
mony was  conducted  with  great  pomp. 
When  they  found  ah  oak  which  had  the 
rare  plant  upon  it,  they  made  preparations 
for  a banquet  beneath.  Two  milk-white 
bulls  were  tied  to  it  by  the  horns,  and  then 
the  Arch-Druid,  dressed  in  a snowy  robe, 
ascended  the  oak,  and  detached  the  mistletoe 
with  a golden  knife.  Sacrifice  and  feasting 
followed.  A vestige  of  this  reverence  for  the 
mistletoe  has  survived  in  England  to  the 
present  da}'- — the  custom  of  using  among  the 
evergreen  decorations  for  Christmas  a mistle- 
toe, under  which,  in  presumed  imitation  of 
the  Druids,  it  is  customary  to  kiss  the  maids. 
On  every  May-day  a festival,  in  honor  of  the 


sun,  was  held.  The  sun  was  called  Bel, 
Belenus,  and  some  other  names. 


DRUIDS. 


The  existence  of  a law  forbidding  the  in- 
structions of  the  Druids  to  be  written,  shows 
that  they  were  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
writing.  We  are  told  that  in  writing  they 
made  use  of  the  characters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  with  which  they  were  acquainted 
before  the  invasion  of  the  Romans.  The 
Gauls  and  Britons  never  went  upon  any  war- 
like expedition  without  first  praying  to  some 
god  for  assistance.  When  a victory  was 
gained,  a certain  portion  of  the  spoils  was 
set  apart  for  that  god  who  had,  as  the  people 
thought,  enabled  them  to  be  successful. 
The  priests  were,  of  course,  to  direct  to  what 
use  these  spoils  should  be  put,  and  a large 
share  of  them  were,  without  doubt,  reserved 
for  themselves.  The  Druids  too  often  pos- 
sessed themselves  of  the  offerings  made  in 
the  templet  of  the  gods.  Besides  the  money 
there  received  for  giving  instruction  in  the 
sciences,  for  curing  diseases,  and  for  giving 
judgment  in  law-suits,  the  priests  of  each 
temple  claimed  every  year  certain  dues  from 
all  the  families  in  their  district.  They  hit 
upon  a very  cunning  method  to  secure  the 
payment  of  these  taxes.  Every  family  upon 
the  last  evening  of  October  was  obliged  by 
law  to  put  out  all  its  fires,  and  to  pay  its 
yearly  dues  at  the  temple.  On  the  first  of 
November,  those  who  had  paid  punctually 
received  sacred  fire  from  the  altar  to  kindle 
theirs  at  home.  Delinquents  were  not  al- 
lowed to  take  any  fire,  and  if  any  one  lent  it 


DliU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


281 


to  them,  or  even  conversed  with  them,  that 
person  was  punished  in  the  same  manner, 
and  not  allowed  to  enjoy  the  protection  of 
justice  or  the  pleasures  of  society.  The  sa- 
cred fire  in  the  temple  was  never  allowed  to 
go  out.  It  is  surprising  that  this  sacred 
flame,  like  that  in  the  temple  of  Vesta, 
should  be  preserved  by  Christian  priests  for 
ages  after  the  disappearance  of  the  Druids. 
No  earlier  than  1220,  Loundres,  Archbishop 
of  Dublin,  extinguished  the  ancient  flame, 
which  was  kept  in  a small  cell  near  the 
church  of  Kildare.  So  firmly  rooted  was  the 
superstition  that  the  fire  was  relit  in  a few 
years,  and  actually  kept  burning  until  the 
suppression  of  monasteries. 

The  Druids  were  greatly  restricted  in  their 
privileges  when  Britain  was  a province  in  the 
hands  of  the  Romans,  and  they  resented  with 
great  warmth  the  order  which  the  Roman 
emperors  issued,  that  no  more  human  victims 
should  be  slain  at  the  altars.  After  the  loss 
they  experienced  in  the  isle  of  Anglesey, 
they  made  no  figure  in  Britain.  The  few 
who  were  determined  still  to  persevere  in  the 
rites  of  their  order,  fled  to  Scotland,  Ireland, 
and  the  smaller  British  islands,  in  which  they 
kept  up  their  authority  some  time.  Even 
after  the  Druids  ceased  to  exist,  the  supersti- 
tions they  had  spread  gave  trouble  to  those 
who  wished  to  make  the  people  believe  in  the 
gospel.  In  the  reign  of  Canute  the  Great, 
during  the  eleventh  century,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  provide  by  law  against  these 
wretched  superstitions.  “ We  strictly  forbid 
all  our  subjects,”  says  the  king,  “to  worship 
the  gods  of  the  Gentiles ; that  is  to  say,  the 
sun,  moon,  fires,  rivers,  fountains,  hills,  or 
trees  or  woods  of  any  kind.” 

DRUSES,  a warlike  people  of  Syria,  30,000 
in  number,  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  Li- 
banus  and  Anti-Libanus.  Their  origin  is 
traced  to  about  the  commencement  of  the 
twelfth  century.  They  are  a religious  sect, 
neither  Christians  nor  Mohammedans.  The}' 
reached  the  summit  of  their  power  under 
Fakardin,  who,  being  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Turks,  was  strangled  in  1631.  Thenceforth 
they  were  the  vassals  of  the  Turks. 

DRYDEN,  John,  one  of  the  great  masters 
of  English  verse,  was  born  at  Oldwinckle, 
Northamptonshire,  in  August,  1631. 
father,  Erastus  Driden,  was 


of  an  ancient  family.  John  fledged  his  muse 
in  heroic  stanzas  lamenting  the  death  of 
Cromwell.  The  restoration  came,  and  he 
welcomed  the  returning  monarch  as  easily 
as  he  had  mourned  the  departed  protector. 
Theatricals  revived,  and  Dryden  wrote  many 
successful  dramas,  all  stained  with  licentious- 
ness, a fault  of  the  age  that  he  helped  on 
rather  than  strove  to  check.  In  1665,  he 
wedded  Lady  Elizabeth  Howard,  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Berkshire,  adding  thereby  neither 
to  his  wealth  nor  his  joy.  When  Mrs.  Dry- 
den wished  she  were  a book,  that  she  might 
enjoy  more  of  his  company,  he  answered, 
“Be  an  almanac  then,  my  dear,  that  I may 
change  you  once  a year.”  The  envious  at- 
tacks of  his  detractors  he  silenced  by  those 
trenchant  satires,  “ Absalom  and  Achitophel  ” 
and  “Mac  Flecknoe.”  He  began  to  have 
doubts  of  the  Protestant  faith,  and  shortly 
after  the  accession  of  James  II.,  the  laureate 
was  received  into  the  Romish  communion. 
His  sincerity  has  been  suspected;  unjustly, 
we  think : he  adhered  to  his  new  belief  when 
it  was  no  longer  popular  or  profitable.  He 
continued  busy  in  toil  with  his  pen,  till  death 
came,  Mav-day,  1700.  With  great  pomp  he 
was  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey.  The 
vigorous  and  idiomatic  prose  of  Dryden 
rivals  the  excellence  of  his  verse. 

The  house  in  which  Dryden  died  still 
stands  in  London,  a respectable,  old-fashi6ned 
dwelling.  Some  years  ago  it  was  tenanted 
by  a comely  dame — a Wife  of  Bath — who 
dealt  in  contraband  laces,  gloves,  &c.  Lord 
Holland  often  called  to  see  the  interior,  but 
the  cautious  mistress,  sure  that  his  portly  and 
comfortable  presence  was  that  of  a custom- 
house officer  or  other  functionary  of  govern- 
ment, kept  the  door  in  her  hand,  and  steadily 
rejected  the  solicitations  of  the  literary  peer 
and  pilgrim. 

DUBOIS,  William,  Cardinal,  the  son  of  an 
apothecary,  was  born  at  a small  town  in 
Limousin,  in  1656.  He  became  prime  min- 
ister to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  regent  of  France, 
by  the  basest  of  means,  flattering  the  vices 
of  his  master.  He  died  August  10th,  1723. 

DUDLEY,  Edmund,  an  English  statesman 
under  Henry  VII.,  born  in  1462.  On  the 
accession  of  Henry  VIII,  he  was  sent  to  the 
Tower  with  his  associate,  Sir  Richard  Emp- 
sonx  tried,  and  beheaded  in  1510. 


His 

strict  Puritan, 

DUD 


282 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


DUDLEY,  John,  Duke  of  Northumberland, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1502,  and 
restored  in  blood  in  1511.  He  became  the 
favorite  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  he  married  his 
son,  Lord  Guilford,  to  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
when  he  found  that  Edward  VI.  was  dying. 
Lady  Jane  Grey  was  prevailed  upon  to  accept 
the  fatal  crown,  but  Mary’s  adherents  proved 
too  powerful  for  her  party,  and  the  Duke  of 
Northumberland  died  upon  the  scaffold, 
August  22d,  1553. 

DUDLEY,  Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1532.  He  was 
condemned  with  his  father,  but  pardoned, 
and  afterward  restored  to  blood  by  Queen 
Mary.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  he  was 
made  master  of  the  horse,  knight  of  the 
garter,  and  a member  of  the  privy  council. 
In  1560  his  wife  died,  not  without  suspicion 
of  violence,  it  being  generally  believed  that 
Dudley  aspired  to  the  hand  of  his  sovereign. 
The  story  of  the  unhappy  countess  is  beauti- 
fully told  in  the  ballad  of  “ Cumnor  Hall,” 
which  gave  Scott  the  hint  for  his  splendid 
romance  of  “ Kenilworth.”  The  following 
are  the  concluding  verses  : 

“ The  death-bell  thrice  was  he,ard  to  ring, 

An  aerial  voice  was  heard  to  call, 

And  thrice  the  raven  flapped  his  wing 
Around  the  towers  of  Cumnor  Hall. 

“The  mastiff  howled  at  village  door, 

The  oaks  were  shattered  on  the  green; 

Woe  was  that  hour — for  never  more 
That  hapless  countess  e’er  was  seen. 

“ And  in  that  manor  now  no  more 
Is  cheerful  feast  and  sprightly  ball, 

For  ever  since  that  dreary  hour 
Have  spirits  haunted  Cumnor  Hall. 

“ The  village  maids,  with  fearful  glance, 

Avoid  the  ancient  moss-grown  wall ; 

Nor  ever  lead  the  merry  dance 

Among  the  groves  of  Cumnor  Hall. 

“Full  many  a traveler  oft  hath  sighed, 

And  pensive  wept  the  countess’  fall, . 

As  wandering  onward  they’ve  espied 
The  haunted  towers  of  Cumnor  Hall!” 

Elizabeth  proposed  Dudley  to  Mary,  Queen 
of  Scots,  as  a husband,  but  that  unfortunate 
princess  indignantly  rejected  him.  In  1564, 
he  was  created  Earl  of  Leicester  ; soon  after 
which,  he  was  elected  chancellor  at  Oxford. 
About  1572,  he  privately  married  Lady  Doug- 
las Howard,  but  he  never  acknowledged  her, 


and  even  forced  her  to  marry  another.  In 
1575,  the  earl  entertained  the  queen  magni- 
ficently at  his  castle  of  Kenilworth  in  War- 
wickshire, but  offended  her  very  much  by 
marrying  the  Countess  of  Essex.  In  1585, 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  the  Protestant 
Low  Countries,  but  returned  the  same  year 
by  the  queen’s  command.  In  1588,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  forces 
at  Tilbury.  He  died  Sept.  4th  of  the  same 
year. 

DUMOURIEZ,  Charles  Francois,  was 
born  of  a noble  family  at  Cambray,  in  1’739. 
Becoming  general  in  the  French  army,  he 
gained  the  battle  of  Jemappes,  over  the 
Austrians,  Nov.  6th,  1792.  He  soon  after 
appeared  before  Brussels,  which  opened  its 
gates.  On  the  15th.  of  March,  1793,  in  a 
general  engagement  with  the  Austrians  at 
Nerwinden,  he  was  totally  defeated.  He  had 
a scheme  for  raising  the  Due  de  Chartres 
(Louis  Philippe)  to  the  throne  of  France. 
The  convention  dispatched  four  commis- 
sioners empowered  to  arrest  him.  These  he 
caused  to  be  delivered  up  to  the  Austrians, 
and  he  himself  fled  to  the  allies  for  protection. 
He  received  a pension  from  the  British  gov- 
ernment, and  died  at  Turville  Park,  England, 
March  14th,  1823. 

DUNBAR,  Battle  of,  between  the  Scot- 
tish and  English  armies,  in  which  John  Baliol 
was  defeated  by  the  Earl  of  Warrenne,  and 
Scotland  subdued  by  Edward  I.  ; fought 
April  27th,  1296.  Battle  between  the  Scots, 
and  the  English  under  Cromwell,  who  gained 
a signal  victory,  Sept.  3d,  1650. 

DUNCAN,  Adam,  Viscount,  a brave  Brit- 
ish naval  officer,  wTas  born  in  Scotland  in 
1731.  He  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age, 
and  in  1761  was  appointed  post-captain,  in 
which  station  he  shared  in  the  honors  of  the 
reduction  of  Havanna.  In  1779,  he  com- 
manded the  Monarch  in  Rodney’s  victory  over 
the  Spaniards.  In  1794,  being  made  vice- 
admiral  of  the  white,  he  took  the  command 
of  the  North  Sea  fleet.  After  watching  the 
Dutch  fleet  in  the  Texcl  for  two  years,  a mu- 
tiny in  the  fleet  compelled  him  to  return  to 
England,  and  enabled  the  enemy  to  put  to 
sea.  This  news  restored  Duncan’s  men  to  a 
sense  of  their  duty  ; they  engaged  the  enemy 
on  the  11th  of  October,  1799,  off  Camper- 
down,  and  completely  defeated  them,  taking 


DUN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


283 


the  Dutch  admiral,  De  Winter,  and  eight  ships. 
For  this  achievement  Duncan  was  made  a 
viscount.  He  died  suddenly,  August  4th, 
1804. 

DUNDAS,  Henry,  Viscount  Melville,  son 
of  Lord  Arniston,  was  born  in  1740.  He  was 
a steady  follower  of  W illiam  Pitt,  and  upon 
that  minister’s  retirement  in  1801,  Dundas 
resigned  his  places,  and  was  created  Viscount 
Melville.  When  Mr.  Pitt  came  into  power 
again  in  1804,  he  was  made  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  but  was  impeached  in  1805,  for 
crimes  and  misdemeanors  in  his  former  situa- 
tion as  treasurer  of  the  navy.  He  was,  how- 
ever, acquitted,  and  died  in  Scotland,  May 
27th,  1811. 

DUNKIRK,  a city  in  French  Flanders, 
with  27,000  inhabitants,  about  twenty -seven 
miles  from  Calais.  It  was  taken  from  the 
Spaniards  by  Marshal  Turenne,  4th  of  June, 
and  transferred  to  the  English  on  the  17th,  in 
1758.  In  1662,  it  was  sold  by  Charles  II.  to 
Louis  XIV.,  for  £500,000.  In  1666,  an  en- 
gagement which  lasted  four  days  took  place 
between  the  English  and  French  fleets  off  Dun- 
kirk. At  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  William  III., 
exacted  from  the  French  a promise  to  demolish 
the  defenses  and  fill  up  the  harbor,  which  was 
but  partially  complied  with.  Since  the  peace 
of  1783,  Dunkirk  has,  however,  been  the 
unmolested  resort  of  armed  ships  of  war,  and 
smuggling  vessels  at  all  times.  In  1793,  the 
Duke  of  York  was  defeated  by  Hoche  near 
Dunkirk. 

DUNSINANE,  Battle  of,  fought  in  1057, 
between  Macbeth,  Thane  of  Glammis,  and 
Seward,  Earl  of  Northumberland.  Edward 
the  Confessor  had  sent  Seward  on  behalf  of 
Malcolm,  whose  father,  Duncan,  the  usurper 
had  murdered.  Macbeth  was  defeated  and 
slain.  Shakspeare  has  immortalized  this 
conflict. 

DURER,  Albrecht,  the  ‘evangelist  of  art,’ 
was  born  at  Nuremberg,  May  20th,  1471,  the 
third  of  eighteen  children.  Though  brought 
up  to  be  a goldsmith,  as  were  his  father  and 
maternal  grandfather,  he  early  adopted  paint- 
ing as  his  profession.  He  distinguished  him- 
self both  as  a painter  and  as  an  engraver  on 
copper  and  wood.  Feb.  2d,  1494,  he  married 
Agnes  Frey,  the  pretty  daughter  of  a Nurem- 
berg musician,  receiving  with  her  a dowry  of 
two  hundred  florins ; for  which,  says  an  old  I 


writer,  he  had  afterward  at  least  two  thousand 
unhappy  days.  She  is  said  to  have  been  im- 
perious, avaricious,  and  fretful,  constantly 
urging  him  to  work,  to  make  provision  for 
her  after  his  death.  He  was  the  most  distin- 
guished artist  of  his  time  north  of  the  Alps, 
and  in  1515  an  interesting  exchange  of  draw- 
ings took  place  between  him  and  Raphael. 
One  of  the  latter’s  is  preserved  in  Vienna, 
with  this  inscription  by  Diirer  on  the  back : 
“1515,  Raphael  of  Urbino,  who  has  been  so 
highly  esteemed  by  the  pope,  drew  these 
naked  figures,  and  sent  them  to  Albrecht 
Diirer  in  Nuremberg,  to  show  him  his  hand.” 
Albrecht  was  a sculptor  as  well,  and  unques- 
tionably a man  of  remarkable  attainments. 
Even  Melancthon  said  painting  was  the  least 
of  his  accomplishments.  He  died  at  Nurem- 
berg, April  6th,  1528. 

DUROC,  Michael,  a friend  .and  favorite 
officer  of  Napoleon,  Duke  of  Friuli,  grand- 
marshal  of  the  palace,  senator,  general  of 
division,  grand  cordon  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
and  other  orders,  was  born  in  1772.  Under 
Napoleon,  in  Italy,  in  Egypt,  and  in  Germany, 
he  distinguished  himself,  being  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  aide-de-camp  to  the  empe- 
ror. He  was  killed  in  entering  the  village  of 
Merkersdorf,  after  the  battle  of  Bautzen,  May 
23d,  1813.  Napoleon  was  cut  to  the  heart 
by  the  loss  of  his  dear  friend.  Marshal  Du- 
roc  was  one  of  those  men  who  seem  too  pure 
and  perfect  for  this  world,  and  whose  excel- 
lence helps  to  reconcile  us  to  human  nature. 
The  splendor  of  his  position  had  not  power 
to  dazzle  or  corrupt  him.  He  remained 
simple,  natural,  and  independent,  a warm 
and  generous  friend,  a just  and  honorable 
man.  I pronounce  this  eulogy  without  fear 
of  contradiction. — Caulaincourt. 

DUVAL,  Claude,  a noted  highwayman  in 
England,  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  was 
a Frenchman  by  birth.  Many  romantic 
tales  were  told  of  him ; that  he  was  the 
page  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  took  to  the 
road,  became  captain  of  a formidable  gang, 
and  had  the  honor  to  be  named  first  in 
the  royal  proclamation  against  notorious 
offenders ; how,  at  the  head  of  his  troop, 
he  stopped  a lady’s  coach,  in  which  there  was 
a booty  of  four  hundred  pounds  ; how  he 
took  only  one  hundred,  and  suffered  the  fair 
owner  to  ransom  the  rest  by  dancing  a coranto 


DUVj 


284 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


with  him  on  the  heath ; how  his  vivacious 
gallantry  stoie  away  the  hearts  of  all  women ; 
how  his  dexterity  at  sword  and  pistol  made 
him  a terror  to  all  men ; how,  at  length,  in  the 
year  1670,  he  was  seized  when  overcome  by 
wine ; how  dames  of  high  rank  visited  him  in 
prison,  and  with  tears  interceded  for  his  life ; 
how  the  king  would  have  granted  a pardon 
but  for  the  interference  of  Judge  Morton,  the 
terror  of  highwaymen,  who  threatened  to 
resign  his  office  unless  the  law  was  carried 
into  full  effect ; and  how,  after  the  execution, 
the  corpse  lay  in  state  with  all  the  pomp  of 
scutcheons,  wax-lights,  black  hangings,  and 
mutes,  till  the  same  cruel  judge  who  had 
intercepted  the  mercy  of  the  crown  sent 
officers  to  disturb  the  obsequies. — Macaulay. 

DWIGHT,  Timothy,  an  eminent  divine, 


born  at  Northampton,  in  Massachusetts,  in 
1752.  His  mother  was  a daughter  of  Jona- 
than Edwards.  Timothy  was  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  in  which  institution  he  was 
tutor  at  nineteen.  He  served  in  the  army  as 
chaplain,  and  about  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary war  was  elected  a member  of  the 
state  legislature.  Mr.  Dwight  then  kept  a 
school  in  Greenfield,  Connecticut,  where  he 
was  ordained  minister  in  1783.  In  1794,  he 
published  the  poems  of  “ Greenfield  Hill  ” and 
the  “Conquest  of  Canaan,”  both  of  which 
were  republished  in  England.  In  1795,  he 
succeeded  the  reverend  Doctor  Styles  as  presi- 
dent of  Yale  College,  filling  also  the  office  of 
professor  of  theology.  He  died  January  11th, 
1817.  His  “ System  of  Theology  ” is  a learned 
and  valuable  work. 


E. 

EARTHQUAKES.  The  following  are 
among  the  most  memorable  that  have  oc- 
curred. 

372  b.c.  Ellice  and  Bula  in  the  Peloponnesus 
swallowed  up. 

144  b.c.  Isle  of  Hiera  rose  from  the  JEgean 
Sea  during  an  earthquake. 

17  a.d.  Awful  one  in  Asia,  which  overturned 
twelve  cities. 

7 9.  One,  together  with  an  eruption  of  Y esuvius, 
destroying  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 

114.  Antioch  destroyed. 

558.  At  Constantinople ; its  edifices  destroyed, 
and  thousands  perished. 

742.  Awful  one  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Asia ; 
more  than  five  hundred  towns  destroyed, 
and  the  loss  of  life  defied  all  calculation. 
1137.  Catania  in  Sicily  overturned,  and  15,000 
persons  buried  in  the  ruins. 

1302.  Ischia  ravaged  by  a volcanic  eruption, 
preceded  by  violent  earthquakes. 

1456.  At  Naples ; 40,000  inhabitants  perished. 
1531.  February,  at  Lisbon;  1,500  houses,  and 
30,000  people  buried  in  the  ruins  ; sev- 
eral neighboring  towns  engulphed  with 
their  inhabitants. 

1596.  In  Jiipan ; several  cities  laid  in  ruins,  and 
thousands  perished. 

1638.  Awful  one  at  Calabria. 

1662.  In  China;  300,000  persons  buried  in  Pekin 
alone. 

1692.  Jamaica  ravaged  by  an  earthquake,  and 
many  of  the  inhabitants  swallowed  up 
by  rents  in  the  ground ; three-quarters 
of  the  houses  of  Port  Royal,  with  the 


ground  they  occupied,  sank  with  their 
tenants  under  water. 

1693.  Shocks  of  earthquake  in  Sicily,  which  ob- 
literated Catania,  overturned  fifty-four 
cities  and  three  hundred  hamlets,  and 
destroyed  more  than  100,000  persons. 

1699.  Earthquakes  in  Java,  when  no  iess  than 
two  hundred  and  eight  severe  shocks 
were  counted ; the  fish  killed  in  the  riv- 
ers by  the  mud  which  filled  them,  and 
great  numbers  of  wild  animals  des- 
troyed. 

1731.  Again  in  China;  100,000  lives  lost  at 
Pekin. 

1736.  One  in  Hungary  which  turned  a mountain 

round. 

1737.  Earthquake  in  Kamtschatka,  which  caused 

an  inundation  of  the  sea,  formed  new 
hills,  lakes,  and  bays. 

1746.  Earthquake  in  Peru  ; two  hundred  shocks 
experienced  in  the  first  twenty-four 
hours ; Lima  and  Callao  destroyed ; 
several  new  bays  formed;  nineteen 
ships  sunk  and  four  carried  a great  dis- 
tance up  the  country  by  the  rise  of  the 
sea ; several  volcanoes  burst  forth  in  the 
vicinity,  and  poured  forth  torrents  of 
water,  which  overflowed  extensive  tracts. 

1750.  Concepcion  (or  Fenco)  in  Chili  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake,  and  overwhelmed  by 
the  sea. 

1754.  At  Grand  Cairo ; half  of  the  houses  and 
40,000  persons  swallowed  up.  In  April, 
1755,  another  earthquake  completed  the 
destruction. 


EAR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


285 


EARTHQUAKE  AT  LISBON. 


1755.  Earthquake  destroyed  Lisbon,  Nov.  1st; 
and  60,000  persons  perished  in  six  min- 
utes. The  sea  first  retired,  and  then 
rolled  in,  rising  fifty  feet  above  its  usual 
level : the  largest  mountains  in  Portugal 
rocked  and  split  asunder,  and  sent  forth 
flames  and  clouds,  of  dust.  The  shock 
was  felt  nearly  all  over  Europe,  in  the 
north  part  of  Africa,  in  the  Atlantic, 
and  even  in  the  West  Indies;  a vast 
wave  swept  over  the  coast  of  Spain,  in 
some  places,  sixty  feet  in  height,  and 
near  Morocco  the  earth  opened,  swal- 
lowed up  about  10,000  persons  with 
their  herds,  and  then  closed  over  them. 
This  awful  shock  is  said  to  have  extended 
five  thousand  miles.  The  cities  of  Co- 
imbra, Oporto,  and  Braga  suffered 
dreadfully,  and  St.  Ubes  was  wholly  over- 
turned. In  Spain,  a large  part  of  Mal- 
aga was  laid  in  ruins.  More  than  half 
the  isle  of  Madeira  became  waste,  and 
two  thousand  houses  in  the  island  of 
Meteline,  in  the  Archipelago,  were  over- 
thrown. 

1759.  The  volcano  of  Jorullo  in  Mexico  rose 
during  an  earthquake  from  the  plain  of 
Malpais,  forming  a hill  1,600  feet  high. 


1766.  Violent  shocks  agitate  Venezuela,  occur- 
ring hourly  for  above  a year. 

1772.  Eruption  of  the  volcano  Papandayang  in 
Java;  a tract  of  country  fifteen  miles 
long  by  six  broad  was  engulphed,  forty 
villages  swallowed  up  or  overwhelmed, 
and  the  cone  of  the  volcano  was  reduced 
in  height  4,000  feet. 

1774.  During  the  eruption  of  the  volcano  on  the 
side  of  which  the  city  of  Guatemala  was 
built,  the  ground  gaped  open  and  swal- 
lowed the  whole  city  with  its  8,000  in- 
habitants. 

1783.  Earthquake  in  Calabria  destroyed  all  the 
towns  and  villages,  twenty  miles  round 
Oppido,  and  40,000  persons  were  swal- 
lowed up  or  overwhelmed ; the  shocks 
continued  for  four  years. 

1783.  Eruption  of  the  volcano  Asamayama  in 
Niphon,  preceded  by  an  earthquake, 
during  which  the  earth  yawned  and 
swallowed  many  towns. 

1797.  Between  the  4th  and  20th  of  February, 
the  whole  country  from  Santa  Fe  to 
Panama  was  destroyed,  including  the 
cities  of  Cuzco  and  Quito,  40,000  of 
Avhose  dwellers  were  in  one  second 
hurled  into  eternity. 


EAR 


286  COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


1811.  Earthquake  in  South  Carolina,  and  in  the 

valley  of  the  Mississippi ; the  latter  was 
convulsed  to  such  a degree  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Ohio  and  the  St.  Francis 
as  to  create  lakes  and  islands,  and  deep 
chasms  were  lormed  in  the  ground,  from 
which  vast  volumes  of  water,  sand,  and 
coal  were  thrown  up  to  the  height  of 
sixty  or  seventy  feet. 

1812.  The  city  of  Caraccas  destroyed  by  an 

earthquake,  and  10,000  persons  buried 
under  its  ruins. 

1819.  An  earthquake  in  Cutch  destroyed  many 
towns  and  villages;  deepened  the  eas- 
tern arm  of  the  Indus  from  one  to  eigh- 
teen feet ; submerged  some  tracts  and 
elevated  others. 

1S22.  Aleppo  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 

1822.  Chili  ravaged  by  an  earthquake,  the  shock 
of  which  was  lelt  for  a distance  of  1,200 
miles ; the  coast  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Valparaiso  for  a distance  of  one  hundred 
miles  was  raised  above  its  former  level 
from  two  to  lour,  and  even  six  or  eight 
feet:  the  whole  tract  thus  raised  had  an 
area  of  about  100,000  square  miles. 

1827.  Earthquake  commits  great  ravages  around 
Bogota. 

1831.  The  island  of  Sciacca  rose  from  the  sea 
near  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily ; the 
depth  of  the  sea  at  this  spot  was  six 
hundred  feet,  and  the  island  was  one 
hundred  feet  above  the  surface  : circuit 
3,240  feet:  in  the  winter  of  1831,  the 
island  was  swept  away  by  the  waves, 
leaving  only  a shoal. 

1837.  In  many  cities  of  southern  Syria,  Jan. 
22d,  by  which  hundreds  of  houses  were 
thrown  down,  and  thousands  of  the  in- 
habitants perished. 

1839.  At  Martinique,  Jan.  11th,  by  which  nearly 

half  of  Port  Royal  was  destroyed,  and 
the  whole  island  damaged. 

1840.  At  Fernate,  Feb.  14th;  the  island  laid 

waste,  almost  every  house  destroyed, 
and  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  lost 
their  lives. 

1842.  At  Cape  Haytien,  St.  Domingo,  May  7th, 
which  destroyed  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
town,  and  almost  5,000  lives. 

1857.  Shocks  felt  quite  heavily  at  St.  Louis  and 
at  Buffalo  in  October.  Dec.  16th,  a se- 
vere earthquake  shook  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  sending  9,350  persons  into  eter- 
nity, and  seriously  injuring  1,359;  at 
Montemurro,  a place  of  7,000  inhabit- 
ants, 5,000  were  crushed  to  death  by 
the  falling  houses,  and  500  severely 
hurt.  See  Appendix,  p.  971. 

EASTERN  EMPIRE.  The  Roman  em- 
pire was  divided  a.d.  364.  The  following 
were  the  rulers  of  the  Eastern  empire,  and 
the  principal  incidents  in  its  history,  down 
to  its  conquest  by  the  Turks.  [See  Rome.] 
364.  Valeris. 

379.  Theodosius  the  Great.  Maximus  the  tyrant, 


defeated  and  put  to  death,  388.  Theodo- 
sius defeats  Eugenius,  392. 

395.  Arcadius,  the  son  of  Theodosius. 

408.  Theodosius  II.  He  institutes  public  schools 
and  endeavors  to  restore  learning,  425. 

450.  Marcian,  a Thracian  of  obscure  family. 

457.  Leo  I.,  the  Thracian. 

468.  Ardaburius. 

474.  Leo  the  Younger,  died  the  same  year. 

474.  Zeno,  called  the  Isaurian. 

491.  Anastasius,  an  Illyrian  of  mean  birth. 
Constantinople  besieged  by  Vitalianus, 
whose  fleet  is  burned  with  a brazen  spe- 
culum by  Proclus,  514. 

518.  Justin  I.,  originally  a private  soldier. 

527.  Justinian,  founder  of  the  Digest.  Turkish 
empire  begins  in  Asia,  545. 

565.  Justin  II.,  nephew  of  Justinian. 

578.  Tiberius  II.,  renowned  for  his  virtues. 

582.  Maurice,  the  Cappkdocian,  murdered  With 
all  his  children  by  his  successor. 

602.  Phocas,  a centurion,  raised  to  the  throne 
by  a revolt  of  the  soldiery.  His  crimes 
and  cruelties  led  to  his  assassination. 
Power  of  the  popes  begins,  through  the 
concessions  of  Phocus,  606. 

610.  Heraclius.  The  Persians  besiege  Constam 
tinople,  626. 

641.  Constantine  III.,  reigned  a few  months; 
poisoned  by  his  step-mother  Martina. 

641.  Constans  II.,  assassinated  in  a bath. 

668.  Constantine  IV.  Pogonatus.  In  this  year, 
the  Arabs  besieged  Constantinople.  In 
673  it  is  besieged  by  the  Saracens,  and 
their  fleet  destroyed  by  the  Greek  fire, 
a composition  invented  by  one  Callinicus, 
an  ingenious  engineer  of  Heliopolis  in 
Syria.  It  burned  the  briskest  in  water, 
and  diffused  itself  on  all  sides,  according 
to  the  impression  given  to  it.  Nothing 
but  oil,  or  a mixture  of  vinegar,  urine, 
and  sand,  could  quench  it.  It  was  blown 
out  of  long  tubes  of  copper,  and  shot  out 
of  cross-bows  and  other  spring  instru- 
ments. The  invention  was  kept  a secret 
for  many  years  by  the  court  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  is  now  lost. 

685.  Justinian  II.,  son  of  the  last  emperor,  an 
abhorrent  character,  dethroned  and  mu- 
tilated by  his  successor. 

695.  Leontius,  dethroned  and  mutilated  by  his 
successor. 

698.  Tiberius  111.  Aspimar. 

705.  Justinian  II.  restored;  Leontius  and  Tibe- 
rius degraded  in  tlie  Hippodrome,  and 
put  to  death.  Justinian  slain,  711. 

711.  Philippicus  Bardanes,  assassinated. 

713.  Anastatius  II. ; fled  on  the  election  of  The- 
odosius in  716;  afterward  delivered  up 
to  Leo.  III.,  and  put  to  death. 

716.  Theodosius  III.  Second  siege  of  Constan- 
tinople by  the  Arabs. 

718.  Leo  III.,  the  Isaurian.  The  great  icono- 
clastic controversy  commences,  726. 
The  alternate  prohibition  and  restoration 
of  images  involve  the  peace  of  several 
reigns. 

741.  Constantine  V.  Copronymus,  son  of  Leo. 


EAS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


287 


775.  Leo  IV.,  his  son. 

780.  Constantine  VI.  and  his  mother  Irene. 
790,  Constantine  reigns  alone,  by  the 
desire  of  the  people,  who  hate  Irene. 
792,  she  again  reigns  conjointly  with  her 
son,  and  afterward  alone.  For  her  cru- 
elties and  murders  she  is  deposed  and 
exiled. 

802.  Nioephorus  I.,  surnamed  Logothetes,  slain. 

811.  Staurachius,  reigns  a few  days  only. 

811.  Michael  I.  Defeated  in  battle,  he  abdicates 
and  retires  to  a monastery. 

813.  Leo  V.,  the  Armenian  ; killed  in  the  temple 
at  Constantinople  on  Christmas  by  con- 
spirators for  his  successor. 

820.  Michael  II.,  the  Stammerer. 

829.  Theophilus,  son  of  Michael. 

842.  Michael  III.,  surnamed  Porphyrogenetes, 
and  the  Sot,  son  of  the  preceding ; mur- 
dered by  his  successor. 

867.  Basilius  I.,  the  Macedonian. 

886.  Leo  VI.,  styled  the  Philosopher. 

911.  Alexander,  and  Constantine  VII.,  brother 
and  son  of  Leo,  the  latter  only  six  years 
old;  the  former  dying  ip.  912,  Zoe, 
mother  of  Constantine,  assumes  the  re- 
gency. 

919.  Romanes  Lecapenus  usurps  the  imperial 
power. 

•920.  Constantine  VIII.,  his  son. 

928.  Stephen  and  Christopher.  Five  emperors 
now  reign:  of  these,  Christopher  dies  in 
931  ; Roman  us  is  exiled  by  his  sons  Con- 
stantine and  Stephen,  who  are  themselves 
banished  the  next  year. 

945.  Constantine  VII.  now  reigns  alone;  pois- 
oned by  his  daughter-in-law,  Theophania. 

959.  Romanus  II.,  son  of  the  preceding,  whose 
death  he  had  contrived.  The  monster 
banishes  Helena  his  mother. 

963.  Nicephorus  II.  Phocas;  weds  Theophania, 
his  predecessor’s  consort,  who  has  him 
assassinated. 

969.  Joh  i I.  Zemisces,  the  celebrated  general, 
lie  takes  B.isilius  II.  and  Constantine 
IX.,  sons  of  Romanus  II.,  as  colleagues. 
John  dies,  supposed  by  poison,  and 

975.  Basilius  II.  and  Constantine  IX.  reign.  The 
former  dies  in  1025,  the  latter  in  1028. 

1028.  Romanus  III.  Argvropulus.  Zoe,  his  con- 
sort, poisons  him  and 

1034.  Michael  IV.,  her  paramour,  a Paphlagonian 
money-lender,  ascends  the  throne.  On 
his  death  Zo  3 gives  the  crown  to 

1041.  Michael  V.,  surnamed  Calaphates,  her 

adopted  son.  Him  she  dethrones,  has 
his  eyes  put  out,  and  marries 

1042.  Constantine  X.  Monomachus,  who  reigns 

jointly  with  her.  Zoe  dies  in  1050. 

1054.  Theodora,  widow  of  Constantine. 

1056.  Michael  VI.  Stratiotes,  or  Strato  ; deposed. 

1057.  Isaac  I.  Comnenus,  chosen  emperor  by  the 

soldiery ; abdicates. 

1059.  Constantine  XI.,  surnamed  Ducas. 

1067.  Eudocia,  consort  of  the  preceding,  and 
Romanus  IV.,  surnamed  Diogenes,  whom 
she  marries,  reign  to  the  prejudice  of 
Michael,  Constantine’s  son. 


| 1071.  Michael  VII.  Parapinaces  recovers  his 
throne,  and  reigns  jointly  with  Constan- 
tine XII. 

1078.  Nicephorus  III. ; dethroned  by 

1081.  Alexius  I.  Comnenus ; defeated  by  Robert 
Guiscard  at  Dyrrachium,  and  by  the 
Turks  in  Asia  Minor.  In  conjunction 
with  the  crusaders,  he  regains  Nicaea,  in 
1097,  but  afterward  quarrels  with  them. 

1188.  John  Comnenus,  his  son,  surnamed  Kalos : 
died  of  a wound  from  a poisoned  arrow. 

1143.  Manuel  Comnenus,  son  of  John. 

1180.  Alexius  II.  Comnenus,  son  of  Manuel,  un- 
der the  regency  of  Maria  his  mother. 
By  her  misconduct  he  is  compelled  to 
admit  Andronicus  Comnenus  as  his  col- 
league. This  miscreant  strangles  him 
and  seizes  the  throne. 

1183.  Andronicus  I.  Comnenus.  He  is  put  to 
death  by 

1185.  Isaac  II.  Angelus  Comnenus,  who  is  de- 
posed, imprisoned,  and  deprived  of  his 
eyes  by  his  brother, 

1195.  Alexius  III.  Angelus,  called  the  Tyrant. 
He  is  besieged  in  Constantinople  by  the 
French  and  Venetians,  who  take  the  city 
and  reinstate  Isaac.  In  Thrace,  w'hither 
he  flees  for  safety,  Alexis  falls  into  the 
hands  of  Theodore  Lascaris,  who  puts 
his  eyes  out,  and  imprisons  him  in  a 
monastery,  where  he  dies. 

1203.  Isaac  II.  again,  associated  with  his  son 

Alexius  IV.  Father  and  son  are  mur- 
dered by  Mourzoufle.  The  French  and 
Venetians  take  Constantinople  by  storm. 
Mourzourfle  is  put  to  death,  after  his  eyes 
have  been  torn  from  his  head. 

LATIN  EMPERORS. 

1204.  Baldwin  I.,  Earl  of  Flanders,  on  the  capture 

of  Constantinople  is  elected  emperor; 
made  a prisoner  by  the  King  of  Bulgaria, 
and  never  heard  of  afterward. 

1206.  Henry  I.,  his  brother. 

1217.  Peter  de  Courtenay,  Henry’s  brother-in- 
law. 

1221.  Robert  de  Courtenay,  his  son. 

1228.  Baldwin  II.,  his  brother,  a minor,  and  John 
de  Brienne  of  Jerusalem,  regent  and  as- 
sociate emperor. 

1261.  [Constantinople  recovered,  and  the  empire 
of  the  Franks  or  Latins  ends.] 

GREEK  EMPIRE  AT  NICE. 

1204.  Theodore  Lascaris. 

1222.  John  Ducas,  Vataces. 

1255.  Theodore  Lascaris  II.,  his  son. 

1259.  John  Lascaris,  and 

1260.  Michael  VIII.  Paheologus. 

AT  CONSTANTINOPLE  AGAIN. 

1261.  Michael  VIII.  puts  out  the  eyes  of  John, 

and  reigns  alone. 

1 282.  % Andronicus  II.  Palaeologus,  son  of  Michael ; 
deposed  by  his  grandson, 

1332.  Andronicus  the  Younger. 

1341.  John  Palaologus,  under  the  guardianship 


EAS 

# 


288 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  John  Cantacuzenus ; the  latter  pro- 
claimed emperor  at  Adrianople. 

1347.  John  Cantacuzenus. 

13 55.  John  Palteologus,  restored. 

1391.  Manuel  Palaeologus,  his  son. 

1425.  John  Palaeologus  II.,  his  son. 

1448.  Constantine  XIII.  Palieologus,  his  son,  the 
last  emperor.  Mahomet  11.,  the  Ottoman 
sultan,  laid  siege  to  Constantinople  by 
sea  and  land.  After  it  had  held  out  fifty- 
eight  days,  the  Turks  carried  it  by  as- 
sault, May  29th,  1453.  The  unfortunate 
Constantine  threw  himself  among  the 
victors,  and  was  cut  to  pieces. 

EATON,  William,  was  born  at  Woodstock, 
Conn.,  Feb.  23d,  1764.  After  serving  in  the 
army  at  an  early  age,  he  prepared  himself  for 
entrance  into  Dartmouth  College.  In  1792 
he  received  a captain’s  commission  in  the 
army,  and  in  1797  was  appointed  consul  for 
Tunis.  He  engaged  in  the  war  with  Tripoli, 
in  1804,  hoping  to  reinstate  Hamet  Bashaw 
on  the  throne  which  had  been  usurped  by  his 
brother.  With  a force  of  500  men  of  different 
nations,  Eaton  crossed  the  desert  from  Alex- 
andria to  Derne,  overcoming  serious  obstacles. 
Derne  was  taken,  the  Tripolitan  army  re- 
pulsed, but,  in  the  midst  of  triumph,  Eaton 
learned  that  peace  had  been  concluded  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Tripoli.  On  his 
return  to  the  United  States,  he  was  received 
with  great  favor.  Aaron  Burr  in  vain  en- 
deavored to  obtain  his  aid  in  his  conspiracy, 
and  on  his  trial  Eaton  testified  against  him. 
In  1811  he  fell  a victim  to  habits  of  intemper- 
ance. 

EBRO,  a river  in  Spain,  the  scene  of  a sig- 
nal defeat  of  the  Spaniards  by  the  French, 
near  Tudela,  Nov.  23d,  1808 ; and  also  the 
scene  of  several  important  movements  of  the 
allied  British  and  Spanish  armies  during  the 
Peninsular  war,  between  1809  and  1814. 

ECKMUHL  ; a Bavarian  village  on  the  La- 
ber,  where  Napoleon  severely  defeated  the 
Austrians,  commanded  by  the  Archduke 
Charles,  April  22d,  1809.  For  his  skill  and 
intrepidity  in  this  battle  Marshal  Davoust  had 
his  title  of  Prince  of  Eckmiihl. 

ECLIPSES.  The  first  eclipse  recorded, 
happened  March  19th,  721  b.c.,  at  8'  40"  p.m., 
according  to  Ptolemy : it  was  lunar,  and  was 
accurately  observed  at  Babylon.  The  follow- 
ing were  extraordinary  eclipses. 

Of  the  sun : — That  observed  at  Sardis  (pre- 
dicted by  Thales),  585  b.c.  At  Athens,  424 
B.c.  A general  one  at  the  death  of  Christ, 


a. d.  33.  At  Rome,  caused  a total  darkness 
at  noon-day,  a.d.  291.  At  Constantinople, 
968.  In  France,  June  29th,  1033,  dark  at 
noon-day.  In  England,  March  21st,  1140, 
occasioned  a total  darkness.  Another  June 
23d,  1191,  entire  darkness,  and  the  stars  very 
visible  at  ten  in  the  morning.  In  the  same 
year,  the  true  sun,  and  the  appearance  of  an- 
other, so  that  astronomers  alone  could  distin- 
guish the  difference  by  their  glasses.  Another, 
total,  1331.  A total  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  Eng- 
land, when  the  darkness  was  so  great,  that 
the  stars  faintly  appeared,  and  the  birds  went 
to  roost  in  the  morning  about  ten,  April  22d, 
1715.  Great  eclipse  in  the  United  States, 
1806  ; another,  1811 ; another,  1831 ; another 
in  1834.  August  7,  1869,  a solar  eclipse  was 
visible  in  the  United  States  both  as  partial 
and  total.  It  was  observed  from  important 
points  from  Alaska  to  the  Carolinas,  and  the 
results  attained  are  of  the  highest  value. 

Eclipses  of  the  moon.  Total,  observed  by 
the  Chaldeans  at  Babylon,  721  b.c.  At  Syra- 
cuse, 413  b.c.  In  Asia  Minor,  219  b.c.  At 
Rome,  predicted  by  Q.  Sulpitius  Gallus,  168 

b. c.  Another,  which  terrified  the  Roman 
troops,  and  quelled  their  revolt,  a.d.  14. 

ECUADOR,  a South  American  republic, 
has  an  area  of  800,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  about  665,000.  It  is  divided 
into  the  three  departments  of  Equator  or 
Quito,  Guayaquil,  and  Assuay.  The  depart- 
ment of  the  Equator,  lying  between  two  par- 
allel ranges  of  the  loftiest  Andes,  forms  the 
finest  table  plain  in  all  America.  Almost 
ten  thousand  feet  is  it  raised  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  In  soil  and  climate,  its  felicity 
nearly  approaches  that  of  the  fabled  golden 
age.  The  clime  is  perpetual  spring,  at  once 
benign  and  equal,  and  even  during  the  four 
months  of  rain  the  mornings  and  evenings 
are  clear.  V egetation  never  droops ; the 
country  is  called  the  evergreen  Quito;  the 
trees  and  meadows  are  clad  with  perpetual 
verdure.  Above  this  smiling  valley,  resting 
as  it  were  on  its  verdant  hills,  rise  the  lof- 
tiest volcanic  cones  of  the  Andes,  crowned 
with  everlasting  ice ; Chimborazo,  Pichincha, 
and  their  gigantic  fellows.  In  this  valley 
are  found  many  monuments  of  the  sway  of 
the  Incas,  for  though  their  main  seat  of  em- 
pire was  at  Cuzco,  Quito  was  one  of  their 
most  valued  provinces.  The  productions 


ECU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


289 


are  various,  but  the  most  valuable  are  those 
of  the  temperate  climates,  grains,  fruits,  and 
rich  pasturage.  The  city  of  Quito  is  the 
capital  both  of  the  department  and  of  the 
republic.  It  has  four  streets,  broad,  hand- 
some, and  well  paved,  and  three  spacious 
squares,  in  which  the  principal  dwellings  are 
situated ; but  the  other  streets,  straggling  up 
the  side  of  Pichincha,  are  crooked  and  irreg- 
ular. The  churches  and  convents  are  built 
with  great  magnificence  and  some  taste. 
There  are  a university  and  two  colleges, 
and  Quito  is  considered  comparatively  a 
South  American  Athens.  The  inhabitants 
are  gay,  hospitable,  and  courteous.  They 
are  fond  of  the  sweet  bits  of  this  life,  and 
confectionery  and  viands  are  among  the  chief 
products  of  their  city.  Silver  and  gold  are 
worked  rather  extensively.  The  population 
of  Quito  is  increasing,  and  is  now  about 
80,000. 

The  department  of  Guayaquil  is  also  very 
fertile.  The  city  of  Guayaquil,  founded  by 
Pizarro  in  1538,  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name, 
has  a population  of  25,000,  and  with  its  ex- 
cellent harbor  is  a flourishing  commercial 
town.  Guayaquil  has  its  plagues,  like  old 
Egypt.  The  air  swarms  with  musqintoes, 
and  flies  that  are  still  more  tormenting ; the 
ground  teems  with  snakes,  centipedes,  and 
other  reptiles  of  dangerous  bite.  There  is  a 
chameleon  whose  scratch  is  believed  to  be 
mortal ; a belief  which  seems  quite  chimeri- 
cal, but  which  greatly  worries  the  citizens. 
The  ants  can  not  be  subdued:  sometimes, 
when  a tart  is  cut  up,  they  are  seen  running 
in  all  directions,  leaving  the  interior  a void. 
Then  the  shores  are  crowded  with  caymans 
and  alligators.  Earthquakes  are  common, 
as  indeed  in  brighter  Quito.  And  lastly,  the 
marshy  nature  of  the  site  is  pestilent  with 
malignant  fevers.  As  a set-off  to  all  this,  we 
should  mention  that  the  women  of  Guayaquil 
are  famous  for  their  beauty,  and  their  enga- 
ging gayety  and  propriety  of  conduct. 

Ecuador  was  discovered  by  Pizarro  in 
1526,  and  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Span- 
iards at  the  downfall  of  the  Peruvian  empire. 
It  constituted  the  audencia  of  Quito,  depend- 
ent upon  the  vice-royalty  of  New  Grenada, 
until  in  1812  the  inhabitants  revolted  from 
the  Spanish  yoke.  The  fierce  contest  ended 
in  1823.  The  republic  of  Colombia  was  then 

19 


formed.  In  1831,  it  fell  to  pieces,  and  Emia- 
dor,  Venezuela,  and  New  Grenada,  the  states 
composing  it,  have  since  been  independent 
republics.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  estab- 
lished religion.  The  people  of  Ecuador  are 
composed  of  the  descendants  of  Spaniards, 
and  aborigines,  the  latter  being  about  three- 
quarters  of  the  whole  number. 

EDGAR,  the  Peaceable,  a Saxon  king  of 
England,  son  of  Edred,  and  brother  of  Edwy, 
his  immediate  successor.  He  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  age  of  sixteen  in  959.  He 
governed  with  vigor  and  success,  and  secured 
the  proper  administration  of  justice  by  giv- 
ing it  his  personal  attention.  He  died  in 
974. 

EDGE  HILL,  Battle  of,  between  the 
royalists  and  the  army  of  parliament,  Oct. 
23d,  1642,  was  the  first  engagement  of  im- 
portance in  the  civil  war.  Charles  I.  was 
present.  Prince  Rupert  commanded  the 

royalists,  and  the  Earl  of  Essex  the  parlia- 
mentarians. The  Earl  of  Lindsay,  one  of 
the  king’s  generals,  who  headed  the  foot, 
was  mortally  wounded,  and  taken  prisoner. 
The  royal  army  lost  5,000  dead  on  the  field, 
with  vast  numbers  of  wounded  and  prison- 
ers ; but  owing  to  the  great  loss  on  the  other 
side  also,  the  action  gave  no  decisive  advan- 
tage to  either  party,  and  neither  could  fairly 
claim  a victory. 

EDGEWORTH,  Maria,  a pleasing  author- 
ess, born  in  England,  Jan.  1st,  17*67,  died 
at  Edgeworth’ s-town,  Ireland,  in  May,  1849. 

EDMUND  II.,  surnamed  Ironsides,  King 
of  England,  succeeded  Ethelred  his  father, 
in  1016,  and  reigned  seven  months.  He  was 
defeated  by  Canute,  who  became  sole  mon- 
arch of  England  o i his  death,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  caused  by  poison. 

EDRED,  son  of  Edward  the  Elder,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  thror  e of  England  on  the  mur- 
der of  his  brother,  Edmund  I.,  in  947.  He 
quelled  the  Danes  and  Northumbrians,  and 
compelled  Malcolm  to  do  homage  for  the 
crown  of  Scotland.  Yet  he  was  priest-ridden, 
and  a slave  to  Dunstan,  Abbot  of  Glaston- 
bury. He  died  aXter  a reign  of  eight  years. 

EDWARD,  the  Elder,  King  of  England, 
succeeded  his  father,  Alfred  the  Great,  in 
901.  He  was  successful  against  the  Danes 
and  Welsh,  and  died  in  925. 

EDWARD,  the  Martyr,  King  of  England, 


EDW 


290 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


son  of  Edgar,  whom  he  succeeded  in  974,  at 
the  age  of  fifteen.  He  was  stabbed  at  Corfe 
Castle,  March  18th,  979,  while  hunting,  by  a 
servant  of  Elfrida,  his  step-mother,  who 
wished  to  raise  her  own  son,  Ethelred,  to  the 
throne. 

EDWARD  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  and  V.,  of 
England.  [See  Plantagenet.] 

EDWARD  VI.,  of  England.  [See  Tudor.] 

EDWARDS,  Jonathan,  an  American  di- 
vine, and  distinguished  metaphysician,  was 
born  in  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  Oct.  5th,  1703, 
and  was  educated  at  Yale  College.  In  1758 
he  was  chosen  president  of  the  college  at 
Princeton,  New  Jersey,  where  he  died  March 
22d,  1758.  He  had  previously  preached  at 
New  York  and  Northampton,  and  filled 
the  office  of  missionary  among  the  Indians 
at  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts.  His  “Trea- 
tise on  Religious  Affections,”  and  his  works 
“on  Free  Will”  and  “Original  Sin,”  have 
gained  him  a permanent  reputation. 

EGBERT,  the  last  king  of  the  Saxon  hep- 
tarchy, and  the  first  monarch  of  united  Eng- 
land, was  the  eighteenth  king  of  the  West 
Saxons.  He  was  harassed  by  repeated  inva- 
sions of  the  Danes,  and  died  in  838. 

EGEDE,  Hans,  a celebrated  missionary, 
born  in  Denmark  in  1686,  and  died  in  1758, 
having  devoted  himself  to  the  sacred  task  of 
spreading  the  light  of  revealed  religion  among 
the  Greenlanders.  The  dictates  of  duty  fre- 
quently led  him  to  peril  his  life,  but  the  con- 
sciousness of  rectitude,  and  the  triumphs  of 
success,  sweetened  his  toil,  and  shed  joy 
upon  his  earthly  pilgrimage. 

EGYPT  was  the  most  celebrated  kingdom 
of  Africa,  and  one  of  the  oldest  nations  of 
the  world.  The  Egyptians  were  early  profi- 
cients in  the  sciences  and  the  liberal  arts,  and 
to  them  men  came  from  all  civilized  countries 
for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  information. 
Some  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Greeks 
acquired  a great  portion  of  their  learning  in 
Egypt.  Ancient  Egypt  was  divided  into 
Upper  Egypt,  or  Thebais,  Middle  Egypt,  or 
Heptanomis,  and  Lower  Egypt,  the  most  val- 
uable portion  of  which  was  the  Delta.  The 
most  accurate  general  description  of  Egypt 
that  we  have,  has  been  given  by  Volney,  in  a 
single  sentence.  “ To  describe  Egypt  in  two 
words,  let  the  reader  imagine,  on  one  side,  a 
narrow  sea  and  rocks ; on  the  other,  immense 


plains  of  sand ; and  in  the  middle,  a river 
flowing  through  a valley  of  a hundred  and 
fifty  leagues  in  length,  and  from  three  to 
seven  wide,  which,  at  the  distance  of  eighty 
leagues  from  the  sea,  separates  into  two 
arms,  the  branches  of  which  wander  over  a 
country  where  they  meet  with  no  obstacles, 
and  which  is  almost  without  declivity.” 

The  ancient  Egyptians  paid  great  attention 
to  agriculture,  and  availed  themselves  of  their 
arts  to  redeem  vast  tracts  of  land  from  the 
waters,  rendering  them  fertile,  and  adapting 
them  to  tillage.  In  former  times  the  region 
which  eventually  received  the  name  of  Lower 
Egypt  and  the  Delta,  was  covered  with  water, 
and  consequently  Egypt  was  but  a limited 
tract  of  land.  The  ancient  Egyptians,  not- 
withstanding their  character  for  wisdom  and 
learning,  were  grossly  idolatrous,  worshiping 
animals,  and  regarding  oxen,  cats,  crocodiles, 
sheep,  &c.,  as  sacred.  The  advantage  taken 
of  this  superstitious  character  by  Cambyses 
is  well  known.  Placing  in  front  of  his  army 
the  animals  worshiped  by  the  Egyptians,  he 
advanced  against  them  boldly,  well  aware 
that  they  would  not  strike  a blow  for  fear  of 
injuring  the  creatures  they  adored. 

The  ancient  government  of  Egypt  was  the 
subject  of  eulogy  among  all  nations,  and 
legislators  from  various  countries  came  to 
Egypt  to  examine  its  institutions,  in  order 
thence  to  gather  hints  for  the  improvement 
of  their  own.  The  accounts  which  writers 
of  antiquity  give  of  the  early  history  of 
Egypt  are  so  contradictory  and  improbable 
that  it  is  needless  to  allude  to  them  in  pages 
which  deal  with  matters  of  fact.  Menes,  the 
first  king  of  Egypt,  is  said  to  have  conferred 
great  benefits  upon  his  subjects.  He  re- 
deemed a vast  extent  of  land  from  the  waters, 
was  the  spiritual  instructor  of  the  Egyptians, 
introduced  splendor,  and  founded  solemn  and 
magnificent  feasts.  After  many  years  of  un- 
interrupted prosperity,  Egypt  fell  under  the 
sway  of  some  rude  adventurers  who  founded 
the  dynasty  of  the  Hycsos  or  shepherd  kings, 
which  commenced  about  2048  years  b.c.,  and 
lasted  until  the  year  1825  b.c.,  when  the 
shepherd  kings  were  expelled. 

Jacob  settled  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  1706 
b.c.  The  children  of  Israel  were  held  in 
bondage  from  the  death  of  Joseph,  1635  b.c., 
to  1491  b.c.  Their  departure  happened,  ac- 


EGY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


291 


COLOSSI  NEAR  THEBES. 


cording  to  some  writers,  during  the  reign  of 
Amenophis  II.,  the  Pharaoh  who  pursued 
them  into  the  Red  Sea,  and  was  overwhelmed 
by  its  returning  waters.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  Pharaoh  was  a title  borne  by  all 
the  kings  of  Egypt  in  common.  In  1445, 
Lower  Egypt  was  conquered  by  the  Canaan- 
ites,  who  fled  before  Joshua,  when  he  dispos- 
sessed them  of  their  own  country.  Upper 
Egypt  was  divided  at  this  time  into  a great 
number  of  kingdoms,  which  were  united 
about  1157.  About  1350,  Remeses  or  Sesos- 
tris,  king  of  Egypt,  made  rapid  and  exten- 
sive conquests.  The  Ethiopians  conquered 
Egypt,  and  retained  possession  of  it  for  forty 
years.  The  Assyrians  also  conquered  it,  but 
the  whole  of  it  was  regained  by  Psammeti- 
chus,  about  660  b.c.  After  a prosperous 
reign  he  was  succeeded  by  Pharaoh  Necho, 
his  son,  616  b.c.  This  monarch  was  con- 
quered by  the  famous  Nebuchadnezzar,  king 
of  Babylon.  Egypt  was  made  tributary  to 
Persia  by  Cambyses,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  525 
b.c.  The  Egyptians  revolted,  but  were 
again  subjugated.  Another  revolt  was  suc- 
cessful, and  for  a short  time  the  Egyptians 
enjoyed  their  independence,  but  350  b.c., 
Artaxerxes  Ochus  restored  the  Persian  do- 
minion. Alexander  the  Great,  331  b.c.,  com- 


pelled the  Egyptians  to  submit  to  his  arms. 
On  the  death  of  this  great  conqueror,  Ptol- 
emy, one  of  his  generals,  took  possession  of 
the  kingdom,  323  b.c.,  and  founded  the  dy> 
nasty  of  the  Ptolemies,  which  lasted  until 
the  death  of  Cleopatra,  when  Egypt  became 
a Roman  province,  in  the  year  b.c.  30,  and 
the  second  of  the  reign  of  Augustus.  • In  the 
year  640,  Egypt  was  conquered  by  Am- 
ron,  general  of  Omar,  caliph  of  the  Saracens. 
The  library  of  Alexandria,  which  had  been 
collected  with  care,  and  contained  manu- 
scripts of  immense  value,  was  consumed  by 
the  order  of  Omar.  The  Fatimites  gave 
place  to  the  Mamelukes  in  1250.  These  last 
were  foreign  soldiers,  employed  by  the  Fati- 
mite  princes,  and  they  held  the  kingdom  un- 
til conquered  by  Selim  I.,  Sultan  of  the 
Turks,  in  1517,  and  made  his  nominal  vas- 
sals. 

In  1798,  the  French  having  resolved  to  at- 
tack the  British  possessions  in  India,  it  was 
determined  to  seize  upon  Egypt,  so  that,  by 
carrying  on  the  commerce  of  the  East  through 
the  Red  Sea,  the  new  French  colony  should 
become  the  grand  mart  where  all  Europe 
might  be  supplied  with  Indian  articles, 
cheaper  than  they  could  be  rendered  by  the 
British,  while,  as  a military  post,  it  could,  at 


EGY 


292 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEPIA  OF 


all  times,  transport  auxiliaries  to  the  coast 
of  Coromandel.  On  the  20th  of  May,  1798, 
Bonaparte  put  to  sea  on  board  the  L’ Orient 
of  120  guns,  bearing  the  flag  of  Admiral 
Brueys,  who  was  to  take  command  of  the 
fleet  then  assembling  from  the  different  ports 
of  France,  which  was  to  consist  of  an  arma- 
ment containing  40,000  soldiers  and  10,000 
sailors.  On  the  evening  of  the  1st  of  July, 
Bonaparte  made  arrangements  for  landing  at 
Marabout.  They  were  at  a distance  of  about 
three  leagues  from  the  shore ; the  wind  was 
northerly,  and  blew  with  violence,  and  the 
debarkation  perilous  and  difficult;  the  sea 
was  covered  with  boats.  Early  in  the  next 
morning,  the  general-in-chief  landed  at  the 
head  of  the  foremost  troops,  who  formed  with 
the  greatest  promptitude  in  the  desert,  about 
three  leagues  from  Alexandria.  After  some 
slight  skirmishes,  he  advanced  and  invested 
Alexandria,  where  he  established  himself  on 
the  5th,  by  a capitulation  of  the  city  and  for- 
tress. Having  garrisoned  Alexandria,  which 
was  left  in  the  command  of  Kleber,  the  army 
marched  to  Gizeh,  Rosetta  and  other  places 
having  been  garrisoned  by  the  French.  Near 
the  pyramids  Bonaparte  found  that  Murad 
Bey  had  assembled  all  his  forces  to  oppose 
the  further  progress  of  the  French.  The 
Mamelukes,  amounting  to  10,000,  fought 
with  desperate  but  unavailing  courage.  Part 
of  them  were  put  to  the  sword  or  drowned 
in  the  Nile,  while  the  remnant,  under  the 
conduct  of  Murad  Bey,  retreated  to  Upper 
Egypt.  The  battle  of  the  Pyramids  was  a 
hard-fought  conflict.  Bonaparte  entered 
Cairo  in  triumph.  The  French  troops  were 
formed  into  three  divisions,  one  of  which, 
under  General  Dessaix,  was  sent  to  pursue 
the  fugitive  Mamelukes ; the  second  was  left 
at  Cairo ; and  the  third  followed  Ibrahim 
Bey,  who  had  fled,  and  so  precipitately,  that 
he  could  not  be  overtaken.  Returning  to 
Cairo,  Bonaparte  employed  himself  in  ar- 
ranging the  details  of  the  government  of 
Lower  Egypt,  sending  garrisons,  establishing 
lazarettos,  &c. 

Soon  after  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  an  insur- 
rection broke  out  in  Cairo  which  Bonaparte 
hastened  to  quell.  When  the  French  gained 
their  victory  at  Aboukir,  and  took  the  fort 
from  the  enemy,  their  power  in  Egypt  ap- 
peared to  be  firmly  established.  Soon  after 


this,  the  losses  of  the  French  in  Italy,  and  the 
dangers  which  appeared  to  threaten  France, 
induced  Bonaparte  to  return  home,  a privilege 
granted  him  in  the  commencement,  and  the 
chief  command  was  committed  to  Kleber  in 
a general  order  dated  Aug.  22d,  1799.  One 
day,  Massena  having  asked  what  sort  of  a man 
Kleber,  of  whom  such  various  accounts  had 
been  given,  in  reality  was,  Napoleon  replied : 
“ Picture  to  yourself  a man  of  lofty  stature,  of 
an  imposing  figure,  the  finest  military  man 
you  ever  saw ; talented,  well  instructed,  and 
capable  of  forming  a correct  judgment  of  any 
thing  at  a glance ; a man  who,  like  you,  has 
commenced  his  career  in  a good  school,  the 
infantry,  and  who  is  a good  maneuverer,  al- 
though educated  in  Austria;  but  indolent, 
excessively  proud,  and  sarcastic.  He  is  a 
man,  who,  in  time  of  war,  by  trifling  and  jok- 
ing, and  heaping  ridicule  on  all  with  whom  he 
deals,  suffers  himself  to  go  to  the  very  edge  of 
the  ditch ; when,  generally,  his  self-love  comes 
to  the  rescue,  his  talent  rallies,  and  he  some- 
times does  very  fine  things,  as  you  have  been 
told.” 

The  condition  of  the  French  troops  becom- 
ing every  moment  more  critical,  after  various 
conferences  with  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  it  was 
agreed  that  after  a truce  of  three  months,  the 
French  should  evacuate  Egypt,  and  accord- 
ingly the  treaty  was  signed  at  El  Arish,  Jan. 
24th,  1800.  Kleber  wrote  a letter  to  the 
French  directory,  stating  the  miserable  con- 
dition of  the  French  army,  and  urging  the 
ratification  of  the  treaty  of  El  Arish.  This 
letter,,  however,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Admiral 
Keith,  and  having  been  transmitted  to  the 
British  government,  they  refused  to  allow  the 
French  any  means  of  saving  themselves,  ex- 
cept by  surrendering  as  prisoners  of  war.  Sir 
Sidney  Smith  hastened  to  inform  the  French 
of  the  views  of  his  government.  A few  days 
after,  the  lieutenant  of  the  Tiger  (an  English 
vessel)  sent  General  Kleber  a letter,  written 
by  Admiral  Keith,  under  date  of  Minorca,  Jan. 
8th,  notifying  to  him  the  only  conditions  on 
which  the  British  government  would  recog- 
nize the  capitulation. 

General  Kleber,  shortly  before  this,  enslaved 
by  a secret  spirit  of  jealousy,  which  perhaps 
he  dared  not  confess  to  himself,  had  been  fol- 
lowing blindly  a fatal  path  in  which  his  fame 
was  threatened.  A better  day  arose  when 


EGY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


293 


the  honor  of  his  nation  was  menaced,  and  the 
French  troops  were  perfidiously  commanded 
to  lay  down  their  arms.  The  discontented 
Kleber,  Kleber  the  humorist,  instantly  became 
another  man.  The  patriotic  Frenchman,  the 
able  and  heroic  leader,  once  more  appeared. 
The  order  of  the  day  was  conveyed  by  the 
letter  of  Admiral  Keith,  and  Kleber  contented 
himself  with  adding  these  words : “ Soldiers ! 
the  only  reply  to  insolence  like  this  is  victory ! 
Prepare  to  fight.”  Never  were  soldiers  better 
prepared.  Indignation  ran  through  every 
rank.  The  Turks  should  pay  dearly  for  the 
bad  faith  of  their  allies.  Kleber  declared  that 
he  should  regard  the  least  advance  on  the  part 
of  the  Turks  as  a hostile  movement.  Disre- 
garding this  warning,  Youssef  Pacha,  the 
grand  vizier,  repaired  to  El  Hancka  with  his 
whole  army.  His  vanguard  was  within  two 
leagues  of  Cairo.  Firmans  circulated  in  the 
provinces,  and  even  in  Cairo  itself,  excited 
the  people  to  insurrection.  Civil  and  religious 
influences  increased  the  danger  of  the  French. 
Time  pressed ; the  troops  summoned  by  Kle- 
ber appeared  in  small  detachments ; but  still 
they  were  animated  by  one  spirit.  Ten  thou- 
sand men  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  an  army 
which  the  Turks  and  English  themselves  have 
estimated  at  from  forty  to  sixty  thousand. 
At  the  ancient  Heliopolis,  Kleber  prepared  for 
combat.  With  a trifling  loss  on  their  part, 
the  French  routed  the  enemy,  whose  killed 
and  wounded  numbered  6,000.  The  French 
were  again  in  firm  possession  of  a reconquered 
country,  and  Murad  Bey  became  their  ally. 

Writers  who  think  to  honor  Kleber,  by  rep- 
resenting him  as  the  enemy  of  Bonaparte,  af- 
fect to  say,  that  he  conceived  the  resolution 
of  keeping  Egypt,  “ out  of  hatred  to  the  man 
who  had  usurped  the  sovereignty  in  France.” 
To  obscure  the  glory  of  him  whom  they  ac- 
cuse, they  darken  the  character  of  the  man 
they  would  eulogize.  They  say  also,  with 
very  little  truth,  that  “the  talents  of  Kleber 
had  excited  the  jealousy  of  Bonaparte.”  But 
what  points  of  comparison  could  be  established 
between  them  ? What  victories  had  Kleber 
gained  to  rank  them  with  the  two  campaigns 
of  Italy,  or  the  single  one  of  Egypt  ? Kleber 
had  never  commanded  in  chief.  Often  had 
the  chief  command  been  offered  him,  and  as 
often  had  he  refused ; a singular  trait  of  that 
pride  which  disdains  to  command,  and  yet 


will  not  bend  to  obedience.  Employed  in  a 
secondary  rank  by  preference,  he  revenged 
himself  for  this  voluntary  inferiority  by  epi- 
grams upon  the  officer  above  him,  whether 
Beurnonville,  Jourdon,  or  Moreau  himself. 
In  Egypt  his  powers  of  sarcasm  were  em- 
ployed in  vain  against  a man  who  feared  them 
not.  If,  at  a later  period,  he  denounced  Bo- 
naparte to  the  directory,  he  had  before,  in  a 
frank  and  bold  letter,  denounced,  if  we  may 
use  the  expression,  the  directory  to  General 
Bonaparte ; and  this  was  the  political  confi- 
dence of  a clear-sighted  man,  who,  beholding 
in  that  general  the  future  fortunate  leader  of 
a party,  predicted  the  fate  which  awaited  him. 
On  his  part,  Napoleon,  appreciating  Kleber, 
made  use  of  him  without  fear,  and  pardoned 
his  faults  in  consideration  of  his  good  qualities. 
He  feared  not  to  debase  himself  in  making  ad- 
vances. Some  reproaches  addressed  to  Kleber 
on  the  subject  of  his  administration  in  Egypt 
having  wounded  his  feelings  to  such  a degree 
that  he  was  about  to  leave  the  army,  Bona- 
parte wrote,  “ On  the  soil  of  Egypt,  the  clouds 
pass  away  in  six  hours : were  they  on  my  side, 
they  should  dissipate  in  three.”  This  was 
the  conduct  of  Bonaparte  toward  the  man 
whose  rivalry  he  was  accused  of  fearing. 

Kleber  made  many  wise  regulations  to 
strengthen  his  administration.  Meanwhile 
Europe  had  heard  the  news  of  the  battle  of 
Heliopolis  and  its  results.  The  violation  of 
national  rights  had  yielded  to  the  British 
government  but  unsavory  and  bloody  fruits, 
and  they  could  not  but  regard  with  regret  the 
destruction  of  a fine  Ottoman  army  40,000 
strong.  General  Kleber,  having  gained,  by 
chance,  minute  information  of  the  views  of 
the  English,  was  taking  a course  which  gave 
general  satisfaction,  when  the  dagger  of  a 
Mussulman  assassin  deprived  the  army  of  a 
leader,  and  France  of  the  possession  of  Egypt. 
The  fatal  news  circulated  with  rapidity ; grief 
and  indignation  were  general,  and  at  the  end 
of  some  hours  the  criminal  was  seized.  It 
was  proved  that  the  murderer,  Sutiman  El 
Alepi,  who  was  sent  from  Gazah  to  Cairo, 
was  only  a fanatic  subaltern,  who,  intoxicated 
with  temporal  and  spiritual  promises,  and 
maddened  by  the  incendiary  firmans  of  the 
Turkish  government,  pretended  to  punish,  in 
the  person  of  Kleber,  the  enemy  of  the  prophet, 
and  the  conqueror  of  the  grand  vizier. 


EGY 


294 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


After  the  revolt  of  Cairo  in  1798,  the  sheikhs 
having  come  to  implore  the  pardon  of  Bona- 
parte, the  latter  treated  with  peculiar  respect 
an  old  man  of  the  party,  the  Sheikh  Sada. 
He  raised  him,  kissed,  and  embraced  him. 
When  they  had  retired,  he  said  to  Kleber, 
“Do  jmu  know  that  old  fellow  whom  I hon- 
ored so  ? ” “ No,”  answered  Kleber.  “ He  is 

the  ringleader  of  the  insurrection.”  “The 
deuce  ! I would  have  shot  him.”  When,  in 
1800,  Kleber,  having  retaken  Cairo  with  an 
armed  force,  exacted  as  a punishment  an  ex- 
traordinary contribution  of  4,000,000  francs, 
this  same  sheikh  refused  to  pay  the  sum  which 
was  assessed  upon  him.  In  the  first  move- 
ment of  anger,  Kleber  gave  orders  to  have  him 
bastinadoed,  but,  soon  after,  recollecting  the 
conduct  of  Bonaparte,  recalled  them  too  late. 
When  Bonaparte  heard  of  Kleber’s  death,  his 
first  words  were,  “ This  comes  of  the  bastinado 
administered  to  the  Sheikh  Sada.”  And  in 
reality  the  assassin  had  been  concealed  in  the 
mosque  forty  days.  Similar  fanatics  had  been 
previously  sent  to  stab  Bonaparte,  but  the 
sheikhs  had  prevented  them. 

The  command  of  the  French  army  devolved 
on  General  Menon.  In  1801  the  English,  de- 
termined to  drive  the  French  from  Egypt,  fit- 
ted out  an  expedition,  of  which  the  army  was 
commanded  by  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  and 
the  fleet  by  Lord  Keith.  On  the  23d  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1801,  the  fleet  weighed  anchor,  and  on 
March  1st  was  anchored  in  Aboukir  Bay.  On 
the  8th  they  landed,  and  on  the  18th  gained 
possession  of  the  fort.  On  the  21st,  General 
Menon  attacked  the  English,  but  was  com- 
pletely defeated  by  them  after  a well  contested 
engagement.  During  the  charge  of  cavalry, 
Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie  was  mortally  wound- 
ed ; after  having  dispatched  his  aides-de-camp 
he  was  alone,  and  some  French  dragoons  at- 
tacked him,  threw  him  from  his  horse,  and 
attempted  to  cut  him  down.  The  gallant 
general,  however,  sprang  up  and  wrested  the 
sword  from  his  antagonist,  who  was  bayoneted 
by  a soldier  of  the  forty-second.  He  died  on 
the  28th,  on  board  Lord  Keith’s  ship.  Gen- 
eral Hutchinson  succeeded  to  the  command 
and  resolved  to  reduce  Lower  Egypt.  By  the 
19th  of  April,  Fort  Sulien  and  Rosetta  were 
captured,  and  the  British  proceeded  to  Rha- 
manich,  where  tliO  French  made  a stand,  but 
were  vanquished,  and  retreated  toward  Cairo. 


On  the  11th  of  May  the  army  continued  its 
march,  and,  on  the  15th,  intelligence  being 
received  that  Belliard  was  in  full  march  from 
Cairo,  Hutchinson  resolved  to  anticipate  the 
attack.  On  the  16th,  the  Turks  commenced 
the  onset.  The  French  took  post  in  a wood 
of  date-trees  near  Elmenayer,  but  were  com- 
pelled to  retreat.  The  British  were  now 
joined  by  great  numbers  of  Arabs.  The  camp 
was  placed  at  Gizeh,  and  dispositions  were 
made  for  invading  Cairo  ; but  the  French  gar- 
rison offered  to  capitulate.  A convention  was 
accordingly  concluded  on  the  28th  of  June, 
with  certain  stipulations,  but  Menon  not  ac- 
ceding to  the  surrender  of  Alexandria,  Hut- 
chinson invested  that  city,  with  the  co-opera- 
tion of  Lord  Keith  and  Coote,  which  enabled 
him  to  surround  it,  and  Menon  capitulated. 
Four  weeks  after  the  evacuation  of  Egypt  by 
the  French,  the  preliminaries  of  a treaty  of 
peace  were  signed  at  London.  The  Egyptians 
were  much  attached  to  the  French,  and  re- 
gretted them  extremely,  for  both  Bonaparte 
and  Kleber  did  all  in  their  power,  during  their 
brief  term  of  possession,  to  ameliorate  the  con- 
dition of  the  country. 

The  Mamelukes  and  the  Turkish  pacha 
could  not  agree ; scenes  of  blood  and  treach- 
ery occurred,  till  at  last  Mehemet  Ali,  the  pa- 
cha, got  most  of  the  beys  and  their  principal 
officers  into  the  citadel  of  Cairo,  under  pre- 
tense of  an  entertainment,  and  massacred  the 
whole  of  them,  March,  1811.  Thus  ended  the 
Mameluke  power,  which  had  ruled  Egypt 
more  than  four  centuries.  The  sway  of  Me- 
hemet Ali  was  more  rational,  orderly,  and 
humane  than  Egypt  yet  had  had,  and  he  did 
much  for  civilization.  Though  nominally  sub- 
ject to  the  Porte,  he  made  wide  conquests 
and  rendered  himself  virtually  independent. 
The  sultan  watched  his  growing  power  with 
increasing  jealousy,  and  in  1832  sent  a power- 
ful army  against  him.  The  Turks  were  un- 
successful, and  Ibrahim  Pacha,  Mehemet’s  son 
and  victorious  general,  was  on  the  march  for 
Constantinople,  when  the  European  powers 
interfered,  and  forced  a peace.  In  1840  the 
sultan  thinking  himself  strong  enough,  re- 
sumed hostilities.  Again  the  Egyptians  an- 
nihilated his  armies,  and  again  the  powers  of 
Europe  came  to  his  rescue.  By  a treaty 
signed  July  15th,  1841,  Mehemet  Ali  was 
stripped  of  all  his  conquests  in  Asia,  but  the 


EGY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


295 


government  of  Egypt  was  insured  to  him  as  a 
tributary  to  Turkey,  and  made  hereditary  in 
his  descendants.  Ibrahim  Pacha  died  Sept. 
1st,  1848,  and  his  father  little  less  than  a year 
after.  Abbas  Pacha,  a nephew  of  Ibrahim, 
was  made  viceroy,  and  upon  his  decease  in 
1854,  Said-Pacha  was  appointed. 

Egypt  is  called  by  the  Arabs  Maer,  by  the 
Turks  El  Kabit,  and  by  the  Copts  Khemi. 
Its  Hebrew  name  was  Mizr  or  Mizraim.  It 
comprises  200,000  square  miles,  which  are 
peopled  by  about  2,000,000  of  inhabitants. 
It  is  divided  into  three  parts,  Upper  Egypt 
(Said),  Middle  Egypt  ( Vostani ),  and  Lower 
Egypt  (Bahari)  including  the  Delta.  The 
only  valuable  portion  of  the  land  is  that  which 
is  watered  by  the  Nile  and  its  branches.  The 
cultivated  part  of  Upper  Egypt  is  a narrow 
strip  inclosed  by  ridges  of  mountains.  The 
Nile  annually  overflows  its  banks,  leaving  a 
fertilizing  mud  or  slime.  The  inundation 
commences  about  the  middle  of  June,  and  in- 
creases until  the  latter  part  of  August.  The 
productions  of  the  country  are  maize,  rice, 
wheat,  barley,  sugar-cane,  indigo,  cotton,  flax, 
dates,  &c.  The  inhabitants  are  Copts,  de- 
scendants of  the  original  race,  Arabs,  Turks, 
and  Jews. 

The  fertility  of  the  land,  the  variety  of  the 
fruits,  and  the  thousand  natural  advantages 
which  it  possesses,  might,  by  judicious  man- 
agement, make  Egypt  one  of  the  most  wealthy 
and  flourishing  countries  in  the  world.  A 
liberal  government  and  enterprising  public 
officers  would  soon  restore  it  to  the  rank 
which  it  once  held.  As  a commercial  coun- 
try, it  possesses  inestimable  facilities.  Bees 
are  now  carefully  reared,  honey  forming  an 
important  article  of  trade.  The  verdure  of 
Upper  Egypt  generally  withers  at  the  end  of 
four  or  five  months,  and  commences  earlier 
than  in  Lower  Egypt.  In  consequence  of 
this,  the  Lower  Egyptians  collect  the  bees  of 
several  villages,  in  large  boats;  each  hive 
having  a mark  by  which  the  owner  can  rec- 
ognize it.  The  men  having  charge  of  them 
then  commence  the  gradual  ascent  of  the  Nile, 
stopping  whenever  they  come  to  a region  of 
herbage  and  flowers.  At  break  of  day  the 
bees  issue  from  their  cells  in  thousands,  and 
busily  collect  the  sweets  of  the  flowers  which 
are  spread  in  luxuriant  profusion  around  them, 
returning  to  their  hives  laden  with  honey, 


and  issuing  forth  again  in  quest  of  more,  sev- 
eral times  in  the  course  of  the  day.  Thus  for 
three  or  four  months,  they  travel  in  a land  of 
flowers,  and  are  brought  back  to  the  place 
whence  they  started,  with  the  delicious  prod- 
uct of  the  sweet  orange-flowers  which  perfume 
the  Said,  the  roses  of  Faioum,  and  the  jessa- 
mines of  Arabia.  The  sugar-cane  is  an  Egyp- 
tian production,  and  one  of  great  value ; olive 
and  fig-trees,  producing  the  most  delicious 
fruit,  are  also  found  in  abundance.  The  palm 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the  Egyptian  trees. 
The  fruit  is  agreeable,  and  the  bark,  as  well 
as  the  leaves  and  rind  of  the  fruit,  yields  ma- 
terials for  cordage  and  the  sails  of  the  boats. 
The  Mameluke  javelins  were  made  of  the  ribs 
of  the  palm  branches. 

The  condition  of  the  poor  people yof  Egypt 
is  deplorable.  The  tyranny  of  their  rulers 
wrests  from  them  the  fruit  of  their  hard  la- 
bors, and  leaves  them  but  a miserable  suste- 
nance which  they  can  hardly  be  supposed  to 
enjoy.  Rice  and  corn  they  can  not  eat,  for 
all  that  they  raise  must  be  carried  to  their 
masters,  who  leave  them  for  food  dourra , or 
Indian  millet,  of  which  they  form  a very  un- 
palatable and  coarse  kind  of  bread  without 
any  leaven.  With  the  addition  of  water  and 
raw  onions,  this  is  their  food  throughout  the 
year.  They  know  no  luxury  beyond  a meal 
of  the  above  articles  improved  by  a little  hon- 
ey, cheese,  sour  milk,  and  dates.  A shirt  of 
coarse  linen  dyed  blue,  and  a black  cloak,  a 
cloth  bonnet,  with  a long  red  woollen  hand- 
kerchief rolled  around  it,  form  their  costume. 

Cairo  (Kahira),  the  capital,  has  about 
250,000  inhabitants.  It  was  built  a.d.  970, 
and  under  Saladin  and  his  successors,  became 
one  of  the  most  commercial  cities  of  the  world, 
standing  as  it  did  midway  between  Europe 
and  the  Indies.  The  discovery  of  the  path 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  ended  its 
prosperity.  Alexandria  is  now  the  commer- 
cial city  of  Egypt.  [See  Alexandria.]  Da- 
mietta,  a town  some  six  miles  from  the  Medi- 
terranean, is  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Tha- 
miatis.  It  has  28,000  inhabitants.  Rosetta, 
formerly  an  important  port,  has  lost  its  traffic. 
To  the  traveler  Egypt  is  replete  with  wonder 
and  interest.  He  lingers  among  the  gigantic 
remains  of  ancient  art  and  splendor,  with  a 
feeling  of  veneration ; recalling,  as  he  dwells 


upon  the  spot,  the  busy  scenes  of  the  past, 
EGY 


296 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  actors  of  which  sleep  beneath  the  dust  of 
centuries,  their  perishable  remains  contrasting 
with  the  vast  monuments  of  their  enterprise 
and  wealth,  which,  not  the  less  surely  because 
at  a later  period,  will  yet  be  crumbled  into 
atoms  by  the  stern  hand  of  time.  Then,  too, 
the  presence  of  these  antique  relics  raises 
visions  of  the  troubled  times  of  Israel,  when  the 
yoke  of  the  Pharaoh  pressed  heavily  upon  her 
children,  till  they  were  rescued  from  the  land 
of  bondage  by  the  power  of  the  Omnipotent, 
who  rolled  back  the  strong  tides  of  the  sea  to 
let  them  pass.  The  contemplation  of  these 
early  scenes  awakens  in  the  well-trained  mind 
a thought  of  Him,  of  whom  we  know  that 
whatever  be  the  chance  or  change  of  time, 
though  kingdoms  may  pass  away,  and  cities 
be  crumbled  into  dust,  “His  word  endureth 
for  ever.”  [For  an  account  of  the  pyramids, 
see  Wonders  of  the  World.] 

ELBA  (the  ancient  Ilva ),  a small  moun- 
tainous island  in  the  Mediterranean,  near  the 
coast  of  Tuscany,  to  which  it  now  belongs. 
It  has  an  area  of  ninety-seven  square  miles, 
a population  of  20,000,  and  contains  iron, 
silver,  loadstone,  and  marble.  The  climate 
is  mild.  This  island  was  allotted  to  Napo- 
leon in  1814,  on  his  abdication  of  the  crown 
of  France.  He  quitted  it  February  26th, 
1815. 

ELDON,  John  Scott,  Earl  of,  born  at 
Newcastle  in  1751.  He  was  a distinguished 
common-law  judge,  and  sat  on  the  woolsack 
from  1801  till  1827.  He  was  bigotedly  op- 
posed to  law  reform,  and  is  said  to  have  shed 
tears  on  the  abolition  of  the  punishment  of 
death  for  stealing  five  shillings  from  a dwell- 
ing-house. He  died  January  13th,  1838. 

EL  DORADO.  When  the  zeal  for  travels, 
conquests,  and  discoveries  in  America,  first 
began  to  develope  itself  among  the  Spaniards 
and  other  nations  of  Europe,  those  who 
thirsted  for  adventure  and  aggrandizement 
were  not  content  with  the  actual  wonders  of 
the  New  World,  but  they  taxed  their  imag- 
inations for  the  creation  of  realms  in  which 
the  splendors  of  fairy -land  were  surpassed. 
Various  circumstances  contributed  to  add  au- 
thority and  influence  to  these  fables.  The 
tale  that  is  oftentimes  repeated  generally 
comes  to  be  regarded  as  true,  particularly 
when  the  narrators  are  skillful  and  have 
weighty  reasons  for  disguising  the  truth. 


These  were  not  wanting  with  regard  to  the 
fable  of  El  Dorado,  or  ‘the  golden  region. 
It  was  currently  believed  that  somewhere  in 
Guiana,  there  existed  a kingdom,  the  wealth 
of  which  surpassed  that  of  any  known  region 
on  the  face  of  the  globe.  Along  the  whole 
coast  of  the  Spanish  Main,  it  was  believed 
that,  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  there  ex- 
isted a land  whose  importance  and  riches  it 
was  impossible  to  exaggerate.  These  rumors 
are  said  to  have  had  reference  to  the  kingdom 
of  Bogota  and  Tunja,  now  New  Grenada. 
What  was  rather  singular  with  regard  to  EL 
Dorado,  was,  that  the  nearer  adventurers  ap- 
proached to  it,  the  farther  off  it  appeared  to 
be.  The  Peruvians  had  accounts  of  its  ex- 
istence in  the  Nuevo  Beyno  ; the  adventurers 
of  that  country  believed  that  it  existed  in 
Peru.  In  fact  it  appeared  like  the  blessed 
isle  of  Indian  song,  which  fled  the  footsteps 
of  pursuers. 

Imagination,  however,  soon  supplied  the 
proper  data.  Tired  of  profitless  wanderings, 
the  gold-hunters  fixed  upon  a certain  region 
(in  Guiana),  as  the  locality  of  the  kingdom 
of  El  Dorado.  Nor  was  it  a very  difficult 
matter  to  make  maps  of  the  country,  to 
crowd  it  with  lakes  and  rivers,  to  refine  its 
inhabitants,  to  perfect  its  arts,  and  to  heighten 
its  splendor.  The  story  ran  thus.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Incas,  a younger  brother  of  Ata- 
balipa,  collecting  what  treasures  he  could  lay 
hands  upon,  fled  to  an  inland  country,  and 
founded  a magnificent  empire.  This  poten- 
tate was  indifferently  styled  the  Great  Pay- 
titi,  the  Great  Moxo,  the  Enim  or  Great  Paru. 
From  interested  motives,  men  of  intelligence 
and  reputation  scrupled  not  to  confirm  the 
tales  of  this  empire,  and  lend  the  sanction  of 
their  names  to  the  most  absurd  and  puerile 
fictions.  Thus  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  aware  of 
the  important  results  of  colonizing  Guiana, 
lured  adventurers  onward  by  displaying  be- 
fore them  the  most  enticing  pictures  of  the 
gilded  monarch  and  his  realm.  He  even  did 
not  hesitate  to  attempt  to  pass  upon  Queen 
Elizabeth,  as  facts,  the  monstrous  fables  which 
his  heated  mind  was  alone  capable  of  receiv- 
ing. 

One  unblushing  impostor  asserted  that  he 
had  himself  been  in  Manoa,  the  capital  of  the 
imaginary  kingdom,  and  that  in  the  street  of 
silversmiths,  no  fewer  than  three  thousand 


ELD 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


297 


workmen  were  employed.  This  traveler  was 
very  minute  in  his  details,  and  produced  a 
map  which  he  had  projected,  and  which  was 
marked  with  the  situation  of  a hill  of  gold, 
one  of  silver,  and  one  of  salt.  The  gorgeous 
palace  of  the  emperor  was  held  on  high  by 
magnificent  and  symmetrical  pillars  of  por- 
phyry and  alabaster,  and  encircled  by  galle- 
ries which  were  formed  of  ebony  and  cedar, 
curiously  wrought.  About  the  period  of  Ra- 
leigh’s first  expedition,  it  was  believed  at 
Paraguay  that  the  court  of  the  Great  Moxo 
had  been  actually  discovered  and  visited. 
At  this  time  the  description  of  the  interior 
varied  a little  from  that  which  we  have  just 
given.  A vast  lake  of  exquisite  transpar- 
ency and  softness  reflected  the  palace,  which 
was  built  upon  an  island  in  its  centre.  The 
material  of  the  edifice  was  snow-white  marble 
of  a peculiar  brilliancy.  Two  towers  guarded 
the  entrance,  standing  on  each  side  of  a su- 
perb column,  which  shot  up  to  the  height  of 
twenty-five  feet,  and  bore  upon  its  capital  an 
immense  silver  moon,  while  two  living  lions 
were  attached  by  massy  chains  of  solid  gold 
to  its  pedestal.  These  animals,  like  the 
dragons  of  a fairy  tale,  defended  the  entrance 
to  a place  which  outshone  the  realms  of  fairy- 
land. We  know  not  whether  an  acquaint- 
ance with  magic  was  necessary  to  quiet  the 
vigilance  of  these  wild  guards,  or  whether 
they  were  well-bred  creatures,  disposed  to 
make  allowances  for  the  curiosity  of  visitors, 
and  permit  them  an  easy  entrance  into  the 
palace  of  El  Dorado.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
having  passed  those  guards,  you  entered  a 
quadrangle,  where  you  could  not  fail  to  be 
delighted  with  the  freshness  and  shade  of  the 
green  trees,  and  the  fragrant  coolness  and 
musical  murmur  of  a silver  fountain,  which 
gushed  and  gleamed  through  four  golden 
pipes.  A small  copper  gate,  the  bolt  of 
which  shot  into  a massy  rock,  hid  the  inte- 
rior of  the  palace.  This  passed,  the  splendor 
of  the  internal  arrangements  dazzled  and  de- 
lighted. A vast  altar,  formed  of  solid  silver, 
supported  an  immense  golden  sun,  before 
which  four  lamps  were  kept  perpetually  burn- 
ing. 

The  lord  of  this  magnificence  was  called 
El  Dorado,  literally  ‘the  gilded,’  from  the 
savage  splendor  of  his  costume,  his  naked 
body  being  daily  anointed  with  costly  gum, 


and  then  heaped  with  gold  dust,  until  he 
presented  the  appearance  of  a golden  statue. 
“But,”  Oviedo  sagely  remarks,  “as  this  kind 
of  garment  would  be  uneasy  to  him  while  he 
slept,  the  prince  washes  himself  every  eve- 
ning, and  he  is  gilded  anew  in  the  morning, 
which  proves  that  the  empire  of  El  Dorado 
is  infinitely  rich  in  mines.”  This  fable  had 
its  origin  in  the  peculiar  rites  introduced  by 
the  worship  of  Bochica,  as  the  high  priest  of 
this  sect  was  accustomed,  every  morning,  to 
anoint  his  hands  and  face  with  grease,  and 
then  heap  them  with  gold  dust.  Another 
custom,  spoken  of  by  Humboldt,  may  have 
given  rise  to  the  romance.  This  eminent 
traveler  says  that  in  the  wilder  parts  of  Gui- 
ana, where  painting  the  body  is  used  instead 
of  the  practice  of  tattooing,  the  Indians  smear 
their  bodies  with  the  fat  of  turtles,  and  then 
cover  them  with  pieces  of  mica  of  a metallic 
lustre,  brilliantly  white  as  silver,  and  red  as 
copper,  so  that  they  appear  robed  in  a gar- 
ment covered  with  gold  and  silver  embroid- 
ery, when  seen  from  a little  distance. 

Although  productive  of  much  mischief,  the 
expeditions  undertaken  in  the  hope  of  discov- 
ering El  Dorado  did  considerable  service  to  the 
cause  of  science ; and  thus,  by  the  agency  of 
fiction,  many  important  truths  were  brought 
to  light.  Of  the  different  expeditions  fitted 
out  in  search  of  El  Dorado,  the  last,  incredi- 
ble as  it  may  seem,  was  set  on  foot  as  lately  as 
the  year  1775.  From  this  we  may  judge  how 
firm  was  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  this 
fairy  land.  The  earliest  enterprises  of  this 
nature  attempted  to  reach  the  realm  of  the 
Great  Moxo  somewhere  in  the  direction  of 
the  eastern  back  of  the  Andes  of  New  Gre- 
nada. The  captains  Anasco  and  Ampudia 
were  dispatched  by  Sebastian  de  Belalcazar, 
in  1535,  to  discover  the  valley  of  Dorado,  in 
consequence  of  the  flaming  descriptions  which 
an  Indian  of  Tacumga  had  given  of  the  riches 
and  splendor  of  the  Zaque,  or  the  king  of 
Cundinamarca.  Diaz  de  Pineda  (in  1536) 
gave  rise  to  the  idea  that  there  were,  to  the 
eastward  of  the  Nevados  of  Tunguragua,  Cay- 
ambe,  and  Popayan,  immense  plains  where 
the  precious  metals  were  found  in  abund- 
ance, and  where  gold,  in  particular,  was  so 
plentiful,  that  the  inhabitants  converted  massy, 
plates  of  it  into  armor. 

In  1539,  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  inflamed  by  the 


ELD 


298 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


account  of  these  treasures,  set  forth  in  search 
of  them,  and  by  chance  made  discovery  of 
the  American  cinnamon  trees.  Francisco  de 
Orellana  set  forth  to  reach  the  river  of  Ama- 
zons by  the  Napo.  Expeditions  were  fitted 
out  simultaneously  from  Venezuela,  New 
Grenada,  Quito,  Peru,  Brazil,  and  the  Rio 
de  la  Plata,  having  for  their  sole  object  the 
conquest  of  Dorado.  The  incursions  to  the 
south  of  Guaviare,  the  Rio  Fragua,  and  the 
Caqueta,  were  declared  to  have  procured 
proof  not  only  of  the  existence  of  the  city 
of  El  Dorado,  but  of  the  immense  riches  of 
the  Manoas,  the  Omaguas,  and  the  Guaypos. 
We  discover  proofs  of  accurate  knowledge 
and  careful  research  in  the  narratives  of  the 
voyages  of  Orellana,  George  von  Specier, 
Hernan  Perez  de  Quesada,  and  Philip  von 
Huten,  undertaken  in  1536,  1542,  and  1545, 
although  there  is  no  lack  of  exaggeration  and 
fable  likewise.  Those  who  sought  the  town 
of  the  Gilded  Monarch  directed  their  steps 
to  two  points  situated  on  the  north-east  and 
south-west  of  the  Rio  Negro  ; viz.  to  Parima, 
the  early  abode  of  the  Manoas,  who  dwelt 
upon  the  banks  of  the  Jurubesh.  There  ex- 
ists now  very  little  doubt  that  the  whole  of 
the  country  lying  between  the  Amazon  and 
Orinoco,  was  comprehended  under  the  gen- 
eral name  of  the  provinces  »of  the  gilded  king. 

The  first  voyage  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was 
undertaken  in  1595.  That  enterprising  and 
romantic  man,  who  was  then  in  high  favor 
with  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  tired  of  the  dull 
realities  of  the  old  world,  and  thirsted  for 
adventure.  He  embraced  the  idea  of  El  Do- 
rado with  ardor,  as  holding  out  something 
worthy  of  his  attention.  It  is  true  that  he 
had  no  definite  ideas  about  the  situation  of 
the  fabled  kingdom,  but  he  rushed  into  the 
adventure  with  the  enthusiasm  and  ardor 
which  distinguished  him.  He  was,  of  course, 
disappointed,  and  probably  found  the  affair, 
gilded  king,  lake,  city,  palace,  lions,  gold 
mountains,  and  all,  what  we,  in  these  com- 
monplace and  degenerate  days,  should  term 
a bubble  or  a hoax.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was 
a courtier,  well  versed  in  the  ways  of  the 
world,  and  he  cared  not  to  endure  the  morti- 
fication, on  his  return,  of  ridicule  or  pity  for 
the  failure  of  the  expedition.  He  was  deter- 
mined tc  sacrifice  truth  to  what  he  considered 
expediency.  Besides,  he  had  formed  the  pro- 


ject of  colonizing  Guiana,  which  he  saw 
would  produce  the  happiest  results,  and  he 
thought  that,  by  holding  out  the  golden  prize 
of  El  Dorado,  he  should  induce  many  to 
patronize  his  scheme. 

We  shall  briefly  trace  the  course  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  when,  after  having  collected 
from  Antonio  de  Berrio,  whom  he  took  pris- 
oner in  his  incursion  on  the  island  of  Trinidad 
in  1595,  and  others,  the  sum  of  the  knowledge 
possessed  at  that  time  upon  the  subject  of 
Guiana  and  the  adjacent  countries,  he  set 
forth  upon  his  celebrated  expedition.  He 
then  entertained  no  doubts  of  the  existence 
of  the  two  great  lakes,  and  the  kingdom  of 
the  famous  Inca,  which  was  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  near  the  sources  of  the  river 
Essequibo.  Passing  the  river  Guavapo,  and 
the  plains  of  Chaymas,  Raleigh  stopped  at 
Morequito,  where  he  was  informed  by  an  old 
man  that  there  was  no  doubt  that  foreign 
nations  had  entered  Guiana.  The  cataracts 
of  Carony,  a river  w hich  was  supposed  to  be 
the  shortest  way  to  Macureguari  and  Manoa, 
towns  situated  on  the  banks  of  Lakes  Cassipa 
and  Rupunuwini,  or  Dorado,  terminated  this 
expedition. 

We  must  be  permitted  to  doubt  almost 
every  assertion  made  by  Raleigh  with  regard 
to  the  results  of  this  voyage.  He  was  deter- 
mined that  his  cause  should  lose  nothing  from 
excessive  modesty,  and  consequently  the  style 
in  which  he  speaks  of  Manoa  is  highly  in- 
flated. He  heard  of  inland  seas  which  he 
compares  to  the  Caspian,  and  of  “the  impe- 
rial and  golden  city  of  Manoa.”  He  styles 
the  ruler  of  the  magnificent  country,  “ the 
emperor  Inga  of  Guyana,”  and  says  that  he 
had  erected  palaces  of  the  most  dazzling  mag- 
nificence, said  to  surpass  by  far  the  superb 
palaces  of  his  Peruvian  ancestors.  Raleigh, 
in  his  endeavors  to  influence  the  queen,  neg- 
lected neither  the  arts  of  flattery  nor  the 
embellishments  of  fiction.  He  says  that  to 
the  barbarous  nations  he  encountered,  he 
showed  the  picture  of  the  queen,  at  w^ljich 
they  exhibited  “ transports  of  joy.”  He  as- 
serts that  he  was  informed  that  at  the  time  of 
the  conquest  of  Peru,  there  were  prophecies 
“ in  their  chiefest  temples,”  wrhich  foretold 
the  loss  of  the  empire  and  the  restoration  of 
the  Ingas  (Incas)  by  Englishmen.  He  tells 
her  majesty  that  the  Inca  wTould  probably  pay 


ELD 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


299 


yearly  to  England  the  sum  of  three  hundred 
thousand  pounds  sterling,  if  she  would  place 
in  his  towns  garrisons  of  three  or  four  thou- 
sand English,  under  pretense  of  defending 
him  against  all  enemies.  “ It  seeineth  to 
me,”  he  adds,  “that  this  empire  of  Guiana 
is  reserved  for  the  English  nation.”  From 
1595  to  1 G1 Y,  Raleigh  made  four  successive 
voyages  to  the  lower  Orinoco.  These  at- 
tempts, which,  however  they  were  represented 
in  England,  were  well  understood  in  South 
America  to  have  been  fruitless,  damped  the 
ardor  of  adventurers  who  had  formed  projects 
for  entering  and  conquering  El  Dorado.  From 
this  time  there  appeared  none  of  those 
great  combinations  and  important  expedi- 
tions which  at  first  owed  their  origin  to 
W'arm  chimerical  ideas ; but,  at  the  same 
time,  the  golden  hopes  which  had  been  awak- 
ened did  not  entirely  disappear,  and  solitary 
enterprises  were  occasionally  undertaken, 
under  the  sanction  of  various  provincial  gov- 
ernors. 

In  1637  and  1638,  Acana  and  Fritz,  two 
monks,  severally  undertook  journeys  to  the 
lands  of  the  Manoas,  which  were  thought  to  be 
rife  with  gold,  and  by  the  magnificent  accounts 
which  they  put  in  circulation,  contrived  to 
inflame  anew  the  imaginations  of  adventurers. 
Very  recently  it  was  believed  that  the  plains 
of  Macas,  to  the  east  of  the  Cordilleras,  con- 
tained the  ruins  of  Logrono,  a town  situated 
in  a gold  region  of  prodigious  value.  In 
1740,  an  idea  was  current  that  by  going  up 
the  river  Essequibo,  Dorado  might  be  reached 
from  Dutch  Guiana.  The  imagination  of  Don 
Manuel  Centurion,  governor  of  San  Thome 
del  Angostura,  having  been  warmed  by  the 
current  fables  of  the  splendid  lake  of  Manoa, 
the  very  existence  of  which  was  apocryphal,  he 
determined  to  set  on  foot  some  serious  inves- 
tigations. He  used  all  his  powers  to  awaken 
in  the  minds  of  the  colonists  an  ardor  equal 
to  his  own.  An  Ipurucoto  Indian,  by  name 
Arimuicaipi,  descended  the  Rio  Carony,  and, 
for  reasons  of  his  own,  by  the  most  bare- 
faced impositions,  induced  the  Spaniards  to 
believe  that  the  tales  of  El  Dorado  hardly  did 
justice  to  the  splendor  of  the  country  of  the 
Great  Moxo.  He  declared  that  the  whitish 
light  in  the  clouds  of  Magellan,  in  the  south- 
ern sky,  was  the  reflection  of  the  silvery 
rocks  around  which  the  waves  of  Lake  Pa- 


rima  swept.  “ This  was  describing  in  a very 
poetical  manner,”  says  Humboldt,  “ the  splen- 
dor of  the  micaceous  and  talcky  slates  of  his 
country.” 

A well-meaning  Indian  chief,  popularly 
termed  Captain  Jurado,  endeavored  to  check 
the  progress  of  the  delusion,  and  tried  to 
undeceive  Centurion.  The  adventurers  em- 
barked upon  the  Caura  and  Rio  Paragua,  but 
not  only  were  disappointed  in  their  expecta- 
tions, but  encountered  the  most  dreadful 
sufferings,  which  occasioned  the  death  of  sev- 
eral hundred  persons.  Notwithstanding  the 
disadvantageous  effects  of  these  expeditions, 
they  brought  to  light  many  important  geo- 
graphical facts.  Between  1775  and  1780, 
Nicholas  Rodriguez  and  Antonio  Santos,  two 
men  noted  for  their  enterprise,  were  employed 
by  the  Spanish  governors,  and  reached  the 
Uraricuera  and  Rio  Branco,  after  encountering 
many  perils ; but,  of  course,  did  not  attain 
their  objects. 

The  frequent  occurrence  of  mica  in  Guiana 
contributed  to  confirm  the  opinions  of  those 
who  believed  it  to  be  a region  rich  with  gold, 
and  thus,  as  in  many  other  cases,  want  of 
scientific  knowledge  led  to  the  most  absurd 
ideas,  and  the  most  deplorable  results.  The 
peak  of  Mount  Calitamini  at  sunset  gleams  as 
if  it  were  incrusted  with  precious  metal,  or 
ornamented  with  a coronet  of  diamonds.  The 
islets  of  mica-slate  in  the  Lake  Amucu  are 
fabled  by  the  natives  to  increase  the  silver 
beams  of  the  clouds  in  the  southern  sky  by 
their  powerful  reflection.  Raleigh  says  that 
every  mountain  and  every  stone  in  the  for- 
ests of  Orinoco  had  all  the  sparkling  brill- 
iancy of  the  precious  metals.  Those  travelers 
who  gave  the  most  glowing  descriptions  of 
the  riches  of  Guiana  and  El  Dorado,  were 
those  who,  on  other  subjects,  made  no  scruple 
of  violating  truth  for  the  sake  of  enhancing 
the  effects  of  their  narrations.  Diego  de  Or- 
daz,  the  famous  conquistador  of  Mexico,  in 
1531,  undertook  a voyage  of  discovery  along 
the  banks  of  the  Orinoco.  This  gentleman 
boastingly  declared  that  he  had  taken  sulphur 
out  of  the  peak  of  Popocatepetl,  and  was 
allowed  by  the  emperor,  Charles  V.,  to  carry 
a flaming  volcano  in  his  coat  of  arms.  He 
obtained  a commission  to  rule  over  all  the 
country  which  he  could  subdue  by  his  arms 
between  Brazil  and  the  coast  of  Venezuela, 


ELD 


300 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  began  his  voyage  by  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Maranon.  Here  the  natives  displayed 
to  his  admiring  eyes  “ emeralds  as  big  as  a 
man’s  fist.”  These  were  doubtless  no  other 
than  pieces  of  compact  feldspar,  a mineral 
found  in  great  profusion  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Topayas.  The  Indians  informed  Ordaz 
that  in  traveling  to  the  westward  he  would 
find  a mountain  of  emerald,  but  a shipwreck 
destroyed  the  hopes  of  the  party. 

The  Spanish  adventurers  firmly  believed  in 
the  existence  of  mountains  composed,  prin- 
cipally if  not  wholly,  of  gold,  silver,  emeralds, 
&c.  Sometimes,  natural  appearances,  easily 
explained,  gave  rise  to  these  illusions,  but 
frequently  there  was  no  foundation  whatever 
for  the  belief.  Acunha  says  that  north  of 
the  junction  of  the  Curuputuba  and  Amazon, 
the  immense  mountain  of  Paraguaxo,  when 
the  rays  of  the  sun  fell  upon  it,  displayed  the 
most  beautiful  colors,  emitting  from  time  to 
time  tremendous  bellowings.  The  Indians, 
who  were  accustomed  to  fasten  upon  their 
skins  gold  spangles  and  powder,  informed  the 
Spaniards  that  they  obtained  it  by  tearing 
up  the  grass  and  earth  in  a certain  plain,  and 
washing  it.  But  it  is  possible  that  what  was 
imagined  to  be  gold,  was  no  other  than  mica, 
which  the  natives  of  Rio  Caura  are  said  still 
to  use  by  way  of  ornamenting  their  bodies, 
and  heightening  the  effect  of  their  painting. 

In  tracing  the  progress  of  the  famous  delu- 
sion of  El  Dorado,  we  can  not  fail  to  be  sur- 
prised at  the  credulity  of  some  adventurers, 
and  the  audacity  of  others.  The  expedition 
of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  without  doubt  the 
most  important  undertaken,  and  the  influence 
which  it  exerted  was  beneficial  in  deterring 
men  from  making  those  combined  efforts 
which  could  not  have  failed  in  terminating 
ruinously.  We  cpi  not  doubt  that  Raleigh 
was  himself  grossly  deceived,  nor  that  he 
endeavored  to  practice  upon  others  the  impo- 
sition from  which  he  had  himself  suffered. 
It  is  poor  excuse  to  say  that  he  misrepre- 
sented things  for  a good  end.  The  following 
is  briefly  his  own  description  of  Guiana. 
“ The  empire  of  Guiana  is  directly  east  from 
Peru  toward  the  sea,  and  lieth  under  the 
equinoctial  line,  and  it  hath  more  abundance 
of  gold  than  any  part  of  Peru,  and  as  many 
or  more  great  cities  than  ever  Peru  had  when 
it  flourished  most.  It  is  governed  by  the 


same  laws,  and  the  emperor  and  people  ob- 
serve the  same  religion,  and  the  same  form 
and  policies  in  government,  as  was  used  in 
Peru,  not  differing  in  any  part ; and  as  I have 
been  assured  by  such  of  the  Spaniards  as 
have  seen  Manoa,  the  imperial  city  of  Guiana, 
which  the  Spaniards  call  El  Dorado,  that  for 
the  greatness,  the  riches,  and  for  the  excel- 
lent seat,  it  far  exceedeth  any  of  the  world, 
at  least  of  so  much  of  the  world  as  is  known 
to  the  Spanish  nation.  It  is  founded  upon  a 
lake  of  salt  water  of  two  hundred  leagues 
long,  like  unto  Mare  Caspium  (the  Caspian 
Sea) ; and  if  we  compare  it  to  that  of  Peru, 
and  but  read  the  report  of  Francisco  Lopez, 
and  others,  it  will  seem  more  than  credible.” 
Raleigh  repeats  the  wonderful  stories  told  of 
Manod  by  Martinez,  a Spaniard  who  informed 
him  that  he  had  spent  seven  months  in  the 
empire,  and  who  first  gave  it  the  name  of 
El  Dorado.  Martinez  gave  by  no  means  a 
flattering  character  to  the  inhabitants  of  Gui- 
ana, who,  he  said,  were  a set  of  inveterate 
drunkards.  According  to  him,  at  times  of 
solemn  festival,  the  higher  officers  of  the 
empire  caroused  with  the  king.  All  who 
pledged  him  were  stripped,  and  having  their 
bodies  anointed  with  a costly  balsam,  the 
servants  of  the  emperor  blew  gold  dust  upon 
them,  making  use  for  this  purpose  of  certain 
hollow  canes  or  reeds.  Then  glittering  from 
head  to  foot,  they  sat  down  by  twenties  and 
hundreds,  and  drank  sometimes  for  six  or 
seven  days.  Martinez  says  that  he  named 
the  empire  El  Dorado  on  account  of  the  quan- 
tity of  gold  which  he  found  in  the  temples, 
and  throughout  the  city ; plates,  armor,  and 
shields  being  formed  of  the  precious  metal. 

Raleigh  speaks  of  a race  whose  heads  did 
not  appear  above  their  shoulders,  and  adds, 
“ Though  it  may  be  thought  a mere  fable,  yet 
for  mine  own  part  I am  resolved  it  is  true.” 
“They  are  called  Ewaipanoma.  They  are 
reported  to  have  eyes  in  their  shoulders,  and 
their  mouths  in  the  middle  of  their  breasts,  and 
that  a long  train  of  hair  groweth  backward 
between  their  shoulders.”  These  people, 
however,  were  not  pretended  to  be  the  in- 
habitants of  the  empire  of  the  gilded  king. 

Though  we  can  not  fail  to  regret  the  waste 
of  labor  and  life  which  the  fable  of  El  Dora- 
do caused,  yet  it  must  be  confessed  that  it 
led  to  many  scientific  discoveries.  But  while 


ELD 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


301 


many  facts  were  brought  forward,  they  were 
so  mixed  up  with  fables,  defying  almost  all 
attempts  to  separate  the  evil  from  the  good, 
that  we  can  not  be  much  surprised  at  the 
erroneous  ideas  which  prevailed  up  to  a very 
late  period.  The  penetration  and  knowledge 
of  the  nineteenth  century  have  dissipated 
the  golden  clouds  which  overhung  the  haunt- 
ed region  of  Guiana,  and  the  great  Moxo,  by 
common  consent,  is  for  ever  banished  to  the 
dreamed  realms  of  fiction. 

ELEUSIS  was  anciently,  next  to  Athens, 
the  principal  city  of  Attica.  It  was  here 
that  the  festivals  of  Ceres,  the  goddess  of  na- 
ture, termed  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries,  were 
secretly  celebrated  once  a year,  in  her  tem- 
ple, which  was  surrounded  by  high  walls. 
The  manner  of  their  celebration  is  unknown. 
They  were  esteemed  the  holiest  and  most 
venerable  of  the  religious  ceremonies  of 
Greece,  and  were  abolished  by  Theodosius 
the  Great,  a.d.,  389. 

ELGIN,  Thomas  Bruce,  Earl  of  Elgin  and 
Kincardine,  was  British  ambassador  to  Tur- 
key. He  is  celebrated  by  the  collection  of 
marbles  bearing  his  name,  consisting  chiefly 
of  the  frieze  and  pedimeftt  of  the  Parthenon. 
They  were  purchased  of  him  by  the  govern- 
ment for  £36, 000, .and  placed  in  the  British 
Museum,  1816.  He  died  in  1840. 

ELIO,  Francisco  Xavier,  a Spaniard  who 
opposed  Napoleon  in  Spain,  and  the  revolu- 
tionists in  South  America.  On  the  restora- 
tion of  Ferdinand  VII.,  of  Spain,  he  declared 
himself  in  favor  of  absolute  monarchy,  and 
committed  many  atrocities  in  putting  down 
liberal  principles.  The  revival  of  the  consti- 
tution of  Cadiz  put  an  end  to  his  career.  He 
was  tried  for  exciting  a movement  in  favor 
of  absolute  monarchy,  and  put  to  death, 
Sept.  3d,  1822. 

ELIOT,  John,  a native  of  England,  was 
born  in  1604,  and  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  came  to  America  in  1631,  and 
acted  as  minister  of  the  church  in  Roxbury, 
Massachusetts.  He  mastered  the  Indian 
language,  and  published  an  Indian  Bible  and 
grammar,  and  was  indefatigable  in  preaching 
the  gospel  to  the  savages.  The  great  apostle 
and  friend  of  the  Indians  died  May  20th, 
1690.  His  works  were  voluminous. 

ELIOT,  George  Augustus,  Lord  Heath- 
field,  was  born  at  Stubbs,  in  Scotland,  in 


1718,  and  educated  at  Leyden,  after  which 
he  entered  into  the  Prussian  service.  Hav- 
ing returned  to  Scotland,  he  joined,  in  1733, 
the  corps  of  engineers,  and  afterward  be- 
came adjutant  to  a corps  of  horse-grena- 
diers, in  which  capacity  he  distinguished 
himself  at  Dettingen,  where  he  was  wound- 
ed. In  this  regiment  he  rose  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel;  and,  in  1757,  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  a regiment  of 
light-horse,  which  he  had  himself  raised. 
On  his  return  from  Germany,  he  was  sent  to 
Havana,  and,  at  the  peace,  the  king  conferred 
on  his  regiment  the  title  of  “royal.”  In 
1775,  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
in  Ireland,  and  was  soon  after  made  governor 
of  Gibraltar,  which  fortress  he  bravely  de- 
fended against  the  great  siege  of  the  com- 
bined forces  of  France  and  Spain.  He  died 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  July  6th,  1790.  He  never 
indulged  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  his 
food  consisting  of  vegetables  and  water. 
Ever  vigilant  and  active,  he  never  slept  more 
than  four  hours  at  a time. 

ELIZABETH,  Queen.  [ See  Tudor.] 

ELIZABETH  PETROWNA,  Empress  of 
Russia.  [ See  Romanoff.] 

ELLENBOROUGH,  Edward  Law,  Baron, 
was  born  in  1748,  at  Great  Salkeld,  in  Cum- 
berland. His  father  was  Bishop  of  Carlisle. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  early  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  He  was  counsel  for  War- 
ren Hastings  in  1785,  assisted  by  Plomer  and 
Dallas,  and  his  client  was  acquitted.  His 
fortune  was  now  fixed.  In  1801  he  was 
made  attorney  general,  and  the  following 
year  succeeded  Lord  Kenyon,  as  lord-chief- 
justice  of  the  king’s  bench,  and  was  created 
baron.  He  died  Dec.  13th,  1818.  His  son 
has  been  a prominent  statesman,  was  gover- 
nor-general of  India  from  1842  to  1844,  and 
raised  to  the  rank  and  title  of  Earl  of  Ellen- 
borough. 

ELLERY,  William,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born 
at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Dec.  22d,  1727,  and  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  College.  He  became  a suc- 
cessful lawyer  in  Newport,  won  the  esteem 
of  his  fellow-citizens,  and  was  elected  to 
congress  in  1 776.  He  served  in  that  body  until 
1785,  when  he  was  appointed  commissioner 
of  loans  and  chief-justice  of  the  superior 
court  of  Rhode  Island.  He  was  appointed 


ELL 


302 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


by  Washington  the  first  collector  of  customs 
for  Newport,  held  the  office  thirty  years, 
and  died  February  15th,  1820,  aged  ninety- 
two. 

ELLIOT,  Stephen,  an  American  botanist, 
and  man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Beaufort, 
S.  C.,  in  1771,  and  educated  at  Yale  College. 
He  early  devoted  his  attention  to  natural 
history.  As  a member  of  the  state  legisla- 
ture, he  was  distinguished  for  patriotism, 
learning,  and  ability.  He  was  president  of 
the  state  bank,  member  of  several  literary 
and  scientific  societies,  and  editor  of  the 
Southern  Review , and  he  received  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  from  Yale  College.  He  died  in 
the  early  part  of  1830. 

ELLIOTT,  Ebenezer,  the  ‘ Corn  Law  Rhym- 
er,’ was  born  of  humble  parentage  near 
Sheffield,  England,  March  25th,  1781.  His 
youth  was  passed  in  toil,  but  in  manhood  he 
acquired  a competency  in  the  iron  trade. 
The  laws  taxing  breadstuffs  he  indignantly 
assailed,  and  his  “Corn  Law  Rhymes”  did 
good  service  in  raising  the  tempest  which 
swept  them  away.  He  was  more,  however, 
than  a political  song-writer,  and  the  milder 
outpourings  of  his  muse  occupy  a high  place 
in  the  popular  poetry  of  England.  He  died 
December  1st,  1849. 

ELLSWORTH,  Oliver,  was  born  at  Wind- 
sor, Connecticut,  April  29th,  1745.  He  was 
the  son  of  a farmer,  and  devoted  his  early 
years  alternately  to  literature  and  agricul- 
ture. He  was  educated  at  Yale  and  Prince- 
ton, the  former  of  which  Colleges  he  entered  at 
the  age  of  seventeen,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  after  the  usual  preparatory  study,  in 
1771,  in  the  county  of  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
and  was  appointed  state  attorney.  An  ar- 
dent friend  of  freedom,  he  served  in  the  revo- 
lutionary army,  w?s  a member  of  the  general 
assembly  of  Connecticut,  and  a delegate  to 
the  congress  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
made  member  of  the  council  and  judge  of  the 
superior  court  of  his  native  state,  assisted  in 
framing  the  federal  convention,  was  chosen 
senator  in  the  first  congress,  and  held  his 
seat  throughout  Washington’s  administra- 
tion. He  was  appointed  chief-justice  of  the 
United  States  on  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Jay, 
and  was  one  of  the  envoys  sent  to  France  in 
1799,  to  procure  the  adjustment  of  the  differ- 
ences which  threatened  a very  serious  ter- 


mination. Having  returned  to  his  native 
state,  he  died  Nov.  26th,  1807. 

ELLWOOD,  Thomas,  an  eminent  member 
of  the  society  of  Friends ; he  joined  the  so- 
ciety at  twenty-one,  and  became  as  a preacher 
and  writer,  one  of  their  most  efficent  members, 
to  his  death,  1713,  in  his  seventy -fourth  year. 
He  was  the  pupil  and  friend  of  Milton,  and  one 
of  those  who  read  to  the  poet  when  blind. 

EMANUEL,  the  Great,  King  of  Portugal, 
ascended  the  throne  in  1495.  During  his 
reign  the  discoveries  and  exploits  of  Portu- 
guese navigators  and  commanders  opened 
the  wealth  of  America  and  the  East  Indies 
to  Portugal.  Everything  seemed  to  flourish, 
and  the  period  merited  the  title  which  was 
given  it,  the  golden  age  of  Portugal.  Eman- 
uel died  Dec.  13th,  1521.  He  acquired  one 
renown  by  his  expulsion  of  the  Moors,  and 
another  by  his  patronage  of  men  of  letters. 

EMMET,  Robert,  the  son  of  a physician 
at  Cork,  was  born  in  1782.  Ireland  was  in 
a fevered  state,  and  young  Emmet  became  a 
leading  spirit  among  those  who  dreamed  of 
Erin’s  freedom  and  independence.  The  ris- 
ing he  planned  was  abortive.  He  was  con- 
victed of  treason,  and  executed  September 
20th,  1803. 

EMMET,  Thomas  Addis,  brother  of  Rob- 
ert, born  in  .Cork,  Ireland,  1765.  He  was 
designed  for  the  medical  profession,  but  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  a member  of  the 
bar,  induced  him  to  turn  his  attention  to  the 
study  of  the  law.  He  pursued  it  with  suc- 
cess and  commenced  practice  in  Dublin.  In 
1795,  Emmet  joined  the  association  of  United 
Irishmen,  and  was  arrested  March  12th,  1798. 
He  was  imprisoned  for  a long  time  in  Fort 
George,  in  the  county  of  Nairn,  Scotland, 
but  with  his  wife,  who  had  shared  his  con- 
finement, having  been  finally  liberated,  he 
came  to  New  York  in  November,  1804.  Em- 
met here  successfully  practiced  law,  and  in 
1812  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the 
state  of  New  York.  He  died  in  the  sixty- 
third  year  of  his  age,  Nov.  14th,  1827,  dur- 
ing the  trial  of  an  important  case.  In  pri- 
vate life  he  was  beloved,  and  in  public  es- 
teemed and  respected. 

ENGHIEN,  Battle  of.  Fought  by  the 
British  under  William  III.,  and  the  French 
under  Marshal  Luxembourg,  who  were  victo- 
rious, Aug.  3d,  1692.  William  had  put  him- 


ENG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


303 


seif  at  the  head  oA  the  confederated  army  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  leagued  himself  with 
the  Protestant  powers  upon  the  continent 
against  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV.;  and  in 
the  end  he  triumphed.  Enghien  is  a small 
town  in  the  Flemish  province  of  Hainault. 
A victory  gained  here  by  the  great  Conde, 
first  gave  the  ducal  title  to  a prince  of  the 
house  of  Bourbon-Conde. 

ENGHIEN,  Louis  Antoine  Henri  de  Bour- 
bon, Duke  of,  born  at  Chantilly,  Aug.  2d, 
1772,  was  the  son  of  Louis  Henry  Joseph 
Conde,  Duke  of  Bourbon,  a descendant  of 
the  great  Conde.  He  served  in  various  cam- 
paigns, and  particularly  distinguished  him- 
self under  his  grandfather.  In  1804  he  went 
to  Ettenheim,  incog,  and  married  the  Prin- 
cess Charlotte  de  Rohan  Rochefort.  At  this 
time  the  life  of  Bonaparte  was  threatened, 
and  the  English,  in  particular,  hinted  at  his 
probable  assassination.  The  Due  d’Enghien, 
having  fallen  under  suspicion,  was  arrested 
at  Ettenheim,  in  the  neutral  territory  of 
Baden,  brought  to  Vincennes  at  midnight, 
tried  with  much  informality  by  a military 
court,  condemned  to  death,  and  shot  by 
torchlight  the  next  morning,  March  20th, 
1304;  the  whole  affair  having  been  conduct- 
ed, to  say  the  least,,  with  ungenerous  haste. 
No  other  action  of  Napoleon’s  has  excited 
so  much  discussion  as  this.  Some  writers 
have  laid  the  whole  blame  of  the  transaction 
upon  the  emperor,  and  others  endeavor  to 
free  him  altogether  from  the  charge.  An  ac- 
tual conspiracy,  supported  by  English  money, 
had  been  discovered  at  Paris,  that  of  Georges. 
The  same  spirit  which  had  sent  Georges 
from  London  to  France,  was  to  be  found  in 
the  cabinet  of  all  the  British  embassies  in 
Germany.  Peculiar  circumstances  induced 
M.  Real,  then  chief  of  the  police,  to  send  a 
trusty  agent  to  find  out  whether  the  Due  d’ 
Enghien  was  always  at  Ettenheim,  and  what 
were  his  relations  and  his  habits.  An  officer 
of  the  gendarmery  was  intrusted  with  this 
mission,  and  this  was  the  foundation  of  all  the 
evil.  On  his  way  to  Strasburg,  this  officer 
heard  it  mentioned  as  a notorious  fact,  that 
the  Due  d’Enghien  was  in  the  habit  of  at- 
tending the  theatre  in  that  cit}r.  The  spy 
sent  to  Ettenheim  reached  it  with  prejudices 
which  the  least  indications  would  increase. 
He  learned  that  there  were  emigrants  in  the 


neighborhood  of  the  Due  d’Enghien,  that  he 
invariably  gave  them  the  warmest  reception 
when  they  visited  him,  and  that  the  duke 
was  frequently  absent  for  days  at  a time.  It 
appeared  afterward  that  from  time  to  time,  a 
passion  for  hunting  kept  the  duke  for  several 
successive  days  in  the  mountains  of  the  Black 
Forest.  This  was  not  all.  The  imperfect 
pronunciation  of  the  Germans  led  the  officer 
to  suppose  that  an  obscure  person  in  the 
suite  of  the  duke,  a M.  de  Thumery,  was  no 
other  than  General  Dumouriez.  The  union 
of  these  particulars  alarmed  the  officer,  who, 
with  more  zeal  than  truth,  created  fearful 
phantoms  out  of  innocent  appearances.  The 
judgment  of  the  first  consul  was  obscured 
by  the  rapidity  with  which  his  imagination 
moved,  causing  him  to  take  for  incontestable 
facts,  stories  which  had  but  vague  conjecture 
for  their  foundation.  Thus  he  soon  arrived 
at  his  conclusions.  “ In  sixty  hours  one  can 
come  from  Strasburg  to  Paris.  It  requires 
but  five  days  to  go  and  return.  The  un- 
known personage  [afterward  proved  to  be 
Pichegru],  who  was  received  with  so  much 
respect  by  Georges,  is  the  Due  d’Enghien. 
The  duke  is  the  prime  mover  of  the  conspir- 
acy, the  soul  of  it,  at  least  one  of  the  first 
accomplices.”  These  were  the  ideas  which 
presented  themselves  to  the  first  consul,  and 
it  must  be  confessed  that  the  supposed  pres- 
ence of  Dumouriez  at  Ettenheim  was  a cir- 
cumstance of  weight.  The  fact,  if  it  had 
been  true,  and  Bonaparte  believed  it  to  be 
so,  would  have  added  to  the  suspicions  of 
which  the  Due  d’Enghien  was  the  subject. 

But  here  it  may  be  objected  that  these  sus- 
picions were  without  foundation,  and  that  the 
first  consul  ought  to  have  known  it,  because 
the  charge  de  affaires  at  Carlsruhe  wrote 
that  the  duke  was  leading  the  most  quiet 
and  retired  life  at  Ettenheim.  It  will  be  con- 
ceded that  his  objection  has  little  force ; for 
might  not  the  Due  d’Enghien  be  concerned 
in  the  conspiracies  against  Bonaparte,  have 
an  understanding  with  the  emigrants  in  his 
neighborhood,  entertain  Dumouriez  in  his 
train,  either  under  his  own  or  another  name, 
and  yet  find  no  occasion  to  change  the  exter- 
nal and  regular  order  of  his  life  ? 

There  was  another  cause  which  acted  upon 
the  determination  of  the  first  consul.  The 
conspiracy  against  the  first  consul  was  ma- 


ENG 


304 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tured  in  England,  but  its  branches  spread  in 
every  direction.  In  England,  conspirators 
were  pensioned ; in  Austria,  battalions  were 
raised.  On  one  side,  were  plots ; on  the 
other,  conspiracies : danger  was  everywhere, 
and  perils  were  daily  augmenting.  How 
could  the  first  consul  imagine  that  the  Due 
d’Enghien,  a prince  of  the  house  of  France, 
an  officer  of  the  English  army,  was  ignorant 
bf  the  preparations  which  were  on  foot  ? In 
the  eyes  of  Bonaparte  the  cabinets  of  London 
and  Vienna  acted  in  concert.  How  could  he 
persuade  himself  that  a Bourbon,  placed  at 
Ettenheim,  should  refuse  to  participate  in  the 
association  ? Sir  Walter  Scott  himself  believed 
that  the  duke  was  established  at  Ettenheim 
for  the  purpose  of  putting  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  royalists  in  that  quarter,  or  of 
presenting  himself,  if  affairs  required  it,  to 
those  of  Paris.  The  discussion  between  Aus- 
tria and  France  had  come  almost  to  menaces. 
On  the  9th  of  March  Bonaparte  addressed  to 
the  Emperor  of  Germany  a summons  to  ex- 
plain himself.  On  the  10th  was  given  the 
fatal  order  relative  to  the  Due  d’Enghien. 
Who  can  say  that  these  two  ideas  were  stran- 
gers to  each  other  ? That  the  greatness  of  the 
perils  which  surrounded  Bonaparte  did  not 
contribute  to  the  violence  of  the  means  which 
he  employed  to  oppose  them,  and  make  his 
enemies  tremble?  Who  would  venture  to 
assert  that  Austria,  always  so  intimately  con- 
nected with  England,  had  no  knowledge,  not 
assuredly  of  the  plots  of  assassination,  but  of 
the  various  hostile  plans  employed  against 
the  first  consul,  and  did  not  hold  herself  in 
readiness  to  yield  to  the  current  of  events  ? 
In  the  midst  of  these  circumstances,  the  re- 
ports of  the  agent  sent  to  Ettenheim  were 
submitted  to  the  first  consul.  Instantly  a 
fearful  resolution  was  taken,  and  the  order 
given  for  the  seizure  of  the  duke. 

How  was  this  resolution  taken  ? Was  it  the 
result  of  a sudden  movement  on  the  part  of 
Bonaparte,  or  was  it  determined  by  the  delib- 
erations of  a council?  The  orders  for  the 
minister  of  war  were  dictated  at  ten  in  the 
evening,  by  the  first  consul,  on  issuing  from 
a cabinet  conference  at  which  were  present 
the  two  consuls,  Talleyrand,  the  chief-justice, 
and  Fouche,  who  was  then  only  a senator. 
Had  they  been  assembled  by  special  convoca- 
tion, or  by  chance!"  This  is  of  little  conse- 


quence. But  what  passed  at  this  conference  ? 
It  is  here  the  interpretations  of  jealousy  and 
hate  begin.  Is  it  true,  as  some  memoirs  have 
asserted,  that  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
after  a report  upon  the  general  state  of  Eu- 
rope, concluded  by  counseling  the  violation 
of  a neutral  territory  ? Is  it  true,  as  some 
have  asserted,  that  Fouche,  in  order  to  create 
embarrassment,  and  make  himself  necessary 
in  that  post  which  he  had  formerly  occupied, 
warmly  advocated  a measure  which  he  would 
soon  be  the  first  to  denounce  ? Is  it  true  that 
the  opposition  of  Cambaceres  to  the  seizure 
of  the  duke  upon  a neutral  territory,  drew 
down  upon  him  the  famous  apostrophe  of 
Bonaparte,  “You  have  become  very  avari- 
cious of  the  blood  of  the  Bourbons  ?” 

Bonaparte  might  have  said:  “The  Bour- 
bons have  sworn  to  destroy  me,  they  have 
devoted  my  heart  to  the  steel  of  their  satel- 
lites, they  have  willed  my  assassination. 
W ell : let  them  tremble  in  turn ! I can  also 
assassinate.  I have  only  to  stretch  forth  my 
hand  to  seize  one  of  them.  I will  seize  him, 
I will  destroy  him,  and  they  shall  feel  that 
they  can  no  longer  attempt  my  life  with  im- 
punity.” Perhaps,  “in  the  very  whirlwind 
of  his  passion,”  an  infernal  spirit,  in  order  to 
strengthen  him,  may  have  whispered  cool 
reflections:  “The  divorce  between  France 
and  the  eldest  branch  of  the  Bourbons  seems 
definitive.  The  state  of  inaction  to  which  the 
princes  of  this  branch  have  been  condemned 
has  destroyed  all  sympathy  between  them  and 
heroic  France.  The  name  of  Conde,  oi\the  con- 
trary, recalls  more  vividly  the  glory  of  arms. 
It  recalls  even  the  last  wars.  The  grandfather 
and  the  grandson  have  fought  among  the 
brave  against  the  brave.  There  is  here  a pos- 
sibility of  reconciliation,  a germ  of  sympathy. 
It  is  this  branch  which  I must  destroy,  even 
to  the  last  shoot.  It  will  be  a crime,  a great 
crime,  but  a state  crime,  a political  crime. 
It  will  spread  consternation  in  France  even 
among  my  most  devoted  friends ; it  will  stu- 
pefy all  Europe ; but  only  for  a moment ; for 
to-morrow,  other  occurrences  will  concentrate 
the  attention  of  all  Europe;  to-morrow  it 
will  be  apprised  of  the  new  crimes  of  Eng- 
land, and  the  death  of  the  Due  d’Enghien 
will  be  lost  in  the  various  events  which 
fortune  seems  to  prepare  expressly  for  the 
purposes  of  concealment  and  oblivion.” 


ENG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


305 


On  the  15th  of  March  the  Due  d’Enghien 
was  seized  at  Ettenheim  and  brought  to  Stras- 
burg.  From  Strasburg  he  was,  on  the  18th, 
transferred  to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  the 
20th,  and  thence  was  sent  to  the  castle  of 
Vincennes.  The  governor  of  Paris  appointed 
a council  of  war,  which  assembled  in  the 
night.  The  prince  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  the  sentence  was  immediately  executed. 
In  a proceeding  dictated  by  policy,  legal  for- 
malities are  rarely  observed.  They  were  not 
in  the  present  case.  The  prisoner  of  St. 
Helena  continually  justified  himself  by  say- 
ing that  the  prince  was  tried  “by  a compe- 
tent tribunal.”  The  competence  of  the  tri- 
bunal is  a very  doubtful  matter ; but  could 
it  be  settled  according  to  the  wishes  of  Na- 
poleon, there  would  still  remain  in  this  affair 
the  infraction  of  the  laws  which  protect  the 
accused.  The  duke  had  no  defender.  Napo- 
leon, it  is  true,  has  said,  “ If  guilty,  the 
commission  did  right  in  condemning  him  to 
death.  If  innocent,  it  should  have  acquitted 
him,  for  no  order  can  justify  the  conscience 
of  a judge.”  What  a lesson  for  magistrates, 
for  commissions  or  counsels  of  war,  which 
should  be  tempted  to  make  the  scales  of  jus- 
tice move  in  accordance  with  the  interests  or 
the  passions  of  governments. 

ENGLAND  is  thus  described  by  her  great- 
est poet : 

“ This  other  Eden  ; demi-paradise ; 

This  fortress  built  by  Nature  for  herself, 

Against  infection  and  the  hand  of  war; 

This  happy  breed  of  men,  this  little  world  ; 

This  precious  stone  set  in  the  silver  sea, 

Which  serves  it  in  the  office  of  a wall, 

Or  as  a moat  defensive  to  a house, 

Against  the  envy  of  less  happier  lands  ; 

This  blessed  plot,  this  earth,  this  realm,  this  Eng- 
land ; 

This  land  of  such  dear  souls,  this  dear  dear  land, 
Dear  for  her  reputation  throughout  the  world.” 

England,  which  with  Wales  is  no  larger 
than  the  state  of  Georgia,  stretches  by  an 
illusion  to  the  dimensions  of  an  empire.  The 
innumerable  details,  the  crowded  succession 
of  towns,  cities,  cathedrals,  castles,  and  great 
and  decorated  estates,  the  number  and  power 
of  the  trades  and  guilds,  the  military  strength 
and  splendor,  the  multitudes  of  rich  and  of 
remarkable  people,  the  servants  and  equipa- 
ges,— all  these,  catching  the  eye,  and  never 
allowing  it  to  pause,  hide  all  boundaries  by 
20 


the  impression  of  magnificence  and  endless 
wealth.  To  see  England  well  needs  a hund- 
red years : it  is  stuffed  full  with  towns, 
towers,  churches,  villas,  palaces,  hospitals, 
and  charity  houses.  In  the  history  of  art, 
it  is  a long  way  from  a cromlech  to  York 
Minster ; j^et  all  the  intermediate  steps  may 
still  be  traced  in  this  all-preserving  island. 
The  climate  is  warmer  by  many  degrees 
than  that  to  which  it  is  entitled  by  latitude. 
Neither  hot  nor  cold,  Charles  II.  said  “it  in- 
vited men  abroad  more  days  in  the  year  and 
more  hours  in  the  day  than  another  country.” 
The  frequent  rain  keeps  the  many  rivers 
full,  and  brings  agricultural  productions  up 
to  the  highest  point.  England  has  plenty  of 
water,  of  stone,  of  potter’s  clay,  of  coal,  of  salt, 
and  of  iron.  The  land  naturally  abounds 
with  game  ; immense  heaths  and  downs  are 
paved  with  quails,  grouse,  and  woodcock,  and 
the  shores  are  animated  by  water-fowl.  The 
rivers  and  the  surrounding  sea  spawn  with 
fish.  There  is  the  drawback  of  the  darkness 
of  the  sky : the  London  fog  sometimes  jus- 
tifies the  epigram  on  the  climate,  “ In  a fine 
day,  looking  up  a chimney;  in  a foul  day, 
looking  down  one.”  England  is  anchored  at 
the  side  of  Europe,  and  right  in  the  heart  of 
the  modern  world.  The  sea,  which  accord- 
ing to  Virgil  divided  the  poor  Britons  utterly 
from  the  world,  proves  to  be  the  ring  of  mar- 
riage with  all  nations.  As  America,  Europe, 
and  Asia  lie,  these  Britons  have  precisely 
the  best  commercial  position  in  the  world. — • 
Emerson. 

Britain  is  a miniature  of  Europe.  She  has 
her  mountains,  Snowdon  in  Wales,  Hclvellyn 
and  Skiddaw  in  Cumberland,  the  Highlands 
in  Scotland.  She  has  her  lakes,  the  smiling 
meres  of  England,  the  crystal  lochs  that  mir- 
ror Ben  Nevis  and  Ben  Lomond  and  their 
brethren.  She  has  the  picturesque  dales  and 
caves  of  Derbyshire,  the  fair  plains  of  War- 
wickshire, and  Surrey,  and  Bucks,  and  indeed 
throughout  the  realm.  In  Westmoreland 
and  Cumberland,  she  has  a pocket  Switzer- 
land. Her  mines  in  Cornwall,  and  Stafford- 
shire, and  Northumberland,  and  so  on,  furnish 
all  the  great  ores,  iron,  coal,  lead,  tin,  copper. 
Her  quarries  are  not  exhausted  by  far.  Her 
soil  yields  bounteous  harvests.  Her  manu- 
factures bring  all  nations  in  her  debt.  Her 
commerce  exceeds  that  of  any  other  people, 


ENG 


306 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


and  she  is  the  grand  mart  for  the  globe.  The 
keels  of  her  merchantmen  furrow  all  the  seas, 
and  the  smoke  of  her  steamers  darkens  almost 
every  maritime  sky  ; steamers  and  merchant- 
men plying  between  her  and  her  colonial 
possession's  that  invest  the  world. 

England,  Scotland,  and  Wales  form  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain.  The  sur- 
face of  the  whole  island  is  about  89,644 
square  miles : of  which  England  contains 
50,922,  Scotland  31,824,  and  Wales  7,398. 
The  population  in  1861  was  23,570,245: 
of  which  England  and  Wales  had  20,061,725, 
and  Scotland  3,061,329,  [See  Scotland, 
Wales.]  England  is  divided  into  for- 
ty-one counties:  Northumberland,  Cumber- 
land, Durham,  Yorkshire,  Westmoreland, 
Lancashire,  Cheshire,  Shropshire  or  Salop, 
Herefordshire,  Monmouthshire,  Nottingham- 
shire, Derbyshire,  Staffordshire,  Leicester- 
shire, Rutlandshire,  Northamptonshire,  War- 
wickshire, Worcestershire,  Gloucestershire, 
Oxfordshire,  Buckinghamshire,  Bedfordshire, 
Lincolnshire,  Huntingdonshire,  Cambridge- 
shire, Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex,  Hertfordshire, 
Middlesex,  Surry,  Kent,  Sussex,  Berkshire, 
Wiltshire,  Hampshire  or  Hants,  Dorsetshire, 
Somersetshire,  Devonshire,  and  Cornwall. 
There  are  several  islands  which  pertain  to 
England,  those  of  Man,  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
and  the  smaller  ones  adjacent. 

London  has  separate  mention  in  pages  be- 
yond. The  second  city  in  England  is  Man- 
chester in  Lancashire;  population  in  1861, 
338,346.  It  is  surrounded  by  some  of  the 
best  coal  strata  in  England,  a circumstance  to 
which  it  owes  in  no  small  degree  its  prosper- 
ity. It  has  also  reaped  ample  reward  from 
the  system  of  canals,  which  here  had  their 
origin  with  Brindley  and  his  patron,  the  Duke 
of  Bridgewater.  [See  Brindley,  Canals.] 
In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI., 
the  town  was  busy  with  manufactures.  The 
enormities  of  Alva  in  the  Netherlands,  and 
afterward  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
brought  many  enterprising  and  skillful 
foreigners  hither.  At  first  the  woolen  was 
the  only  branch  of  trade,  but  since  the  middle 
of  the  last  century,  the  cotton  has  nearly  su- 
perseded it.  The  series  of  brilliant  inventions 
and  discoveries  applied,  improved,  or  origin- 
ated in  or  about  Manchester,  comprising  the 
steam-engine,  the  spinning-jenny,  the  mule, 


&c.,  have  greatly  helped  the  development  of 
industrial  power.  At  Manchester  was  one  of 
the  principal  altars  of  the  Druids,  and  as  its 
name  betokens,  it  was  a station  of  the  Romans. 
Liverpool,  on  the  river  Mersey  in  Lancashire, 
next  to  London,  is  the  greatest  port  of  Great 
Britain;  population  in  1861,  443,874.  It  was 
but  a small  fishing  village,  until  in  1172,  its 
favorable  situation  and  its  convenient  harbor 
caused  Henry  II.  to  make  it  the  place  of  ren- 
dezvous and  embarkation  of  his  troops  for  the 
conquest  of  Ireland.  In  1700  it  had  only 
5,000  inhabitants.  Soon  it  began  to  send 
hardwares,  cutlery,  and  woolens  to  the  coast 
of  Africa ; there  these  were  bartered  for  ne- 
groes, which  were  borne  to  the  West  Indies 
and  exchanged  for  sugar  and  rum,  laden  with 
which  the  ships  came  back ; and  thus  Liver- 
pool grew  to  its  wealth  and  the  grandeur  of 
commerce.  It  is  the  great  emporium  of 
American  trade.  The  first  great  railway  in 
England  was  that  connecting  Liverpool  with 
Manchester.  At  its  opening,  July  80th,  1829, 
Mr.  Huskisson  was  knocked  down  by  one  of 
the  engines,  which  went  over  his  thigh  and 
mortally  injured  him.  Bristol  (between  the 
shires  of  Gloucester  and  Somerset,  and  a 
county  in  itself)  had  a population  of  154,093 
in  1861.  Sebastian  Cabot  was  a native  of  the 
town,  and  its  merchants  entered  with  spirit 
into  American  explorations  and  colonizing. 
From  the  twelfth  to  the  eighteenth  century, 
Bristol  ranked  next  to  London,  as  the  most 
populous,  commercial,  and  flourishing  town 
in  the  kingdom ; but  of  late  it  has  declined, 
and  been  exceeded  in  these  respects  b}r  Liver- 
pool, Manchester,  Leeds,  Birmingham,  and 
Glasgow.  Bath,  the  chief  town  of  Somer- 
setshire, lies  about  one  hundred  and  seven 
miles  west  of  London,  and  is  situated  on 
the  river  Avon,  in  a narrow  valley.  Its 
hilly  environs  are  pleasant,  and  open  on  the 
north-west  into  beautiful  and  wide  meadow- 
lands.  The  population,  in  1851,  was  54,240.. 
Its  hot  springs  were  highly  esteemed  by  the 
Romans,  who  built  extensive  baths  here.  It 
was  the  most  fashionable  watering-place  of 
England  in  the  last  century.  Bathing,  how- 
ever, is  far  from  being  a practice  of  the  inhab- 
itants. One  of  the  greatest  manufacturing 
towns  in  the  kingdom  is  Birmingham  in  War- 
wickshire; population  in  1861,  295,955.  It 
was  early  the  seat  of  mechanical  industry, 


ENG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


'307 


and  when  the  Stuarts  and  their  adherents 
came  back  with  a fondness  for  metal  orna- 
ments, acquired  during  their  long  residence  j 
in  France,  Birmingham  took  the  lead  in  mak-  | 
ing  the  glittering  trinkets  which  the  exotic 
taste  demanded.  Burke  called  it  the  toy-shop 
of  Europe,  but  its  chief  wares  are  now  of  a 
more  useful  order.  Plated  ware,  hardware, 
fire-arms,  buttons,  japanned  ware,  glass,  steel 
pens,  nails,  pins,  &c.,  are  largely  made. 
Leeds,  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire  (pop- 
ulation in  1861,  207,153),  is  the  centre  and 
mart  of  a great  woolen  and  linen  district,  in 
which  it  is  rivaled  by  the  neighboring  town 
of  Bradford,  population,  106,218.  Sheffield, 
also  in  the  West  Riding  (population  in  1861, 
185,157),  is  known  the  world  over  for  its  cut- 
lery. Here  also  the  process  of  silver-plating, 
and  the  composition  called  Britannia  metal, 
were  invented,  and  they  are  still  a great 
branch  of  industry.  Hull,  or  Kingston-upon- 
Hull,  in  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  a 
seaport  of  99,000  inhabitants,  once  largely  in- 
terested in  whaling,  and  now  engaged  in  ex- 
tensive commerce  with  the  Baltic.  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne,  the  chief  town  of  Northumberland, 
is  the  seat  of  extensive  chemical,  glass,  iron, 
and  lead  manufactures,  but  its  chief  business 
is  the  shipment  of  coals,  the  produce  of  the 
surrounding  collieries.  Southampton,  in 
Hampshire  (population  86,000),  is  now  the 
largest  packet  port  in  the  kingdom.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Anglo-Saxons.  It  was  an- 
ciently a place  of  great  trade,  largely  exporting 
wool  and  tin,  but  it  declined  very  much  when 
the  export  of  wool  was  prohibited.  During 
the  last  century  its  prosperity  began  to  re- 
vive, and  it  is  still  in  the  ascendant. 

The  government  of  England  is  a limited  or 
constitutional  monarchy,  the  sovereign  power 
residing  in  three  estates,  king,  lords,  and 
commons.  These  three  estates  constitute  the 
parliament,  and  their  concurrence  is  necessary 
for  enacting,  annulling,  or  altering  any  law. 
The  house  of  lords  consists  of  the  temporal 
peers  of  England,  the  elective  peers  of  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  the  bishops  of  England,  and 
four  Irish  prelates  who  sit  by  rotation  of  ses- 
sions. This  house  is  the  supreme  court  of 
appeal  for  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
house  of  commons  now  consists  of  656  mem- 
bers: 469  from  England,  29  from  Wales,  53 
from  Scotland,  and  105  from  Ireland.  The 


administration  is  intrusted  by  the  sovereign 
to  certain  great  officers  of  state,  usually  from 
twelve  to  fourteen,  who  form  the  cabinet. 
The  first  lord  of  the  treasury  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  prime  minister.  The  superior 
courts  for  the  administration  of  justice  are  the 
high  court  of  chancery,  the  court  of  exchequer, 
the  court  of  queen’s  (or  king’s)  bench  (the 
highest  common-law  and  criminal  court  in  the 
kingdom),  and  the  court  of  common  pleas. 
Assizes  are  held  by  the  judges  in  every  county 
of  England  and  Wales,  for  which  purpose  the 
country  is  divided  into  eight  circuits.  The 
judges  of  these  superior  courts  are  appointed 
by  the  crown  for  life,  and  are  removable  only 
upon  an  address  from  parliament  to  the  crown. 
England  and  Wales  are  divided  ecclesiastically 
into  the  archiepiscopal  provinces  of  Canter- 
bury and  York,  containing  twenty-five  bish- 
oprics or  dioceses.  Episcopacy  is  the  estab- 
lished religion,  but  there  are  large  numbers  of 
dissenting  and  independent  sects. 

The  Romans  called  the  island  Britannia, 
because  the  inhabitants  adorned  their  bodies 
with  brit,  ‘paint.’  It  was  little  known  until 
the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  conducted 
his  army  into  this  country,  on  the  pretext  of 
punishing  the  Britons  for  the  aid  which  they 
had  given  to  the  Gauls,  in  55  b.c.  The  in- 
habitants were  then  ferocious  and  warlike, 
clad  in  skins,  and  armed  with  clubs,  and  even 
the  iron-breasted  Roman  legions  quailed  at 
first  before  the  horrid  front  which  the  infuri- 
ated natives  presented  to  their  invaders.  The 
Romans  kept  possession  of  Britain  about  five 
hundred  years,  during  which  many  improve- 
ments were  introduced,  and  the  manners  of 
the  people  became  assimilated  to  those  of  their 
conquerors.  This,  however,  was  not  effected 
without  much  bloodshed.  The  Romans  hav- 
ing, in  the  fifth  century,  quitted  Britain,  to 
defend  their  other  territories,  invaded  by  the 
Goths  and  Vandals,  the  Britons  were  attacked 
by  the  Piets  and  Scots,  and  sought  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Saxons  and  Angles.  These  de- 
feated the  Scots,  but  finally  made  themselves 
masters  also  of  the  kingdom,  and  gave  it  the 
name  of  Anglia,  or  England.  It  is  in  those 
times  of  conflict  between  the  natives  and  their 
too  powerful  allies  that  the  romances  place 
the  reign  of  the  renowned  King  Arthur.  The 
ancient  Britons  were  driven  into  W ales.  Eng- 
land was  divided,  by  the  Saxons,  into  seven 


ENG 


808 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


distinct  kingdoms,  called  the  Saxon  Heptar- 
chy, some  of  which  were  established  in  the 
fifth,  and  others  in  the  sixth  century.  These 
kingdoms  were  for  the  most  part  subject  to 
one  king  alone,  those  which  were  stronger 
than  the  others  giving  the  law  to  them  in 
their  several  turns,  till  in  the  end  they  were 
all  united  in  the  monarchy  of  the  W est  Saxons 
under  Egbert.  In  the  following  list  of  these 
kingdoms  with  their  kings,  a star  is  affixed  to 
the  names  of  those  monarchs  who  obtained 
this  ascendency  over  the  heptarchy. 

Kent  contained  only  the  present  county  of 
Kent ; its  kings  were : 

455.  *Hengist. 

488.  Eske. 

512.  Octa. 

542.  Ilermenric. 

560.  *Ethelbert,  first  Christian  king. 

616.  Eadbald. 

640.  Ercombert. 

664.  Egbert. 

673.  Lothaire. 

685.  Edriek,  slain  in  687.  The  kingdom  was  now 
subject  for  a time  to  various  leaders. 

694.  Wihtred. 

748.'  Ethelbert  II,  l sons  f *ihtred-  succeedinS 
760.  Alric,  j each  other’ 

794.  Edbert,  or  Ethelbert  Pryn ; deposed. 

796.  Cuthred. 

805.  Baldred,  who  in  823  lost  his  life  and  kingdom 
to  Egbert,  King  of  Wessex. 

South  Saxony  contained  the  counties  of 
Sussex  and  Surrey. 

490.  *Ella,  a warlike  prince. 

514.  Cissa,  his  son,  whose  peaceful  reign  exceed- 
ed seventy  years.  Then  the  South  Saxons 
fell  into  an  almost  total  dependence  on 
Wessex,  and  we  scarcely  know  the  names 
of  the  princes  who  were  possessed  of  this 
titular  sovereignty. 

648.  Edilwald,  Edilwach,  or  Adelwach. 

688.  Authun  and  Berthun,  brothers  who  reigned 
jointly.  Both  were  vanquished  by  Ina, 
King  of  Wessex,  and  the  kingdom  was 
finally  conquered  in  725. 

Wessex,  or  West  Saxony,  contained  the 
counties  of  Devon,  Dorset,  Somerset,  Wilts, 
Hants,  Berks,  and  a part  of  Cornwall. 

519.  *Cerdic. 

534.  *Kenric,  or  Cynric. 

559.  *Ceawlin. 

591.  Ceolric. 

597.  Ceolwulf. 

611.  Cynegils,  and  his  son  Cwichelm. 

643.  Cenwal,  or  Cenwald. 

672.  Sexburga,  his  queen,  sister  to  Penda,  King 
of  Mercia ; of  great  qualities ; probably 
deposed. 


674.  Escwine  and  Centwine. 

676.  Centwine  alone. 

685.  Ceadwal,  who  went  in  lowly  state  to  Rome, 
to  expiate  his  deeds  of  blood,  and  died 
there. 

688.  Ina,  a brave  and  wise  ruler,  who  also  jour- 
neyed to  Rome,  where  he  passed  his  time 
in  obscurity,  leaving  behind  him  an  excel- 
lent code  of  laws. 

728.  Ethelheard,  or  Ethelard. 

770.  Cuthred,  his  brother. 

754.  Sigebryht,  or  Sigebert.  He  treacherously 

murdered  his  friend,  Duke  Cumbran,  gov* 
ernor  of  Hampshire,  who  had  given  him 
an  asylum  once  when  expelled  from  his 
throne.  For  this  infamous  deed  he  was 
forsaken  by  the  world,  and  wandered 
about  in  the  wilds  and  forests,  where  he 
was  at  length  discovered  by  one  of  Cum- 
bran’s  servants,  who  slew  him. 

755.  Cynewulf,  murdered  by  Sigebry  til’s  brother. 
784.  Bertric,  orBeorlitric;  poisoned  by  drinking 

a cup  his  queen  had  prepared  for  another. 
800.  * Egbert,  afterward  sole  monarch  of  Eng- 
land. 

East  Saxony  contained  the  counties  of 
Essex  and  Middlesex  and  the  southern  part 
of  Herts. 

527.  Erchenwin. 

587.  Sledda. 

598.  Sebert,  first  Christian  king. 

( Sexred 
614.  •<  Seward 
( Sigebert 

623.  Sigebert  the  Little. 

655.  Sigebert  the  Good. 

661.  Swithelme. 

663.  Sighere  and  Sebbi. 

694.  Sigherd  and  Suenfrid. 

700.  Offa;  left  his  queen  and  kingdom,  and  be- 
came a monk  at  Rome. 

709.  Suebricht,  or  Selred. 

746.  Suithred. 

792.  Sigeric;  died  in  a pilgrimage  to  Rome. 

799.  Sigered;  Egbert  seized  the  kingdom  in  823. 

Northumbria  consisted  of  the  sometimes 
separate  but  commonly  united  states  of  Ber- 
nicia  and  Deira;  the  former  including  the 
county  of  Northumberland,  and  the  south- 
eastern counties  of  Scotland  as  far  as  the 
Forth ; the  latter  contained  Yorkshire,  Dur- 
ham, Lancashire,  Westmoreland,  and  Cum- 
berland. Its  kings  were — 

547.  Ella,  or  Ida. 

560.  Adda. 

567.  Clappea, 

572.  Theodwald. 

573.  Fridulph. 

580.  Theodric. 

588.  Athelrick. 

593.  Athelfrid. 

617.  * Edwin,  the  greatest  prince  of  the  hep- 
tarchy in  that  age. 


ENG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


309 


633.  Osric. 

634.  * Oswald. 

644.  * Oswy. 

653.  Ethel  ward. 

670.  Egfrid. 

685.  Alkfrid. 

7 05.  Osred  I. 

716.  Cenred. 

718.  Osrick. 

729.  Ceolwulf. 

738.  Egbert. 

757.  Oswulph. 

759.  Edilwald. 

765.  Alured. 

774.  Ethelred. 

778.  Alswald  I. 

789.  Osred  II. 

790.  Ethelred  restored. 

796.  Osbald. 

797.  Ardulph. 

807.  Alfwald  II. 

810.  Andred.  The  Northumbrians  submitted  to 
Egbert  of  Wessex  in  829. 

East  Anglia  contained  the  counties  of 
Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Cambridge,  and  part  of 
Bedfordshire  : its  kings  were — 

575.  Uffa. 

582.  Titillus. 

599.  * Redwald,  the  greatest  prince  of  the  East 
Angles. 

624.  Erpenwald. 

636.  Sigebert. 

632.  Egric. 

635.  Annas. 

654.  Ethelhere. 

655.  Ethel wald. 

664.  Aldwulf. 

713.  Selred,  or  Ethelred. 

746.  Alphwuld. 

749.  Beorn  and  Ethelbert. 

758.  Beorn,  alone. 

761.  Ethelred. 

790.  Ethelbert,  treacherously  slain  in  Mercia 
792,  when  Offa  of  Mercia  overran  the 
country,  which  was  finally  subdued  by 
Egbert. 

Mercia  contained  the  counties  of  Hunt- 
ingdon, Rutland,  Lincoln,  Northampton, 
Leicester,  Derby,  Nottingham,  Oxford,  Ches- 
ter, Salop,  Gloucester,  Worcester,  Stafford, 
Warwick,  Buckingham,  Hereford,  and  parts 
of  Bedford  and  Herts. 

586.  Crida. 

597.  Wibba. 

615.  Cheorlas. 

626.  Penda. 

655.  Peada. 

656.  *Wulfhere. 

675.  * Ethelred. 

704.  * Kenred. 

709.  * Ceolred. 

716.  * Ethelbald. 

755.  Beornred. 

755.  *Offa. 


794.  * Egfryd. 

795.  * Cenulf. 

819.  Kenelm. 

819.  Ceolwulf. 

821.  Burnwulf. 

823.  Ludecan. 

825.  Wiglafe. 

838.  Berthulf. 

852.  Burhred.  This  kingdom  like  the  others, 
finally  merged  into  that  of  England. 

England,  from  783,  suffered  many  invasions 
and  ravages  from  the  Danes,  who  several 
times  made  themselves  masters  of  it.  They 
were  finally  expelled  (1041),  and  the  Saxon 
government  restored  in  the  person  of  Edward 
the  Confessor.  During  this  time  flourished 
Canute,  Harold,  and  Hardicanute.  During 
this  time,  too,  the  country  was  blessed  under 
the  rule  of  the  wise  Alfred,  an  account  of 
whose  reign  will  be  found  in  our  sketch  of 
him.  The  following  were  the  monarchs  of 
England  to  the  time  of  the  conquest. 

827.  Egbert,  first  sole  monarch ; succeeded  by 
his  son. 

837.  Ethelwolf;  he  first  granted  tithes  to  the 
clergy  ; succeeded  by  his  son. 

857.  Ethelbald,  succeeded  by  hisnexi  brother. 
860.  Ethelbert,  succeeded  by  his  next  brother. 
866.  Ethelred,  succeeded  by  his  brother. 

872.  Alfred,  the  Great,  succeeded  by  his  son. 
901.  Edward,  the  Elder;  in  whose  reign  Eng- 
land was  more  firmly  consolidated  into 
one  kingdom. 

924.  Athelstan,  eldest  son  of  Edward ; he  caused 
the  Bible  to  be  translated  into  the  Saxpn, 
and  presented  a copy  to  every  church 
throughout  the  kingdom ; he  also  encour- 
aged commerce  by  a decree  that  every 
merchant  who  had  taken  three  voyages 
should  be  entitled  to  the  rank  of  a thane. 
940.  Edmund  I.,  fifth  son  of  Edward  the  Elder; 
bled  to  death  from  a wound  received  in 
an  affray,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  next 
brother. 

947.  Edred;  Dunstan,  the  ambitious  Abbot  of 
Glastonbury,  is  virtually  king. 

955.  Edwy,  eldest  son  of  Edmund.  He  married 
the  beautiful  Elgiva,  his  kinswoman. 
Dunstan  united  the  priesthood  against 
the  marriage,  and  Edwy  was  forced  to 
divorce  Elgiva.  She  was  cruelly  mur- 
dered, and  Edwy  died  of  grief. 

959.  Edgar,  the  Peaceable,  his  brother. 

974.  Edward,  the  Martyr;  stabbed  by  order  of 
his  step-mother,  Elfrida,  while  drinking 
a cup  of  wine  at  the  gate  of  Corfe  Castle. 
979.  Ethelred  II.,  son  of  Elfrida,  dethroned  by 
the  Danes. 

1013.  Sweyne,  succeeded  by  his  son. 

1014.  Canute  the  Great ; while  he  was  absent  in 

Denmark,  Ethelred  returned. 

1015.  Ethelred,  restored;  succeeded  by  his  son. 

1016.  Edmund  Ironside.  The  English  and  Dan- 

ish armies  met  at  Alney,  and  a single 


ENG 


310 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


combat  ensued  between  the  rival  mon- 
archs,  in  sight  of  their  troops.  Canute, 
* being  wounded,  proposed  a division  of 

the  kingdom.  To  this  Edmund  acceded, 
and  the  southern  half  fell  to  his  share ; 
but  he  being  killed  at  Oxford  shortly 
after,  Canute  was  left  in  peaceable  pos- 
session of  all  the  land. 

1016.  Canute;  married  Emma,  widow  of  Ethelred. 
1036.  Harold,  surnamed  Harefoot,  the  natural 
son  of  Canute  and  a cruel  prince. 

1039.  Hardicanute,  son  of  Canute  and  Emma ; 

died  of  gluttony  and  drunkenness  at  a 
marriage  feast. 

1041.  Edward,  the  Confessor,  son  of  Ethelred; 

he  had  been  bred  in  Normandy,  and 
named  William  his  successor;  although 
Edgar  was  the  rightful  heir. 

1066.  Harold  II.,  son  of  Earl  Godwin ; reigned 
nine  months  ; killed  at  Hastings. 

Thus  in  1066,  the  Normans,  under  William 
the  Conqueror,  obtained  possession  of  the 
kingdom,  having  defeated  the  English  under 
Harold,  in  the  battle  of  Hastings.  By  this 
circumstance,  the  whole  moral  and  political 
constitution  of  England  underwent  an  impor- 
tant change.  Severe  forest  laws  were  de- 
creed, making  it  forfeiture  of  property  to 
disable  a wild  beast,  and  loss  of  eyes  for  a 
stag,  buck,  or  boar : one  might  better  slay  a 
man  than  a deer.  Justices  of  peace  were 
appointed.  Norman  French  was  made  the 
legal  language  of  the  realm.  A survey  of 
all  the  kingdom  except  Northumberland  and 
Durham,  was  made,  to  determine  the  right  in 
the  tenure  of  estates,  and  furnish  a basis  for 
levying  taxes.  The  book  in  which  it  was 
embodied  was  called  the  Dome’s-day  Book. 
The  Norman  principle  of  lordship  and  vas- 
salage was  introduced  and  enforced,  and  it 
was  not  until  after  some  generations,  that  the 
barons  themselves,  feeling  the  chain  of  pas- 
sive submission  too  galling,  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  that  spirit  which  burst  the  fetters 
of  feudalism.  To  the  time  of  John,  the  his- 
tory of  England  is  little  else  than  an  account 
of  the  acts  of  the  kings,  done  with  a direct 
view  to  acquire  and  sustain  this  unnatural 
authority.  The  first  William  did  almost 
nothing  else.  His  son  William  Rufus  per- 
ished while  hunting  in  the  New  Forests,  a 
vast  tract  which  his  father  had  depopulated 
for  that  amusement. 

Henry  I.,  the  youngest  son  of  the  Con- 
queror, seized  the  throne.  By  the  military 
ardor  of  Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy,  the 
crown  at  the  death  of  their  father  had  been 


given  up  to  the  second  brother,  in  considera- 
tion of  money  advanced  on  his  expedition  to 
Palestine.  On  Robert’s  attempt  to  recover  it 
now,  he  was  taken  and  confined  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life,  eight  and  twenty  years, 
in  Cardiff  Castle.  Henry,  to  strengthen  him- 
self, married  Matilda,  a descendant  of  the 
ancient  Saxon  line,  and  removed  a few  of  the 
unpalatable  restrictions  which  his  father  had 
imposed.  During  this  reign  the  Templars 
established  themselves  in  England ; the  first 
English  park  was  laid  out  at  Woodstock; 
rents  were  made  payable  in  money,  having 
been  previously  payable  in  corn,  cattle,  &c.; 
the  coinage  was  corrected,  a standard  fixed 
for  the  regulation  of  weights  and  measures, 
and  the  length  of  the  English  yard  taken 
from  the  measurement  of  the  king’s  arm. 
Woolen  stuffs  were  introduced  from  the 
Netherlands,  and  a colony  of  Flemish  weav- 
ers settled  at  Worstead  in  Norfolk.  It  is 
from  this  town  that  worsted  fabrics  have 
derived  their  name.  After  the  death  of 
Henry  in  1135,  the  crown  was  in  dispute 
between  his  daughter  Maud  or  Matilda,  who 
had  wedded  the  German  emperor,  and  his 
nephew  Stephen,  Earl  of  Blois.  Stephen 
died  in  1154,  and  Henry  II.,  the  son  of 
Maud,  came  to  the  throne.  He  was  the  first 
of  the  Plantagenet  line.  He  waged  a wrar 
with  the  Scots,  in  which  William  their  king 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  only  re-obtained  his 
crown  by  doing  homage  for  it  as  a vassal. 
This  reign  was  also  distinguished  by  two 
great  acquisitions  of  territory ; Ireland  by 
arbitrary  conquest,  and  Guienne  and  Poitou 
by  marriage.  It  was  also  marked  by  a con- 
test between  the  king  and  the  ecclesiastics. 
The  power  of  the  church  of  Rome  had  so  in- 
creased as  to  overshadow  the  crown  ; Thomas 
a Becket,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  evinc- 
ing its  arrogance  and  determination  to  dictate 
in  matters  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual.  To 
check  these  usurpations  the  celebrated  stat- 
utes of  Clarendon  were  enacted  by  a parlia- 
ment held  at  that  place,  in  1164.  Becket 
fulminated  anathemas  and  excommunications 
at  those  who  sided  with  the  king,  and  yielded 
not  a whit  in  his  assumptions,  till  at  last  the 
harassed  monarch,  one  day  in  Normandy, 
wished  aloud  that  the  insolent  prelate  was 
dead.  Four  rash  knights  hasted  across  the 
channel  to  Canterbury,  and  slew  the  arch- 


ENG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


311 


bishop  upon  the  very  steps  of  the  altar.  The 
murdered  man  was  canonized,  and  the  mon- 
arch did  hard  penance  at  his  shrine.  It  was 
in  this  reign  that  England  was  first  divided 
into  circuits  for  the  administration  of  justice; 
the  English  laws  were  digested ; charters 
were  granted  to  many  towns ; and  the  win- 
dows of  private  dwellings  were  made  of 
glass. 

Richard  I.,  the  second  son  of  Henry,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1189.  He  can  scarcely 
be  called  an  English  king,  since  during  his 
ten  years’  reign  he  spent  only  eight  months 
in  England,  being  engaged  in  war  upon  the 
continent  or  in  the  crusades.  The  land  suf- 
fered sadly  from  lawlessness  and  misrule. 
At  the  battle  of  Gisors  in  France,  1198, 
Richard  gave  to  his  soldiers  as  the  watch- 
word of  the  day,  Dieu  et  mon  droit.  In 
remembrance  of  the  signal  victory  that  his 
arms  obtained,  he  made  Dieu  et  mon  droit 
the  motto  of  the  royal  arms  of  England,  and 
it  has  ever  since  been  retained.  His  death 
without  issue  admitted  his  weak  and  wicked 
brother  John  to  the  throne.  King  John, 
after  many  feeble  attempts  at  continued  des- 
potism, was  compelled,  by  the  exasperated 
barons,  to  sign  what  was  afterward  called  the 
Magna  Gharta  (‘great  charter’),  which  re- 
nounced some  of  the  most  odious  prerogatives 
of  royalty,  and  extended  a moderate  share 
of  liberty  to  the  barons  of  the  realm.  John, 
however,  involved  the  nation,  with  himself, 
in  odious  submissions  to  the  pope,  the  influ- 
ence of  which  it  cost  England  and  her  suc- 
ceeding kings  many  struggles  to  counteract. 
By  the  treachery  of  John,  Normandy  was 
lost  to  the  English  crown,  the  pope  was  con- 
stituted the  virtual  lord  of  his  dominions, 
and  Lewis,  prince  of  France,  was  actually 
encouraged  to  assume  the  title.  In  this  time, 
a standing  army  was  first  levied,  and  an  an- 
nual election  for  the  lord  mayor  and  sheriffs 
of  the  city  of  London  instituted. 

In  1216,  Henry  III.  became  king.  He 
was  but  a boy,  and  for  many  years  a regency 
held  sway.  When  he  did  assume  power  he 
showed  the  hereditary  taint.  Many  times 
did  he  swear  to  observe  Magna  Charta,  and 
as  often  did  he  violate  it.  This  reign  was 
occupied  in  such  disputes  with  his  barons, 
and  extortions  from  the  Jews.  Yet  civil  lib- 
erty increased.  The  commons  were  first 


summoned  to  a parliament ; gold  began  to  be 
coined ; coal  began  to  be  used  for  fuel ; and 
the  art  of  distillation  was  introduced  from  the 
Moors.  The  first  elephant  seen  in  the  land 
was  one  of  enormous  size,  presented  to  Henry 
by  the  French  king  in  1238.  Henry’s  son, 
Edward  I.,  grasped  the  sceptre  with  a firmer 
hand.  He  added  to  Magna  Charta  the  im- 
portant clause  securing  the  people  from  the 
imposition  of  any  tax  without  the  consent  of 
parliament ; and  ever  since  this  reign  there 
has  been  a regular  succession  of  parliaments. 
Wales  was  subdued  and  added  to  England. 
The  dependency  of  Scotland  was  confirmed  by 
the  violent  imposition  of  Baliol  upon  the 
throne,  his  subsequent  confinement,  and  the 
decided  overthrow  of  the  Scotch  forces  that 
opposed  the  English.  All,  however,  was  recov- 
ered in  the  succeeding  reign  by  the  gallantry 
of  Robert  Bruce,  and  the  field  of  Bannockburn. 
Edward  II.  was  more  like  his  grandfather 
than  like  his  father.  The  barons  rose  in  arms, 
and  were  abetted  by  the  queen.  Edward 
was  murdered  in  Berkeley  Castle.  During 
this  reign  the  Jews  exacted  two  shillings  a 
week  for  the  loan  of  twenty : nowadays  the 
Gentiles  no  longer  suffer  them  to  have  monop- 
oly in  such  usury.  The  long  reign  of  Edward 
III.,  from  1327  to  1377,  outdid  the  martial 
renown  of  his  grandsire.  By  his  successes 
against  France  at  Cressy  and  Poictiers,  and 
that  against  Scotland  at  Durham,  he  obtained 
for  England  much  glory  at  much  expense, 
and  two  royal  captives,  but  little  solid  advan- 
tage, while  the  campaign  in  Spain  occasioned 
the  death  of  the  Black  Prince  in  1376,  and 
the  next  year  that  of  his  father.  In  this 
reign,  and  in  one  private  individual,  we  find 
the  early  dawn  of  the  reformation.  Wickliffe, 
under  the  protection  of  John  of  Gaunt,  the 
king’s  brother,  began  those  denunciations  cf 
the  papal  abuses,  which,  in  the  end,  over- 
threw that  corrupt  and  foreign  dominion  in 
England.  Two  weavers  from  Brabant  settled 
at  York  in  1331,  where  they  manufactured 
woolens,  which,  said  King  Edward,  “may 
prove  of  great  benefit  to  us  and  our  subjects.” 
In  this  reign  the  lords  and  commons  for  the 
first  time  sat  in  separate  chambers  in  parlia- 
ment. Law  pleadings  had  heretofore  been 
had  in  French ; they  were  now  authorized 
in  English.  The  order  of  the  Garter  was 
founded  by  Edward  III. 


ENG 


312 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


The  opening  of  the  next  reign  saw  the 
popular  outbreak  headed  by  Wat  Tyler. 
The  malcontents  were  met  and  soothed  with 
much  discretion  by  the  young  monarch,  but 
his  wisdom  soon  forsook  him.  It  was  dur- 
ing the  absence  of  Richard  in  quelling  a 
disturbance  in  Ireland,  that  the  people,  vexed 
with  continual  exaction,  and  offended  at  the 
injustice  of  the  king  to  his  cousin,  the  Duke 
of  Lancaster,  invited  the  latter  from  banish- 
ment, to  control  the  operations  of  the  king 
and  his  advisers.  He  landed, # usurped  the 
crown,  murdered  the  king,  quelled  the  in- 
surrections consequent,  and  captured  the 
heir  to  the  Scottish  throne.  Henry  IY. 
founded  the  order  of  the  Bath.  He  perse- 
cuted the  adherents  to  the  doctrines  of  Wick- 
liffe,  and  there  is  the  stain  upon  his  reign 
that  in  its  time  England  first  witnessed  the 
death  of  a martyr  for  religious  belief.  His 
son,  the  fifth  Henry,  continued  these  perse- 
cutions, and  there  were  more  burnings  at  the 
stake.  From  the  time  of  Henry  V.  may  be 
dated  the  custom  of  lighting  the  streets  of 
London  at  night,  since  it  was  his  command 
that  every  citizen  should  hang  a lantern  on 
his  door  during  the  winter  nights.  His 
youthful  excesses  had  taught  him  that  crime 
and  mischief  lurk  under  the  cover  of  darkness. 
From  the  same  period  also,  may  be  dated  the 
beginnings  of  the  English  navy ; and  one  ship 
built  at  Bayonne  expressly  for  the  king,  was 
thought  quite  a marvel  of  size  and  strength 
because  it  measured  a hundred  and  eighty- 
six  feet  in  length.  Linen  for  shirts  and  under 
clothing  was  at  this  time  esteemed  great  lux- 
ury, and  a flock  bed  with  a chaff  bolster  was 
a refinement  of  comfort  known  only  to  the 
opulent.  Henry’s  great  feat  was  the  con- 
quest of  France,  through  the  victories  of 
Harfleur  and  Agincourt.  He  married  Catha- 
rine of  France,  was  chosen  regent  of  the 
kingdom,  and  adopted  as  the  heir  of  Charles 
YI.  In  the  midst  of  his  brilliant  career, 
death  snatched  him  away,  1422. 

His  infant  son  was  crowned  at  Paris.  The 
Maid  of  Orleans  aroused  the  French,  and  her 
burning  at  the  stake  was  soon  avenged  upon 
the  English  by  the  loss  of  every  possession 
in  France  but  the  fortress  of  Calais.  The 
reign  of  the  sixth  Henry  continued  as  unfor- 
tunately as  it  had  commenced.  The  wars  of 
the  roses  drenched  England  with  blood,  till 


after  many  ups  and  downs  the  York  faction 
triumphed;  Henry,  now  an  old  man,  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower ; and  Edward  IV. 
ascended  the  throne  in  1461.  In  this  reign 
the  right  of  voting  at  elections  for  knights  of 
the  shire  was  limited  to  freeholders  having 
estates  of  the  annual  value  of  forty  shillings. 
Seats  in  the  commons  were  not,  however, 
much  sought  by  the  middle  classes  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  functions  of  the 
commons  consisted  chiefly  in  the  imposition 
of  taxes,  and  even  the  peers  evinced  little  in- 
terest or  assiduity  in  the  discharge  of  their 
parliamentary  duties.  Both  houses  enjoyed 
entire  liberty  of  speech.  In  1450,  the  first 
lord  mayor’s  show  took  place  in  London. 
The  same  year  saw  the  insurrection  in  Kent 
headed  by  Jack  Cade,  who,  under  the  assumed 
name  of  Mortimer,  asserted  a fictitious  claim 
to  the  throne.  The  stout  Earl  of  Warwick, 
who  had  raised  Edward  to  the  throne,  was 
sent  to  negotiate  his  marriage  with  a French 
princess ; in  his  absence  the  fickle  fellow 
wedded  Lady  Elizabeth  Grey;  Warwick  took 
great  offense,  rebelled,  deposed  Edward,  re- 
leased Henry,  and  set  him  up  again  in  the 
business  of  royalty.  But  on  the  field  of 
Barnet,  1471,  the  great  earl  was  slain;  Ed- 
ward resumed  the  crown,  and  soon  after 
poor  old  Henry  was  murdered  in  the  Tower. 
In  this  same  year  William  Caxton,  in  the 
shadow  of  Westminster  Abbey,  set  up  the 
first  printing-press  in  England.  Richard  III., 
who  followed  his  brother  Edward  IY.,  and 
his  young  nephew  Edward  V.,  of  the  house 
of  York,  was  himself  defeated  and  succeeded 
by  Henry  VII.,  of  the  other  line,  who  by 
marrying  the  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  united 
the  two  houses,  and  thus  ended  the  conten- 
tions of  York  and  Lancaster,  in  the  year  1485. 

Henry’s  reign  was  disturbed  by  the  insur- 
rections in  support  of  Lambert  Simnel  and 
Perkin  Warbeck,  pretenders  to  the  throne. 
It  was  the  great  era  of  maritime  discovery, 
and  the  English  monarch,  not  to  be  behind- 
hand, magnanimously  authorized  the  Cabots 
to  undertake  an  expedition  at  their  own 
expense,  with  the  privilege  of  raising  his 
banner  as  his  vassals  and  deputies  on  what- 
ever soil  they  might  find.  They  discovered 
Newfoundland,  and  a portion  of  North  Amer- 
ica, and  this  was  the  basis  of  the  English 
claim  to  the  new  continent.  Shillings  were 


ENG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


313 


first  coined  in  this  reign,  and  the  court  of  the 
star  chamber,  afterward  so  odious,  was  estab- 
lished. Gardening  was  introduced  in  Eng- 
land generally,  from  the  Netherlands.  Henry 
VII.  died  in  1509.  Henry  VIII.,  though  per- 
haps the  greatest  tyrant  that  ever  filled  the 
English  throne,  made  a new  era  in  the  history 
of  the  country,  in  its  total  emancipation  from 
papal  authority.  The  power  of  which  he  had 
deprived  the  pope,  he  seized  for  himself, 
however,  and  was,  at  least,  as  vigorous  in  its 
exercise.  The  next  reign  ratified  and  enlarged 
his  acts  in  favor  of  the  protestant  religion ; 
and  although  the  bigot  Mary  for  a time  re- 
bound the  chains,  and  rekindled  the  fires  of 
persecution,  the  reformation  was  too  firmly 
established  to  be  overthrown,  and  her  suc- 
cessor, Elizabeth,  settled  it  upon  a foundation 
w'hich  will  endure  as  long  as  the  conviction 
of  its  necessity  exists. 

The  marital  experiments  of  bluff  and  cruel 
King  Hal  we  shall  mention  under  our  sketch 
of  the  house  of  Tudor.  England  was  steadily 
advancing.  The  whole  Bible  was  now  ren- 
dered into  English,  and  the  first  authorized 
edition  printed ; the  book  of  common  prayer 
for  the  new  Anglican  church  was  arranged 
by  Cranmer;  Wales  began  to  be  represented 
in  parliament ; ship-building  was  improved, 
and  the  navy  extended ; the  first  geographi- 
cal map  of  England  was  drawn ; cherries, 
hops,  apricots,  pippins,  and  various  other 
fruits  and  vegetables,  were  introduced  into 
the  land ; leaden  pipes  were  substituted  for 
the  clumsy  wooden  conduits  in  which  water 
had  previously  been  conveyed ; cotton  thread 
came  into  use.  Pins  were  introduced  from 
France  by  Queen  Catharine  Howard.  Here- 
tofore, ribbons,  loopholes,  laces  with  tags, 
hooks  and  eyes,  and  skewers  of  brass,  silver, 
and  gold,  had  been  used  alike  by  men  and 
women.  The  pins  were  a costly  luxury  at 
first,  and  the  term  1 pin-money,’  as  applied  to 
a husband’s  allowance  to  his  wife,  had  its 
origin  thereby.  A pound  sterling  was  first 
called  a sovereign  in  this  reign.  Provisions 
were  so  cheap  that  beef  and  mutton  were 
had  for  a half-penny  a pound.  Money  how- 
ever, was  a twelfth  cheaper  than  in  our  time. 
Henry  VIII.  was  the  first  English  monarch 
to  whom  the  title  of  King  of  Ireland  was 
confirmed.  Henry  VIII.,  in  league  with 
the  pope  and  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  made 


some  conquests  in  France,  and  his  generals 
defeated  and  slew  James  IV.  of  Scotland,  at 
Flodden  Field;  and,  in  his  successor's  reign, 
an  expedition  into  that  country  was  executed 
at  the  desire  of  the  late  king,  on  a fruitless 
expedition  to  induce  the  Scots  to  marry  their 
Princess  Mary  to  Edward  VI. 

The  boy-king  Edward  did  much  in  his 
short  time  to  promote  the  reformation,  and 
the  realm  had  a respite  from  the  noxious 
smoke  of  fires  of  persecution.  A law  was 
enacted  that  permitted  clergymen  to  marry. 
But  a little  before  his  death  the  young  mon- 
arch founded  Christ  Hospital  in  London,  the 
school  to  which  so  many  great  scholars  and 
authors  have  been  indebted  for  their  educa- 
tion. Grapes  were  brought  over  from  France 
and  cultivated ; crowns,  half-crowns,  and  six- 
pences were  introduced  into  the  currency  ; 
the  sweating  sickness,  a dreadful  plague 
which  had  prevailed  from  time  to  time,  be- 
came totally  extinct.  The  book  of  common 
prayer  and  the  church  service  were  establish- 
ed. Trade  with  Russia  was  initiated.  The 
ten  days’  reign  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  over,  Mary, 
whom  history  has  cursed  with  the  epithet  of 
bloody,  became  queen  in  1553.  Lady  Jane, 
and  her  husband,  father,  and  friends,  were 
beheaded;  papacy  w^as  restored,  and  fatal 
faggots  flamed  again.  Smoke  from  human 
immolations  upon  the  altar  of  bigotry  went 
up  continually.  Calais,  which  had  been 
taken  by  Edward  III.  in  1347,  after  a year’s 
siege,  which  had  been  held  by  the  English 
two  hundred  and  ten  years,  and  which  was 
deeply  prized  as  the  last  relic  of  the  broad 
possessions  and  conquests  of  the  Plantagenets, 
was  by  treachery  yielded  to  the  French.  Its 
loss  sorely  smote  the  pride  of  the  queen. 
“When  I’m  dead,”  she  said,  “Calais  will  be 
found  written  on  my  heart.”  She  died  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  same  year.  Coaches 
came  into  use  in  her  time,  before  which 
ladies  had  been  borne  in  litters,  or  had  ridden 
on  pillions  behind  their  mounted  squires. 
Flax  and  hemp  were  first  cultivated ; the  use 
of  starch  was  discovered ; and  the  manufac- 
ture of  drinking  glasses  began  to  be  encour- 
aged. 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth,  from  1558  to  1603, 
was  one  of  great  renown.  She  restored  the 
Anglican  church,  making  herself,  like  her 
father,  the  head  of  the  spiritual  as  well  as 


ENG 


814 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


temporal  power.  All  clergymen  and  all  offi- 
cers under  the  crown  were  compelled  to  take 
an  oath  acknowledging  this  supremacy.  All 
persons  were  forbidden  to  attend  upon  any 
ministrations  but  those  of  the  established 
church,  and  thus,  sad  to  say,  persecution  did 
not  end  although  protestantism  had  been 
restored.  Elizabeth  intrigued  with  Scotland, 
but  fought  with  Spain.  The  defense  of  the 
kingdom  against  the  celebrated  Armada,  in 
1588,  would  of  itself  stamp  her  reign  with 
glory.  The  attack  on  Cadiz  by  the  Earl  of 
Essex  was  eminently  successful,  and  the 
other  enterprises  of  her  admirals  were  very 
considerable.  She  also  supported  the  prot- 
estants  of  Germany  against  Austria,  and  the 
Dutch  against  the  Spaniards.  During  the 
Elizabethan  era,  English  literature,  which 
had  dawned  under  Chaucer  in  the  days 
of  Edward  III.,  came  to  the  meridian,  and 
Shakspeare,  Spenser,  Bacon.  Raleigh,  Sidney, 
added  more  to  the  glories  of  England,  than 
all  the  eminent  wisdom  and  policy  of  the 
queen  and  her  statesmen,  or  the  prowess  of 
her  commanders.  The  naval  power  was  much 
advanced ; Drake  circumnavigated  the  globe, 
coming  home  with  great  affluence  of  Spanish 
treasure,  and  what  was  better,  an  esculent 
root  that  he  planted  in  Lancashire,  the  po- 
tato ; a colony  was  planted  in  North  America, 
and  gallantly  christened  Virginia  in  honor  of 
the  maiden  queen.  Tobacco  was  brought 
from  the  West,  and  was  soon  very  fashiona- 
ble, after  the  stomachs  of  the  courtiers  were 
used  to  it.  Tea  was  brought  from  the  East 
by  the  Dutch.  Pocket  watches  from  Nu- 
remburg  began  to  be  carried.  Silk  stockings 
were  worn  by  Elizabeth ; before,  cloth  hose 
had  been  the  wear.  Commerce  widened; 
the  East  India  company  was  organized ; the 
whale  and  cod  fisheries  were  entered  upon. 
Paper-making  from  linen  rags  was  began  at 
Dartford  by  Sir  John  Spielman,  a German; 
Birmingham  and  Sheffield  became  the  centre 
of  hardware  manufactures,  and  Manchester  of 
woolen  and  stocking  weaving.  Theatrical 
representations  ran  a race  awhile  with  the 
older  and  coarser  amusement  of  bull-baiting, 
and  then  became  the  popular  pastime. 

On  Elizabeth’s  death,  the  English  and  Scot- 
tish crowns  became  united  in  the  person  of 
James  I.,  a vain  and  pedantic  prince,  son  of 
the  unfortunate  queen  whom  Elizabeth  had 


long  held  a captive,  and  at  last  murdered.  A 
similar  crime,  the  tedious  bondage  and  final 
murder  of  Raleigh,  blots  the  reign  of  James. 
The  Gunpowder  plot  we  describe  elsewhere. 
The  Stuarts  had  all  the  Tudors’  love  of  des- 
potism, but  not  their  strength  of  will.  In  this 
weakness  civil  liberty  found  its  chance  for 
growth.  With  James  commenced  those  strug- 
gles between  the  crown  and  the  commons, 
that  brought  his  son  to  the  scaffold,  and 
worked  out  the  expulsion  of  his  race  from  the 
land.  Parliament  withheld  supplies  when 
grievances  became  too  heavy;  and  in  the 
king’s  want  of  money  the  rank  of  baronet 
originated.  There  was  a rebellion  in  Ireland, 
and  each  baronet  upon  his  creation  was  re- 
quired to  pay  into  the  exchequer  as  much  as 
would  maintain  “ thirty  soldiers  three  years 
at  eightpence  a day.”  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon, 
the  father  of  the  great  Lord  Bacon,  was  the 
first  of  the  baronets.  The  discovery  of  the 
blood’s  circulation  was  made  by  Harvey  in 
this  time.  The  broad  silk  manufacture  was 
introduced ; copper  half-pence  and  farthings 
were  first  coined;  Napier  calculated  loga- 
rithms ; brick  came  into  use  for  building.  The 
English  Bible  as  we  now  have  it,  was  trans- 
lated by  divines  appointed  by  the  king.  The 
settlement  of  Virginia  was  firmly  established, 
and  the  Puritans  fled  away  to  the  wilderness 
of  New  England. 

Charles  I.  succeeded  to  an  empty  treasury. 
After  endeavoring  to  fill  it  by  illegal  taxes,  he 
compromised  with  the  people.  Parliament 
granted  an  ample  subsidy,  and  the  king  rati- 
fied, in  the  most  solemn  manner,  the  celebra- 
ted Petition  of  Right,  the  second  great  charter 
of  the  liberties  of  England.  B}''  this  compact 
Charles  bound  himself  never  again  to  raise 
money  without  the  consent  of  the  houses, 
never  again  to  imprison  any  person  except  in 
due  course  of  law,  and  never  again  to  subject 
his  people  to  the  jurisdiction  of  courts  martial. 
Had  he  observed  these  stipulations,  the  im- 
pending calamity  might  have  been  averted. 
But  no  sooner  was  the  supply  collected  than 
the  promise  by  which  it  had  been  got  was 
broken.  The  king  resolved  to  do  without  a 
parliament,  and  from  1629  to  1640  none  was 
convoked.  In  olden  times  of  war,  the  English 
monarchs  had  called  on  the  maritime  counties 
to  furnish  ships  for  the  defense  of  the  coast. 
In  the  room  of  ships,  money  had  sometimes 


ENG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


315 


been  accepted.  This  ancient  impost  it  was 
now  determined  to  revive,  in  a time  of  pro- 
found peace,  and  to  exact  it  not  only  from  the 
coast  but  from  the  inland  shires.  The  whole 
nation  was  alarmed  and  incensed.  John 
Hampden,  a gentleman  of  Buckinghamshire, 
disputed  the  illegal  levy ; the  case  was  argued 
before  the  judges  of  exchequer,  and  an  obse- 
quious decision  sustained  the  crown.  The 
civil  grievances  were  rivaled  by  the  ecclesias- 
tical rigors  of  Archbishop  Laud.  An  insane 
attempt  to  foist  the  Anglican  liturgy  upon  the 
Presbyterians  of  Scotland  roused  them  to  open 
rebellion.  In  this  dilemma  a parliament  was 
convened,  but  soon  dissolved.  In  the  fall  of 
the  same  year,  assembled'  the  celebrated  body 
since  known  as  the  Long  Parliament.  Many 
important  reforms  were  enacted ; Strafford 
and  Laud  were  impeached ; the  king  promised 
to  show  respect  for  the  laws  and  good  faith 
toward  his  subjects.  His  faithlessness  was 
incurable.  Only  a few  days  after  he  sent  his 
attorney-general  to  impeach  Pym,  Hollis, 
Hampden,  and  other  leaders  of  the  opposition, 
of  high  treason  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of 
Lords ; and  with  armed  men  he  entered  the 
other  chamber  to  seize  their  persons.  The 
attempt  failed,  for  the  threatened  members 
had  just  left  the  house.  At  this  unpreceden- 
ted usurpation,  the  friends  of  the  king  were 
speechless ; his  opponents  were  furious.  He 
fled  to  the  north,  and  in  August,  1642,  the 
sword  was  drawn. 

At  first  the  royalists  were  successful.  But 
Fairfax  defeated  Prince  Rupert  on  Marston 
Moor  in  1644,  and  Cromwell  annihilated  the 
cavaliers  at  Naseby  in  1645.  The  king  fled 
into  Scotland,  whence  he  was  delivered  into 
the  hands  of  parliament  for  £400,000.  A 
dark  thought  grew  into  a darker  decision,  and 
on  the  30th  of  January,  1649,  Charles  Stuart 
was  beheaded  in  front  of  the  palace  of  White- 
hall. 

The  era  of  the  Commonwealth  succeeded. 
Cromwell  subdued  Ireland  and  Scotland,  and 
defeated  a royalist  army  at  Worcester;  the 
young  Charles  escaped  to  the  continent ; the 
Long  Parliament  was  dissolved  by  Cromwell 
with  his  soldiery,  and  the  great  general  be- 
came lord  high  protector.  Of  his  rule  we  have 
spoken  in  our  sketch  of  his  life.  England 
maintained  a high  rank  in  the  scale  of  nations, 
and  Cromwell  showed  himself  as  well  qualified 


to  govern  as  to  gain.  The  usurpation  was 
perhaps  a harsh  medicine  to  the  constitution, 
but  its  operation  was  short,  and  its  effects 
very  salutary.  Charles  II.  was  restored  in 
1660.  He  came  in  upon  a tremendous  billow 
of  loyalty,  but  the  lazy,  good-natured  mon- 
arch w as  nothing  but  a Stuart,  and  the  temper 
of  the  nation  gradually  cooled  towrard  him. 
Nonconformists  were  rigorously  dealt  with. 
For  a while  he  maintained  a war  with  the 
Dutch.  De  Ruyter  sailed  up  the  Thames, 
and  burned  the  vessels  that  lay  at  Chatham ; 
the  roar  of  foreign  guns  was  heard  for  the  first 
and  last  time  by  the  citizens  of  London ; a 
treaty  was  shortly  concluded,  very  different 
from  those  which  Cromwell  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  signing.  While  this  ignominious 
war  was  raging,  London  suffered  two  great 
disasters,  such  as  never,  in  so  short  a time, 
befell  another  city.  A pestilence,  surpassing 
in  horror  any  that  during  three  centuries  had 
visited  the  island,  swept  away,  in  six  months, 
more  than  a hundred  thousand  human  beings  ; 
and  scarcely  had  the  dead  cart  ceased  to  go 
its  rounds,  when  a fire,  such  as  had  not  been 
knowrn  in  Europe  since  the  conflagration  of 
Rome  under  Nero,  laid  in  ruins  the  whole  city 
from  the  Tower  to  the  Temple,  and  from  the 
river  to  the  purlieusof  Smithfield. — Macaulay. 
England  sunk  from  the  rank  that  Cromwell 
had  given  her,  and  Charles  became  a pensioner 
upon  the  bounty  of  Louis  XIY.  The  strict- 
ness of  the  Puritans  had  been  followed  by  a 
natural  reaction,  and  a flood  of  debauchery 
and  ribald  life.  Yet  to  this  reign  we  date  that 
famous  writ  of  right,  known  as  the  habeas 
corpus  act,  by  which  no  person  can  be  detained 
in  durance  except  in  cases  where  the  detention 
can  be  justified  by  law. 

The  Duke  of  Monmouth,  one  of  the  many 
natural  sons  of  Charles,  strove  unsuccessfully 
in  the  west  of  England,  to  wrest  the  crown 
from  James  II.  John  Ketch,  his  executioner, 
who  had  butchered  many  brave  and  noble 
victims,  has  furnished  our  language  a name 
for  the  headsman  and  hangman.  The  infa- 
mous Jeffreys  went  the  circuit  of  what  were 
called  the  bloody  assizes;  the  jails  were 
crowded  with  men,  and  women  too,  accused 
of  participation  in  the  rebellion ; some  were 
pitilessly  scourged,  hundreds  were  hanged, 
and  almost  a thousand  were  sent  as  slaves  be- 
yond the  seas.  The  ermined  murderer  re- 


ENG 


316 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


turned  to  court  from  the  west,  leaving  death, 
and  wailing,  and  terror  behind,  to  receive  the 
encomiums  of  his  master.  The  people  of  Eng- 
land by  this  time  understood  the  rights  of  the 
subject,  as  well  as  the  duties  of  the  monarch, 
and  when  James  II.  attempted  to  rule  abso- 
lutely, and  to  overthrow  the  religion  of  the 
country,  a bloodless  revolution  forced  him  to 
abdicate  the  throne,  and  set  upon  it  his 
daughter  Mary,  and  her  husband,  William  of 
Orange,  an  avowed  Protestant  The  liberties 
of  the  people  took  deeper  root  by  his  confirm- 
ation of  their  bill  of  rights.  In  this  reign  an 
expedition,  headed  by  the  king,  was  sent  out 
to  reduce  Ireland,  and  a war  waged  with 
France,  not  generally  successful,  but  there 
appeared  some  brilliant  sparks  of  enterprise, 
and  one  or  two  fair  incidents  of  good  fortune. 
During  this  reign  the  Bank  of  England  was 
incorporated.  It  was  in  the  reign  of  Anne 
that  the  age  of  English  chivalry  seemed  to  re- 
vive, and  the  military  mania  of  the  two  rival 
nations  to  be  renewed.  The  valor  and  skill 
of  Marlborough  triumphed  over  the  most 
splendid  arrays  of  military  might  under  Louis 
XI Y.  Germany  was  saved,  Gibraltar  taken, 
and  Dunkirk  demolished,  by  a course  of  vic- 
tories as  brilliant  as  any  which  the  pen  of  the 
historian  records.  It  was  also  in  this  memo- 
rable reign  that  the  legislative  union  of  Scot- 
land with  England  took  place.  The  era  of 
Anne  is  styled  an  Augustan  age  of  English 
literature.  Addison,  Steele,  Pope,  Boling- 
broke,  Gay,  Swift,  Prior,  and  other  great  wits 
and  authors,  lived  and  wrote.  The  queen  died 
in  1714. 

The  succession  of  the  house  of  Hanover  now 
took  place.  The  short  reign  of  George  I.  was 
principally  noted  for  its  domestic  and  foreign 
inquietude.  The  year  after  his  accession  a 
rebellion  arose  in  Scotland,  headed  by  the 
Pretender,  as  the  son  of  James  II.  was  called. 
It  was  promptly  put  down,  and  severely  pun- 
ished. A destructive  speculation  known  as 
the  South  Sea  bubble  ran  to  a great  pitch  and 
then  burst,  entailing  great  financial  disaster, 
and  ruining  thousands  of  families.  The  reign 
of  George  II.  was  distinguished  by  the  battle 
of  Dettingen,  where  the  king  fought  in  per- 
son ; the  military  contests  with  France ; the 
naval  triumphs  over  that  kingdom  and  Spain ; 
the  conquest  of  French  America,  and  the 
splendid  successes  of  Clive  in  the  East  Indies. 


It  was  in  1745  that  the  Stuarts  made  their  last 
attempt  for  the  crown.  The  Chevalier  Charles 
Edward,  son  of  the  Pretender,  landed  in  Scot- 
land with  a few  adherents ; the  Highlanders 
rallied  to  his  standard ; his  forces  were  trium- 
phant at  Preston  Pans ; he  gained  Edinburgh, 
reduced  Carlisle,  and  advanced  into  England. 
The  English  Jacobites  were  not  so  ready  as 
the  Scotch;  the  chevalier  turned  back,  pur- 
sued by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  on  the 
bloody  plain  of  Culloden  the  hopes  of  his 
house  were  forever  extinguished.  In  the  time 
of  George  II.  the  change  from  old  to  new  style 
in  the  calendar  was  made.  [See  Time.] 

In  the  early  years  of  the  next  reign,  England 
waged  another  great  and  successful  war  with 
France  and  Spain.  But  the  most  important 
feature  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  was  the 
loss  of  America,  produced  by  the  odious  tyr- 
anny of  England.  After  a struggle  of  eight 
years,  in  which  she  saw  her  vast  armies  and 
fleets  defeated  by  the  bravery  of  a nation  of 
patriots,  Great  Britain  was  compelled  to  re- 
linquish her  colonies,  and  acknowledge  their 
independence.  The  peace  of  Europe  was 
broken  by  the  different  powers  siding  with 
the  combatants,  and  thus  England  was  at  once 
involved  in  war  by  sea  and  land  with  America, 
France,  Spain,  and  Holland,  while  the  dissen- 
sions of  party  at  home  increased  to  an  alarm- 
ing height.  The  war  was  concluded  by  a 
treaty  with  those  powers  in  1783.  The  war 
of  the  French  revolution  forms  a second  period 
of  this  reign.  The  first  direct  interference  on 
the  part  of  the  British  was  in  two  unsuccess- 
ful expeditions  to  the  continent  under  the 
Duke  of  York  and  Sir  S.  Hood,  and  in  the 
capture  of  some  French  West  India  islands, 
and  of  Pondicherry  in  India.  In  the  latter 
country  very  great  advantages  were  acquired 
over  the  natives ; Tippoo  Sultan  was  entirely 
defeated  and  killed,  and  Seringapatam  cap- 
tured. 

France,  having  disposed  of  her  continental 
enemies,  began  to  act  on  the  offensive,  and 
undertook  an  invasion  of  Ireland,  seven  ships 
of  the  line  having,  with  that  intent,  anchored 
in  Ban  try  Bay.  The  war  in  the  mean  time  had 
divided  the  sentiments  of  the  English  people, 
and  strong  dissatisfaction  was  manifested  by 
the  revolutionary  party.  The  ministers  were 
firm  in  their  measures,  and  the  king’s  life 
was  put  in  danger  on  his  going  to  parliament 


ENG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


317 


Two  attempts  at  negotiation  failed,  and  the 
internal  difficulties  were  increased  by  the 
stoppage  of  the  bank,  the  mutiny  of  the  fleet 
at  Spithead  and  the  Nore,  and  the  menace  of 
rebellion  in  Ireland.  The  first  evil  was  palli- 
ated, but  the  two  last  were  not  suppressed 
without  much  bloodshed.  The  intentions  of 
the  French  were,  however,  defeated;  1,800 
men  who  had  landed  in  Ireland,  surrendered, 
and  the  English  fleet  recovered  its  reputation 
by  a victory  over  the  Spaniards,  and  by  the 
celebrated  battle  of  the  Nile,  in  1798.  These 
events  having  raised  the  spirits  of  the  conti- 
nental powers,  Germany,  Russia,  and  Turkey 
joined  England  against  France,  while  Ireland 
was  pacified  by  a show  of  much  promise 
which  was  to  be  effected  by  an  union.  The 
Austrians  were  annihilated  at  Marengo ; the 
English,  at  the  request  of  the  sultan,  agreed 
to  evacuate  Egypt ; and  they  made  an  un- 
successful attempt  upon  the  Boulogne  flotilla 
with  which  the  French  threatened  an  inva- 
sion of  Britain.  Such  was  the  state  of 
things,  when,  in  1802,  the  combatants  found 
it  convenient  to  conclude  peace. 

The  war  recommenced  in  1803,  by  the  loss 
on  the  English  side  of  Hanover,  and  the 
seizure  of  the  British  in  France,  which  was 
retaliated  by  the  seizure  of  French  ves- 
sels and  seamen.  To  oppose  the  increasing 
power  of  Napoleon,  Mr.  Pitt  was  once  more 
made  premier.  In  the  mean  time  the  most 
advantageous  treaties  had  been  concluded 
with  the  native  states  of  India,  and  the 
French  defeated  by  the  dying  Nelson  in  the 
great  and  decisive  naval  engagement  of  Tra- 
falgar, in  1805.  This  was  the  last  trophy  of 
those  great  preparations  which  Mr.  Pitt  had 
made,  to  support  his  system  by  the  overthrow 
of  that  of  the  French,  an  object  which  in  the 
sequel,  they  certainly  accomplished.  Pitt 
died  in  1806,  and  Mr.  Fox,  his  great  political 
opponent  and  successor,  in  the  same  year. 
During  this  period,  the  successes  in  other 
parts  had  been  partial ; but,  at  home,  a tri- 
umph over  injustice  and  inhumanity  was  ob- 
tained in  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade. 
The  new  ministry,  persisting  in  pressing  the 
Catholic  claims,  received  his  majesty’s  intima- 
tion to  resign.  It  was  at  this  juncture,  in 
1808,  that  Britain  made  herself  a party  to 
reinstate  the  imbecile  Bourbon  of  Spain. 


The  campaign  was  commenced  by  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  (afterward  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton), with  the  repulse  of  Junot  at  Vimeira ; 
but  the  defeat  and  death  of  Sir  John  Moore, 
at  Corunna,  followed.  Though  the  English 
under  Sir  Arthur  W elltesley  were  still  in  force 
in  Portugal,  and  had  obtained  some  advan- 
tages, as  at  Talavera,  they  had  to  contend 
equally  with  the  weakness  of  the  Spaniards 
and  the  power  of  the  French.  They  therefore 
entrenched  themselves  behind  their  lines  at 
Torres  Yedras. 

Two  expeditions  of  different  fortune  took 
place  at  this  time ; one  to  the  south  of  Italy, 
and  the  other  to  the  island  of  Walcheren. 
Several  valuable  captures  in  other  parts  were 
made.  At  this  period  (1810),  the  insanity 
of  the  king  incapacitated  him  from  governing, 
and  his  son,  the  dissipated  Prince  of  Wales, 
was  appointed  regent.  The  war  in  Spain 
was  carried  on  with  determination,  but  with 
partial  success.  The  reorganization  of  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  armies,  and  the 
reviving  spirit  of  the  cortes,  changed  the 
aspect  of  affairs.  Meanwhile,  Russia,  Prussia, 
and  Sweden  had  entered  into  alliance  with 
England,  who  supplied  them  with  vast  sub- 
sidies to  support  their  armies  against  France. 
Holland,  also,  by  the  assistance  of  England, 
had  risen  on  its  masters,  and  Napoleon, 
pressed  by  the  allies,  and  having  suffered 
immense  losses  in  Russia,  was  obliged  to  give 
way,  and  armies  entered  France  on  two  sides. 
Lord  Wellington,  proceeding  through  Spain, 
passed  the  Pyrenees  through  almost  unre- 
mitted conflict,  invested  Bayonne,  occupied 
Bourdeaux,  defeated  Soult  before  Toulouse, 
and  there  received  the  news  of  the  capture 
of  Paris,  and  the  cessation  of  hostilities. 
Meanwhile  England  had  been  also  engaged  in 
a war  with  America,  which  was  prosecuted 
on  the  plea  of  her  assumed  right  to  search 
our  vessels  for  deserters.  The  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  at  Ghent  in  1814. 

The  next  year  Great  Britain  was  again 
called  into  active  co-operation  with  the  other 
confederates,  to  depose  Napoleon,  who  had 
returned  in  triumph  from  Elba,  and  resumed 
the  throne  of  France  without  opposition. 
After  the  victory  at  Waterloo,  the  allies  en- 
tered Paris,  and  reinstated  Louis  XVIII.,  on 
the  throne,  while  Napoleon  surrendered  him- 


ENG 


818 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


self  to  an  English  ship,  and  was  sent  to  St. 
Helena,  where  he  was  detained  until  his 
death,  in  1820. 

George  III.,  died  in  1820,  in  the  eighty- 
second  year  of  his  age,  and  the  sixtieth  of 
his  reign,  which  is  the  longest  and  most 
memorable  in  the  annals  of  England.  For 
the  last  ten  years  the  profligate  George  IV., 
had  ruled  as  prince  regent.  The  trial  of  his 
ill-used  queen,  her  death,  the  alarming  riots 
that  accompanied  her  funeral,  the  scarcity 
and  distress  in  Ireland,  and  the  removal  of 
civil  disabilities  from  the  Catholics,  marked 
his  ten  years’  reign.  He  died  in  1830,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  William,  who 
as  Duke  of  Clarence  had  served  for  a long 
time  in  the  navy. 

The  year  1832  is  famous  for  the  passage  of 
the  bill  for  parliamentary  reform,  which  was 
carried  by  the  commons  against  the  will  of  a 
majority  of  the  peers.  Two  years  after, 
slavery  was  abolished  throughout  the  British 
dominions  ; by  this  act  770,280  slaves  became 
freemen,  on  the  1st  of  August,  1834,  and 
£20,000,000  were  granted  by  parliament  for 
compensation  to  the  masters. 

William  was  succeeded  b}''  his  niece  Victo- 
ria, in  1837.  By  virtue  of  the  Salique  law, 
which  excludes  women  from  sovereignty, 
Hanover  was  now  severed  from  England,  and 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  a younger  son  of 
George  III.,  became  its  monarch.  During 
Victoria’s  reign  England  has  waged  several 
wars  in  the  East ; with  the  Chinese,  with  the 
Afghans,  and  with  the  Sikhs,  [See  China, 
Afghanistan,  India.]  The  great  contest  be- 
tween Russia,  and  the  allied  powers  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Turkey,  is  also  described 
in  another  page.  [See  Russo-Turkisii  War.] 

The  following  have  been  the  rulers  of 
England  since  the  conquest. 

1066.  William  the  Conqueror;  died  at  Rouen, 
Sept.  9th,  1087. 

1087.  William  Rufus ; killed  by  an  arrow,  Aug.  2d, 

1100. 

1100.  Henry  I.,  youngest  son  of  the  Conqueror ; 

died  of  a surfeit,  Dec.  1st,  1135. 

1135.  Stephen,  EarlofBlois,  nephew  of  Henry  I. 

The  Empress  Maud,  daughter  of  Henry, 
contended  with  him  for  the  crown. 
Stephen  died  Oct.  25th,  1154. 

THE  PLANTAGENETS. 

1154.  Henry  II.,  son  of  the  Empress  Maud  by 
her  second  husband,  Geoffrey  Planta- 
genet,  Earl  of  Anjou;  died  July  6th, 
1189. 


1189.  Richard  I.;  died  Apr.  6th,  1199. 

1199.  John,  brother  of  Richard;  died  Oct.  18th, 
1216. 

1216.  Henry  III.;  died  Novv  16th,  1272. 

1272.  Edward  I.;  died  July  7th,  1307. 

1307.  Edward  II. ; murdered  at  Berkley  Castle, 
Sept.  21st,  1327. 

1327.  Edward  III.;  died  June  21st,  1377. 

1377.  Richard  II.,  son  of  Edward  the  Black 
Prince,  and  grandson  of  Edward  III.; 
dethroned  Sept.  28th,  1399;  murdered 
at  Pomfret  Castle,  Feb.  10th,  1400. 

BRANCH  OP  LANCASTER. 

1399.  Henry  IV.,  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke 
of  Lancaster,  and  grandson  of  Ed- 
ward III.;  died  March  20th,  1413. 

1413.  Henry  V.;  died  Aug.  31st,  1422. 

1422.  Henry  VI. ; deposed  March  4th,  1461  ; 

murdered  in  the  Tower,  June  20th, 
1471. 

BRANCH  OF  YORK. 

1461.  Edward  IV.,  a descendant  from  two  sons 
of  Edward  III.,  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence, and  Edmond,  Duke  of  York ; died 
April  9th,  1483. 

14S3.  Edward  V.;  deposed  June  22d,  1483,  and 
murdered  in  the  Tower. 

1483.  Richard  III.,  brother  of  Edward  IV. ; slain 
at  Bosworth,  Aug.  22d,  1485. 

HOUSE  OP  TUDOR. 

1485.  Henry  VII.,  Earl  of  Richmond,  a descend- 
ant by  his  mother’s  side  from  John  of 
Gaunt ; married  Elizabeth,  the  heiress 
of  York;  died  Apr.  22d,  1509. 

1509.  Henry  VIII.;  died  Jan.  28th,  1547. 

1547.  Edward  VI.,  son  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Jane 
Seymour;  died  July  6th,  1553. 

1553.  Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Cathe- 
rine of  Arragon;  died  Nov.  17th,  1558. 

1558.  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  by 
Anna  Boleyn  ; died  Mar.  24th,  1603. 

HOUSE  OP  STUART. 

1603.  James  I.,  of  England,  and  VI.,  of  Scotland, 
great-grandson  of  Margaret,  daughter 
of  Henry  VIII.,  who  married  James  IV., 
of  Scotland;  died  Mar.  27th,  1625. 

1625.  Charles  I.;  beheaded  at  Whitehall,  Jan. 
30th,  1649. 

THE  COMMONWEALTH. 

1649.  Oliver  Cromwell,  made  protector  Dec.  12th, 
1653;  died  Sept.  3d,  1658. 

1658.  Richard  Cromwell,  made  protector  Sept. 
4th,  1658;  resigned  April  22d,  1659. 

THE  6TUARTS  RESTORED. 

1660.  Charles  II.,  son  of  Charles  I.;  died  Feb. 
6th,  1685. 

1685.  James  II.,  brother  of  Charles  II.;  abdi- 
cated by  flight,  Dec.  12th,  1688;  died 
in  exile,  Aug.  6th,  1701. 

1689.  William  (Prince  of  Orange,  the  son  of 
Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  I.)  and 
Mary  (daughter  of  James  II.)  Mary 
died  Dec.  28th,  1694;  and  William,  of 
a fall  from  his  horse,  Mar.  8th,  1702. 


ENG 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


319 


1702.  Anne,  second  daughter  of  James  II. ; died 
Aug.  1st,  1714. 

HOUSE  OP  HANOVER. 

1714.  George  I.,  Elector  of  Hanover  and  Duke 
of  Brunswick  Lunenburg,  son  of  Sophia, 
who  was  daughter  of  Elizabeth,  the 
daughter  of  James  I.;  died  June  11th, 
1727. 

1727.  George  II.;  died  Oct.  25th,  1760. 

1760.  George  III.,  grandson  of  George  II.;  died 
Jan.  29th,  1820. 

1820.  George  IV.;  died  June  26th,  1830. 

1830.  William  IV.,  brother  of  George  IV. ; died 
June  20th,  1837. 

1837.  Victoria,  only  child  of  Edward,  Duke  of 
Kent,  the  fourth  son  of  George  III. 

EPAMINONDAS,  a famous  Theban,  de- 
scended from  the  ancient  kings  of  Bceotia, 
but  born  and  reared  in  poverty.  He  was 
celebrated  for  his  private  virtues  and  military 
•accomplishments.  His  love  of  truth  was  so 
great  that  he  was  never  known  to  give  utter- 
ance to  a falsehood.  He  formed  an  inviola- 
ble friendship  with  Pelopidas,  whose  life  he 
saved  in  battle.  By  his  advice  Pelopidas 
delivered  Thebes  from  the  power  of  Lacedss- 
mon.  This  was  the  signal  of  war.  Epam- 
inondas  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Theban 
armies,  and  defeated  the  Spartans  in  the  cel- 
ebrated battle  of  Leuctra,  371  b.c.  Epami- 
nondas  entered  the  territoi  ies  of  Lacedaemon 
with  50,000  men.  Here  he  gained  many 
friends  and  partisans,  but,  at  his  return  from 
Thebes,  he  was  seized  as  a traitor  for  violating 
the  laws  of  his  country.  While  he  was  mak- 
ing the  Theban  army  victorious  on  every  side, 
he  neglected  the  law  which  forbade  any  cit- 
izen to  retain  in  his  hands  the  supreme  power 
for  more  than  one  month,  and  all  his  eminent 
services  seemed  unable  to  redeem  him  from 
death.  He  paid  implicit  obedience  to  the 
laws  of  his  country,  and  only  begged  of  his 
judges  that  it  might  be  inscribed  on  his  tomb, 
that  he  had  suffered  death  for  saving  his 
country  from  ruin.  This  animated  reproach 
was  felt ; he  was  pardoned,  and  invested  again 
with  sovereign  power.  He  was  successful  in 
a war  with  Thessaly,  and  again  engaged 
against  the  Lacedaemonians.  The  hostile 
armies  met  near  Mantinea  363  b.c.,  and  while 
Epaminondas  was  fighting  bravely  in  the 
thickest  of  the  enemy,  he  received  a fatal 
wound  in  the  breast,  and  expired  with  joy 
on  hearing  that  the  Boeotians  had  obtained  the 
victory.  On  hearing  his  friends  regret  that 


he  had  left  no  children,  he  said,  u I leave 
behind  me  two  immortal  daughters,  the  victo- 
ries of  Leuctra  and  Mantinea.” 

EPEE,  Charles  Michael  de  l’,  was  born 
at  Versailles  in  1712.  None  of  the  teachers 
who  had  been  successful  with  deaf  aftd  dumb 
pupils,  had  published  accounts  of  their  meth- 
ods, so  that  De  l’Epee  was  not  indebted  to 
them  for  the  mode  of  instruction  which  he 
first  employed  upon  two  sisters.  His  zeal  in 
the  cause  of  those  who  were  destitute  of 
speech  and  hearing  led  him  into  pecuniary 
embarrassment.  One  incident  in  his  life  is 
peculiarly  interesting.  He  met,  one  day,  in 
the  streets  of  Paris  a deaf  and  dumb  youth 
in  the  garb  of  a beggar,  whom  he  was  con- 
vinced was  the  heir  of  the  rich  family  of 
the  Count  of  Solar.  A law-suit  followed, 
which  was  at  first  successful,  but  when  the 
friends  of  Solar  were  dead,  his  property  was 
again  wrested  from  him,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  enlist  in  the  army  as  a cuirassier. 
The  Abbe  De  l’Epee  died  in  1789. 

EPICTETUS,  a Stoic  philosopher,  born  at 
Hieropolis,  in  Phrygia,  a.d.  90.  He  was  the 
slave  of  Epaphroditus,  a freedman  of  Nero. 
His  master  once  struck  him  a severe  blow 
upon  the  leg.  “You  will  break  it,”  was  the 
calm  reply  of  the  Stoic.  The  brute  repeated 
the  blow  and  broke  it.  “Did  I not  tell  you 
so  ? ” was  the  quiet  exclamation  of  the  phi- 
losopher. He  was  afterward  freed,  and  made 
governor  of  Cappadocia,  a.d.  134. 

EPICURUS  was  born  at  Gargettus,  near 
Athens,  342  b.c.  In  the  thirty-sixth  year  of 
his  age  he  opened  his  school  in  an  Athenian 
garden,  a spot  pleasantly  typical  of  his  doctrine. 
The  Platonists  had  their  academic  grove ; the 
Aristotelians  walked  along  the  Lyceum  ; the 
Cynics  growled  in  the  Cynosarges ; the  Sto- 
ics occupied  the  Porch ; and  the  Epicureans 
had  their  Garden.  There,  in  the  tranquil 
garden,  in  the  society  of  his  friends,  he  passed 
a peaceful  life  of  speculation  and  enjoyment. 
The  friendship  that  existed  among  them  is 
well  known.  In  a time  of  general  scarcity 
and  famine,  they  contributed  to  each  other’s 
support,  showing  that  the  Pythagorean  no- 
tion of  community  of  goods  was  unnecessary 
amongst  friends  who  could  confide  in  each 
other.  At  the  entrance  of  the  garden  they 
placed  this  inscription : “ The  hospitable 
keeper  of  this  mansion,  where  you  will  find 


EPI 


320 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


pleasure  the  highest  good,  will  present  you 
liberally  with  barley  cakes  and  w'ater  fresh 
from  the  spring.  The  gardens  will  not  pro- 
voke your  appetite  by  artificial  dainties,  but 
satisfy  it  with  natural  supplies.  Will  you 
not  be  well  entertained?”  He  taught  his 
scholars  that  the  summum  bonum  consisted 
in  happiness ; and  that  happiness  did  not 
spring  from  sensual  enjoyments,  but  from 
a practice  of  the  virtues.  He  commended 
wisdom,  was  temperate,  moderate,  gentle, 
firm,  and  fearless  of  death.  He  died  270 
b.c.,  and  had  many  followers. 

EPIRUS,  a province  on  the  borders  of 
Greece,  the  most  southerly  portion  of  the 
modern  Albania.  This  country  was  inhab- 
ited by  the  Chaones  and  the  Molossians. 
The  best  known  of  the  kings  of  Epirus  is 
Pyrrhus,  who  reigned  about  280  b.c.,  and 
distinguished  himself  greatly  by  his  wars 
with  the  Romans,  in  favor  of  the  Tarentines. 
Upon  the  death  of  Deodamia,  the  last  of 
this  race,  about  the  year  240  b.c.,  the  Epirots 
formed  themselves  into  a republic,  which 
was  reduced  167  b.c.  by  Paulus  AEmilius,  the 
Roman  general,  all  the  towns  destroyed,  and 
the  inhabitants  enslaved  in  one  day.  Upon 
the  taking  of  Constantinople,  in  1204,  Michael 
Angelus  seized  this  country,  and  his  poster- 
ity held  it  till  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks  under 
Amurath  II.,  in  1482.  In  1447,  Castriot 
(Scanderbeg)  revolted  from  the  Turks,  but 
the  country  was  finally  reduced  by  Moham- 
med II.,  in  1466. 

ERASMUS,  Desiderius,  a man  celebrated 
for  his  learning,  was  born  at  Rotterdam  in 
1467.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  assumed 
the  monastic  habit,  but  subsequently  obtained 
a dispensation  from  his  vows.  He  traveled 
through  many  countries,  but  w’as  received 
with  the  greatest  kindness  by  Henry  VIII. 
of  England,  and  was  for  a short  time  professor 
of  Greek  at  Oxford.  Erasmus  died  in  1536. 
Besides  his  theological  works,  and  his  edi- 
tions of  the  classics,  he  published  an  “ En- 
comium on  Folly,”  which  has  been  often 
reprinted.  His  letters  are  of  historical  value. 
His  writings  contributed  largely  to  bring 
about  the  Reformation,  though  he  himself  had 
not  the  faith  and  courage  to  be  a reformer. 

ERATOSTHENES,  one  of  the  greatest 
mathematicians  of  antiquity;  the  first  who 
measured  a degree  of  the  meridian,  and  the 


first  who  accurately  determined  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  earth’s  axis  to  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic.  He  flourished  at  Alexandria,  and 
died  b.c.  195,  aged  eighty. 

ERFURT,  in  Thuringia,  belonging  to  Prus- 
sia, contains  at  present  25,000  inhabitants. 
It  was  founded  in  the  fifth  century.  It  main- 
tained a kind  of  independence  until  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  the  Elector  of 
Mentz  gained  possession  of  it.  In  1814  it 
was  granted  to  Prussia  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna.  Erfurt  was  famous  for  the  meeting 
between  Napoleon  and  the  Emperor  Alexan- 
der with  many  other  kings  and  princes,  Sep- 
tember 27th,  1808.  Napoleon’s  object  was 
the  pacification  of  all  Europe.  He  was  now 
at  the  summit  of  power  and  glory,  and  he 
stood  upon  the  very  pinnacle  of  grandeur, 
with  a feeling  of  intense  enjoyment.  “ Come 
to  Erfurt,”  he  wrote  exultingly  to  Talma,  “and 
you  shall  play  to  a whole  pit  full  of  kings.” 

ERIE,  Lake,  one  of  the  great  fresh  seas 
that  sunder  the  United  States  from  the  Brit- 
ish dominions  in  America,  is  270  miles  in 
length  by  from  25  to  5t>  in  breadth.  On  its 
waters,  Sept.  10th,  1813,  a severe  action  was 
fought  between  the  British  squadron  and  an 
inferior  force  under  Commodore  Perry.  “We 
have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours,”  was 
Perry’s  announcement  of  the  victory  to  Gen. 
Harrison. 

ERSKINE,  Thomas,  Lord  Erskine,  a cele- 
brated lawyer,  was  the  son  of  David  Henry 
Erskine,  tenth  Earl  of  Buchan,  and  was  born 
in  the  year  1750.  It  was  not  until  aftir 
he  served  some  years  in  the  army  and  navy 
that  he  embraced  the  legal  profession,  at  the 
age  of  twenty-six.  In  1778,  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  and  his  success  was  both  speedy 
and  triumphant.  During  twenty -five  years 
he  enjoyed  an  extensive  practice.  He  was 
appointed  attorney-general  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  and,  in  1802,  keeper  of  his  seals  for 
the  duchy  of  Cornwall.  He  was  lord-chan- 
cellor during  the  short  ministry  of  Fox  and 
Grenville  in  1806.  He  died  in  1823.  His 
popularity  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that 
his  pamphlet,  entitled  “ A View  of  the  Causes 
and  Consequences  of  the  War  with  France,” 
went  through  forty-eight  editions.  Though 
celebrated  as  a forensic  orator,  he  failed  in 
the  House  of  Commons. 

ESCURIAL,  a magnificent  palace,  situated 


ESC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  321 


on  the  ascent  to  the  chain  of  mountains  bound- 
ing Old  Castile,  twenty-two  miles  from  Mad- 
rid. It  was  erected  by  Philip  II.,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  victory  of  St.  Quentin, 
gained  over  the  French  in  1557.  The  battle 
was  fought  on  the  day  of  the  festival  of  St. 
Lawrence,  and  the  palace  was  dedicated  to 
this  saint,  whose'  instrument  of  martyrdom, 
a gridiron,  is  immortalized  in  the  disposition 
of  the  buildings  composing  the  Escurial.  It 
is  said  to  have  cost  $50,000,000,  and  contains 
many  noble  works  of  art.  Through  all  its 
apartments  would  be  a journey  of  one  hund- 
red and  twenty  miles. 

ESQUIMAUX,  dwarfish  tribes  of  North 
America,  occupying  the  northern  coasts  of 
America.  They  live  by  hunting  and  fishing, 
and  are  alike  destitute  of  laws  and  religion. 
They  formerly  put  to  death  widows  and 
orphans,  and  those  who,  from  age  or  misfor- 
tune, were  incapable  of  gaining  a subsist- 
ence. 

ESSEX,  Robert  Devereux,  Earl  of,  born 
in  1567,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  in- 
troduced at  court  at  an  early  age.  He  soon 
won  the  regard  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  on 
his  return  from  a campaign  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, he  was  made  master  of  horse.  The 
last  of  his  two  expeditions  against  Cadiz 
failed  from  a misunderstanding  between  him 
and  Raleigh.  Returning,  Essex  was  made 
earl-marshal  of  England,  and  master-general 
of  the  ordnance.  Essex  was  impetuous  and 
indiscreet.  At  the  zenith  of  royal  favor,  he 
took  no  care  of  his  actions.  At  the  council- 
board,  he  contradicted  the  queen,  who  gave 
him  a smart  box  on  the  ear ; when  he  rose 
in  extreme  wrath,  clapped  liis  hand  upon  his 
sword,  and  swore  that  he  would  not  have 
taken  such  an  affront  even  from  Henry  VIII. 
In  Ireland,  he  made  a composition  with  the 
rebels,  and  quitted  his  government,  without 
leave  for  either  proceeding.  On  his  return 
to  London  he  was  taken,  tried,  and  beheaded, 
February  25th,  1601.  While  in  prison  he  is 
said  to  have  intrusted  to  the  Countess  of  Not- 
tingham a ring  which  he  had  received  from 
the  queen,  when  high  in  favor,  with  the  pro- 
mise to  pardon  any  offense  on  its  presenta- 
tion. Contrary  to  her  pledge,  the  countess 
retained  the  ring.  She  confessed  her  guilt 
upon  her  death-bed,  and  Elizabeth  is  said  to 

21 


have  exclaimed,  “ God  may  forgive  you,  but 
I never  will!  ” 

The  son  of  Essex*  after  having  served 
Charles  I.,  became  a general  of  the  parliamen- 
tary party,  but  did  not  enjoy  a high  degree 
of  favor,  and  died  suddenly  in  1646. 

ESSLING,  a small  village  about  seven 
miles  from  Vienna.  Here  a dreadful  conflict 
was  fought  May  21st  and  22d,  1809,  between 
the  armies  of  France  and  Austria,  commanded 
by  Napoleon  and  the  Archduke  Charles. 
Napoleon  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  30,000 
men ; but  the  loss  of  the  Austrians,  also  most 
severe,  exceeded  20,000.  Marshal  Massena 
was  created  Duke  of  Essling  by  Bonaparte. 

ESTAING,  Charles  Henry,  Count  d’,  a 
French  admiral,  and  lieutenant-general  of  the 
French  armies,  was  the  descendant  of  a noble 
family,  and  commenced  his  career  in  the  West 
Indies.  He  was  sent  with  a fleet  to  aid  the 
Americans  during  the  Revolution.  He  was 
guillotined  in  1793. 

ETRURIA,  the  country  of  the  Etruscans, 
now  Tuscany.  The  Etruscans  at  a very  early 
age  had  received  the  arts  from  Greece,  and 
produced  some  most  beautiful  specimens. 
They  gave  to  the  Romans  their  early  relig- 
ious usages  and  architecture,  and  finally 
became  the  victims  of  Roman  ambition. 

In  1801  the  name  of  Etruria  was  restored, 
and  the  country  was  made  a kingdom,  and 
remained  so  until  amalgamated  with  the 
French  empire,  by  a senatorial  decree  of  May 
30th,  1808.  The  next  year  Eliza,  the  sister 
of  Napoleon,  received  this  territory,  with  the 
title  of  Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany.  In  1814 
its  ancient  rulers  regained  it. 

EUCLID,  the  great  mathematician,  flour- 
ished at  Alexandria  about  300  b.c. 

EUGENE,  Francis,  of  Savoy,  commonly 
called  Prince  Eugene,  fifth  son  of  Eugene 
Mauri cfe,  Duke  of  Savoy-Carignan,  was  born 
at  Paris  in  1663.  His  mother  was  Olympia 
Mancini,  niece  to  Cardinal  Mazarin.  He  was 
educated  for  the  church,  but  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  and  the  exile  of  his  mother,  he 
and  his  brother  Philip  went  to  Vienna,  where 
they  met  with  a gracious  reception.  In  the 
war  which  broke  out  with  Turkey,  Prince 
Philip  fell  in  battle,  and  left  his  command  to 
Eugene,  who  signalized  himself  at  the  siege 
of  Vienna  in  1683,  as  he  did  afterward  at 


EUG 


322 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Buda.  He  next  served  against  the  French 
in  Italy  ; and  in  1 697  commanded  the  army 
in  Hungary,  where  he* gained  a splendid  vic- 
tory at  Zeuta,  in  which  the  Turks  lost  above 
30,000  mon,  with  their  commander  the  grand 
vizier.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  oc- 
casioned by  the  disputes  about  the  Spanish 
succession,  Eugene  commanded  the  imperial- 
ists in  Italy,  where  he  was  opposed  to  Ville- 
roi,  whom  he  made  prisoner.  After  this  he 
acted  in  conjunction  with  Marlborough.  In 
1712  the  prince  came  to  England  to  prevail 
upon  the  court  to  continue  the  war,  but 
could  not  succeed.  Compelled  to  act  on  the 
defensive,  he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost ; 
and,  in  1714,  settled  preliminary  articles  with 
Marshal  Villars  at  Rastadt,  which  ended  soon 
after  in  a general  peace. 

In  1716  the  war  with  the  Turks  was  re- 
newed, and  the  prince  again  took  the  field 
in  Hungary,  where  he  attacked  the  enemy  in 
their  camp,  and  obtained  a complete  victory, 
which  was  followed  by  the  capture  of  Temes- 
war  and  Belgrade.  From  this  time  to  1733 
Eugene  remained  at  Vienna,  employed  in  the 
cabinet ; but  in  that  year  he  assumed  the 
command  in  Italy,  where  he  experienced 
various  success  in  the  contest  with  the  com- 
bined powers  of  France,  Spain,  and  Sardinia. 
He  was  found  dead  in  his  bed,  April  10th, 
1736. 

EULER,  Leonard,  a mathematician  of 
Basle,  born  in  1707.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  his  native  place.  In  his 
nineteenth  year  he  gained  a prize  from  the 
academy  of  Paris  for  the  best  treatise  on  the 
masting  of  vessels.  He  took  the  department 
of  mathematics  in  the  academy  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  published  a vast  number  of  trea- 
tises. In  the  French  academy  of  sciences  he 
gained  ten  prizes.  In  1741  he  became  pro- 
fessor in  ihe  Berlin  academy,  but  returned  to 
St.  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in  1783,  in  the 
office  of  director  of  the  mathematical  depart- 
ment. Throughout  his  life,  he  received  hon- 
ors from  all  quarters.  He  was  cheerful  and 
amiable  in  private  life,  although  the  last 
seventeen  years  of  his  existence  were  passed 
in  total  blindness. 

EUPATORIA,  a seaport  on  the  west  coast 
of  the  Crimea.  After  the  allied  English, 
French,  and  Turkish  armies  landed  here, 
Sept  14th,  1854,  a detachment  of  Turks 


occupied  the  place.  It  was  attacked  Feb. 
17th,  1855,  by  a large  force  of  Russians  un- 
der Liprandi,  who  were  repulsed. 

EURIPIDES,  a celebrated  tragic  poet,  in 
great  favor  with  Archelaus  of  Macedonia, 
was  born  at  Salamis  on  the  day  that  the  army 
of  Xerxes  was  roujted  by  the  Athenians.  He 
wrote  seventy -five  tragedies,  only  nineteen 
of  which  are  extant.  Euripides  was  called 
Misogynes  for  his  hatred  of  women,  and  par- 
ticularly of  his  own  wife.  In  the  seventy- 
fifth  year  of  his  age,  b.c.  405,  he  was  torn 
to  pieces  by  dogs. 

EUROPE,  the  least  extensive,  but  the 
most  improved  of  the  great  divisions  of  the 
globe,  is  situated  between  36°  and  71°  N.  lati- 
tude. It  contains  about  3,900,000  square 
miles,  with  a population  of  265,000,000,  and 
is  bounded  by  the  sea  in  all  directions  except 
the  east,  where  it  joins  Asia. 

The  following  is  a list  of  the  states  of  Eu- 
rope, classified  according  to  their  forms  of 
government,  j Republics:  Andorra  (among 
the  Pyrenees),  Ionian  Islands,  San  Marino, 
Switzerland,  and  the  free  cities  of  Bremen, 
Frankfort,  Hamburg,  and  Lubeck.  Limited 
Sovereignties : the  duchies  of  Brunswick, 
Nassau,  Saxe  Altenburg,  Saxe  Coburg  and 
Gotha,  Saxe  Meiningen  Hildburghausen,  and 
Saxe  W eimar  Eisenach ; the  grand-duchies 
of  Baden,  Hesse  Darmstadt,  Mecklenburg 
Schwerin,  Mecklenburg  Strelitz,  and  Olden- 
burg; the  kingdoms  of  Bavaria,  Belgium, 
Denmark,  Great  Britain,  Greece,  Hanover, 
Holland  (with  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg), 
Portugal,  Prussia,  Sardinia,  Saxony,  Spain, 
Sweden  and  Norway,  and  Wurtemburg; 
the  empire  of  France;  the  electorate  of 
Hesse  Cassel ; and  the  principalities  of  Lich- 
tenstein, Lippe  Detmold,  Schauenburg  Lippe, 
Reuss,  Schwarzburg  Rudolstadt,  Schwarz- 
burg  Sondershausen,  and  Waldeck.  Absolute 
Sovereignties:  the  duchies  of  Anhalt  Bern- 
burg,  Anhalt  Dessau  Cothen,  Modena  and 
Massa,  and  Parma ; the  empires  of  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Turkey ; the  popedom  of  the 
States  of  the  Church , the  landgraviate  of 
Hesse  Homburg ; the  principalities  of  Monaco 
and  Montenegro ; the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies ; and  the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany. 

EUSEBIUS.  There  were  several  bishops 
of  this  name  in  the  same  epoch,  who  are 

often  confounded.  The  first  is  the  most 

# 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


323 


famous.  Eusebius  Pamphvlus,  Bishop  of 
Caesarea,  flourished  a.  d.  270-340.  Eusebius, 
Bishop  of  Nicomedia,  an  Arian,  died  841. 
Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Emessa,  a theological 
writer,  flourished  340-60.  Eusebius,  Bishop 
of  Vercelli,  an  Athanasian  theological  writer, 
flourished  354—70. 

EUTAW  SPRINGS,  S.  C.,  Battle  of,  one 
of  the  most  severely  contested  battles  of  the 
Revolution,  fought  Sept.  8th,  1781.  Both 
sides  claimed  the  victory:  it  belonged  to 
neither,  but  the  advantage  was  with  the 
Americans.  Gen.  Greene  s forcen  umbered 
2,300,  a third  of  whom  were  militia  ; out  of 
which  152  were  kill'ed,  424  wounded,  and  40 
missing.  The  loss  of  the  British  was  693,  of 
whom  85  were  killed  on  the  field.  Greene 
took  500  prisoners.  This  was  virtually  the 
close  of  the  campaign  in  South  Carolina. 

EUTROPIUS,  Flavius,  a Latin  author 
who  flourished  about  a.  d.  360. 

EVELYN,  John  (1620-1706,)  an  English 
gentleman  of  easy  fortune,  who  wrote  several 
scientific  works  in  a popular  style.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  in  England  to  treat  gardening 
and  planting  scientifically. 

EVERETT,  Edward,  the  orator,  scholar 
and  diplomatist,  was  born  in  Dedham,  Mass., 
April  11,  1794.  He  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  at  the  age  of  17,  with  the  high- 
est honors  of  his  class,  gave  the  Phi  Beta 
» Kappa  poem  at  18,  succeeded  the  gifted  Buck- 
minster in  Brattle  Street  Church  at  19. 
Elected  to  a Greek  Professorship  in  Harvard 
College,  with  permission  to  visit  Europe,  he 
spent  four  years  in  study  in  Germany  and  in 
travel.  In  1824  he  gained  great  celebrity  as 
an  orator  and  thinker  by  his  Phi  Beta  Kappa 
oration.  His  occasional  orations  and  ad- 
dresses from  that  time  till  his  death,  pro- 
nounced at  Plymouth,  Concord,  Charles- 
town, Lexington,  and  other  places,  linked 
with  revolutionary  traditions  and  glory — eu- 
logies on  Washington,  Jefferson,  the  elder 
and  younger  Adams,  and  anniversary  and 
philanthropic  discourses  secured  for  him  the 
preeminent  position  among  the  accomplished 
orators  of  America.  In  1825-35  he  was  a 
Member  of  Congress — then  four  years  Gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts.  In  1841  he  became 
Minister  to  England,  and  in  the  negotiation 
of  the  Northeastern  Boundary  question,  the 
McLeod  and  Creole  affairs  he  displayed  great 


ability  and  statesmanship.  He  became  Pres- 
ident of  Harvard  Coll,  in  1849,  Secretary  of 
State  under  President  Fillmore  in  1852,  U. 
S.  Senator  in  1853,  (but  resigned  on  account 
of  ill  health,)  and  candidate  for  the  Vice 
Presidency  in  1860  with  John  Bell  of  Tenn. 

Emerging  from  private  life  at  the  opening 
of  the  rebellion  he  gave  himself  with  patriotic 
ardor  to  the  defense  of  nis  country.  He  was 
chosen  to  give  the  oration  at  the  consecration 
of  the  cemetery  at  Gettysburg.  His  death 
was  followed  by  an  official  order  by  President 
Lincoln,  setting  forth  “ the  learning,  elo- 
quence, unsurpassed  and  disinterested  labors 
of  patriotism  in  a time  of  political  disorder” 
of  the  deceased,  and  ordering  appropriate 
honors  to  be  rendered  to  his  memory  wher- 
ever the  national  name  and  authority  are 
recognized. 

His  published  works  are  “ Life  of  Wash- 
ington,” and  three  volumes  of  Orations  and 
Addresses. 

EWING,  Jonx,  a celebrated  American  di- 
vine and  mathematician,  was  born  in  Cecil 
Co.,  Md.,  June  22d,  1732,  and  was  gradua- 
ted at  Princeton  Coll,  in  1755.  He  became, 
in  1759,  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  con- 
gregation in  Philadelphia,  and  instructed  the 
philosophical  classes  in  the  College  there. 
He  was  provost  of  the  University  of  Phila- 
delphia from  1775  till  his  death,  Sept.  8,  1802. 

EXMOUTH,  Lord.  Edward  Pellew  was 
born  at  Dover,  April  19th,  1757.  Entering 
the'navy,  he  was  raised  6tep  by  step  till  he 
reached  the  rank  of  admiral.  In  1816  he 
bombarded  Algiers,  and  rescued  more  than 
1000  Christians  who  had  been  groaning  in 
Algerine  captivity.  For  this  noble  exploit 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  On  his  coat  of 
arms  was  emblazoned  a figure  new  to  herald- 
ry, a Christian  slave  holding  aloft  the  cross 
and  dropping  his  broken  fetter.  He  died 
January  23d,  1832. 

EYCK,  John  and  Hubert  van,  artists  who 
flourished  at  Ghent  and  Bruges  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  century,  are  said  to  have 
discovered  the  method  of  mixing  paints  in 
oil  or  varnish. 

EYLAU,  a small  town  in  Prussia,  where 
Napoleon  won  a great  victory  over  the  Rus- 
sians on  the  7th  and  8th  of  Feb.,  1807.  The 
French  lost  15,000  men,  the  Russians  in  slain 
alone,  20,000. 


EYL 


324 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


F. 

FABIUS  MAXIMUS,  a celebrated  Roman 
who,  from  a dull  and  unpromising  childhood, 
sprang  into  a maturity  of  valor  and  heroism, 
and  was  gradually  raised  by  his  merit  to  the 
highest  offices  in  the  state.  In  his  first  con- 
sulship he  gained  a victory  over  Liguria,  and 
the  fatal  battle  of  Thrasymene  occasioned  his 
election  to  the  dictatorship.  In  this  impor- 
tant office  he  began  to  oppose  Hannibal,  not 
by  fighting  him  in  the  open  field  like  his 
predecessors,  but  by  continually  harassing  his 
army  by  countermarches  and  ambuscades, 
for  which  he  received  the  surname  of  Cunc- 
tator)  or  ‘delayer.’  When  he  had  laid  down 
his  office  of  dictator,  his  successors,  for  a 
while,  followed  his  plan ; but  the  rashness 
of  Yarro,  and  his  contempt  for  the  operations 
of  Fabius,  occasioned  the  fatal  battle  of 
Cannae;  and,  on  that  occasion,  the  Cartha- 
ginian general  observed  that  Fabius  was  the 
Hannibal  of  Rome.  When  he  had  made  an 
agreement  with  Hannibal,  for  the  ransom  of 
the  captives,  which  was  totally  disapproved 
by  the  Roman  senate,  he  sold  all  his  estates 
to  pay  the  money,  rather  than  forfeit  his 
word.  The  bold  proposal  of  young  Scipio 
to  carry  the  war  from  Italy  into  Africa,  was 
regarded  as  chimerical  by  Fabius,  and  re- 
jected by  him  as  too  hazardous  an  experi- 
ment. He  did  not  live  to  see  the  success 
of  the  Roman  arms  under  Scipio,  and  the 
conquest  of  Carthage  by  measures  which  he 
treated  with  contempt,  and  heard  proposed 
with  indignation.  He  died  in  his  one  hun- 
dredth year,  202  b.c.,  after  he  had  been  five 
times  consul. 

FABRICIUS,  Caius,  surnamed  Luscinus, 
a truly  heroic  and  virtuous  Roman,  incor- 
ruptible at  a time  when  wealth  was  almost 
omnipotent,  and  preserving  a fearless  bearing 
in  the  presence  of  the  mightiest.  He  lived 
at  a time  of  danger  to  the  commonwealth, 
when  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  had  come  to 
Italy,  less,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  aid  to 
the  Tarentines,  than  of  acquiring  a military 
reputation  by  conquering  the  masters  of  the 
world.  When  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  Pyrrhus  for  the  purpose  of  redeeming 
some  prisoners,  that  king  attempted  to  cor- 


rupt his  fidelity  by  a bribe,  which  was  indig- 
nantly refused.  The  king  on  the  next  day 
ordered  a curtain  to  be  suddenly  drawn,  dis- 
playing to  view  an  elephant  of  enormous 
size,  a creature  hitherto  unknown  in  Italy. 
The  brave  Fabricius  calmly  said,  “Your 
beast  of  to-day  moves  me  no  more  than  your 
gold  of  yesterday.”  He  died  275  b.c. 

FAHRENHEIT,  Gabriel  Daniel,  inventor 
of  the  thermometer  which  bears  his  name, 
about  1726,  was  a physician  and  philosopher 
of  Dantzic. 

FAIRFAX,  Lord  Thomas,  was  born  at 
Denton,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1611.  He  entered 
into  military  service  under  Lord  Vere,  in 
Holland,  and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
wars  took  part  against  the  king.  Afterward, 
however,  the  jealousy  of  Cromwell  disgusted 
him  with  the  Puritans,  although  he  continued 
in  the  employ  of  the  government.  He  as- 
sisted in  the  Restoration,  was  reconciled  to 
Charles  II.,  and  died  in  1671. 

FAIRIES.  Almost  all  nations  have,  in 
ignorant  times,  possessed  a strong  belief  in 
the  supernatural,  which  has  been  continued 
to  the  present  day,  among  the  unenlightened. 
Wild  and  terrific  scenes  were  peopled  by  the 
imagination  with  fierce  and  fearful  beings, 
while  flowery  dells,  sequestered  glades,  green 
and  smiling  forests,  and  pleasant  water-falls 
were  selected  as  the  haunts  of  a gentler  and 
more  graceful  race  of  beings  than  belong  to 
humanity.  Pastoral  nations  delighted  to  pic- 
ture forms  of  miniature  elegance,  whose 
habitations  were  delicate  and  fragrant  flow- 
ers. The  fairy  queen  Titania  hung  like  a 
bee  or  butterfly  within  a harebell,  or  led  the 
gay  dance  by  moonlight  over  roses,  without 
bending  the  most  fragile  floweret  or  leaf  be- 
neath her  footstep.  The  beings  called  fairies 
were  at  first  termed  elves,  the  word  ‘elf’ 
originating  with  the  Saxons,  who  from  re- 
mote antiquity  believed  in  them. 

The  Laplanders,  Icelanders,  and  inhabit- 
ants of  Finland  believed  in  the  existence  of 
fairies.  Many  affirmed  that  they  had  had 
intercourse  with  them,  and  had  been  invited 
to  their  subterranean  retreats,  where  they 
were  hospitably  entertained.  The  little  men 


FAI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


825 


and  women  handed  round  wine  and  tobacco, 
with  which  the  mortal  visitors  were  supplied 
in  abundance,  and  afterward  sent  them  on 
their  way,  with  good  advice,  and  an  honorable 
escort.  Up  to  this  time,  these  people  boast 
of  mingling  in  the  magical  ceremonies  and 
dances  of  the  fairies. 

The  word  fairy  is  thought,  by  most  writers, 
to  be  derived  from  the  Persian,  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  English  fairies  and  the  Persian 
Peris  is  similar.  The  Peris  of  the  orientals 
are  represented  as  females  of  exquisite  beauty 
and  great  gentleness,  who  are  not  permitted 
to  reside  in  heaven.  They  are  not  of  earth, 
howbeit.  They  live  in  the  colors  of  the 
rainbow,  among  the  gorgeously  tinted  clouds, 
and  are  nourished  by  the  fragrance  of  sweet 
flowers.  The  Dives  of  the  Persians  were 
spirits  of  the  male  sex,  with  habits  and  dis- 
positions directly  contrary  to  those  of  the 
Peris.  They  were  malevolent,  cruel,  and 
fierce,  and  hideous  in  their  appearance. 
Huge  spiral  horns  sprang  from  their  heads ; 
their  eyes  were  large  and  staring,  their 
claws  sharp  and  their  fangs  terrific.  Covered 
with  shaggy  hair,  and  having  long  rough 
tails,  it  seemed  as  if  they  possessed  every 
deformity.  The  Dives  warred  with  mankind, 
and  pursued  the  Peris  with  unrelenting 
hatred.  Their  lives,  however,  were  limited, 
and  they  were  not  incapable  of  feeling 
personal  violence.  The  fancies  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  East  teem  with  supernatural 
beings.  The  Genii,  spirits  of  vast  size,  were 
said  to  have  been  imprisoned  by  Solomon, 
who  shut  them  up  in  caskets  upon  which  he 
placed  his  seal.  Some  were  thrown  into 
rivers.  A fisherman  once  drew  one  up  from 
the  bottom  of  a stream  in  his  net,  and  the 
vessel  being  opened,  a dense  smoke  arose 
from  the  interior.  The  smoke  gradually 
assumed  the  vast  figure  of  a Genius.  The 
whole  story  is  related  in  the  “ Arabian  Nights’ 
Entertainments.” 

Fairies  of  a certain  class,  such  as  the  war- 
like elves  or  fays,  were  believed  to  exist  by 
all  European  nations.  During  times  of  mili- 
tary enthusiasm,  the  fancy  of  warriors  saw 
processions  of  fairies,  well  armed  and 
mounted,  bearing  gorgeous  banners ; their 
weapons  glittering  in  the  moonlight,  or 
gleaming  like  lightning  on  the  darkness  of 
the  night.  A Bohemian  legend  says  that  a 


certain  knight,  traveling  with  a friend,  met 
one  of  these  nocturnal  processions,  and,  dis- 
regarding the  caution  of  his  companion, 
spurred  his  horse  forward  to  attack  them. 
Horse  and  rider  were  found  dead  upon  the 
spot  in  the  morning.  The  Swedes  asserted 
that  there  was  a certain  class  of  supernatural* 
beings,  pretty  much  the  same  as  the  Brownies 
of  Scotland,  who  assisted  the  miners,  labored 
in  the  shafts,  and  were  far  more  ingenious 
than  mortal  workmen. 

The  fairies  of  England  were  generally  of  a 
harmless  disposition.  Oberon  and  Titania, 
the  fairy  king  and  queen,  were  pleasant  little 
people,  with  a spice  of  humanity  in  their 
dispositions.  Robin  Goodfellow  was  a mis- 
chievous little  creature,  but  not  very  spiteful. 
He  was  represented  like  a rustic,  “in  a suit 
of  leather,  close  to  his  body,  his  hands  and 
face  russet  color,  with  a flail.”  The  Scottish 
fairies  were  certainly  guilty  of  great  devia- 
tions from  the  path  of  honesty.  One  of  their 
greatest  sins  was  that  of  stealing  fine  children 
from  their  cradles,  and  leaving  in  the  place 
of  a healthy  infant  a rickety  and  deformed 
being.  The  elves  often  stole  away  wives  from 
their  husbands,  and  these  women  were  only 
to  be  regained  by  confronting  the  fairy  pro- 
cession on  a certain  night,  within  a year  and 
a day  after  the  loss,  which  time  was  allowed 
the  bereaved  mortals  for  restitution.  The 
electrical  circles  which  are  sometimes  found 
upon  the  turf  were  believed  to  be  fairy  rings, 
within  which  it  was  thought  dangerous  to 
sleep,  or  to  be  found  after  sunset.  The 
Scotch  fairies  were  of  diminutive  stature,  of 
a doubtful  nature,  capricious  and  very  resent- 
ful. The  Scotch  were  afraid  to  speak  of  them 
disrespectfully,  and  even  called  malicious 
spirits,  “gude  people.” 

These  fairies  lived  in  green  hills,  on  which 
they  danced  by  moonlight.  The  interior 
of  their  habitations  is  described  as  presenting 
a most  beautiful  appearance,  brilliant  with 
glittering  gold  and  gems,  and  containing 
every  thing  which  a splendid  fancy  could 
contrive.  But  as  “ all  is  not  gold  that  glit- 
ters, ” these  fine  appearances  are  said  to  be 
a show,  put  on  to  conceal  a mean  or  repulsive 
reality. 

These  little  beings  are  admirable  riders, 
and  the  best  judges  of  horses  in  the  world. 
They  go  about  in  large  companies  by  night, 


FAI 


826 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


when  their  presence  is  disclosed  by  the  shrill, 
bell-like  ringing  of  their  bridles.  When  the 
little  men  find  their  steeds  jaded,  they  do  not 
scruple  to  continue  their  pleasure  at  the  ex- 
pense of  mortals.  They  steal  horses,  and 
ride  them  almost  to  death.  The  animals  are 
found  in  the  morning  in  their  stalls  panting 
and  flecked  with  foam,  with  their  manes  and 
tails  matted  and  twisted.  The  shrewd  reader 
w ill  guess  that  the  fairies  often  had  to  bear 
blame  which  belonged  to  careless  grooms. 

A sailor  on  the  Isle  of  Man,  who  was 
riding  to  visit  his  sister,  was  invited  by  a 
party  of  jolly  fairies  who  were  hunting,  to 
join  them  in  their  excursion.  Not  being 
aware  of  the  nature  of  the  little  men,  who 
made  a gay  appearance,  as  they  swept  by  in 
green  dresses,  riding  to  the  music  of  a mellow 
horn,  Jack  followed  on,  delighted,  and  only 
learned  his  danger  when  he  arrived  at  his 
sister’s  house.  These  diminutive  huntsmen 
used  to  seize  upon  the  horses  which  English 
residents  brought  over  to  the  Isle  of  Man, 
and  ride  them  without  ceremony.  A gentle- 
man of  the  island  attributed  the  loss  of  half 
a dozen  capital  hunters,  to  the  little  men  in 
green.  Sometimes  they  were  more  honest, 
and  paid  good  money  for  horses  to  which 
they  took  a fancy.  A man  who  had  a fine 
horse  to  sell,  was  once  riding  his  steed  among 
the  mountains,  when  a dapper  little  gentleman 
stepped  up,  and  examined  it.  He  made  the 
animal  show  his  paces,  and,  after  some  hag- 
gling about  the  price,  bought  him.  All  this 
was  well  enough ; but  when  the  seller  dis- 
mounted, the  purchaser,  having  fixed  him- 
self in  the  saddle,  sank  through  the  earth 
with  his  bargain.  The  man  who  beheld  all 
this,  was  somewhat  startled,  but  as  there  was 
no  mistake  about  the  hard  red  gold  which  he 
had  received  from  the  fairy  horseman,  he  put 
it  in  his  pocket,  and  marched  off. 

The  Brownies  were  singular  beings,  mea- 
gre, shaggy,  and  wild  in  their  appearance. 
The  Brownie,  in  the  day-time,  lurked  in  re- 
mote recesses  of  the  old  houses  which  he 
delighted  to  haunt,  and  in  the  night  sedu- 
lously employed  himself  in  discharging  any 
laborious  task  which  he  thought  might  be 
acceptable  to  the  family  to  whose  service  he 
had  devoted  himself.  But,  unlike  a servant, 
he  did  not  labor  in  the  hope  of  wages : on 
the  contrary,  an  offer  of  recompense,  particu- 


larly of  food,  drove  this  delicate  gentleman 
away  forever.  He  was  fond  of  stretching 
himself  at  length  before  the  fire,  like  a dog, 
and  this  appeared  to  give  him  the  highest 
satisfaction.  An  amusing  anecdote  is  told 
concerning  this  habit.  A Brownie  who  had 
attached  himself  to  a certain  house,  used  to 
hover  round  the  kitchen,  uneasy  if  the  ser- 
vants sat  up  late,  which  prevented  him  from 
occupying  his  place  upon  the  hearth.  Some- 
times the  impatient  Brownie  appeared  at  the 
door,  and  admonished  the  servants  in  the 
following  terms : “ Gang  a’  to  your  beds,  sirs, 
and  dinna  put  out  the  wee  grieshoch  ; ” thus 
anglicized,  “Go  to  your  beds,  all  of  you,  and 
don’t  put  out  the  few  embers.”  The  Brownie 
left  the  hearth  at  the  first  crow  of  the  cock. 

In  this  liking  for  a nap  by  the  fire,  the 
Brownie  resembled  Miltons  lubber  fiend, 
but  the  latter  toiled  for  hire : 

“ How  the  drudging  goblin  sweat, 

To  earn  his  cream-bowl  duly  set, 

When  in  one  night,  ere  glimpse  of  morn, 

His  shadowy  flail  hath  threshed  the  corn, 

That  ten  day -laborers  could  not  end ; 

Then  lies  him  down  the  lubber  fiend, 

And,  stretched  out  all  the  chimney’s  length, 
Basks  at  the  tire  his  hairy  strength; 

And  cropful  out  of  door  he  flings, 

Ere  the  first  cock  his  matin  rings.” 

V Allegro, 

The  last  Brownie  known  in  Ettrick  Forest 
resided  in  Bodsbeck,  a wild  and  solitary  spot, 
where  he  exercised  his  functions  undisturbed, 
till  the  scrupulous  devotion  of  an  old  lady 
induced  her  to  hire  him  away,  as  it  was 
termed,  by  placing  in  his  haunt  a porringer 
of  milk  and  a piece  of  money.  This  hint  to 
depart  he  did  not  require  to  be  repeated : all 
the  night  he  was  heard  to  howl  and  cry, 
“Farewell  to  bonny  Bodsbeck,”  which  before 
the  dawn  he  had  abandoned  forever. 

The  inhabitants  of  Germany  believe  that 
there  exists  a race  called  the  Stille  Volke ; 
‘ the  silent  people.’  To  every  family  of  emu 
nence  a family  of  the  Stille  Volke  is  at- 
tached, containing  just  as  many  members 
as  the  mortal  family.  When  the  lady  of  the 
mortal  family  becomes  a mother,  the  queen 
of  the  Stille  Volke  enjoys  the  same  blessing, 
and  the  silent  people  endeavor  to  ward  off 
any  injury  which  threatens  those  whom  they 
protect. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  all  the 
different  sprites  with  which  superstition  has 


FAI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


327 


filled  the  woods,  waters,  hills,  and  valleys  of 
Europe.  A few  of  the  most  agreeable  elves 
have  been  touched  upon.  It  is  not  worth 
while  to  present  the  dark  features  of  a gloomy 
superstition.  The  Kelpies  and  the  Wild 
Huntsmen  have  found  no  place  in  this  sketch. 

The  legends  of  the  Irish  are  generally  gay, 
exhibiting  the  character  of  that  poor  but 
pleasant  people.  The  Irish  fairies  are  spruce 
little  gentlemen  and  merry  little  ladies,  who 
trip  it  away  with  blithe  hearts  and  light  foot- 
steps upon  their  favorite  and  beautiful  places 
of  resort.  Poor  people  delight  to  describe 
wealth  and  splendor  which  they  do  not  pos- 
sess, and,  accordingly,  in  the  tales  of  the 
Irish,  the  palaces  of  the  “good  people”  are 
full  of  gold  and  brilliance. 

FALCONER,  William,  was  born  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1730,  and  brought  up  to  the  sea. 
An  occurrence  in  his  own  life  forms  the 
groundwork  of  his  fine  poem,  “The  Ship- 
wreck.” He  was  lost  at  sea  in  1769. 

FALIERI,  Marino,  Doge  of  Venice,  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  having,  previously  to  his 
elevation,  gained  brilliant  victories  for  the 
republic.  Michael  Steno,  a young  patrician, 
who  conceived  himself  injured,  revenged  him- 
self by  some  offensive  lines  directed  against 
the  honor  of  the  doge’s  wife.  For  this  he  was 
only  punished  by  a temporary  confinement, 
and  the  doge,  burning  for  deeper  revenge, 
formed  a plan  for  punishing  the  aristocracy 
and  annihilating  the  power  of  the  senate. 
This,  however,  was  discovered,  and  Falieri 
put  to  death  in  1355.  Lord  Byron  and 
Casimir  Dtlavigne  have  made  this  story  the 
subject  of  powerful  dramas. 

FALKIRK,  a town  of  Stirlingshire  in 
Scotland,  where  the  army  of  Scots  commanded 
by  Cumyn  and  Sir  William  Wallace,  was  de- 
feated by  Edward  I.  of  England,  July  22d, 
1298.  Between  20,000  and  40,000  of  the 
Scotch  were  slain.  A battle  was  fought  at 
Falkirk,  Jan.  18th,  1746,  between  the  army 
of  George  II.  and  the  adherents  of  Prince 
Charles  Stuart,  in  which  the  latter  were  suc- 
cessful. 

FALKLAND,  Lucius  Carey,  Viscount, 
was  born  in  1610.  His  juvenile  irregularities 
were  terminated  by  an  early  marriage  with  a 
young  lady  to  whom  he  was  sincerely  at- 
tached. In  parliament  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  an  independent  course,  although  he 


ultimately  espoused  the  royal  cause,  and 
perished  at  the  battle  of  Newbury,  at  the 
age  of  thirty -four.  His  private  character 
endeared  him  to  all.  He  was  fond  of  study, 
and  once  observed,  “ I pity  unlearned  gentle- 
men on  a rainy  day.”  Lord  Falkland  was  a 
high-minded  patriot.  Lord  Clarendon  eulo- 
gized him,  as  “ a person  of  such  prodigious 
parts  of  learning  and  knowledge,  of  that 
inimitable  sweetness  and  delight  in  conversa- 
tion, of  so  flowing  and  obliging  a humanity 
and  goodness  to  mankind,  and  of  that  primi- 
tive simplicity  and  integrity  of  life,  that  if 
there  were  no  other  brand  upon  this  odious 
and  accursed  civil  war  than  that  single  loss, 
it  must  be  most  infamous  and  execrable  to  all 
posterity.” 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS,  a group  compris- 
ing two  large  and  numerous  small  islands, 
mountainous  and  boggy,  in  the  South  At- 
lantic Ocean,  east  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 
The  harbor  of  Port  Louis  is  a convenient 
place  of  refit  and  refreshment  for  vessels 
rQunding  Cape  Horn.  They  were  discovered 
in  1592,  and  belong  to  Great  Britain. 

FAMINE  in  Egypt,  which  lasted  seven 
years,  1708  b.c.  At  Rome,  when  many 
persons  threw  themselves  into  the  Tiber, 
436  b.c.  In  Britain,  so  that  the  inhabitants 
ate  the  barks  of  trees,  272  a.d.  One  in  Scot- 
land, where  thousands  were  starved,  306. 
In  England  and  Wales,  where  40,000  were 
starved,  310.  All  over  Britain,  325.  At 
Constantinople,  446.  In  Italy,  where  parents 
ate  their  children,  450.  In  Scotland,  576. 
AH  over  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland,  739. 
Another  in  Wales,  747.  In  Wales  and  Scot- 
land, 792.  Again  in  Scotland,  803.  Again 
in  Scotland,  when  thousands  were  starved, 
823.  A severe  one  in  Wales,  836.  In  Scot- 
land, which  lasted  four  years,  954.  Famines 
in  England,  864,  974,  976,  1005.  Awful  one 
throughout  Europe,  1016.  In  Scotland, 
which  lasted  two  years,  1047.  In  England, 
1050,  1087.  In  England  and  France,  leading 
to  a pestilential  fever,  from  1193  to  1195. 
In  England,  1251,  1315,  1335.  During  that  of 
1315,  the  people  fed  on  horses,  cats,  and  dogs. 
In  England  and  France,  called  the  dear  sum- 
mer, 1353.  In  England,  1438,  so  great  that 
bread  was  made  of  fern  root.  In  1565  two 
millions  were  expended  on  the  importation 
of  corn.  One  in  1748.  Another  in  1795, 


828 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  in  1801.  In  the  diocese  of  Drontheim, 
in  Norway,  in  consequence  of  the  intercept- 
ing of  supplies  by  Sweden,  5,000  persons 
perished,  1813. 

The  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland,  in 
1846  and  the  three  following  years,  caused 
great  want  and  suffering.  In  1871  thousands 
perished  in  Persia  by  famine.  In  some  cases 
men  fed  upon  the  flesh  of  the  dead. 

FARR  AG  UT,  David  Glascoe,  a cele- 
brated American  Admiral,  born  at  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  July  5,  1801.  His  father  was  a Span- 
iard. He  entered  the  navy  in  1812,  and  be- 
came lieutenant  in  1821.  In  1824  he  was 
assigned  to  duty  at  the  Norfolk  navy  yard 
where  he  remained  until  1833.  During  this 
year,  he  married  Hiss  Virginia  Loyall,  of 
Norfolk.  He  was  commissioned  commander 
in  1841.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  navy  yard  at  Mare  Island, 
California,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  captain 
in  1855.  In  1861  he  went  to  Washington 
and  offered  his  services  to  the  government, 
and  for  some  time  was  a member  of  the  na- 
val retiring  board.  In  1862  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  a naval  force  fitted  out  for^  the 
capture  of  New  Orleans.  Farragut  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  management  of  this 
expedition,  and  on  the  24tli  of  April  the  city 
surrendered.  In  July,  1862,  he  was  made 
rear-admiral.  He  afterwards  co-operated 
successfully  in  the  attacks  on  Vicksburg, 
Port  Hudson,  and  Mobile,  and  Congress,  in 
1864,  recognizing  the  country’s  obligations 
to  Farragut,  created  for  him  the  office  of 
vice-admiral.  In  July,  1866,  he  was  made 
admiral.  He  died  at  Portsmouth,  N.  II.,  on 
the  14  h of  August,  1870.  His  public  funeral 
took  place  in  New  York,  on  the  30th  of  Sep- 
tember, and  his  remains  were  interred  at 
AVoodlawn  cemetery. 

FAUST,  Doctor  John,  a dealer  in  the 
black  art,  who  lived  in  the  fifteenth  century 
lie  was  a student  of  Wittembu  g,  but  aban- 
doned theology  for  magic.  He  figures  in 
many  old  romances  and  tales,  English  and 
German.  The  following  is  a sketch  of 
one  of  these  ; “ The  History  of  the  Damnable 
Life  and  Deserved  Death  of  Doctor  John 
Faust  us.”  This  romance  is  a translation  from 
the  German.  Faustus  is  introduced  as  a stu- 
dent of  the  university  of  Wittemberg,  where 


he  is  made  doctor  of  divinity,  but  soon  after 
gives  himself  up  entirely  to  the  study  of  the 
black  art.  He  makes  a compact  with  the 
devil,  by  which  the  latter  is  to  serve  him  in 
all  his  desires  for  the  space  of  twenty -four 
years,  at  the  expiration  of  which  he  is  to 
deliver  himself  up,  body  and  soul,  to  the 
destroyer.  This  compact  is  written  with  his 
own  blood,  and  straightway  Mephistophiles 
becomes  his  familiar  spirit.  Generally  speak- 
ing, this  spirit  is  obedient  to  the  wishes  of 
Faustus,  but  when  the  doctor  puts  an  impro- 
per question,  or  tries  to  do  a good  action, 
Mephistophiles  dragoons  him  into  propriety 
by  a rabble  rout  of  imps,  or  frightens  him 
with  a cock  and  a bull  story  about  the  other 
world,  giving  him  a foretaste  of  the  pleasant 
pastime  of  being-  “tossed  upon  pitchforks 
from  one  devil  to  another.”  On  one  occa- 
sion, in  particular,  a great  procession  of  evil 
spirits  came  to  torment  him,  in  which  pro- 
cession Lucifer  appears  “in  a manner  of  a 
man  all  hairy,  but  of  a brown  color  like  a 
squirrel,  curled,  and  his  tail  turning  upward 
on  his  back  as  the  squirrels  use.  I think  he 
could  crack  nuts  too  like  a squirrel.” 

Then  a minute  account  is  given  of  Faus- 
tus’s  journey  to  Tartarus,  and  through  the 
air,  and  among  the  planets,  and  afterward 
through  the  most  famous  kingdoms  of  the 
earth,  whereby  it  appears  that  he,  and  not 
Columbus,  was  the  discoverer  of  America. 
Of  course  the  magic  doctor  was  deeply  read 
in  all  mysteries,  and  he  certainly  discourses 
wisely  upon  comets,  and  falling  stars,  and 
other  marvels.  One  chapter  relates  “how 
Faustus  was  asked  a question  concerning 
thunder.”  Ilis  answer  is  certainly  very 
luminous  for  a doctor  in  divinity  and  the 
black  art.  “It  hath  commonly  been  seen 
heretofore,”  says  he,  “that  before  a thunder- 
clap fell  a shower  of  rain,  or  a gale  of  wind: 
for  commonly  after  wind  falleth  rain,  and 
after  rain  a thunder-clap,  such  thickness 
comes  to  pass  when  the  four  winds  meet 
together  in  the  heavens,  the  airy  clouds  are 
by  force  beaten  against  the  fixed  crystal 
firmament,  but  when  the  airy  clouds  meet 
with  the. firmament,  they  are  congealed,  ar.d 
so  strike,  and  rush  against  the  firmament, 
as  great  pieces  of  ice  when  they  meet  on  the 
waters;  then  each  other  sounded  in  our 
ears  ; and  that  we  call  thunder.”  Afterward 


FAU 


HI  STORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


329 


comes  a series  of  the  doctor’s  merry  con- 
ceits, showing  how  he  practiced  necromancy ; 
how  he  transported  three  young  dukes 
through  the  air  from  Wittemberg  to  Munich; 
and  how  one  of  them  fell  from  the  magic 
cloak  on  which  they  sailed  through  the  air, 
and  was  left  behind  at  Munich,  being 
“strucken  into  an  exceeding  dumps.”  We 
are  also  told  how  he  pawned  his  leg  to  a 
Jew;  how  he  ate  a load  of  hay,  and  how  he 
cheated  a horse-jockey,  and  conjured  the 
wheels  from  a clown’s  wagon,  with  many 
other  wonders  of  a similar  nature.  And 
finally,  we  are  informed  that,  at  the  end  of 
the  appointed  time,  the  evil  one  came  for  him 
between  twelve  and  one  o’clock  at  night,  and 
after  dashing  his  brains  out  against  the  wall, 
left  his  body  in  the  yard,  “ most  monstrously 
torn  and  fearful  to  behold.” 

FAWKES,  Guy,  the  principal  agent  in  the 
gunpowder  plot,  in  the  reign  of  James  I., 
who,  being  discovered,  and  having  betrayed 
his  accomplices  to  the  number  of  eighty, 
was  executed  in  1606.  [See  Gunpowder 
Plot.] 

FENELON,  Francois  de  Salignac  de  la 
Motte,  the  venerable  Archbishop  of  Cam- 
bray,  was  born  in  1651.  He  preached  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  with  success,  and  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Cambray  in  1694.  He  had 
great  success  in  converting  the  Huguenots, 
but  it  was  by  means  of  mild  persuasion  and 
not  of  infuriate  threats.  He  superintended 
the  education  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy, 
Anjou,  and  Berri,  the  grandsons  of  Louis 
XIV.  Fenelon  died  in  1715.  His  literary 
productions  are  numerous,  but  his  most  cele- 
brated work  is  “Les  Aventures  de  Ttle- 
maque,”  which  inculcates  a pure  system  of 
morality  in  a pleasing  and  interesting  man- 
ner. 

FERDINAND  V.,  surnamed  the  Catholic, 
son  of  John  II.  of  Arragon,  was  born  in 
1453.  He  married  Isabella,  Queen  of  Cas- 
tile, and  thus  arose  the  united  kingdom  of 
Spain.  In  ten  years  he  conquered  the  Moors 
of  Grenada,  and  expelled  them  from  Spain 
in  1492.  He  acquired  Naples  - and  Navarre, 
and  during  his  reign  America  was  discov- 
ered by  Columbus.  He  died  in  1516  of  the 
dropsy.  His  policy  was  despotic,  and  his 
character  was  stained  by  the  introduction 
of  the  Inquisition. 


FERGUSON,  James,  a self-taught  experi- 
mental philosopher,  mechanist,  and  astrono- 
mer, was  born  in  Keith  in  1710.  While  a 
shepherd,  he  watched  the  stars  by  night,  and 
at  an  early  age  constructed  a celestial  globe. 
For  some  years  he  supported  himself  in 
Edinburgh  by  his  talents  as  a miniature 
painter.  In  1763  he  was  chosen  member 
of  the  Royal  Society.  He  died  in  1778. 

FERRARA,  a duchy  in  upper  Italy,  for  a 
long  time  ruled  by  the  house  of  Este,  now 
forming  part  of  the  States  of  the  Church. 

FESCH,  Joseph,  Cardinal,  the  maternal 
uncle  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  and  Archbishop 
of  Lyons,  was  bom  at  Ajaccio,  in  1763,  and 
died  in  1839. 

FEUDAL  or  FEODAL  LAWS,  the  tenure 
of  land,  by  suit  and  service,  to  the  lord  or 
owner  of  it,  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Saxons  about  600.  The  slavery  of  this  ten- 
ure was  increased  under  William  I.,  1068, 
who,  dividing  the  kingdom  into  baronies, 
gave  them  to  certain  persons,  and  required 
these  persons  to  furnish  the  king  with  money 
and  a stated  number  of  soldiers.  The  feudal 
system  was  discountenanced  in  France  by 
Lous  XI.  about  1470;  was  limited  in  England 
by  Henry  VII.,  in  1495 ; but  abolished  by 
statute,  12th  Charles  II.,  1663.  Clanship 
was  introduced  into  Scotland  by  Malcolm  II. 
in  1008,  and  finally  broken  up  by  statute  in 
1746. 

FEZZAN,  anciently  Phazania,  is  a country 
of  Africa,  south  of  Tripoli.  No  exact  es- 
timate of  the  population  has  been  made.  It 
perhaps  amounts  to  rather  more  than  26,000. 
Fezzan  is  the  largest  oasis  in  the  great  des- 
ert. It  is  now  a Turkish  pachalic. 

FICHTE,  Johann  Gottlieb,  an  eminent 
German  thinker,  was  born  in  Upper  Lusatia, 
May  19th,  1762,  and  died  Jan.  21st,  1814. 

FIELDING,  Henry,  one  of  the  earliest 
and  greatest  English  novelists,  was  bom  at 
Sharpham  Park,  Somersetshire,  April  22d, 
1707.  He  was  a great-grandson  of  the  Earl 
of  Denbigh.  The  Earls  of  Denbigh  derived 
their  origin  from  the  house  of  Hapsburgh, 
which  supplied  emperors  to  Germany  and 
kings  to  Spain.  Gibbon  used  this  fact  to 
point  his  eulogy  upon  the  novelist,  who  had 
won  for  himself  a more  durable  glory  than 
that  of  noble  birth : “ The  successors  of 
Charles  V.  may  disdain  their  brethren  of 


FIE 


330 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


England ; but  the  romance  of  ‘ Tom  Jones,’ 
that  exquisite  picture  of  human  manners, 
will  outlive  the  palace  of  the  Escurial  and 
the  imperial  eagle  of  the  house  of  Austria.” 
Henry’s  father  served  under  Marlborough 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general ; 
his  mother  was  a daughter  of  Mr.  Justice 
Gould.  The  general  had  a large  family  and 
was  a bad  economist ; Henry  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Leyden,  where  he  studied  dili- 
gently ; and  then  at  twenty-one  he  was 
thrown  upon  his  own  resources.  He  came 
to  London,  and,  as  he  said,  must  “ become  a 
hackney  writer  or  a hackney  coachman.” 
He  lived  precariously  by  writing  poor  pieces 
for  the  stage.  In  1736  he  married  Miss 
Cradock,  who  had  beauty  and  £1500,  and 
inherited  from  his  mother  an  estate  in  Dor- 
setshire worth  £200  a year.  In  Dorsetshire 
he  lived  dashingly  and  in  three  years  was 
penniless.  Then  dramatic  writing  again, 
political  pamphleteering,  an  attempt  to  sub- 
sist as  a barrister,  and  failures  as  a journalist ; 
till  in  1742  he  published  “Joseph  Andrews,” 
which  he  wrote  in  ridicule  of  Richardson’s 
“Pamela,”  The  revels  and  good  fellowship 
of  which  he  was  so  fond  brought  gout  upon 
him,  and  he  suffered  severely  from  that  and 
poverty.  His  wife,  who  was  his  model  for 
his  heroines,  died,  and  he  was  whelmed  in 
grief.  Her  maid  was  almost  broken-hearted 
at  the  loss  of  so  good  a mistress.  The  bond 
of  sympathy  became  a stronger  one,  and 
Fielding  made  the  maid  his  wife.  Poverty 
forced  him  to  accept,  in  December,  1748, 
what  was  then  considered  the  degrading 
office  of  Bow-street  magistrate,  the  duties  of 
which  he  honorably  discharged.  “Tom 
Jones,”  that  master-piece  among  English 
novels,  was  published  in  February,  1749,  and 
“Amelia”  in  1751.  His  constitution  was 
shattered ; dropsy,  jaundice,  and  asthma  had 
seized  him ; and  his  physicians  warned  him 
to  seek  a warmer  clime.  He  sailed  for  Lis- 
bon, and  died  there  October  8th,  1754,  in  the 
forty-eighth  year  of  his  age. 

The  dissipation  and  errors  of  Fielding’s 
life  are  not  to  be  palliated,  but  through  them 
all  shines  a noble  and  kindly  nature.  “Tom 
Jones  ” has  been  pronounced  the  best  novel 
in  the  language.  This,  and  Fielding’s  other 
tales,  though  touched  by  the  grossness  of  the 
time,  display  inimitable  wit,  wisdom,  humor, 


and  are  wonderful  for  their  truth  to  life  and 
yet  the  raciest  originality. 

FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN.  These  were 
fanatical  enthusiasts  who  arose  in  the  time 
of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  believed  the  day 
was  at  hand  when  Jesus  should  descend  from 
heaven,  and  erect  the  fifth  universal  mon- 
archy. Cromwell  dispersed  them  in  1653. 

FINGAL,  an  ancient  chieftain  of  Morven, 
a province  of  Caledonia,  born  in  282.  He 
was  the  determined  enemy  of  the  Romans, 
and  is  celebrated  by  Ossian,  who  represents 
him  as  his  father. 

FISHER,  John,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  was 
born  in  1459.  He  was  eminent  for  his  learn- 
ing and  virtues,  a firm  adherent  to  the 
church  of  Rome,  and,  like  Sir  Thomas  More, 
would  not  sanction  Henry’s  divorce  of  Queen 
Catherine.  The  king  threw  him  into  the 
Tower.  While  in  prison  the  pope  made  him 
a cardinal,  which  drew  from  the  king  the 
brutal  remark,  “Well,  let  the  pope  send  him 
a hat  when  he  will:  mother  of  God ! he  shall 
wear  it  on  his  shoulders  then,  for  I will  leave 
him  never  a head  to  set  it  on.”  After  a 
twelvemonth  of  confinement,  Fisher  was  exe- 
cuted, June  22d,  1535. 

FITCH,  John,  was  born  in  East  Windsor, 
Conn.,  in  1743.  In  1785  he  conceived  the 
project  of  propelling  a vessel  by  the  force  of 
condensed  vapor.  By  unwearied  exertion 
he  succeeded  in  raising  the  means  to  build 
a rude  steamboat  in  1787.  It  was  tried  at 
Philadelphia,  and  sailed  eight  miles  an  hour. 
Poor  and  obscure,  he  had  not  the  money  to 
perfect  his  invention  as  he  wished.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  Fulton  had  access  to 
his  plans  at  a later  date.  In  a letter  to  Mr. 
Rittenhouse  in  1792,  Fitch  said,  “This,  sir, 
will  be  the  mode  of  crossing  the  Atlantic  in 
time,  whether  I shall  bring  it  to  perfection  or 
not.”  People  thought  him  crazy.  His  life 
had  been  rife  with  perplexities  and  disap- 
pointments ; he  sought  solace  in  strong 
drink,  and  finally  plunged  into  the  Alleghany 
River  near  Pittsburg  in  1798. 

FLANDERS,  formerly  a province  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands,  now  forming  the  Bel- 
gic  provinces  of  East  and  West  Flanders. 
East  Flanders  contains  781,000  inhabitants; 
West  Flanders  627,000.  Both  parts  are  ex- 
tremely fertile,  and  the  Flemings  are  exten- 
sively employed  in  manufactures.  The 


FLA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


331 


Franks  seized  upon  Flanders  about  412,  and 
in  864  it  was  granted  to  Baldwin  I.,  with  the 
title  of  Count  of  Flanders,  the  sovereignty 
being  reserved  to  France.  The  country,  by 
the  marriage  of  Philip,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
with  Margaret,  daughter  of  Lewis  de  Malatin, 
Earl  of  Flanders,  in  1369,  came  to  the  house 
of  Burgundy ; and  it  passed  to  the  house 
of  Austria  by  the  marriage  of  Mary,  daugh- 
ter and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold,  to  Maxi- 
milian, Emperor  of  Germany.  Still  the 
sovereignty  was  in  France  till  1525,  when 
Charles  V.,  taking  Francis  I.  prisoner  at 
Pavia,  released  it  from  that  servitude.  In 
1556,  Charles  resigned  these  territories  to  his 
son  Philip,  King  of  Spain.  Flanders  shook 
off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1572.  In  1725,  by 
the  treaty  of  Vienna,  it  was  annexed  to  the 
German  empire.  The  whole  of  this  country 
was  conquered  by  the  French  in  1794  ; but 
only  part  of  it  now  remains  in  their  posses- 
sion, forming  the  French  department  of  Nord. 
[See  Belgium.] 

FLEETWOOD,  Charles,  a parliamentary 
general  in  the  civil  wars,  the  son  of  Sir 
William  Fleetwood,  knight,  cup-bearer  to 
James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  and  comptroller  of 
Woodstock  park.  In  1644,  the  subject  of 
this  article  was  made  colonel  of  horse  and 
governor  of  Bristol.  He  was  afterward 
raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and 
had  a share  in  the  defeat  of  Charles  II.  at 
Worcester.  On  the  death  of  Ireton,  Fleet- 
wood  married  his  widow,  and  being  now 
related  to  Cromwell,  was  appointed  deputy 
of  Ireland,  in  which  place  he  was  succeeded 
by  Cromwell’s  younger  son,  Henry.  Fleet- 
wood  joined  in  deposing  Richard,  and  after 
the  restoration  he  became  one  of  the  council 
of  state,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces,  but  afterward  retired  to  private  life 
at  Stoke  Newington,  where  he  died  soon 
after. 

FLETCHER,  Andrew,  commonly  called 
Fletcher  of  Saltoun,  was  born  in  1653.  He 
was  distinguished  by  learning  and  eloquence, 
by  courage,  disinterestedness,  and  public 
spirit,  but  of  an  irritable  and  impracticable 
temper.  Like  many  of  his  most  illustrious 
coi  temporaries  (Milton,  for  example,  Har- 
ringtm,  Marvel,  and  Sidney),  Fletcher,  from 
the  misgovernment  of  several  successive 
princes,  conceived  a strong  aversion  to  hered- 


itary monarchy ; yet  he  was  no  democrat. 
He  was  the  head  of  an  ancient  Norman 
house,  and  was  proud  of  his  descent.  He 
was  a fine  speaker  and  a fine  writer,  and 
proud  of  his  intellectual  superiority.  Both 
in  his  character  of  gentleman  and  in  his 
character  of  scholar,  he  looked  down  with 
disdain  on  the  common  people,  and  was  so 
little  disposed  to  intrust  them  with  political 
power  that  he  thought  them  unfit  even  to 
enjoy  personal  freedom.  It  is  a curious  cir- 
cumstance that  this  man,  the  most  honest, 
fearless,  and  uncompromising  republican  of 
his  time,  should  have  been  the  author  of  a 
plan  for  reducing  a large  part  of  the  working 
classes  of  Scotland  to  slavery.  He  bore,  in 
truth,  a lively  resemblance  to  those  Roman 
senators  who,  while  they  hated  the  name  of 
king,  guarded  the  privileges  of  their  order 
with  inflexible  pride  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  multitude,  and  governed  their 
bondmen  and  bondwomen  by  means  of  the 
stocks  and  the  scourge. — Macaulay. 

He  opposed  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
Duke  of  York  in  Scotland;  his  estate  was 
confiscated,  and  he  fled  to  the  Continent.  He 
came  to  England  with  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth in  the  rebellion  of  1685,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  cavalry  of  the  ex- 
pedition. Fletcher  was  ill  mounted ; and, 
indeed,  there  were  few  chargers  in  the  camp 
which  had  not  been  taken  from  the  plough. 
Ordered  upon  a sudden  and  important  ser- 
vice, he  thought  that  the  exigency  of  the 
case  warranted  him  in  borrowing,  without 
asking  permission,  a fine  horse  belonging  to 
Dare,  the  mayor  of  Lynn,  who  had  joined 
the  revolt.  Dare  resented  this  liberty,  an<j. 
assailed  Fletcher  with  gross  abuse.  Fletcher 
kept  his  temper  better  than  any  who  knew 
him  expected.  At  last  Dare,  presuming  on 
the  patience  with  which  his  insolence  was 
endured,  ventured  to  shake  a switch  at  the 
high-born  and  high-spirited  Scot.  Fletcher’s 
blood  boiled.  He  drew  a pistol  and  shot 
Dare  dead.  Such  sudden  and  violent  revenge 
would  not  have  been  thought  strange  in 
Scotland,  where  the  law  had  always  been 
weak ; where  he  who  did  not  right  himself 
by  the  strong  hand  was  not  likely  to  be 
righted  at  all;  and  where,  consequently, 
human  life  was  held  almost  as  cheap  as  in 
the  worst  governed  provinces  of  Italy.  But 


FLE 


332 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  people  of  the  southern  part  of  the  island 
were  not  accustomed  to  see  deadly  weapons 
used  and  blood  spilled  on  account  of  a rude 
word  or  a gesture,  except  in  duel  between 
gentlemen  with  equal  arms.  There  was  a 
general  cry  for  vengeance  on  the  foreigner 
who  had  murdered  an  Englishman.  Mon- 
mouth could  not  resist  the  clamor.  Fletcher, 
who,  when  his  first  burst  of  rage  had  spent 
itself,  was  overwhelmed  with  remorse  and 
sorrow,  escaped  to  the  Continent,  and  re- 
paired to  Hungary,  where  he  fought  bravely 
against  the  common  enemy  of  Christendom. 
To  Monmouth’s  cause  this  was  a serious  loss, 
but  the  event  was  fortunate  for  Fletcher, 
since  he  was  saved  from  the  dangerous  fate 
to  which  the  insurrection  came.  He  returned 
to  England  with  William  of  Orange,  became 
prominent  in  the  political  affairs  of  Scotland, 
and  died  in  1716.  In  one  of  Fletcher’s 
pamphlets,  occurs  the  memorable  saying, 
u I knew  a very  wise  man  that  believed  that 
if  a man  were  permitted  to  make  all  the 
ballads,  he  need  not  care  who  should  make 
the  laws  of  a nation.” 

FLETCHER,  John,  son  to  the  Bishop  of 
London,  a famous  dramatic  writer,  born  in 
1576,  died  of  the  plague  in  1625.  [ See  Beau- 

mont and  Fletcher.] 

FLEURUS  or  Flerus  ; a town  of  Bel- 
gium, in  the  province  of  Hainault,  on  the 
Sambre,  six  miles  north-east  of  Charleroi. 
Four  battles  have  been  fought  here.  In 
1622  the  troops  of  Spain  and  Germany  were 
matched  against  each  other.  In  1690  the 
French  defeated  the  allies  here  with  great 
loss.  June  17th,  1794,  the  French  under 
Jourdan  gained  a complete  victory  over  the 
Austrians  and  allies,  and  it  was  on  this  occa- 
sion that  aerostation  was  found  to  be  of  prac- 
tical use.  Coutel,  the  chief  of  the  aerostatic 
corps,  ascended  with  a general  and  adjutant, 
in  a balloon  of  great  size,  hovered  over  the 
enemy,  and  reconnoitered  their  works.  The 
information  thus  gained  was  conveyed  to  the 
French  by  means  of  signal  flags.  During  the 
process  of  inflation,  the  fire  of  a battery  was 
opened  upon  the  assistants,  and  as  the  bal- 
loon ascended  for  the  first  time,  a cannon-ball 
passed  between  its  neck  and  the  gondola. 
Soon,  however,  the  daring  aeronauts  attained 
a safe  elevation,  and  could  see  beneath  them 
the  then  harmless  cannon  fruitlessly  dis- 


charging their  shot  into  the  upper  air.  The 
fourth  battle,  called  the  battle  of  Ligny,  was 
fought  June  16th,  1815,  between  the  Pirns- 
sians  and  French,  and  was  desperately  con- 
tested. [See  Ligny.] 

FLEURY,  Andre  Hercule  de,  Cardinal, 
preceptor  to  Louis  XV.,  became  prime 
minister  on  the  disgrace  and  fall  of  his  rival, 
the  Duke  of  Bourbon.  His  administra- 
tion was  conducted  with  great  skill  and  ad- 
dress ; commerce  and  industry  flourished 
under  him,  and  he  had  the  fortune  to  concili- 
ate the  differences  between  the  courts  of  Lon- 
don and  Madrid.  He  died  in  extreme  age  in 
1743. 

FLODDEN  FIELD,  Battle  of.  James  IV. 
of  Scotland  took  part  with  Louis  XII.  of 
France  against  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and 
this  battle  between  the  English  and  Scotch, 
Sept.  9th,  1513,  was  the  result.  James, 
most  of  his  nobles,  and  10,000  of  his  army, 
were  slain,  while  the  English,  whom  the 
Earl  of  Surrey  commanded,  sustained  only 
insignificant  loss. 

FLORIAN,  a French  dramatic  writer, 
novelist,  and  fabulist,  married  a niece  of 
Voltaire.  He  was  a member  of  the  French 
academy,  and  died  Sept.  13th,  1794.  , 

FLORIDA,  one  of  these  United  States, 
has  an  area  of  59,208  square  miles,  and  in 
1870  had  a population  of  187,748,  of  whom 
96,057  were  whites  and  91,689  colored.  It 
consists  of  a narrow  strip  lying  between 
Georgia  and  Alabama,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, with  a vast  peninsula  which  sunders 
that  gulf  from  the  Atlantic.  The  southern 
part  of  this  peninsula  is  low  and  flat,  being 
mostly  covered  with  swamps  called  everglades. 
In  the  north  the  surface  of  the  country  is  in 
some  parts  slightly  undulating,  and  the  sur- 
face west  of  the  neck  of  the  peninsula  is 
somewhat  more  uneven.  Among  the  ever- 
glades are  numerous  tracts  of  pine  land, 
prairies,  and  hummocks,  and  these  with  some 
marshes  mark  the  northern  part.  The  soil 
is  generally  sand,  except  in  the  hummocks, 
where  it  is  clay  mixed  with  sand : these  are 
scattered  throughout  the  country,  varying  in 
extent  from  a few  acres  to  a thousand,  and 
forming  altogether  but  an  inconsiderable 
portion  of  the  peninsula;  they  are  covered 
with  a growth  of  oak,  dog-wood,  magnolia, 
and  pine,  and  afford  excellent  arable  land. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


333 


The  prairies,  or  savannahs,  are  often  miles  in 
extent,  fine  natural  pastures  for  great  herds  of 
cattle.  The  barrens  are  overgrown  with  forests 
of  pine,  with  little  underwood.  The  swamps 
are  either  formed  by  the  inundation  of  the 
rivers,  which,  overflowing  their  high  wooded 
banks,  flood  the  low  lands  in  the  rear,  or  by 
the  drainage  of  the  surrounding  region : the 
latter  or  pine-barren  swamps  are  overgrown 
with  cypress,  and  the  river  swamps  are  cov- 
ered with  a heavy  growth  of  timber.  The 
substratum  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  penin- 
sula is  clay  mixed  with  sand,  but  that  of  the 
western  is  a rotten  limestone,  undermined  in 
many  places  by  subterraneous  streams,  form- 
ing cavities  called  sinks.  Connected  with 
the  same  rock  formation  is  the  bursting  forth 
of  numerous  springs  so  copiously  as  to  form 
at  once  full-grown  rivers.  Indeed,  they  rather 
seem  to  be  eruptions  of  subterraneous  streams, 
suddenly  emerging  from  dark  labyrinths  un- 
derneath, through  which  they  have  long 
crept.  The  central  district  of  Florida  is  the 
finest  tract.  Here  are  many  pine  barrens, 
but  among  them  are  gentle  eminences  of  fer- 
tility, supporting  a vigorous  growth  of  oaks 
and  hickories,  while  numerous  streams  flow 
through  the  country  or  expand  into  beautiful 
lakes.  Travelers  have  described  the  water 
in  these  rivers  and  lakes  as  so  pellucid  that 
the  boat  seems  floating  in  the  air.  The 
warmth  and  humidity  of  the  climate  compen- 
sate for  the  poverty  of  the  soil,  and  give  it  a 
vegetation  of  great  variety  and  luxuriance. 
Majestic  forests  abound  with  game,  and  give 


a peculiar  and  picturesque  appearance.  In- 
termixed with  the  dark  glossy  leaves  of  the 
oaks  appear  flowers  of  the  most  vivid  and 
varied  colors.  Groves  of  magnolias  cover 
immense  tracts,  bending  beneath  the  weight 
of  their  snowy  blossoms,  and  till  the  air  with 
perfume.  The  exportation  of  timber  is  a 
great  source  of  the  wealth  of  Florida.  Cot- 
ton, sugar,  and  tobacco  are  the  other  staple 
exports.  Tropical  fruits  flourish  and  flavor 
excellently.  The  long  coast  line  of  Florida 
is  so  dotted  with  keys  and  banks  that  there 
are  few  available  harbgrs.  The  mild  winters 
make  it  much  resorted  to  by  those  afflicted 
with  pulmonary  disorders. 

Florida  was  discovered  in  1512,  by  Juan 
Ponce  de  Leon,  in  his  famous  search  after 
the  fabulous  fountain  of  youth,  which  was 
to  restore  health  and  beauty  to  the  aged,  on 
Palm  Sunday  ( Pascua  Florida ),  and  hence 
the  name.  The  French  and  Spaniards  long 
made  it  the  theatre  of  contest,  but  at  length 
the  Spaniards  were  established  in  the  town 
and  fort  of  St.  Augustine.  In  1763  Florida 
was  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  in  exchange  for 
the  island  of  Cuba.  In  1781  the  Spaniards 
conquered  West  Florida,  and  by  the  peace 
of  1783,  Great  Britain  relinquished  both  prov- 
inces to  Spain.  Spain  reluctantly  ceded  it 
to  the  United  States  in  1820,  and  in  1845  it 
was  admitted  as  a state.  The  most  import- 
ant event  in  its  recent  history  is  the  war 
against  the  Seminoles  from  183.5  to  1842. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  tribe  have  been 
removed  beyond  the  Mississippi. 


FLO 


334 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


The  general  assembly,  consisting  of  two 
houses,  meets  biennially  on  the  fourth  Monday 
of  November.  The  governor  is  chosen  by 
the  people  for  four  years,  the  senators  and 
representatives  for  two  years.  The  right  of 
suffrage  belongs  to  every  male  citizen  aged 
twenty-one  or  more,  who  has  resided  in  the 
state  for  two  years,  and  the  county  six 
months.  Florida  seceded  from  the  Union, 
Jan.  10,  1861.  Her  important  island  posi- 
tions, however,  at  Key  West,  Fort  Jefferson 
on  the  Tortugas,  and  Fort  Pickens  on  Santa 
Rosa  Island,  opposite  Pensacola,  which  to- 
gether command  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  were 
fortunately  retained  to  the  Union.  The  state 
suffered  comparatively  little  by  the  war. 

Tallahassee  is  the  capital.  Pensacola  has 
one  of  the  safest  and  most  roomy  harbors  on 
the  gulf:  the  government  has  a navy -yard 
here.  St.  Augustine  is  the  oldest  town  in 
the  United  States,  having  been  settled  by 
the  Spaniards  almost  fifty  years  before  the 
English  reared  their  huts  at  Jamestown  in 
Virginia.  South  of  Florida,  a chain  of  small 
rocky  islands,  called  Keys  from  the  Spanish 
cayo,  extend  to  the  westward.  South  of  the 
bank  upon  which  the  Ke}rs  rise,  and  sepa- 
rated from  them  by  a navigable  channel,  is  a 
long  narrow  coral  ledge,  known  as  the  Flor- 
ida Reef.  The  most  important  of  the  Keys 
is  Key  West,  a corruption  of  Cayo  Hueso , 
‘Bone  Key.’  Long  the  haunt  of  wreckers, 
smugglers,  and  pirates,  its  reputation  of  late 
years  has  improved.  It  is  six  miles  long  by 
two  in  breadth,  with  a large  and  well  shel- 
tered harbor.  Sponges  are  gathered,  turtles 
and  their  eggs  collected  on  the  neighboring 
keys,  and  salt  made  by  evaporation.  Wreck- 
ing is  the  most  important  business,  for  the 
neighboring  reefs  are  rife  with  disaster. 

FLOYD,  William,  the  first  delegate  from 
New  York  that  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  was  born  on  Long  Island, 
Dec.  17th,  1734.  He  was  a lawyer.  An 
opulent  landed  proprietor,  he  was  one  who 
like  Charles  Carrol  set  his  all  at  stake,  and 
his  property  was  laid  waste  by  the  British 
troops.  Having  commanded  the  militia  of 
Long  Island  during  the  war,  and  served  as 
representative  in  the  first  federal  congress, 
he  removed  to  a farm  on  the  Mohawk  River 


FOLARD,  Chevalier  Charles  de,  a cele- 
brated tactician,  born  at  Avignon  in  1669. 
He  was  aid-de-camp  under  the  Duke  de  Ven- 
dome  in  1702,  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of 
Cassano,  and  made  prisoner  at  Blenheim. 
He  next  served  against  the  Turks,  and  then 
entered  into  the  service  of  Charles  XII.,  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  his  career.  He  died  at 
Avignon,  in  1752. 

FONTAINE,  Jean  de  la,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  literary  men  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.,  born  in  1621.  Fontaine  was 
educated  at  Rheims,  and  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  lived  in  habits  of  intimacy  with  the  wits 
of  the  age.  He  died  at  Paris,  in  1695,  aged 
seventy-four.  The  most  simple  of  men  in 
private  life,  his  writings  exhibit  great  shrewd- 
ness and  knowledge  of  mankind.  His  early 
works  are  tainted  with  licentiousness.  He 
is  best  known  by  his  “Fables.” 

FONTAINEBLEAU,  a town  of  France, 
thirteen  leagues  south-east  of  Paris,  where  is 
a splendid  palace.  It  is  famous,  in  diplo- 
matic history,  as  the  place  where  several 
treaties  have  been  concluded.  It  was  here 
that  Napoleon  signed  his  first  abdication, 
April  5th,  1814,  and  bade  an  affectionate 
farewell  to  his  devoted  troops. 

FONTENELLE,  Bernard  le  Bovier  de, 
a distinguished  French  savant,  author  of 
“Plurality  of  Words,”  born  1657,  and  lived 
to  January,  1757,  nearly  one  hundred  years. 
His  mother  was  a sister  of  the  celebrated 
Corneille. 

FONTENOY,  a village  of  Belgium,  where 
the  French,  headed  by  Count  Saxe,  defeated 
the  English,  Hanoverians,  Dutch,  and  Aus- 
trians, under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  April  30th  (May  11th),  1745. 
The  battle  was  fought  with  great  obstinacy, 
and  tke  carnage  on  both  sides  was  considera- 
ble. Count  Saxe,  who  was  at  the  time  ill 
of  the  disorder  of  which  he  afterward  died, 
was  borne  about  in  a litter,  encouraging  his 
soldiers. 

FOOTE,  Samuel,  a comic  dramatist  and 
actor,  born  at  Truro,  Cornwall,  in  1721,  died 
at  Dover,  in  October,  1777.  He  was  a great 
mimic  and  a man  of  wit.  A gentleman,  who 
was  the  fortunate  possessor  of  some  fine 
Constantia  wine,  after  praising  its  good  quali- 
ties, invited  Foote  to  taste.  A very  small 
bottle  was  produce^,  together  with  a very 


in  1803,  where  he  died  Aug.  4th,  1821,  at  the 
age  of  eighty-seven. 

FOO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


835 


small  glass,  which  the  niggardly  host  half 
filled.  The  wag  swallowed  this  immediately. 
“Well,  Foote,”  said  his  entertainer,  “what 
do  you  think  of  that?  It  is  forty-seven  years 
old.”  “ What  do  I think?”  replied  Foote; 
“why,  sir,  I think  it’s  very  little  for  its 
age.” 

FORD,  John,  one  of  the  finest  of  the  old 
English  dramatists,  was  born  in  1586,  and 
died  in  1639. 

FOSTER,  John,  an  original  and  vigorous 
essayist,  was  born  in  1770,  and  died  in  1843. 
He  was  a Baptist  clergyman  in  England. 

FOUCHE,  Joseph,  the  famous  minister 
of  police  under  Bonaparte,  was  born  at 
Nantes  in  1763.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
revolution  he  distinguished  himself  by  vio- 
lent harangues,  and  was  sent  to  the  national 
convention  in  1792,  where  he  attached  him- 
self to  Marat  and  voted  for  the  death  of 
Louis  XVI.  During  the  reign  of  terror, 
Fouche  was  active  in  spoliation  and  atrocity. 
When  Robespierre  fell,  Fouche  shared  in  his 
odium,  and  withdrew  from  the  scene  for  a 
couple  of  years.  Under  the  directory  he 
came  forth,  and  was  successively  ambassador 
to  Milan,  to  Holland,  and  minister  of  police. 
This  latter  post  was  the  one  for  which  Fouche 
was  fitted  both  by  nature  and  his  career.  He 
carried  espionage  to  an  almost  fabulous  per- 
fection. At  the  creation  of  the  empire  Napo- 
leon made  him  Duke  of  Otranto.  After  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  he  advised  the  abdication 
of  Napoleon,  and  at  the  same  time  made  his 
own  peace  with  the  Bourbons.  His  services 
were  retained  some  time  by  Louis  XVIII., 
buf  he  soon  went  as  ambassador  to  Dres- 
den. The  general  law  of  1816  against  all 
regicides  deprived  him  of  this  last  post,  and 
after  traveling  awhile  in  Germany,  he  settled 
at  Trieste.  He  died  in  1820,  leaving  a for- 
tune estimated  at  $2,500,000. 

FOUQUIER-TINVILLE,  Anthony  Quen- 
tin, an  attorney,  born  in.  1747,  rendered  his 
name  infamous  during  the  French  revolu- 
tion. He  obtained  from  Robespierre  the  post 
of  public  accuser,  but  was  put  to  death  as 
one  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  May  7th, 
1795. 

FOURIER,  Charles,  the  distinguished 
social  philosopher,  was  born  at  Besancon  in 
1772;  died  in  Paris,  1837. 

FOX,  Charles  James,  second  son  of  Henry 


Fox,  the  first  Lord  Holland,  was  born  Jan. 
14th,  1748.  His  mother  was  Lady  Caroline 
Lennox,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond, 
who  was  a grandson  of  Charles  II.,  and  so 
very  proud  of  his  sinister  origin  that  neither 
he  nor  his  duchess  could  consent  that  their 
daughter  should  wed  Lord  Holland,  whose 
father  Sir  Stephen  had  been  a singing-boy  in 
a cathedral,  while  she  was  a great-grand- 
daughter of  Louise  de  Querouaille,  the  ‘ Pop- 
ish mistress.’  They  commanded  her  to  wed 
elsewhere,  and  an  evening  was  set  for  the 
gentleman’s  formal  introduction  as  her  suitor. 
Lady  Caroline,  that  afternoon,  completed  her 
toilet  by  shaving  her  eye-brows ! The  ducal 
parents  were  very  wroth,  but  it  was  plain 
she  could  not  be  presented  to  a new  lover  in 
that  plight.  Before  morning  she  had  eloped 
with  Lord  Holland.  The  match  was  happy. 
Lord  Holland  was  a queer  one.  Thus,  one 
day,  Master  Charles  James  very  earnestly 
insisted  upon  smashing  his  watch  just  for  the 
fun  of  it.  “Well,  if  you  must,  I suppose 
3rou  must,”  said  papa ; and  the  watch  was 
smashed.  The  father  is  said  to  have  lured 
the  son  to  play,  and  at  a later  day  paid  up 
his  gaming  debts  with  £140,000.  Play  was 
a blemish  of  the  age,  and  did  not  spare 
Fox : yet  while  in  office,  we  are  told,  he 
never  touched  a card  ; and  when  at  last  his 
political  friends  wiped  out  the  score  against 
him,  he  abandoned  the  wretched  habit  alto- 
gether. 

He  received  his  education  at  Eton,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  classical 
exercises.  From  that  seminary  he  removed 
to  Hertford  College,  Oxford,  after  which  he 
went  on  his  travels.  In  1768  he  was  returned 
to  parliament  for  Midhurst.  In  1770  he  was 
appointed  a commissioner  of  the  admiralty, 
which  place  he  resigned  in  1772,  and  soon 
after  obtained  a place  at  the  treasury  board. 
Some  differences  arising  between  him  and 
Lord  North,  he  was  dismissed  in  1774,  and 
from  that  time  Fox  assumed  the  character 
of  a whig. 

Almost  the  whole  of  his  political  life  was 
spent  in  opposition.  In  vehemence  and 
power  of  argument  he  resembled  Demos^ 
thenes ; but  there  the  resemblance  ended. 
He  possessed  a strain  of  ridicule  and  wit, 
which  nature  denied  to  the  Athenian ; and 
it  was  the  more  powerful,  as  it  always  ap- 


FOX 


336 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


peared  to  be  blended  with  argument,  and  to 
result  from  it.  To  the  perfect  composition 
which  so  eminently  distinguished  the  speeches 
of  Demosthenes,  he  had  no  pretense.  He 
was  heedless  of  method : having  the  complete 
command  of  good  words,  he  never  sought  for 
better;  if  those  which  occurred  expressed 
his  meaning  clearly  and  forcibly,  he  paid  little 
attention  to  their  arrangement  or  harmony. 
The  moment  of  his  grandeur  was  when, 
after  he  had  stated  the  argument  of  his  adver- 
sary, with  much  greater  strength  than  his 
adversary  had  done,  and  with  much  greater 
than  any  of  his  hearers  thought  possible,  he 
seized  it  with  the  strength  of  a giant,  and 
tore  and  trampled  on  it  to  destruction.  If, 
at  this  moment,  he  had  possessed  the  power 
of  the  Athenian  over  the  passions  or  the 
imaginations  of  his  hearers,  he  might  have 
disposed  of  the  house  at  his  pleasure ; but 
this  was  denied  to  him ; and,  on  this  ac- 
count, his  speeches  fell  very  short  of  the 
effect  which  otherwise  they  must  have  pro- 
duced. 

* 

In  1780  he  was  elected  for  Westminster, 
which,  with  a slight  interruption,  he  con- 
tinued to  represent  to  his  death.  When  the 
Rockingham  party  came  into  power,  Mr. 
Fox  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs.  On  the  dissolution  of  this 
administration,  by  the  death  of  the  chief,  a 
coalition  was  formed  between  Mr.  Fox  and 
Lord  North,  who,  with  their  respective  ad- 
herents, came  .again  into  office  in  1733.  The 
introduction  of  the  India  bill  occasioned 
their  final  dismissal  the  same  year.  In  1788 
Mr.  Fox  traveled,  but  while  in  Italy  he  was 
recalled  in  consequence  of  the  king’s  insan- 
ity. On  this  great  occasion,  he  maintained 
that  the  Prince  of  Wales  had  a right  to  as- 
sume the  regency,  wTiich  was  opposed  by 
Mr.  Pitt  and  the  parliament.  The  next  re- 
markable event  in  the  public  life  of  Mr.  Fox 
was  the  part  he  took  with  regard  to  the 
French  revolution.  That  change  he  hailed 
as  a blessing,  while  Burke  denounced  it  as  a 
curse ; and  this  difference  of  sentiment  pro- 
duced a schism  between  them  which  was 
never  repaired.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt, 
in  1806,  Mr.  Fox  came  again  into  office,  as 
secretary  of  state;  but  he  died  of  dropsy, 
Sept,  13th,  1806.  His  remains  were  interred 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 


FOX,  George,  the  founder  of  the  society  of 
Friends  or  Quakers,  was  the  son  of  a weaver 
at  Drayton  in  Leicestershire,  and  born  in 
1624.  The  shoemaker  to  whom  he  was  in- 
dentured, traded  also  in  wool  and  cattle,  and 
George  spent  many  of  his  hours  in  tending 
flocks,  an  employment  which  fostered  his  bent 
for  musing  and  solitude.  His  communings 
finally  wrought  him  to  that  religious  enthu- 
siasm in  which  he  fancied  himself  .receiving 
messages  from  on  high.  x\n  impressive  pas- 
sage in  his  “Journal”  has  been  paraphrased 
in  Tennyson’s  “ Two  Voices.”  “One  morn- 
ing, as  I waS  sitting  by  the  fire,  a great  cloud 
came  over  me,  and  a temptation  beset  me, 
and  I sate  still.  And  it  was  said,  All  things 
come  by  nature ; and  the  Elements  and  Stars 
came  over  me,  so  that  I was  in  a moment 
quite  clouded  with  it ; but  inasmuch  as  I sate 
still,  and  said  nothing,  the  people  of  the  house 
perceived  nothing.  And  as  I sate  still  under 
it,  and  let  it  alone,  a living  hope  arose  in  me 
which  cried,  There  is  a living  God  who  made 
all  things.  And  immediately  the  cloud  and 
temptation  vanished  away,  and  the  life  rose 
over  it  all,  and  my  heart  was  glad,  and  I 
praised  the  living  God.”  Conceiving  himself 
divinely  commissioned  to  convert  his  coun- 
trymen from  their  sins,  he  began  about  1647 
to  travel  through  the  country,  and  harangue 
at  the  market-places  upon  the  vices  of  the  age. 
He  had  formed  the  opinions  that  a learned 
education  is  unnecessary  to  a minister ; that 
the  existence  of  a separate  clerical  profession 
is  unwarranted  by  the  Bible ; that  the  Crea- 
tor of  the  world  is  not  a dweller  in  temples 
made  with  hands ; and  that  “ the  .light  of 
Christ  within”  is  a rule  of  duty  superior 
to  the  Scriptures.  He  believed  that  he  was 
divinely  commanded  to  abstain  from  taking 
off  his  hat  to  any  one  in  homage ; to  use  the* 
words  ‘thee’  and  ‘thou’  in  addressing  all 
persons  ; to  bid  nobody  good-morrow  or  good- 
night ; and  never  to  bend  his  knee  to  any  one 
in  authority,  or  take  an  oath,  even  on  the  most 
solemn  occasion.  He  sometimes  entered 
churches  during  service,  and  was  moved  to 
interrupt  the  clergymen  by  vociferous  contra- 
diction. By  such  breaches  of  order,  and  such 
rude  speech  as  “Come  down,  thou  deceiver,” 
he  naturally  gave  great  offense,  which  some- 
times led  to  long  imprisonment,  and  some- 
times to  severe  handling  by  the  populace. 


FOX 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


337 


His  sect  became  numerous.  At  Derby  Fox 
admonished  the  justice  and  those  with  him 
to  tremble  at  the  word  of  the  Lord : the 
justice  called  him  a quaker  (whence  the 
name  arose),  and  threw  him  into  a dungeon 
for  a year.  Fox  visited  Ireland,  the  Ameri- 
can colonies,  and  many  parts  of  Europe,  and 
died  in  London  in  1690,  worn  down  by  the 
toils  and  hardships  his  zeal  had  brought  upon 
him. 

FOX,  John,  a pious  Protestant,  was  born 
at  Boston,  England,  in  1517.  His  renun- 
ciation of  popery  lost  him  his  felloVship  at 
Oxford,  and  for  a time  he  was  much  strait- 
ened for  the  wherewithal  of  life.  After  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  his  fortune  was  easier. 
He  died  in  1587.  He  is  best  known  for  his 
“ Book  of  Martyrs.” 

FRANCE  has  an  area  of  203,736  square 
miles;  population  in  1861,  37,472,132.  The 
Pyrenees  separate  it  from  Spain,  the  Alps  from 
Italy,  the  Jura  mountains  from  Switzerland, 
the  Rhine  from  the  duchy  of  Baden,  but  the 
rest  of  the  frontier  is  conventional,  and  has 
often  varied  with  the  fortunes  of  war.  France 
has  ever  been  considered  one  of  the  piost  ag- 
ricultural countries  of  the  continent ; yet  the 
husbandry  is  often  rude,  and  the  implements 
used  ancient  and  clumsy.  The  great  divi- 
sion of  property  arising  from  the  law  of  equal 
distribution  among  all  the  children  at  the 
demise  of  the  parents,  lessens  the  size  of  the 
farms.  The  northern  part  is  the  best  tilled. 
The  ordinary  grains  are  grown,  and  in  the 
southerly  portions,  maize,  the  vine,  the  mul- 
berry, and  the  olive  flourish.  Beet-root  is 
extensively  grown  for  the  manufacture  of 
sugar.  The  basins  of  the  Rhone,  the  Ga- 
ronne, and  the  Upper  Loire  are  the  most  dis- 
tinguished for  their  mulberry  plantations  and 
the  produce  of  silk.  The  vintage  is  among 
the  chief  harvests  of  France;  the  average 
yearly  produce  of  the  vineyards  is  924,000,000 
gallons,  of  which  about  one-seventh  is  distilled 
into  brandy. 

France  was  anciently  divided  into  thir- 
ty-three provinces  of  very  unequal  extent : Ar- 
tois, Picardy,  Champagne,  Lorraine,  Alsace, 
Fran che  Comte,  Burgundy,  Orleans,  Isle  of 
France,  Perche,  Normandy,  Brittany,  Maine, 
Anjou,  Touraine,  Berri,  Nivernois,  Bourbon, 
Lyonnois,  Auvergne,  Marche,  Poitou,  Aunis, 
Saintonge,  Angoumois,  Limousin,  Guienne, 
22 


Gascony,  Bearn,  Foix,  Rousillon,  Languedoc, 
Dauphiny,  and  Provence.  But  since  the 
revolution  it  has  been  divided  into  eighty-six 
departments.  The  departments  formed  from 
the  six  northern  provinces  are  the  department 
of  the  North,  Pas-de-Calais,  Somme,  Lower 
Seine,  Eure,  Calvados,  Manche,  Orne,  Seine, 
Seine-et-Oise,  Seine-et-Marne,  Oise,  Aisne, 
Aube,  Upper  Marne,  Marne,  and  Ardennes. 
The  departments  formed  from  the  six  provin- 
ces of  the  east  are  Meurthe,  Moselle,  Meuse, 
Vosges,  Lower  Rhine,  Upper  Rhine,  Doubs, 
Upper  Saone,  Jura,  Cote-d’or,  Yonne,  Saone-et- 
Loire,  Ain,  Rhone,  Loire,  Isere,  Drome,  Upper 
Alps.  The  departments  formed  from  the 
seven  provinces  of  the  south  are  the  Mouths 
of  the  Rhone,  Lower  Alps,  Var,  Upper  Gar- 
onne, Tarn,  Aude,  Herault,  Gard,  Lozere, 
Upper  Loire,  Ardeche,  Eastern  Pyrenees, 
Ariege,  Lower  Pyrenees,  Gironde,  Dordogne, 
Lot-et-Garonne,  Lot,  Aveyron,  Tarn-et-Gar- 
onne,  Landes,  Gers,  Upper  Pyrenees,  Cor- 
sica. The  departments  formed  from  the  six 
provinces  of  the  west  are  Charente,  Lower 
Charente,  Vienne,  Deux-Sevres,  Vendee, 
Maine-et-Loire,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  Cotes-du-Nord, 
Finisterre,  Morbihan,  Lower  Loire,  Sarthe, 
Mayenne.  The  departments  formed  from  the 
eight  central  provinces  are  Loiret,  Eure-et- 
Loir,  Loir-et-Cher,  Indre-et-Loire,  Cher,  In- 
dre,  Nievre,  Allier,  Creuse,  Upper  Vienne, 
Correze,  Puy-de-Dome,  Cantal,  and  Vaucluse. 
The  provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorra'ne  are 
now,  1872,  under  the  immediate  control  of  the 
Empire  of  Germany.  These  departments  are 
each  administered  by  a prefect.  They  are 
subdivided  into  arrondisements,  and  these 
again  into  cantons  and  communes. 

Paris,  the  metropolis  of  France,  is  the  sub- 
ject of  a separate  article.  Lyons,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Saone  and  Rhone,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Rhone,  is  the  second  city  in 
the  empire ; population  over  318,803.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Romans,  b.  c.  42.  In  a single 
night,  A.  d.  59,  the  town  was  laid  in  ashes  by 
fires  from  lightning.  It  was  rebuilt  by  the 
aid  of  Nero,  to  whom  the  citizens  adhered 
in  his  downfall.  In  1793,  the  people  of  Ly- 
ons rose  against  the  tyranny  of  the  Jacobins. 
An  army  was  sent  by  the  convention  to  put 
them  down.  The  city  sustained  a siege  for  two 
months  anrl  then  surrendered,  many  of  the  in- 
habitants being  massacred  by  the  te.  rori^s.  In 


FRA 


338 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  spring  of  1814,  several  severe  acfions 
took  place  in  the  neighborhood,  between  the 
French  and  Austrians.  On  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba,  in  March,  1815,  he  was 
received  here  with  acclamation.  Lyons  is  a 
place  of  much  traffic,  and  its  manufactures 
are  the  most  important  in  France.  Its  silks, 
for  texture,  hue,  and  beauty,  are  not  equaled 
in  the  world.  In  their  manufacture  half  the 
population  are  directly  or  indirectly  con- 
cerned. Marseilles,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
is  the  third  city  of  the  empire,  and  capital  of 
the  department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone ; pop- 
ulation, 260,910  in  1861.  A Grecian  settle- 
ment was  made  here  as  early  as  b.c.  600. 
Cicero  styled  it  the  Athens  of  Gaul.  Hav- 
ing embraced  the  cause  of  Pompey,  it  was 
taken  by  Caesar,  b.c.  49,  after  a long  siege. 
During  the  thirteenth  century  it  freed  itself 
from  feudal  subjection  and  became  a muni- 
cipal republic.  It  came  under  the  perma- 
nent dominion  of  the  French  crown  in  1482. 
The  prosperity  of  Marseilles  is  due  to  its  ex- 
tensive commerce.  Its  safe  harbor,  in  which 
fly  the  flags  of  all  nations,  is  formed  by  a 
small  inlet  of  the  sea,  running  into  the  heart 
of  the  city,  which  is  built  around  it.  Bor- 
deaux, an  important  port,  the  capital  of  the 
former  province  of  Guienne,  and  of  the  present 
department  of  Gironde,  sits  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Garonne,  and  contains  162,750  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  a city  of  great  antiquity,  and  distin- 
guished for  its  gloomy  splendor.  It  has  some 
magnificent  churches.  Its  academy  of  sci- 
ences has  a library  of  128,000  volumes.  The 
Romans  called  this  place  Burdigala.  In 
the  fifth  century  it  was  in  the  blighting  hands 
of  the  Goths,  and  later  it  was  pillaged  and 
burned  by  the  Normans.  When  Louis  VII. 
married  Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  last  Duke 
of  Guienne,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French. 
When  that  princess  was  repudiated,  it,  with 
all  the  south-east  of  France,  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  Duke  of  Normandy,  afterward 
Henry  IT.  of  England,  her  second  husband. 
It  was  restored  to  France  under  Charles  VII. 
in  1451.  During  the  revolution  it  was  de- 
vastated by  the  terrorists,  as  being  the  seat 
of  the  Girondists.  Bonaparte’s  continental 
system  bore  heavily  upon  the  trade  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Bordeaux,  and  accordingly  they 
willingly  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  the 
Bourbons,  March  12th,  1814.  Wine,  brandy, 


and  fruits  are  the  great  articles  of  export 
from  Bordeaux.  The  finest  clarets  are  from 
this  part  of  France.  Havre  (population 
74,336),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  is  an  im- 
portant port.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
towns  in  France  is  Rouen,  a little  higher  on 
the  Seine;  population  102,649.  Its  ancient 
name  was  Rotomugus.  It  was  the  capital  of 
the  duchy  of  Normandy.  It  was  besieged  by 
the  English  under  Henry  V.  in  1418,  and  res- 
olutely defended  by  Alain  Blanchard,  with 
4,000  men.  Famine,  after  five  months,  com- 
pelled the  garrison  to  surrender,  and  Henry 
soiled  his  fame  by  the  execution  of  the  brave 
Blanchard.  For  thirty  years  the  English  held 
the  town,  and  here  in  1431  they  burnt  Joan 
of  Arc.  The  tall,  narrow  houses  of  old 
Rouen  are  often  highly  picturesque,  and  curi- 
ous for  their  rich  carvings  and  quaint  Gothic 
ornaments.  The  noble  cruciform  cathedral, 
whose  spire  springs  433  feet  toward  the  sky, 
and  the  still  purer  Gothic  church  of  St.  Ouen, 
are  objects  of  note  in  this  ancient  town. 
Rouen  ranks  next  to  Lyons  among  the  man- 
ufacturing towns  of  France,  and  is  a great 
seat  of  the  cotton  manufacture. 

The  cathedral  of  Strasburg  is  yet  more  beau- 
tiful than  that  of  Rouen.  It  was  founded 
in  1015,  and  not  completed  till  1439.  The 
airy  grace  of  the  architecture,  the  beauty  of 
the  sculptured  ornaments,  and  the  richness  of 
the  many-hued  windows,  place  this  ancient 
pile  among  the  foremost  grandeurs  of  Gothic 
art.  During  the  late  war  between  France 
and  Germany,  the  cathedral  was  somewhat 
injured,  but  not  so  much  so  but  that  repairs 
can  easily  be  made,  and  the  structure  restored 
to  its  original  splendor.  Strasburg,  on  the 
Rhine,  the  chief  town  of  Alsace ; pop.  82,014. 
German  is  the  language  of  the  common  people 
in  this  part  of  France,  though  French  is  gen- 
erally understood.  By  the  fortifications  and 
citadel  of  Louis  XIV.,  Strasburg  was  made 
one  of  the  strongest  places  in  Europe.  At 
Rheims  is  another  ancient  cathedral  of  great 
beauty.  Before  its  altar  the  kings  of  France 
have  been  crowned  for  centuries,  and  at  its 
font  Clovis,  the  founder  of  the  monarchy,  was 
baptized  from  paganism  into  the  Christian 
church.  Rheims  has  some  44,000  inhabit- 
ants, and  extensive  woolen  manufactures; 
yet  it  is  a dull  old  town,  and  its  wide  streets 
are  grass-grown  for  the  lack  of  bustle.  Caen 


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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


339 


CATHEDRAL  OF  NOTRE  DAME  AT  STRASBURG. 


was  anciently  the  capital  of  lower  Normandy, 
and  the  favorite  residence  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  who  was  buried  in  the  Abbaye- 
aux-Hommes , which  he  built.  Caen  was 
taken  and  plundered  by  Edward  III.  of  Eng- 
land, who  met  with  a desperate  resistance. 
“ The  town  was  then,”  says  Froissart,  “ large, 
strong,  and  full  of  drapery  and  all  other  sorts 
of  merchandise,  rich  citizens,  noble  dames 
and  damsels,  and  fine  churches.”  Caen  is 
still  a fine  town,  the  centre  of  considerable 
trade  and  manufactures,  and  the  dwelling- 
place  of  40,000  people.  Grenoble,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Isere,  and  of  the  ancient 
Dauphiny,  was  the  first  city  to  open  its  gates 


to  Napoleon,  when  he  returned  from  Elba. 
The  garrison  had  taken  up  arms  to  resist  the 
little  band  of  imperialists,  when  Napoleon, 
advancing  and  uncovering  his  breast,  said  to 
them,  “ If  there  be  one  among  you,  who 
would  slay  his  general  and  emperor,  he  can 
do  it.  Behold,  I am  defenseless.”  He  was 
answered  by  animating  shouts  of  “ Vive 
V Empereur”  The  population  of  Grenoble  is 
27,000.  The  town  is  largely  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  kid-gloves.  [See  Bayonne, 
Brest,  Nantes,  Paris,  Toulon,  Toulouse.] 
The  territory  of  France  is  admirably  de- 
fended by  nature  against  invasion,  except 
toward  the  north-east.  The  Atlantic  coast 


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S40 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


has  few  harbors  of  any  depth,  and  those  are 
hard  of  access  or  strongly  defended.  The 
Pyrenees  would  be  impassable  in  the  face  of 
an  aroused  nation ; the  wall  of  the  Alps,  the 
Jura,  and  the  Vosges,  on  the  eastern  frontier, 
equally  so.  But  on  the  Bavarian,  Prussian, 
and  Belgian  frontiers,  there  are  no  natural 
defenses.  In  this  quarter,  therefore,  military 
science  has  done  its  utmost  to  command  all 
the  great  approaches,  and  in  no  other  country 
are  there  so  many  strongly  fortified  towns  in 
a same  extent  of  territory.  Here  are  the 
fortresses  of  Dunkirk,  Lisle,  Douay,  Cam- 
bray,  Valenciennes,  Conde,  Maubeuge,  Av- 
esnes,  Rocroy,  Givet,  Charlemont,  Mezieres, 
Sedan,  Thionville,  Metz,  Bitche,  and  Weis- 
emburg.  Along  the  Rhenish  frontier  (the 
proper  defense  of  which  is  not  the  Rhine, 
however,  but  the  Vosges)  are  the  strong- 
holds of  Haguenau,  Strasburg,  Schelestadt, 
andNeufBrisach.  Befort,  Besancon,  and  the 
Fort-de-l’Ecluse  command  the  entrance  from 
Switzerland.  Toward  the  Alps  and  Sardinia 
are  Grenoble  and  Briancon.  The  Pyrenean 
passes  are  warded  by  Perpignan,  Bellegarde, 
Mont  Louis,  St.  Jean-Pied-de-Port,  and  Bay- 
onne. Many  of  the  towns  in  the  interior  are 
fortified,  but  Paris,  with  its  continuous  wall 
and  detached  forts,  is  the  most  important. 
The  great  naval  stations  and  dock-yards  are 
at  Brest,  Toulon,  Rochefort,  Cherbourg  and 
L’Orient. 

The  principal  stock  of  the  French  race  is 
the  Celtic,  admixed  with  the  Romans,  Visi- 
goths, and  Franks.  The  Catholic  is  the  pre- 
dominant religion  of  the  country : both  Cath- 
olic and  Protestant  clergymen  are  supported 
by  the  state.  Education  is  carefully  fostered 
by  the  government.  The  scheme  of  public 
instruction  embraces  a wide  range  of  institu- 
tions and  acquirements.  Besides  the  ordinary 
academies  and  elementary  schools,  and  the 
great  universities  and  institutes,  there  are 
military  schools,  such  as  the  Polytechnic  and 
that  of  St.  Cyr ; naval  schools,  as  at  Brest, 
and  the  marine  schools  of  surgery  at  Roche- 
fort and  Toulon;  normal  schools  in  almost 
every  department,  for  the  training  of  teachers  ; 
the  Conservatoire  of  Arts  and  Trades,  the 
Conservatoire  of  Music  and  Oratory,  the  Im- 
perial School  of  the  Fine  Arts,  all  at  Paris ; 
schools  of  roads  and  bridges,  schools  of  mines, 
schools  of  agriculture,  schools  of  arts,  and 


trades,  and  manufactures,  schools  of  design, 
&c.  Thus,  throughout  the  whole  empire,  in- 
dustrial education  is  provided ; sometimes  of 
a theoretical  character,  and  sometimes  exceed- 
ingly practical,  as  in  the  schools  of  weaving  at 
Lyons  and  Nismes,  of  ship-building  at  La  Ro- 
chelle, or  lace-making  at  Dieppe.  As  a conse- 
quence, the  French  hold  high  rank  among 
ingenious  and  enlightened  nations.  The  in- 
ventions of  French  chemists  and  their  improve- 
ment of  chemical  science  have  done  much  in 
producing  with  economy  and  expedition  the 
many  chemical  agents  employed  in  the  various 
branches  of  manufactures,  particularly  dyeing. 
The  cloths  and  other  woolens  fabricated  are  of 
the  best  quality.  The  cotton  manufacture  is^ 
still  more  important,  and  the  calicoes  are  wide- 
ly approved.  French  silks  surpass  all  others  for 
pure  brilliancy  of  color  and  exquisite  taste  in 
patterns.  Injewelry,  marquetry,  ornamental 
bronze,  and  furniture,  the  French  are  almost 
unrivaled;  in  chronometers  and  instruments 
for  scientific  purposes  they  are  wholly  so. 
Finest  porcelain  is  made  at  Sevres,  Paris,  and 
Limoges.  During  the  wars  at  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  English  cruisers  cut 
France  off  from  supplies  of  sugar ; the  saccha- 
rine properties  of  the  beet  were  tested ; and 
sugar  from  beet-root  is  now  a great  branch  of 
manufacture.  The  leading  exports  from 
France  are  wine,  brandy,  liqueurs,  salt,  linen, 
hempen  cloth,  woolens,  silks,  cottons,  hats, 
jewelry  and  household  furniture. 

France  was  called  by  the  Romans  Transal- 
pine Gaul,  or  Gaul  beyond  the  Alps,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  Cisalpine  Gaul,  on  the  Italian 
side  of  the  Alps.  Like  other  countries,  it  soon 
became  a desirable  object  to  the  ambitious 
Romans,  and,  after  a brave  resistance,  was 
annexed  to  their  empire  by  the  invincible 
arms  of  Julius  Caesar,  about  48  b.c.  Gaul 
continued  in  the  possession  of  the  Romans 
until  the  downfall  of  that  empire,  in  the  fifth 
century.  On  the  last  day  of  the  year  406, 
the  Rhine  was  crossed  by  a host  of  barbarians 
who  never  repassed  that  frontier  stream. 
Some  twenty  years  before,  when  Maximus, 
chosen  emperor  by  the  legions  in  Britain,  had 
crossed  the  channel  into  Gaul  to  dethrone  his 
rival,  Gratian,  a considerable  band  of  native 
Britons  had  followed  his  eagles.  They  re- 
tained possession  of  Armorica,  which  he  be- 
stowed upon  them,  and  thence  came  its  name 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


341 


of  Bretagne,  or  Brittany.  Armorica  main- 
tained its  independence  against  the  present 
invasion  of  Vandals,  Alans,  Suevians,  and 
Burgundians,  but  the  rest  of  Gaul  became 
their  prey.  The  Suevians,  Alans,  and  Van- 
dals passed  the  Pyrenees  into  Spain  ; the  Bur- 
gundians settled,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Roman  government,  in  the  east  of  Gaul ; and 
the  Visigoths,  who  had  long  been  ravaging 
both  the  Roman  empires,  were  induced  to  ac- 
cept the  cession  of  the  country  south  and  west 
of  the  Loire.  About  420,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Pharamond,  the  Franks,  an  ancient 
people  of  Germany,  settled  in  Flanders,  and 
began  to  get  a foothold  in  the  land  to  which 
they  afterward  gave  their  name.  With  Pha- 
ramond originated  the  Salic  law  by  which  the 
sovereignty  is  rendered  hereditary  only  in  the 
male  line.  The  Franks  and  Burgundians, 
after  establishing  their  power,  andreducingthe 
Gauls  to  a state  of  slavery,  parceled  out  the 
lands  among  their  principal  leaders ; and  suc- 
ceeding kings  found  it  necessary  to  confirm 
their  privileges,  allowing  them  to  exercise 
sovereign  authority  in  their  respective  gov- 
ernments, until  they  at  length  assumed  an 
independence,  only  acknowledging  the  king  as 
theif  head.  This  gave  rise  to  those  numerous 
principalities  that  formerly  existed  in  France, 
and  to  the  several  parliaments;  for  every 
province  became,  in  its  policy  and  govern- 
ment, an  epitome  of  the  kingdom. 

The  first  Christian  monarch  of  the  Franks 
was  Clovis  (son  of  the  chivalrous  Childeric), 
who  is  regarded  as  the  true  founder  of  the 
monarchy.  He  expelled  the  remnant  of  the 
Romans,  weakened  the  Visigoths,  and  gained 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Germans.  He  is 
celebrated  by  the  vow  which  he  made  to  em- 
brace the  Christian  religion  at  the  solicitation 
of  his  wife  Clotilda,  and  was  baptized  at 
Rheims.  The  Franks  finally  conquered  the 
Burgundians  and  Visigoths,  and  became  mas- 
ters of  all  Gaul.  The  first  race  of  French 
kings,  prior  to  Charlemagne,  found  a cruel 
enemy  in  the  Saracens,  who  then  overran 
Europe,  and  retaliated  the  barbarities  of  the 
Goths  aind  Vandals  upon  their  posterity.  In 
the  year  800,  Charlemagne,  King  of  France, 
the  glory  of  these  dark  ages,  became  master 
of  Germany,  Spain,  and  part  of  Italy,  and 
was  crowned  King  of  the  Romans  by  the 
pope.  He  divided  his  empire  by  will  among 

FRA 


his  sons,  which  proved  fatal  to  his  family  and 
their  posterity.  Soon  after  this  the  Normans 
ravaged  the  kingdom  of  France,  and,  about 
the  year  905,  obliged  the  French  to  yield  up 
Normandy  and  Bretagne  to  Rollo,  their  leader, 
who  married  the  king’s  daughter,  and  was 
persuaded  to  profess  himself  a Christian. 
This  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Norman  power 
in  France,  which  afterward  gave  a king  to 
England,  in  the  person  of  William,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  who  subdued  Harold,  the  last 
Saxon  king,  in  the  year  1066. 

In  the  reign  of  Philip  I.,  who  came  to  the 
throne  in  1060,  the  crusades  were  commenced. 
In  1108,  Philip  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Louis  the  Fat,  or  Louis  VI.,  who  engaged  in 
a war  with  Henry  I.  of  England.  Letters  of 
franchise  were  granted  to  many  cities  and 
towns  by  Louis  VI.,  and  the  authority  of  the 
crown  over  the  great  feudatories  much  in- 
creased. Louis  VII.,  surnamed  the  Young, 
carried  on  his  father’s  policy  for  strengthening 
the  regal  power.  He  marched  into  Cham- 
pagne in  tl^e  year  1137,  and  having  surprised 
the  city  of ' V etry,  met  with  no  resistance,  ex- 
cept in  the  parochial  church,  which  he  caused 
to  be  set  on  fire ; a thousand  and  three  hun- 
dred persons  perished  in  the  flames.  At  this 
time  the  English  kings,  as  Dukes  of  Normandy 
and  Anjou,  were  vassals  of  the  French  crown. 
Henry  II.  married  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  the 
repudiated  wife  of  Louis,  and  thus  his  power 
in  France  was  greater  than  that  of  the  mon- 
arch to  whom  he  owed  allegiance:  he  held 
Normandy,  Anjou,  Maine,  Touraine,  Poitou, 
Limousin,  Angoumois,  Saintonge,  Berri, 
Marche,  part  of  Auvergne,  Guienne,  and  Gas- 
cony. 

Philip  Augustus,  Louis’s  son  and  successor 
in  1180,  and  Richard  I.  of  England,  undertook 
a joint  expedition  to  the  holy  land,  in  1191 ; 
but  the  former  returning  to  Europe  in  disgust, 
the  latter  was  obliged  to  relinquish  the  enter- 
prise, and  on  his  way  home  was  imprisoned 
in  Austria.  During  his  captivity,  and  in  the 
reign  of  his  shiftless  brother  John,  Philip 
gained  Normandy,  Anjou,  Touraine,  andBerri. 
Philip  consolidated  the  regal  power  by  sub- 
stituting constitutional  forms  for  individual 
caprice.  His  reign  was  marked  by  blood- 
stained crusades  against  the  Albigenses  in  the 
south  of  France. 

Philip  II.  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis 


342 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  Lion,  in  1223.  He  was  poisoned  after  a 
short  reign  of  three  years,  during  which  he 
conquered  Poitou,  and  was  succeeded  in  1226 
by  his  son,  Louis  IX.,  commonly  styled  St. 
Louis,  who  engaged  in  a new  crusade  against 
the  infidels  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  in  which 
himself  and  his  nobility  were  taken  prisoners. 
Having  been  afterward  ransomed,  he  led  an 
army  against  the  infidels  of  Africa,  where  he 
died  in  1270,  before  Tunis.  His  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Philip  III.,  kept  the  field  against  the 
Moors,  and  saved  the  remains  of  the  French 
army ; and  this  procured  him  the  surname  of 
the  Hardy.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  IV.,  sur- 
named  the  Fair,  who  succeeded  in  1285,  the 
supreme  tribunals,  called  parliaments,  were 
instituted.  The  reign  of  St.’  Louis,  one  of  the 
most  equitable  and  virtuous  of  princes,  and 
the  reigns  of  his  direct  descendants,  some  of 
them  as  remarkable  for  opposite  qualities, 
were  marked  by  the  consolidation  of  the 
power  of  the  law  as  distinguished  from  that 
of  the  sword.  This  beneficial  change,  how- 
ever, was  accompanied  under  the  successors 
of  Louis  with  the  most  revolting  acts  of  in- 
justice in  the  name  of  law.  Many  nobles 
were  despoiled  of  their  fiefs,  the  order  of  the 
Templars  was  extirpated  in  the  blood  of  its 
members,  the  Jews  and  Lombards  were 
grievously  oppressed,  and  trade  was  ruined 
by  an  abased  coinage.  Persecution  assumed 
a more  systematic  form  by  the  establishment 
of  the  inquisition  at  Toulouse,  to  root  out  the 
poor  Albigenses.  In  this  period  the  greater 
part  of  Languedoc  was  added  to  the  domains 
of  the  crown,  which  were  considerably  aug- 
mented elsewhere. 

The  direct  branch  of  Capetian  kings  ended 
with  Charles  IV.,  who  left  only  a daughter; 
and  the  states  having  solemnly  decreed  that 
all  females  were  incapable  of  succeeding  to 
the  crown,  Philip  de  Valois,  the  next  male 
heir,  was  raised  to  the  throne  in  1328.  He 
was  the  grandson  of  Philip  the  Hardy  by  his 
third  son,  Charles  of  Valois.  The  mother  of 
Edward  III.  of  England  was  a daughter  of 
Philip  the  Fair.  Edward  having  claimed  the 
French  crown,  hostilities  commenced,  and  the 
English  gained  the  battle  of  Crecy  in  1346, 
and  Poitiers  .in  1356;  but  about  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  the  French  recovered 
all  the  provinces  which  the  English  had  con- 
quered in  France. 


During  the  reign  of  Charles  VI.,  who  be- 
came insane  shortly  after  coming  of  age, 
France  fell  into  dissension.  Two  great  fac- 
tions contended  for  the  mastery,  the  one 
headed  by  the  king’s  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, the  other  by  the  king’s  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Orleans ; while  the  citizens  and  peas- 
ants rebelled  against  the  exactions  of  the 
nobles,  and  demanded  an  increase  of  their  priv- 
ileges. Henry  V.  of  England  took  advantage 
of  these  disorders,  and  invaded  France  in  1415. 
He  made  himself  master  of  Harfleur,  and 
gained  the  famous  battle  of  Agincourt,  in 
which  the  French  lost  an  incredible  number 
of  men.  In  1420  the  succession  to  the  French 
throne  was  secured  to  the  King  of  England  by 
treaty;  in  consequence  of  wrhich  the  infant 
Henry  VI.  was  crowned  King  of  France  at 
Paris.  But  by  degrees  Charles  VII.  recov- 
ered possession  of  the  kingdom,  in  w hich  he 
was  greatly  assisted  by  the  enthusiast,  Joan 
of  Arc,  who  raised  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and 
defeated  the  English ; but  being  taken  pris- 
oner, this  gallant  girl  was  barbarously  burned 
for  alleged  sorcery. 

Louis  XI.,  a crafty  and  intriguing  prince, 
did  for  France  what  Henry  VII.  did  for  Eng- 
land in  breaking  down  the  feudal  powrer.  • By 
craft  or  by  force,  he  rendered  the  regal  power 
absolute,  and  enlarged  and  consolidated  his 
empire.  He  robbed  the  nobles  of  their  choic- 
est privileges,  and  gradually  united  all  the 
great  fiefs  with  the  crow  n.  Upon  the  over- 
throw and  death  of  Charles  the  Bold,  he  seized 
Burgundy.  Pope  Paul  II.  gave  him  the  title 
of  Most  Christian  King,  wrhich  became  an  ap- 
pellation of  the  monarchs  of  France;  pretty 
name  for  such  a cruel  ruler,  whose  tyranny 
forced  his  subjects  into  a union  against  him, 
known  as  “the  league  of  the  public  good.” 
His  son  Charles  VIII.  wras  the  last  prince  of 
the  first  line  of  Valois.  The  Duke  of  Orleans 
ascended  the  throne  in  1498,  under  the  title 
of  Louis  X.II.  He  was  so  humane,  generous, 
and  indulgent  to  his  subjects,  that  he  obtained 
the  appellation  of  father  of  his  people.  Fran- 
cis I.,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
kings  ofFrance,  succeeded  him.  He  ascended 
the  throne  in  1515,  at  the  age  of  twenty -one, 
and  died  in  1547.  His  reign  was  passed  in 
contests  with  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  He 
conquered  the  Milanese  in  1525,  but  wras  taken 
prisoner  at  the  siege  of  Pavia.  In  1535  he 


FRA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  343 


possessed  himself  of  Savoy,  but  was  after- 
ward defeated.  During  his  reign,  notwith- 
standing the  wars,  arts,  commerce,  and  liter- 
ature began  to  flourish  in  France.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  II.,  Calais  was  conquered,  the 
last  relic  of  the  English  possessions  in  France. 

On  the  accession  of  Francis  II.,  commenced 
those  civil  commotions  which  harassed  France 
during  thirty  years.  The  king  was  instigated 
to  attempt  the  extirpation  of  the  Protestants, 
who,  by  way  of  reproach,  were  denominated 
Huguenots.  The  minority  and  reign  of 
Charles  IX.  exhibited  a series  of  treacheries, 
commotions,  and  assassinations;  France  be- 
came a field  of  war  and  bloodshed.  The  mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew’s  disgraced  the  age. 
Henry  III.  was  a weak  and  debauched  prince ; 
and  in  him  ended  the  line  of  Valois.  On  his 
death,  the  crown  devolved  on  the  house  of 
Bourbon,  in  the  person  of  Henry  IV.,  King  of 
Navarre,  who  was  descended  from  Robert  of 
France,  Count  of  Clermont,  the  fifth  and  last 
son  of  Saint  Louis.  Henry  was  the  son  of 
Antony  of  Bourbon,  Duke  of  Vendome,  and 
Jeanne  d’Albret,  heiress  of  Navarre.  He  was 
justly  styled  the  Great,  being  one  of  the  best 
and  most  amiable  of  the  French  princes ; but 
he  perished  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin  in  1610. 

Under  the  minority  and  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIII.,  France  returned  to  disorder  and 
wretchedness,  and  Cardinal  Richelieu,  the 
prime  minister,  rendered  the  power  of  the 
crown  absolute.  The  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
was  long  and  brilliant.  The  great  Conde 
compelled  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  III.  and 
Christiana,  Queen  of  Sweden,  to  conclude  the 
peace  of  Westphalia.  But  the  unbounded 
ambition  of  Louis  rendered  him  odious  or 
formidable  to  every  prince  in  Europe.  The 
united  forces  of  England,  Holland,  and  Aus- 
tria obliged  him  to  conclude  the  peace  of 
Ryswick  in  1697,  and  that  of  Utrecht  in 
1713.  He  reigned  from  1643  to  1715.  Wil- 
liam III.  of  England  was  the  great  enemy  of 
Louis  XIV.  In  1702,  he  organized  a new 
confederacy  of  the  powers  of  Europe  against 
him,  but  died  before  hostilities  commenced. 
The  Duke  of  Marlborough,  who  led  the  allied 
forces,  gained,  in  1704,  the  battle  of  Blen- 
heim, which  was  followed  by  other  victories. 
But,  in  1713,  this  bloody  and  useless  contest 
was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 


though  Louis  succeeded  in  placing  his  grand- 
son on  the  throne  of  Spain. 

At  the  age  of  five  years,  his  great-grandson 
ascended  the  throne,  under  the  title  of  Louis 
XV.  In  conjunction  with  Germany,  Russia, 
and  Sweden,  France,  in  this  reign,  twice  con- 
tended against  Prussia  and  Great  Britain? 
These  wars  were  concluded  in  1748  and  in 
1763.  Louis  XVI.  assumed  the  crowm  of 
France  in  1774,  under  most  unfortunate  aus- 
pices. He  found  a court  abandoned  to  the 
utmost  extravagance,  and  the  country  loaded 
with  an  enormous  debt.  The  king  convoked 
an  assembly  of  the  notables,  consisting  of 
princes,  deputies  chosen  from  among  the 
nobility,  dignified  clergy,  the  parliaments, 
and  the  pays  d'etat. 

It  was  proposed  to  establish  a land  tax, 
without  any  exception  in  favor  of  the  nobility 
or  clergy.  This  proposal  being  followed  by 
a general  refusal,  the  assembly  of  the  nota- 
bles was  dissolved,  and  the  minister  thought 
he  could  make  a more  advantageous  bargain 
with  the  parliaments.  But  as  the  latter 
remonstrated,  and  advanced  the  opinion  that 
the  right  of  imposing  new  taxes  belonged 
only  to  the  states  general,  the  king  convoked 
them  in  1789.  Necker’s  indiscreet  measure, 
by  which  it  was  stipulated  that  the  numbers 
of  the  tiers  etat  (third  estate)  should  be,  at 
least,  equal  to  that  of  the  other  two  orders 
conjointly,  threw  the  preponderance  into  the 
scale  of  the  former,  who  could  not  fail  to  find 
many  adherents  in  the  superior  classes.  As  . 
soon  as  the  deputies  of  the  third  order  had 
formed  themselves  into  a national  assembly, 
the  other  orders  were  led  away  by  their 
impulsive  force,  and  the  equilibrium  was 
entirely  destroyed. 

The  storm  of  popular  fury  gathered  and 
broke  rapidly.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1789,  the 
Bastile  was  destroyed.  On  the  4th  of  Au- 
gust the  privileges  of  the  nobility  were  sup- 
pressed. On  the  5th  of  October,  1789,  the 
king,  queen,  and  royal  family  were  forced 
from  Versailles  by  the  mob,  and  brought  cap- 
tive to  the  capital.  However,  the  monarch 
disconcerted  the  schemes  of  his  adversaries 
by  a free  acceptance  of  the  new  constitution, 
which  abolished  the  feudal  system  and  tha 
titles  of  nobility.  The  situation  of  Louis  and 
his  family  became  so  unsupportable  under 


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the  harsh  restraints  which  were  imposed, 
that  they  contrived  to  escape  from  their  im- 
placable enemies  ; but  the  unfortunate  mon- 
arch, being  recognized  at  St.  Menehoult  by 
Drouet,  the  post-master,  was  stopped  at  Va- 
rennes,  constrained  to  return  to  Paris  with 
liis  family,  and  to  become  a mere  prisoner. 

While  the  king  was  preparing  to  surrender 
his  throne  and  life,  the  Jacobins  caused  a de- 
cree to  be  enacted,  suppressing  the  chasseurs 
and  grenadiers,  of  whom  they  were  afraid,  as 
well  as  the  staff  of  the  national  guard.  All 
the  measures  which  they  pursued  till  the 
10th  of  August,  1792,  had,  for  their  sole 
aim,  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy.  On 
that  day,  the  Marseillaise,  who  had  been  in- 
vited to  Paris  to  form  the  advanced  guard  in 
the  attack  on  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries,  in 
conjunction  with  the  national  guards,  fired 
on  the  devoted  Swiss  who  composed  the  royal 
body-guard,  and  almost  annihilated  them. 
The  king  and  his  family  sought  refuge  in  the 
assembly ; it  was  decreed  that  they  should 
be  imprisoned  in  the  Temple,  and  they  were 
conducted  thither. 

The  national  convention  was  opened  on  the 
21st  of  September,  and  in  the  first  sitting 
abolished  royalty  and  proclaimed  the  repub- 
lic. The  king  was  tried  and  condemned,  and 
on  the  21st  of  January,  1793,  perished  on 
the  scaffold.  Against  the  French  republic, 
Austria  and  Prussia  had  already  declared 
war,  and,  on  the  king’s  death,  their  example 
was  followed  by  Great  Britain  and  Holland, 
and  speedily  after  by  Spain  and  Russia. 
While  France  was  pressed  on  all  sides  by  the 
different  powers  of  Europe,  this  unfortunate 
country  was  a prey  to  all  kinds  of  internal 
disorders,  and  to  the  most  unbounded  licen- 
tiousness. 

Robespierre  and  Danton  obtained  a decree 
by  which  all  the  sans-culottes  were  to  be 
armed  with  pikes  and  muskets  at  the  expense 
of  the  rich,  who  were  themselves  to  be  dis- 
armed as  suspected  persons.  Marat,  one  of 
the  principal  agents  in  the  revolution,  was 
assassinated  by  Charlotte  Corday.  Toward 
the  close  of  June,  1793,  the  new  constitution 
was  adopted,  and  great  disturbances  broke 
out  at  Lyons,  Marseilles,  and  in  La  Vendee. 
Soon  after  the  surrender  of  Valenciennes  to 
the  English,  the  committee  of  public  safety 
was  established,  to  desolate  France  by  the 


most  horrid  butcheries  and  persecutions. 
They  apprehended  all  suspected  persons,  and 
tried  them  by  revolutionary  committees,  the 
powers  of  which  were  so  unlimited  that  they 
could  readily  seize  on  four-fifths  of  the  popu- 
lation of  France. 

One  of  their  early  victims  was  the  unhappy 
Marie  Antoinette,  the  widow  of  the  murdered 
Louis.  Her  death  was  followed  by  the  de- 
struction of  the  Girondists.  The  infamous 
Duke  of  Orleans  was  brought  up  to  Paris 
from  Marseilles,  and,  being  tried  and  con- 
demned, braved  the  insults  of  the  multitude 
on  the  way  to  execution.  Brittany  and  a 
great  part  of  Normandy  being  filled  with  the 
royalists,  who  had  acquired  the  denomination 
of  Ghouans , Carrier,  one  of  the  most  atrocious 
monsters  of  the  revolution,  was  sent  to  Nan- 
tes,  where  he  spared  neither  age  nor  sex,  but 
put  to  death  the  aged,  the  infirm,  and  even 
infants.  The  atrocities  committed  by  the 
satellites  of  the  convention  in  the  city  of 
Lyons,  exceeded  all  that  can  be  conceived ; at 
the  end  of  five  months,  nearly  6,000  persons 
had  perished. 

In  Paris  the  executions  were  now  multi- 
plied to  such  a degree,  that  eighty  persons 
were  frequently  conveyed  in  the  same  vehicle 
to  the  place  where  they  suffered.  To  cite 
the  names  of  all  the  illustrious  victims  who 
fell,  would  far  exceed  our  limits,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  present  too  horrid  a picture  of 
human  depravity.  At  length,  Robespierre, 
Couthon,  and  St.  Just  were  brought  to  con- 
dign punishment.  A form  of  government 
was  afterward  settled  by  the  convention ; and 
a council  of  ancients,  a council  of  five  hun- 
dred, and  five  rulers,  called  a directory,  were 
appointed : but  the  other  powers  of  Europe 
being  still  in  league  against  France,  and  the 
new  government  being  unfortunate  in  the 
field,  the  executive  power  was,  in  1799, 
vested  in  three  consuls,  of  whom  the  first 
was  the  victorious  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

The  consulate  restored  the  energy  of  the 
government.  Bonaparte,  having,  in  1800, 
gained  the  victory  of  Marengo,  forced  Aus- 
tria to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Luneville  in 
February,  1801 ; and  concluded  the  treaty 
of  Amiens  with  England  in  October  of  that 
year;  thus  restoring  peace  to  all  Europe. 
The  British  government  refusing  to  surrender 
Malta,  according  to  the  treaty  of  Amiens, 


FRA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


845 


after  some  angry  discussions  the  English  am- 
bassador left  Paris  in  April,  1803,  and  war 
was  recommenced.  Tn  1804,  the  first  con- 
sul Napoleon  Bonaparte,  was  crowned  Em- 
peror of  France  by  the  pope;  and,  in  1805, 
King  of  Italy,  at  Milan.  He  afterward  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Mediator  of  Switzerland, 
and  Protector  of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine.  He  made  one  of  his  brothers  King 
of  Holland,  another  King  of  Naples,  a third 
King  of  Spain,  and  a fourth  King  of  West- 
phalia. 

These  manifestations  of  ambition  excited, 
in  succession,  the  jealousies  and  fears  of  all 
Europe.  Austria  and  Russia  commenced 
hostilities  in  1805,  but  were  overthrown  at 
Austerlitz ; Prussia  in  1806,  but  she  was 
crushed  at  Jena ; Russia  again  in  the  same 
year,  but  she  was  defeated  at  Friedland ; 
Spain,  in  1807 ; Austria,  again,  in  1808,  but 
she  was  overthrown  at  Wagram;  Russia, 
again,  in  1812 ; and  finally,  Russia,  Prussia, 
Sweden,  Austria,  England,  &c.,  invaded 
France  in  1814,  when  Napoleon  abdicated, 
retired  to  the  island  of  Elba,  and  the  Bour- 
bons were  restored.  After  a year’s  absence, 
Napoleon  returned  to  Paris,  but  having  been 
defeated  in  the  memorable  battle  of  Water- 
loo, again  abdicated  the  throne,  and  was  con- 
veyed as  a state  prisoner  to  the  island  of  St. 
Helena,  where  he  died  in  1821.  The  Bour- 
bons were  reinstated  on  the  throne  in  the 
person  of  Louis  XVIII.,  brother  of  Louis 
XVI.,  and  France  relinquished  the  states  and 
provinces  acquired  during  the  revolutionary 
wars.  Louis  XVIII.  died  on  the  16th  of 
December,  1824;  his  brother,  Charles  X., 
ascended  the  throne,  and  was  crowned  with 
splendor  at  Rheims,  after  taking  the  solemn 
oath  to  govern  according  to  the  charter.  But 
the  misfortunes  of  the  Bourbons  had  not 
taught  them  wisdom.  In  1830,  the  tyranny 
of  the  ancient  regime  seemed  to  have  re- 
appeared, and  fetters  were  placed  upon  the 
press.  On  Tuesday  morning,  July  27th,  the 
liberal  journals  of  Paris  were  seized,  and  a 
revolution  immediately  broke  out.  In  three 
days  the  glorious  struggle  was  terminated  in 
favor  of  the  people.  The  paving-stones  and 
tiles  of  the  houses  became  weapons  more  for- 
midable than  sabres  or  muskets.  The  royal 
cavalry,  as  they  rushed  upon  the  barricades, 
were  assailed  in  front  and  from  above ; the 


young  scholars  of  the  Polytechnic  school, 
having  been  dismissed  without  their  swords, 
seized  what  arms  they  could  find,  and  ranged 
themselves  on  the  side  of  the  people ; some 
commanded  the  populace,  others  served  the 
guns  with  spirit  and  success.  Aug.  2d,  the 
king  abdicated,  and  was  permitted  to  leave 
France.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  was  chosen 
king,  a new  ministry  appointed,  and,  after  a 
fair  trial,  the  old  ministry  was  imprisoned 
for  life. 

Louis  Philippe,  though  put  upon  the 
throne  by  the  will  of  the  people,  forgot  the 
lesson  that  experience  should  have  taught 
him.  The  tranquillity  of  France  was  again 
ruffled  by  discontent.  At  length,  in  Febru- 
ary, 1848,  the  suppression  of  a great  reform 
banquet  which  was  to  be  holden  at  Paris, 
caused  a violent  tumult.  Barricades  were 
thrown  up  in  the  streets  of  Paris,  the  Tuiler- 
ies  were  ransacked,  the  prisons  opened,  and 
wild  excesses  indulged  in  by  the  furious 
populace.  Louis  Philippe  abdicated  in  favor 
of  hiS  little  grandson,  and  fled  across  the 
channel.  A republic  was  at  once  proclaimed, 
and  a provisional  government  formed.  This 
gave  place  on  the  6th  of  May  to  an  executive 
commission,  chosen  by  the  national  assembly. 
Lamartine,  Arago,  Garnier-Pages,  Marie, 
Ledru  Rollin,  Dupont  de  l’Eure,  were  the 
leading  members  of  this  commission.  Lib- 
erty, equality,  fraternity,  were  the  watch- 
words of  the  new  republic.  The  penalty  of 
death  for  political  offenses  was  abolished. 
Universal  suffrage  was  proclaimed.  All 
slaves  upon  French  territory  were  set  free. 
The  perpetual  banishment  of  the  late  mon- 
arch and  his  family  was  decreed.  National 
workshops  were  established,  wherein  all 
laborers  out  of  work  were  employed  at  the 
public  expense. 

A spirit  of  anarchy  was  abroad,  and  the 
new  government  was  assailed  by  many  riots. 
A fearful  struggle  broke  out  on  the  23d  of 
June.  Paris  was  declared  to  be  in  a state  of 
siege,  and  the  government  invested  General 
Cavaignac  with  dictatorial  power.  After  a 
bloody  contest  of  four  days  he  brought  the 
insurgents  to  submission.  Sixteen  thousand 
persons  had  been  killed  or  wounded,  and 
half  as  many  were  taken  prisoners.  A con- 
stitution was  promulgated,  under  which,  on 
the  11th  of  December,  1848,  Louis  Napoleon 


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346 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


was  elected  president;  Cavaignac  was  the 
candidate  of  the  republicans. 

The  constitution  was  overthrown  by  the 
coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2d,  1851.  The  legislative 
assembly  was  dissolved,  and  the  resisting 
members  arrested.  Paris  was  declared  to  be 
in  a state  of  siege,  and  occupied  by  thousands 
of  troops.  Thiers,  Changarnier,  Cavaignac, 
Bedeau,  and  Lamoriciere  were  thrown  into 
prison.  Hundreds  were  banished  to  the  pes- 
tilential marshes  of  Cayenne.  Louis  Napo- 
leon was  declared  elected  president  for  ten 
years.  This  was  only  preliminary  to  further 
usurpation.  Dec.  2d,  1852,  the  empire  was 
restored,  and  the  nephew  of  his  uncle  reigned 
as  Napoleon  III. 

We  subjoin  a list  of  the  dynasties  of 
France. 

THE  CARLO VINGIAN8. 

752.  Pepin  the  Short. 

768.  Charlemagne,  emperor  of  the  West. 

814.  Louis  the  Debonair,  emperor. 

840.  Charles  the  Bald,  emperor  in  875. 

877»  Louis  the  Stammerer,  his  son. 

879.  Louis  III.  and  Carloman  II. 

882.  Carloman  II. 

884.  Charles  the  Fat;  usurper,  in  prejudice  to 
Charles  the  Simple. 

887.  Eudes,  or  Hugh,  Count  of  Paris. 

898.  Charles  III.,  the  Simple. 

922.  Robert,  brother  of  Eudes ; Charles  killed 
him  in  battle. 

928.  Rodolf,  Duke  of  Burgundy. 

986.  Louis  IV.,  son  of  Charles  III. 

954.  Lothaire,  his  son. 

986.  Louis  V.,  the  Indolent*  son  of  Lothaire; 

poisoned  by  his  queen,  and  thus  ended 
the  line  of  Charlemagne. 

THE  CAPETS. 

987.  Hugh  Capet,  son  of  Hugh  the  Great,  Count 

of  Paris,  seized  the  crown,  in  prejudice 
of  Charles  of  Lorraine,  the  uncle  of 
Louis  IV. 

996.  Robert  II.,  his  son,  born  970. 

1031.  Henry  I.,  his  son,  born  1005. 

1060.  Philip  I.,  his  son,  born  1053. 

1108.  Louis  VI.,  the  Fat,  his  son,  born  1078. 
1137.  Louis  VII.,  the  Young,  his  son,  born  1120. 
1180.  Fhilip  Augustus,  his  son,  born  1165. 

1223.  Louis  VIII.,  Coeur  de  Lion,  his  son,  born 
1187. 

1226.  Louis  IX.,  St.  Louis,  his  son,  born  1215. 
1270.  Philip  III.,  the  Hardy,  his  son,  born  1245. 
1285.  Philip  IV.,  the  Fair,  his  son,  born  1268. 
1314.  Louis  X.,  the  Headstrong,  his  sou,  born 
1289. 

1316.  John  I.,  a posthumous  son  of  Louis  X. ; 
lived  only  a few  days. 

1316.  Philip  V.,  the  Long  (on  account  of  his 
stature),  son'  of  Philip  the  Fair,  born 
1294.  lie  was  preferred  to  the  daugh- 
ter and  heiress  of  Louis  X.,  thus  con- 
firming the  Salic  law. 


1 322.  Charles  IV.,  the  Handsome,  third  son  of 
Philip  the  Fair,  born  1295. 

BRANCH  OP  VALOIS. 

1328.  Philip  VI.,  born  1293,  grandson  of  Philip 
the  Hardy  by  his  third  son,  Charles  of 
Valois. 

1350.  John  II.,  the  Good,  his  son,  born  1319. 

1364.  Charles  V.,  the  Wise,  his  son,  born  1337; 

the  first  prince  who  bore  the  title  of 
dauphin. 

1380.  Charles  VI.,  his  son,  born  1368. 

1422.  Charles  VII.,  the  Victorious,  his  son,  born 
1403. 

1461.  Louis  XI.,  his  son,  born  1423. 

1483.  Charles  VIII.,  the  Affable,  his  son,  born 
1470. 

BRANCH  OP  VALOIS  ORLEANS. 

1498.  Louis  XII.,  the  Father  of  the  People,  born 
1462,  descended  from  a younger  son 
of  Charles  V. 

BRANCH  OP  VALOIS  ANGOULEME. 

1515.  Francis  I.,  the  Father  of  Letters,  born 
1494. 

1547.  Henry  II.,  his  son,  born  1519. 

1559.  Francis  II.,  eldest  son  of  Henry  II.,  born 

1544. 

1560.  Charles  IX.,  second  son  of  Henry  II., 

born  1550. 

1574.  Henry  III.,  third  son  of  Henry  II.,  born 
1551. 

HOUSE  OP  BOURBON. 

1589.  Henry  IV.,  the  Great,  born  1553,  de- 
scended from  Robert,  Count  of  Cler- 
mont, younger  son  of  St.  Louis,  and 
brother  of  Philip  III. 

1610.  Louis  XIII.,  his  son,  born  1601. 

1643.  Louis  XIV.,  his  son,  the  Great,  born  1638. 

1715.  Louis  XV.,  his  great-grandson,  born  1710. 

1774.  Louis  XVI.,  his  grandson,  born  1754. 

Louis  XVII.,  his  son.  [Numbered  with 
the  kings  though  he  never  reigned. 
He  died  in  prison,  June  8th,  1795,  aged 
ten  years  and  two  months.] 

REPUBLIC. 

1793.  Till  1804,  under  various  forms,  France  was 
a republic. 

THE  EMPIRE. 

1804.  Napoleon  I.,  born  Aug.  15th,  1769. 

THE  BOURBONS  RESTORED. 

1814.  Louis  XVIII.  (Count  of  Provence), 
brother  of  Louis  XVI.,  born  Nov.  17th, 
1755. 

1824.  Charles  X.  (Count  of  Artois),  his  brother, 
born  Oct.  9th,  1757 ; deposed. 

HOUSE  OP  ORLEANS. 

1830.  Louis  Philippe,  son  of  the  notorious  Duke 
of  Orleans,  born  Oct.  6th,  1773;  de- 
posed. 

NEW  REPUBUC. 

Louis  Napoleon  Charles  Bonaparte,  born 
April  20th,  1808,  chosen  president. 


1848. 

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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


347 


THE  EMPIRE  REVIVED. 

1852.  Napoleon  III.  [By  assuming  this  title 
Louis  Napoleon  recognized  the  son  of 
Napoleon  L,  as  the  second  emperor  of 
the  name.  His  father  abdicated  in  his 
favor,  but  he  never  reigned.] 

See  Appendix,  France  and  Prussia,  p.  1013. 

FRAN  CIA,  Gaspar  Rodriguez  de,  com- 
monly called  Dr.  Francia,  born  at  Assomcion 
in  that  province,  1757.  When  the  South 
American  provinces  threw  off  the  yoke  of 
Spain,  Francia  was  zealous  in  establishing  the 
independence  of  Paraguay,  and  soon  attained 
the  sole  dictatorship,  which  he  held  from 
1815  till  his  death  in  1840.  He  adopted  the 
principle  of  non-intercourse,  and  during  his 
rule  Paraguay  was  another  Japan.  Although 
he  is  accused  of  cruelty,  it  snould  be  remem- 
bered that  he  preserved  order  in  Paraguay, 
during  a period  in  which  the  neighboring 
state  of  Buenos  Ayres  changed  its  govern- 
ment, amid  convulsions  of  riot  and  blood, 
nearly  forty  times ! 

FRANCIS  I.  of  France,  surnamed  by  his 
subjects  the  father  of  letters,  was  born  at 
Cognac  in  1494 ; his  father  was  Charles,  Count 
of  Angouleme.  He  succeeded  Louis  XII., 
in  1515.  Louis  had  laid  claim  to  the  duchy 
of  Milan.  Francis  renewed  the  demand.  He 
passed  the  Alps,  penetrated  as  far  as  Milan, 
and  found  the  imperialists  and  Swiss  camped 
near  Marignano.  The  contest  was  kept  up 
for  two  whole  days.  Francis  and  tne  Cheva- 
lier Bayard  performed  prodigies  of  valor,  and 
the  Marshal  of  Trivulzio,  who  had  been  in 
eighteen  actions,  called  this  a combat  of 
giants.  The  Swiss  were  beaten  with  a loss  of 
15,000  men;  Sforza  ceded  Milan,  and  retired 
to  France,  where  he  died.  The  Swiss  agreed 
to  a perpetual  treaty  of  peace,  and  long  re- 
mained the  faithful  allies  of  France.  - Leo  X., 
equally  reconciled,  came  to  a conference  in 
which  the  pragmatic  sanction  was  abolished, 
to  make  way  for  the  concordat  by  which  the 
king  enjoyed  the  power  of  conferring  benefices. 

The  death  of  the  emperor,  Maximilian  I., 
presented  the  imperial  throne  to  the  view  of 
Francis  I.  and  Charles  of  Spain.  The  for- 
mer never  pardoned  his  rival  for  having  ob- 
tained it,  and  hence  arose  interminable  wars. 
The  first  care  of  Francis  I.  was  to  attach  to 
himself  Henry  VIII.  of  England;  and  they 
had  an  interview  near  Calais  on  the  Field  of 


the  Cloth  of  Gold;  but  Charles  V.  ruined 
his  rival’s  scheme  by  gaining  the  favor  of  the 
all-powerful  Cardinal  Wolsey.  The  cam- 
paign which  followed  presented  a scene  of 
alternate  success  and  defeat  on  both  sides. 
The  Milanese  were  won  by  the  intrigues  of 
Leo  X.  and  Charles  V.  ; and  France  had  at 
once  for  adversaries  the  new  pope,  Adrian 
VI.,  the  emperor,  England,  the  Venetians, 
and  the  Genoese,  and,  to  crown  her  misfor- 
tunes, the  Constable  of  Bourbon,  whom  dis- 
content drove  to  the  arms  of  Charles  V., 
and  whom  imperial  favor  raised  to  the  rank 
of  commander-in-chief. 

Francis  fought  in  different  places  with 
various  success.  The  imperialists  and  the 
English  were  repulsed  by  La  Tremouille,  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  and  the  Duke  of  Vendome; 
but  Bonnivet  was  beaten,  and  the  brave  Bay- 
ard killed,  in  Italy.  Yet  these  misfortunes 
did  not  destroy  the  hopes  of  Francis:  he 
passed  the  mountains  and  re-entered  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Milanese.  Following  the  ad- 
vice of  Bonnivet,  he  besieged  Pavia,  although 
the  oldest  officers  warned  him  against  doing 
so.  The  allies  arrived  in  time  to  succor  it, 
and,  on  February  24th,  1525,  was  fought  the 
battle  of  Pavia,  in  which  Francis,  after  having 
had  two  horses  killed  under  him,  and  smart- 
ing with  wounds,  was  taken  prisoner.  Bon- 
nivet killed  himself  in  despair. 

The  king  wrote  to  his  mother,  Louisa  of 
Savoy,  who  was  regent  in  his  absence,  this 
memorable  line,  “ Madame,  we  have  lost  all 
but  honor.”  Transferred  to  Spain,  he  was 
imprisoned  at  Madrid,  where,  disheartened 
and  sick,  he  signed  the  treaty  by  which  he 
ceded  Burgundy,  Flanders,  and  Artois,  and 
gave  up  his  two  sons  as  hostages.  Issuing 
from  his  prison,  his  spirits  revived  with  the 
free  air  and  open  scenery,  and  springing  upon 
a spirited  horse,  he  exclaimed  with  anima- 
tion, “I  am  yet  a king.”  His  progress 
through  Spain  hardly  resembled  that  of  a 
prisoner.  Throughout  his  journey,  enter- 
tainments were  given  him  by  the  Spanish 
noblemen,  who  were  glad  of  an  oppor- 
tunity to  display  their  wealth  and  conse- 
quence. One  night,  on  arriving  at  a noble 
manor,  he  was  obliged  to  take  his  seat  at  a 
splendid  festival ; it  concluded  with  a ball, 
in  which  the  courteous  monarch  did  not  re- 
fuse to  take  a part.  He  asked  two  beautiful 
IA 


348 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


girls,  daughters  of  a proud  old  nobleman,  to 
dance  with  him.  But  they  only  consented 
to  perform  that  part  of  the  figure  in  which 
the  lady  averts  her  face  from  her  partner ; in 
short,  so  blindly  patriotic  were  these  pretty 
Spaniards,  that  they  turned  upon  their  heels, 
to  the  no  small  confusion  of  the  King  of 
France.  Their  old  father,  however,  not  only 
disapproved  of  their  conduct,  but  punished 
it  in  a summary  manner,  for,  seizing  both  by 
the  hair,  he  dragged  them  out  of  the  ball- 
room with  more  rapidity  than  grace.  So 
much  for  refusing  a king’s  invitation. 

Francis  witnessed  a whimsical  instance  of 
Spanish  pride  in  his  reception  by  a certain 
old  gentleman  named  Don  Diego  d’ Alvar, 
who,  feigning  a painful  indisposition,  kept  his 
seat,  while  the  French  monarch  remained 
standing  in  his  presence.  Don  Diego  had  a 
menagerie,  an  expensive  part  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  a Spanish  grandee  in  those  times. 
During  the  festival  given  to  Francis,  an  Afri- 
can lion  escaped  from  his  cage.  Consterna- 
tion spread  among  the  guests,  each  of  whom 
thought  himself  the  devoted  victim  of  the 
infuriated  animal,  when  the  major-domo  of  the 
castle,  seizing  in  one  hand  a flaming  brand, 
and  grasping  his  sword  in  the  other,  advanced 
to  meet  the  lion.  The  animal,  frightened  by 
the  flames,  recoiled,  and  the  major-domo  fol- 
lowed him  up  to  his  cage,  in  which  he  en- 
closed him  with  as  much  coolness  as  if  he  had 
been  operating  upon  a greedy  hound  taken 
in  the  act  of  thieving  from  the  larder.  This 
act  of  courage  was  more  admired  by  Francis 
than  anything  else  which  occurred  at  the 
castle  of  Don'  Diego. 

Francis  returned  to  France.  His  cause 
becoming  that  of  all  the  princes  who  dreaded 
the  increase  of  the  power  of  Charles  V.,  a 
league  was  formed  between  the  pope,  the 
princes  of  Italy,  Henry  VIII.  of  England, 
and  Francis  I.  The  indignant  emperor  sent 
Laney  into  the  States  of  the  Church,  where 
he  made  himself  master  of  many  places. 
The  Constable  of  Bourbon,  even  after  the 
conquest  of  Milan,  wanting  money,  advanced 
upon  Rome,  and  promised  his  troops  the 
pillage  of  this  city.  He  was  killed  in  the 
assault.  The  furious  soldiers,  at  the  end  of 
two  hours’  fighting,  entered  Rome,  killed  all 
they  met,  sacked  the  houses,  profaned  the 
churches,  and  delivered  themselves  up  to  ex- 


cesses of  all  kinds,  which  continued  for  two 
months. 

The  flame  of  war  rekindled.  Marshal  Lau- 
trec  regained  the  greater  part  of  Milan; 
sacked  Pavia,  in  revenge  for  the  capture  of 
the  king ; then  forced  the  imperialists  to  con- 
clude a treaty  with  the  pope,  who  was  be- 
sieged in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo ; and  went 
thence  to  Naples,  where  he  perished  of  the 
plague  with  the  rest  of  his  army.  In  1529, 
a treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  at  Cambray, 
called  the  Peace  of  Ladies  ( Paix  des  Dames), 
on  account  of  the  plenipotentiaries,  the 
Duchess  of  Angouleme,  for  Francis  I.,  her 
son,  and  Margaret  of  Austria,  governess  of 
the  Low  Countries,  for  Charles  V.,  her 
nephew.  The  king  engaged  to  pay  the  em- 
peror 2,000,000  crowns,  to  cede  the  sover- 
eignty of  Flanders  and  Artois,  and  to  marry 
Eleonora,  the  sister  of  the  emperor,  whose 
attentions  had  solaced  his  captivity. 

Finding  peace  established,  he  employed 
himself  in  repressing  a multitude  of  dis- 
orders to  which  the  wars  had  given  rise,  in 
making  wise  regulations,  in  reforming  legal 
abuses,  and  preserving  the  tranquillity  of  the 
church  by  persecuting  the  reformers  that  men- 
aced it.  He  founded  colleges,  protected  litera- 
ture, which  he  himself  cultivated,  encouraged 
the  arts,  founded  the  royal  library  and  printing 
establishment,  honored  learned  men,  and 
labored  to  deserve  the  title  of  restorer  of  the 
sciences.  Commerce,  trade  and  industry 
were  fostered  under  his  rule. 

But  he  again  cast  his  eyes  upon  Milan,  and 
in  1535  entered  Italy,  and  made  himself 
master  of  Savoy.  Charles,  in  turn,  made  an 
irruption  into  Provence,  but  was  repulsed 
with  loss.  The  Flemings,  who  had  entered 
Picardy,  met  with  the  same  fate.  The  alliance 
concluded  between  Francis  I.  and  Solyman, 
the  sultan  of  the  Turks,  rendered  Charles 
more  prudent,  and  he  concluded  a truce  for 
ten  years.  This  was  soon  broken  by  his  ill 
faith,  and  the  murder  of  two  French  ambas- 
sadors. War  was  waged  with  various  suc- 
cess, for  two  years,  in  Italy,  France,  Spain, 
and  the  Netherlands,  till  Charles  and  Francis 
concluded  peace  at  Cressy  in  1544. 

In  March,  1547,  Francis,  who  possessed  so 
many  good  qualities,  died,  the  victim  of  his 
illicit  intrigues.  Notwithstanding  his  numer- 
ous wars,  he  kept  the  finances  of  France  in  a 


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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


349 


flourishing  condition.  He  wedded  in  1514, 
Claude,  daughter  of  Louis  XII.  and  the 
Duchess  of  Brittany.  She  died  in  1524,  and 
in  1530  he  married  Eleanor  of  Austria,  sister 
of  Charles  V.,  and  widow  of  Emmanuel  the 
Fortunate  of  Portugal.  She  died  in  1557. 

FRANCIS,  Sir  Philip,  a famous  politician, 
was  born  in  Ireland,  in  1740.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Paul’s  school;  after  which  he 
obtained  a place  in  the  office  of  the  secretary 
of  state.  In  1760,  he  went  in  the  suit  of  the 
English  ambassador  to  Lisbon.  In  1763,  he 
was  a clerk  in  the  war  office,  and,  in  1773, 
he  went  out  to  India,  as  a member  of  the 
council  of  Bengal,  and  fought  a duel  with 
Warren  Hastings,  who  was  wounded.  On 
his  return  to  England,  he  was  elected  to  par- 
liament for  Yarmouth  in  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
He  supported  the  proceedings  against  War- 
ren Hastings,  whom  he  opposed  on  every 
occasion.  When  the  whigs  came  into  office, 
he  was  made  knight  of  the  bath.  He  died 
Dec.  22d,  1818.  The  authorship  of  the  let- 
ters of  Junius  is  most  generally  ascribed  to 
him.  [See  Junius.] 

FRANCIS,  St.  There  are  five  saints  of 
this  name  in  the  Romish  calendar.  St.  Fran- 
cis of  Assise,  1182-1226;  St.  Francis  of 
Calabria,  1416-1507 ; St.  Francis  of  Borgia, 
died  1572;  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  1567-1622; 
St.  Francis  Xavier,  1506-1552.  [ See  Xavi- 

er.] The  mendicant  order  of  friars  called 
Franciscans,  and  also  Grey  Friars,  was 
founded  by  St.  Francis  of  Assise,  1209-1220. 
Their  rules  were  chastity,  poverty,  obedience, 
and  very  austere  regimen ; but  they  became 
rich,  voluptuous,  and  lazy.  They  appeared 
in  England  in  1224,  and  at  the  breaking  up 
of  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII.,  they  had 
fifty -five  abbeys  or  other  houses. 

FRANKFORT,  on  the  Main,  is  one  of 
the  four  free  cities,  and  the  seat  of  the  Ger- 
man diet.  A territory  of  91  square  miles  is 
attached  to  the  city,  and  the  government  is 
republican ; total  population  in  1855,  74,784. 
Frankfort  was  made  a free  city  in  li54.  It 
is  a place  of  large  traffic,  banking,  and  manu- 
factures. The  aggregate  capital  of  its  bank- 
ers is  said  to  be  $100,000,000.  In  the  six- 
teenth century  its  annual  fairs  were  attended 
by  forty  thousand  strangers.  Though  no 
longer  so  famous,  they  are  still  animated  and 
attractive. 


FRANKLIN,  Benjamin,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Jan.  17th,  1706.  He  was  the  youngest 
of  seventeen  children,  and  was  intended  for 
his  father’s  business,  which  was  that  of  a 
soap-boiler  and  tallow-chandler,  but  being 
disgusted  with  this  employment,  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  his  brother,  who  was  a printer. 
This  occupation  was  more  congenial  to  his 
taste,  and  he  used  to  devote  his  nights  to  the 
perusal  of  such  books  as  his  scanty  means 
enabled  him  to  buy.  By  restricting  himself 
to  a vegetable  diet,  he  obtained  more  money 
for  intellectual  purposes,  and  at  sixteen  had 
read  Locke  on  the  Understanding,  Xeno- 
phon’s Memorabilia,  and  the  Port  Royal 
Logic,  in  addition  to  many  other  works. 
Having  incurred  the  displeasure  of  his  father 
and  brother,  he  ran  away,  sailed  in  a sloop  to 
New  York,  walked  thence  to  Philadelphia, 
and  entered  that  city  with  a dollar  in  his 
pocket,  and  a loaf  of  bread  under  his  arm. 
Here  he  obtained  employment  as  a printer, 
and  Sir  William  Keith,  the  governor,  observ- 
ing his  diligence,  persuaded  him  to  go  to 
England,  to  purchase  materials  for  a press,  on 
his  own  account,  promising  him  letters  of 
introduction  and  credit.  This  was  in  1725. 
He  found  he  was  the  bearer  of  no  letters 
that  related  to  himself,  and  he  was  accord- 
ingly obliged  to  work  at  his  trade  in  London. 
He  returned  to  Philadelphia,  where,  in  a 
short  time,  he  entered  into  business  with  one 
Meredith,  and  about  1728  began  a newspa- 
per, in  which  he  inserted  many  of  his  moral 
essays.  He  published  “Poor  Richard’s  Alma- 
nac” for  a quarter-century  and  more.  It  is 
well  known  for  its  pithy  sayings : “ Drive  thy 
business,  let  not  that  drive  thee ; ” “ God  gives 
all  things  to  industry ; then  plow  deep  while 
sluggards  sleep,  and  you  will  have  corn  to  sell 
and  keep  ; ” “ Three  removes  are  as  bad  as  a 
fire ; ” “ Keep  thy  shop,  and  thy  shop  will 
keep  thee ;”  “If  you  would  have  your  busi- 
ness done,  go ; if  not,  send ; ” as  poor  Rich- 
ard says.  The  frugal  maxims  of  poor  Dick, 
Franklin  himself  strictly  observed,  and  he 
grew  to  prosperity  and  good  repute  in  his 
adopted  city.  At  the  age  of  twenty-seven, 
he  began  the  study  of  the  modern  and  classi- 
cal languages.  He  founded  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  and  the  American  Philosoph- 
ical Society,  and  invented  the  Franklin  stove, 
which  still  holds  its  place,  even  among  the 


FRA 


350 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


franklin’s  GRAVE  AT  PHILADELPHIA. 


variety  of  modern  inventions  of  a similar 
kind.  In  1746,  he  made  his  experiments  on 
electricity  and  applied  his  discoveries  to  the 
invention  of  the  lightning-rod. 

In  1751,  he  was  appointed  deputy  post- 
master-general for  the  colonies.  After  the 
defeat  of  Braddock,  a bill  for  organizing  a 
provincial  militia  having  passed  the  assembly, 
Franklin  was  chosen  its  commander.  In  1 757, 
he  was  sent  to  England  with  a petition  to  the 
king  and  council  against  the  proprietaries, 
who  refused  to  bear  their  share  in  the  public 
expenses.  While  thus  employed,  he  pub- 
lished several  works,  which  gained  him  a 
high  reputation,  and  the  agency  of  Massa- 
chusetts, Maryland,  and  Georgia.  In  1762, 
Franklin  was  chosen  fellow  of  the  royal  so- 
ciety, and  made  doctor  of  laws  at  Oxford,  and 
the  same  year  returned  to  America. 

In  1764  he  was  again  deputed  to  England 
as  agent  of  his  province,  and  in  1766  was  ex- 


amined before  the  house  of  commons  on  the 
subject  of  the  stamp-act.  His  answers  were 
clear  and  decisive.  His  conduct  in  England 
was  worthy  of  his  previous  character.  Find- 
ing him  warmly  attached  to  the  colonies, 
invective  and  coarse  satire  were  leveled  against 
him,  but  his  integrity  and  matchless  wit 
formed  an  invulnerable  defense.  He  was  next 
offered  “any  reward,  unlimited  recompense, 
honors  and  recompense  beyond  his  expecta- 
tions,” if  he  would  forsake  his  countty,  but 
he  stood  firm  as  a rock. 

He  returned  to  America  in  1775,  and  was 
immediately  chosen  a member  of  congress, 
and  performed  the  most  arduous  duties  in  the 
service  of  his  country.  He  was  sent  as  com- 
missioner to  France  in  1776,  and  concluded  a 
treaty,  February  6th,  1778,  in  which  year  he 
was  appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the 
court  of  Versailles,  and  one  of  the  commis- 
tioners  for  negotiating  peace  with  Great  Brit- 


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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


351 


ain.  Although  he  solicited  leave,  he  was  not 
permitted  to  return  till  1785.  He  was  made 
president  of  Pennsylvania,  and  as  a delegate 
to  the  convention  of  1787,  approved  the  fed- 
eral constitution.  He  died  April  17th,  1790. 

How  generally  he  was  beloved,  both  at 
home  and  abroad,  the  various  honors  which 
he  received,  show.  Incorruptible,  talented, 
and  virtuous,  he  merited  the  eulogium  of 
Lord  Chatham,  who  characterized  him  as 
“ one  whom  all  Europe  held  in  high  estimation 
for  his  knowledge  and  wisdom  ; who  was  an 
honor,  not  to  the  English  nation  only,  but  to 
human  nature.”  His  wit  and  humor  rendered 
his  society  acceptable  to  every  class.  On  one 
occasion,  he  was  dining  with  the  English  am- 
bassador and  a French  functionary  at  Paris. 
The  former  rose,  and  gave  the  following  sen- 
timent: “England!  the  bright  sun  whose 
rays  illuminate  the  world  ! ” The  French 
gentleman,  struggling  between  patriotism  and 
politeness,  proposed,  “France!  the  moon 
whose  mild  beams  dispel  the  shades  of  night.” 
Doctor  Franklin,  rising  in  turn,  said,  “ Gen- 
eral George  Washington!  the  Joshua  who 
commanded  the  sun  and  moon  to  stand  still, 
and  they  obeyed  him  ! ” Franklin’s  wit  and 
humor  are  happily  displayed  in  an  epitaph 
which  he  once  wrote. 

THE  BODY 
OF 

Benjamin  Franklin, 

PRINTER 

(LIKE  THE  COVER  OF  AN  OLD  BOOK, 

ITS  CONTENTS  TORN  OUT, 

AND  STRIPPED  OF  ITS  LETTERING  AND  GILDING), 
LIES  HERE,  FOOD  FOR  WORMS; 

YET  THE  WORK  ITSELF  SHALL  NOT  BE  LOST, 

FOR  IT  WILL  (AS  HE  BELIEVED)  APPEAR  ONCE  MORE 
IN  A NEW 

AND  MORE  BEAUTIFUL  EDITION, 
CORRECTED  AND  AMENDED 
BY 

the  Author. 

FRANKLIN,  Sir  J ohn,  was  born  at  Spils- 
by,  Lincolnshire,  in  1786.  His  early  love  for 
the  sea  led  him  into  the  navy  as  a midship- 
man at  the  age  of  fourteen.  In  1808  he 
accompanied  Capt.  Flanders  in  a voyage  of 
discovery  to  the  South  Seas,  and  was  wrecked 
on  th*e  coast  of  New  Holland.  He  was  at 
Copenhagen,  Trafalgar,  and  New  Orleans. 
His  first  Arctic  voyage  was  in  1814,  as  sec- 
ond to  Capt.  Buchan.  He  was  also  in  the  ex- 
pedition of  Ross  and  Parry.  Afterward,  with 


Mr.  Richardson,  he  made  two  arduous  jour- 
neys by  land  in  the  polar  regions,  and  for  his 
services  was  knighted.  From  1830  to  1848  he 
was  governor  of  Van  Diemen’s  Land.  On  the 
19th  of  May,  1845,  he  sailed  once  more  for 
the  frozen  seas  of  the  north.  After  a time 
the  anxiety  of  Christendom  was  awakened 
in  behalf  of  Sir  John  and  his  comrades.  Ex- 
pedition after  expedition,  both  from  Eng- 
land and  America,  was  dispatched  for  their 
rescue.  The  generous  toil  was  in  vain.  The 
sad  fate  of  the  long  missing  party  was  at  last 
ascertained,  but  not  from  a survivor’s  lips. 
[See  North-West  Passage.] 

FREDEGONDE,  the  wife  of  Chilperic  of 
France,  a ruthless  woman  who  persuaded  her 
husband  to  oppress  his  subjects.  She  is  said 
to  have  murdered  Sigebert,  Meroveus,  the 
son  of  Chilperic,  Andoveus,  his  brother,  and 
Pretextatus,  Bishop  of  Rouen.  Afterward, 
retiring  to  Paris,  she  continued  her  persecu- 
tions of  Brunehaut,  and  Childebert  her  son, 
took  the  field,  and  vanquished  him  with  the 
slaughter  of  30,000  of  his  army.  She  then 
wasted  Champagne,  and  retook  Paris.  She 
died  in  597,  after  having  caused  Chilperic  to 
be  assassinated. 

FREDERICK  I.,  surnamed  Barbarossa, 
succeeded  to  the  imperial  crown,  on  the  death 
of  his  uncle,  Conrad  III.,  in  1152.  His  first 
business  was  to  insure  the  tranquillity  of  Ger- 
many, after  which  he  marched  into  Italy,  and 
assumed  its  sovereignty.  He  afterward  re- 
newed the  war,  took  Milan  a second  time, 
and  destroyed  it,  but  he  was  excommunicated 
by  the  pope.  He  engaged  in  the  crusades 
against  the  Turks,  defeated  Saladin  in  two 
combats,  and  took  several  cities  from  the 
infidels.  He  was  drowned  July  10th,  1190; 
in  the  midst  of  his  successes. 

FREDERICK  II.,  King  of  Prussia,  com- 
monly called  the  Great,  was  the  son  of  Fred- 
erick William  I.,  and  was  born  January  21st, 
1712.  His  education  was  strict,  but  when 
he  grew  up,  he  showed  so  strong  an  inclina- 
tion to  literature  and  music,  as  to  incur  the 
displeasure  of  his  father,  who  considered  read- 
ing as  beneath  the  dignity  of  a monarch  and 
a man.  So  harsh  was  the  conduct  of  his 
parent,  that  in  1730  he  attempted  to  escape 
from  Prussia,  but  was  taken  with  his  travel- 
ing companion,  Lieutenant  Catt,  who  was 
put  to  death  by  order  of  the  king.  The  prince 


FRE 


352 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


himself  was  punished  by  confinement.  The 
death  of  his  father  raised  him  to  the  throne, 
May  31st,  1740,  and,  by  taking  advantage 
of  the  defenseless  state  of  Maria  Theresa, 
he  added  Silesia  to  his  dominions.  In  1744, 
he  again  took  up  arms  against  Austria ; and 
the  treaty  of  Dresden,  in  1745,  left  him  in 
possession  of  an  extended  territory.  In  1755, 
he  entered  into  an  alliance  with  England, 
which  produced  the  seven  years’  war;  in 
which  Frederick  exhibited  all  the  powers  of 
his  character  as  a skillful  general.  In  1757, 
he  had  to  contend  with  Russia,  Austria,  Sax- 
ony, Sweden,  and  France;  notwithstanding 
which,  and  though  his  enemies  made  them, 
selves  masters  of  his  capital,  he  extricated 
himself  from  his  difficulties,  and  by  the  battle 
of  Torgau  repaired  all  his  losses.  In  1763, 
peace  was  restored.  Frederick  afterward  led 
a philosophic  life,  with  the  exception  of  his 
wicked  share  in  dismembering  Poland  in  1773. 
He  died  August  17th,  1786. 

FRENEAU,  Philip,  a poet  of  the  American 
Revolution,  died  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  Dec. 
18th,  1832,  aged  about  eighty.  He  was  for 
some  time  a captive  in  the  Scorpion  prison- 
ship  at  New  York. 

FRIDAY,  the  sixth  day  in  the  week,  was 
so  called  from  Friga,  a Scandinavian  goddess 
commonly  supposed  to  be  the  same  with 
Venus.  She  was  the  wife  of  Thor,  and  the 
goddess  of  peace,  fertility,  and  riches.  Friga, 
Thor,  and  Odin  composed  the  court  or  su- 
preme council  of  the  gods.  The  Moham- 
medans consider  Friday  holy,  because  on 
that  day  the  Hegira  occurred.  Per  contra, 
throughout  Christendom  from  time  immemo- 
rial, Friday  has  been  dreaded  as  a day  of  ill 
omen.  From  the  earliest  days  of  Christianity 
the  Friday  before  Easter  has  been  kept  as 
a solemn  fast,  in  remembrance  of  the  crucifix- 
ion of  Christ,  Friday,  April  3d,  a.d.  33.  By 
the  Saxon  Christians  this  fast  was  called 
Long  Friday,  because  of  the  great  length  of 
the  offices  observed  and  fastings  enjoined. 
The  name  Good  Friday  is  peculiar  to  the 
Episcopal  church.  The  evil  repute  of  this 
day  of  the  week  may  have  arisen  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  darkened  by  our  Saviour’s 
death.  A superstitious  fear  of  it  has  been 
especially  prevalent  among  seamen.  It  would 
seem  that  Americans,  whether  mariners  or 
landsmen,  have  little  cause  to  dread  this  day. 


On  Friday,  August  21st,  1492,  Christopher 
Columbus  sailed  on  his  great  voyage  of  dis- 
covery. On  Friday,  October  12th,  1492,  he 
first  discovered  land.  On  Friday,  January 
4th,  1493,  he  sailed  on  his  return  to  Spain, 
and  had  he  not  reached  home  in  safety,  the 
happy  result  that  led  to  the  settlement  of  this 
vast  continent,  would  not  have  been  known. 
On  Friday,  March  15th,  1493,  he  arrived  at 
Palos  in  safety.  On  Friday,  November  22d, 

1493,  he  arrived  at  Hispaniola,  on  his  second 
voyage  to  America.  On  Friday,  June  13th, 

1494,  he,  though  unknown  to  himself,  dis- 
covered the  continent  of  America.  On  Fri- 
day, March  5th,  1496,  Henry  VII.  of  Eng- 
land gave  to  John  Cabot  his  commission, 
which  led  to  the  discovery  of  North  America ; 
this  is  the  first  American  state  paper  in 
England.  On  Friday,  September  7th,  1565, 
Melendez  founded  St.  Augustine,  the  oldest 
town  in  the  United  States  by  more  than  forty 
years.  On  Friday,  November  10th,  1620,  the 
Mayflower,  with  the  Pilgrims,  made  the  har- 
bor of  Provincetown,  and  on  that  day  they 
signed  that  august  compact,  the  forerunner 
of  our  present  glorious  constitution.  On 
Friday,  December  22d,  1620,  the  Pilgrims 
made  their  final  landing  at  Plymouth  rock. 
On  Friday,  February  22d,  1732,  George 
Washington,  the  father  of  American  freedom, 
was  born.  On  Friday,  June  16th,  Bunker 
Hill  was  seized  and  fortified.  On  Friday, 
October  7th,  1777,  the  surrender  of  Saratoga 
was  made,  which  had  such  power  and  in- 
fluence in  inducing  France  to  declare  for  our 
cause.  On  Friday,  October  19th,  1781,  the 
surrender  at  Yorktown,  the  crowning  glory 
of  the  American  arms,  occurred.  On  Friday, 
July  7th,  1776,  the  motion  in  Congress  was 
made  by  John  Adams,  seconded  by  Richard 
Henry  Lee,  that  the  united  colonies  were, 
and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independ- 
ent. Thus,  by  numerous  examples,  we  see 
that,  however  it  may  be  with  foreign  nations, 
Americans  need  never  dread  to  begin  on  Fri- 
day any  undertaking,  however  momentous  it 
may  be. 

FRIEDL  AND,  a town  of  Bohemia,  piemo- 
rable  for  the  battle  fought  there  on  the  14th 
of  June,  1807,  between  the  French  and  the 
allied  Russians  and  Prussians,  which  resulted 
in  the  total  defeat  of  the  latter,  with  immense 
Napoleon  commanded  the  French  in 


loss. 

FRI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


353 


fulton’s  first  steamboat. 


person.  The  treaty  of  Tilsit  was  a result  of 
his  victory. 

FRIENDLY  ISLANDS,  a group  of  islands 
in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  150  in  number. 
They  are  very  fertile,  but  contain  but  few 
springs  of  good  water.  They  were  discovered 
by  Tasman  in  1642,  and  visited  in  1773  by 
Captain  Cook,  who  thought  the  inhabitants 
amicable  and  inoffensive,  and  christened  the 
isles  accordingly.  It  was  afterward  learned 
that  they  intended  to  kill  him  and  seize  his 
vessels.  The  people  are  industrious,  and 
many  have  been  converted  to  Christianity  by 
missionaries. 

FRISIANS,  an  old  tribe  of  Germans,  in- 
habiting Friesland.  Prussia  took  possession 
of  East  Friesland  in  1744,  and  it  was  annexed 
to  Hanover  in  1815. 

FRITH,  John,  an  early  martyr  to  the  ref- 
ormation in  England,  was  burned  about 
1533 ; Frith’s  work  on  the  Eucharist  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  first  English  treatise 
on  the  side  of  the  reformed  doctrines. 

FROBISHER,  Sir  Martin,  the  first  Eng- 
lishman who  tried  to  find  a north-west  pas- 
sage to  the  Pacific,  in  1576.  He  entered  the 
strait  since  known  by  his  name.  He  was 
knighted  for  bis  services  against  the  Armada. 


He  died  in  1594  from  a wound  got  In  an 
attack  on  Brest. 

FROISSART,  John,  the  celebrated  French 
chronicler,  died  in  1402,  aged  sixty-nine. 

FRY,  Elizabeth,  who  has  been  called  ‘ the 
female  Howard,’  was  born  in  1780,  at  Earl- 
ham,  Norfolk.  Her  maiden  name  was  Gur- 
ney, and  she  was  a member  of  the  society  of 
Friends.  Her  life  was  devoted  to  labors  of 
love  in  behalf  of  the  poor,  the  afflicted,  and 
the  suffering.  In  her  endeavors  for  the  ref- 
ormation of  criminals  she  visited  all  the  prin- 
cipal jails  in  Great  Britain,  France,  Holland, 
Denmark,  and  Prussia.  The  unwearying 
benevolence  of  this  excellent  woman  made 
serious  inroads  on  her  health,  and  she  died 
at  Ramsgate,  October  11th,  1844. 

FUENTES  D’ONORE,  Battle  of,  in  Por- 
tugal, May  5th,  1811,  between  the  French 
under  Massena,  who  desired  to  relieve  Almei- 
da, and  a greatly  inferior  force  commanded 
by  Lord  Wellington.  The  fight  lasted  until 
evening,  and  victory  rested  with  neither  army. 

FULLER,  Thomas,  an  eminent  English 
divine  and  writer,  born  1608  died  1661,  aged 
fifty-three.  He  was  the  author  of  various 
works  in  practical  divinity  and  history,  but 
his  quaint  melange,  “The  Worthies  of  Eng- 


FUL 


854 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


land,”  is  now  best  known.  His  memory  was 
wonderful : it  is  said  that  he  could  repeat  five 
hundred  unconnected  words  after  twice  hear- 
ing them,  and  recite  all  the  signs  in  the  prin- 
cipal thoroughfare  of  London  after  once  pass- 
ing through  it  and  back  again.  He  was  chap- 
lain to  Charles  II. 

FULTON,  Robert,  the  celebrated  American 
engineer,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1765. 
At  an  early  age  he  exhibited  a fondness  for 
the  mechanical  arts,  and  a talent  for  drawing. 
In  his  twenty-second  year,  he  went  to  Eng- 
land, and  subsequently  to  France,  distinguish- 
ing himself  in  both  countries  by  mechanical 
inventions.  He  returned  to  America  in  1806. 
Mr.  Livingston,  the  American  ambassador  to 


GADSDEN,  Christopher,  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina,  was  bom  in  1724. 
He  was  an  early  and  ardent  friend  of  liberty, 
and  discharged  the  duties  of  member  of  the 
provincial  congress  with  ability  and  apnlause. 
After  the  capture  of  Charleston  by  the  British 
in  1780,  Mr.  Gadsden  and  other  firm  patriots 
were  arrested,  in  flagrant  violation  of  the  terms 
of  capitulation,  and  incarcerated  for  months 
in  dungeons  at  St.  Augustine.  He  died  Aug. 
28th,  1805. 

GAELS,  a family  of  the  Celts,  who  passed 
over  from  Gaul  to  Britain  and  the  neighboring 
islands.  Traces  of  them  are  still  found  in  the 
remote  districts  of  Ireland  and  Scotland. 

GAGE,  Thomas,  the  last  royal  governor  of 
Massachusetts.  He  was  lieutenant  under 
Braddock,  witnessed  his  defeat,  and  bore  his 
body  from  the  field  of  battle.  In  1760  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Montreal,  and  a 
few  years  afterward  succeeded  to  the  chief 
command  of  the  British  forces  in  America. 
He  was  the  successor  of  Hutchinson  in  the 
office  of  governor  of  Massachusetts.  Gage 
was  naturally  a benevolent  and  amiable  man, 
but  his  sense  of  duty  forced  him  to  the  exe- 
cution of  the  odious  measures  of  his  masters 
in  England.  He  went  home  in  the  autumn 
of  17.75,  and  died  in  April,  1787. 

GAINES,  Edmund  Pendleton,  major-gen- 
eral in  the  American  army,  born  in  Virginia, 

G. 


France,  furnished  him  with  funds  to  carry  out 
his  plans.  Fulton  had  built  a steamboat  upon 
the  Seine  in  1803,  which  was  partly  success- 
ful. In  1807,  the  first  attempt  at  steam  nav- 
igation in  America  was  made  upon  the  Hud- 
son. The  maximum  speed  was  only  five 
miles  an  hour.  In  1809  Mr.  Fulton  took  a 
patent  for  his  invention,  and  in  1811  a second 
patent  for  subsequent  improvements.  He  died 
February  24th,  1815. 

FUSELI,  Henry,  was  born  at  Zurich,  Feb. 
7th,  1741,  and  bred  to  the  church.  He  came 
to  England  in  1763,  and  by  the  advice  of  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  adopted  painting  as  a pro- 
fession, wherein  he  attained  a flattering  emi- 
nence. He  died  April  16th,  1825. 


1777,  entered  the  army  in  1799,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  died  in 
1849. 

GALATIA,  originally  part  of  Phrygia  and 
Cappadocia,  obtained  its  name  from  the  set- 
tlement of  a large  body  of  Gauls  in  that  sec- 
tion of  Asia  Minor,  about  b.c.  239.  It  became 
a Roman  province,  b.c.  25.  St.  Paul  appears 
to  have  visited  Galatia  twice,  about  a.d.  50 
and  55  (Acts  xvi.  6 ; xviii.  23). 

GALBA,  Sergius,  or  Servius  Sulpicius, 
succeeded  Nero  on  the  imperial  throne.  He 
had  risen  gradually  through  various  state 
offices,  although  continually  exposed  to  the 
jealousy  of  Nero,  who  ordered  him  to  be  as- 
sassinated ; and  having  escaped  the  toils  which 
were  laid  for  him,  he  was  saluted  emperor, 
a.d.  68.  His  avarice  induced  him  to  profit 
by  the  sale  of  offices,  and  his  appointment  of 
Piso  Licinianus,  instead  of  Otho,  to  fill  the 
office  of  colleague  in  the  government,  exas. 
perated  the  praetorians,  who  put  him  to  death, 
a.d.  69,  in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age, 
after  a reign  of  three  months. 

GALENUS,  Claudius,  commonly  called 
Galen,  a celebrated  Greek  physician,  who 
lived  in  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
era.  He  was  an  oracle  in  medical  science  for 
centuries. 

GALILEO,  or  Galilei,  was  born  at  Pisa, 
July  15th,  1564.  He  was  a professor  of  math- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


855 


ematics  at  Pisa,  and  afterward  at  Padua.  He 
constructed  for  himself  a telescope  in  1609, 
with  which  he  discovered  mo  mtains  and  cav- 
ities in  the  moon,  the  round  disc  of  the  plan- 
ets, the  four  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  spots  on 
the  s.un.  For  teaching  the  Copernican  theory, 
he  was  accused  of  heresy,  examined  by  the 
inquisition,  and  put  to  the  torture.  Worn 
out  by  age,  he  succumbed  to  his  persecutors, 
and  abjured  his  objectionable  doctrines,  in 
1633.  In  his  later  years  he  became  blind. 
He  died  at  Florence,  January  8th,  1642. 

GALL,  Francis  Joseph,  the  founder  of  the 
science  of  phrenology,  was  born  in  the  duchy 
of  Baden,  March  9th,  1758  and  died  in  Paris 
in  1828. 

GALLATIN,  Albert,  born  in  Geneva,  1761, 
came  to  America  in  1779,  was  for  a while 
tutor  at  Cambridge,  and  finally  removed  to 
Pennsylvania.  He  represented  that  state  as 
representative  and  senator  in  Congress  from 
1793  to  1801.  President  Jefferson  appointed 
him  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1802,  and  he 
administered  that  department  with  eminent 
ability  till  1813,  when  he  was  sent  abroad  to 
negotiate  peace  with  Great  Britain.  He  was 
afterward  minister  to  France,  Great  Britain, 
and  the  Netherlands.  He  died  in  1849. 

GALLAUDET,  Rev.  Thomas  H.,  the  pio- 
neer of  deaf-mute  instruction  in  America,  died 
at  Hartford,  Sept.  10th,  1851,  aged  sixty-four. 
He  visited  Europe  in  1815,  acquired  the  art 
from  Abbe  Sicard,  and  returned  in  August  of 
the  next  year,  with  Laurent  Clerc,  one  of  Si- 
card’s  most  intelligent  deaf-mute  pupils.  He 
was  the  first  principal  of  the  American  Asy- 
lum at  Hartford,  resigned  in  1830,  and  became 
chaplain  at  the  Retreat  for  the  Insane  in  that 
city. 

GALYANI,  Luigi,  a physician  and  physi- 
ologist, famous  for  his  discovery  of  galvanism, 
was  born  at  Bologna  in  1737,  and  died  in  1798. 

GAMA,  Vasco  de,  the  celebrated  Portu- 
guese navigator,  who  in  1497  discovered  the 
way  to  the  East  Indies  around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  He  lived  in  the  reign  of  Eman- 
uel the  Fortunate.  He  was  appointed  viceroy 
of  the  Portuguese  Indies,  and  died  in  Decem- 
ber, 1524,  at  Goa. 

GANSEVOORT,  Peter,  was  born  in  Alba- 
ny, N.  Y.,  July  16th,  1749.  He  accompanied 
Montgomery  to  Canada,  in  1775,  and  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  colonel  the  ensuing  year. 


August  2d,  1777,  he  was  besieged  with  his 
command  in  Fort  Stanwix  (where  the  town  of 
Rome  now  stands),  by  Colonel  St.  Leger,  with 
a body  of  British  tories  and  Indians,  who, 
after  a most  gallant  defense,  were  repelled  and 
forced  to  retreat,  August  22d.  Gen.  Ganse- 
voort  died  July  2d,  1812. 

GARDEN,  Alexander,  an  eminentbotanist, 
born  in  Scotland,  1730;  removed  to  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.,  1752,  where  he  practiced  medicine ; 
died  in  London,  1791,  aged  sixty-one. 

GARDENING.  Introduced  into  England 
from  the  Netherlands,  whence  most  vegetables 
were  imported  till  1500 ; muskmelons,  the  pale 
gooseberry,  salads,  garden  roots,  cabbages, 
&c.,  were  brought  from  Flanders,  and  hops 
from  Artois,  1520  ; rye  and  wheat  from  Tar- 
tary and  Siberia,  where  they  are  yet  indige- 
nous ; barley  and  oats  unknown,  but  certainly 
not  indigenous  in  England ; rice  from  Ethio- 
pia ; buckwheat,  Asia ; borage,  Syria ; cresses, 
Crete ; cauliflower,  Cyprus ; asparagus,  Asia ; 
chervil,  Italy ; fennel,  Canary  Islands ; anise 
and  parsley,  Egypt;  garlic,  the  East;  shal- 
lots, Siberia ; horse-radish,  China ; kidney 
beans,  East  Indies ; gourds,  Astracan ; lentils, 
France;  potatoes,  Brazil;  tobacco,  America; 
cabbage,  lettuce,  &c.,  Holland.  Jasmine  came 
from  the  East  Indies ; the  elder  tree  from  Per- 
sia ; the  tulip  from  Cappadocia ; the  daffodil 
from  Italy ; the  lily  from  Syria ; the  tube  rose 
from  Java  and  Ceylon ; the  carnation  and  pink 
from  Italy,  &c. ; ranunculus  from  the  Alps ; 
apples  from  Syria ; apricots  from  Epirus ; ar- 
tichokes from  Holland ; celery  from  Flanders ; 
cherries  from  Pontus ; currants  from  Zante ; 
damask  and  musk  roses  from  Damascus,  as 
well  as  plums;  gilliflowers,  carnations,  the 
Provence  rose,  &c.,  from  Toulouse,  in  France ; 
oranges  and  lemons  from  Spain ; beans  from 
Greece,  and  peas  from  Spain. 

GARDINER,  Stephen,  Bishop  of  Winches- 
ter, was  a strenuous  opponent  of  the  reforma- 
tion in  England.  He  lost  his  place  under 
Henry  VIII.,  but  regained  it  under  the  bigoted 
Mary,  whom  he  instigated  to  persecute  the 
Protestants  with  fire  and  sword.  1483-1555. 

GARRICK,  David,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated and  talented  of  English  actors,  and  the 
friend  of  Dr.  Johnson.  He  was  born  at  Lich- 
field, 1716,  and  died  Jan.  20th,  1779,  having 
amassed  a bountiful  fortune  by  the  profession 
he  had  elevated  and  adorned. 


GAR 


356 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


GARTER,  Order  of  the.  This  famous  or- 
der of  knighthood  was  instituted  by  Edward 
III.  of  England.  King  Edward,  being  of  a 
military  genius,  and  engaged  in  a war  for  re- 
covering France,  made  it  his  business  to  draw 
the  best  soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest. 
With  this  view  he  projected  a restoration  of 
King  Arthur’s  round  table,  and  proclaimed 
a solemn  tilting,  to  invite  foreigners  of  quality 
and  courage  to  the  exercise.  The  place  for 
the  solemnity  was  fixed  at  Windsor.  He 
published  his  royal  letters  of  protection  for 
the  safe  coming  and  returning  of  such  foreign 
knights  as  intended  to  venture  their  reputa- 
tion at  the  jousts  and  tournaments,  which 
were  to  be  held  on  the  19th  of  January,  1344. 
He  provided  a great  supper  to  begin  the 
solemnity,  and  then  ordering  this  feast  to  be 
annually  kept  at  Whitsuntide,  he  for  that  pur- 
pose erected  a particular  building  in  the  cas- 
tle, wherein  he  placed  a round  table,  of  two 
hundred  feet  diameter,  in  imitation  of  King 
Arthur’s  at  Winchester,  and  thereat  enter- 
tained the  knights  at  his  own  expense  of  a 
hundred  pounds  a week. 

The  said  king  issuing  out  his  garter  for  the 
signal  of  a battle  that  was  crowned  with  suc- 
cess (supposed  to  be  Cressy),  he  instituted  an 
order  of  knights,  April  23d,  1349-50,  giving 
the  garter  pre-eminence  among  its  ensigns, 
whence  the  select  number  whom  he  incorpo- 
rated into  a fraternity  were  styled  Equites 
Aurem  Periscelidis,  ‘ the  knights  of  the  golden 
garter.’  The  Black  Prince  was  the  first  of 
the  original  twenty-five  knights. 

The  habits  and  ensigns  of  this  order  con- 
sist of  the  garter,  surcoat,  mantle,  hood, 
gcorge,  collar,  cap,  and  feathers;  the  four 
first  were  assigned  by  the  founder,  and  the 
rest  by  Henry  VIII. 

The  garter,  appointed  to  be  worn  by  the 
knights  on  the  left  leg  between  the  knee  and 
calf,  was  instituted  by  the  founder,  as  a tie 
of  association,  honor,  and  military  virtue,  to 
bind  the  knights  strictly  to  himself  and  each 
other  in  friendship,  and  as  an  ensign  of  unity 
and  combination,  to  promote  the  honor  of 
God,  and  the  interest  of  their  prince  and 
sovereign.  He  also  caused  to  be  wrought 
in  gold  letters  this  motto,  Honi  soit  qui 
mal  y pense  (Evil  to  him  who  evil  thinks) ; 
declaring  thereby  the  equity  of  his  inten- 


tion, retorting  shame  and  defiance  upon  him 
who  thought  ill  of  the  just  enterprise  in 
which  he  had  engaged  for  the  support  of 
his  right  to  the  French  crown.  The  garter 
is  of  blue  velvet  bordered  with  gold  (having 
the  letters  of  the  motto  of  the  same),  and  is 
buckled  on  at  the  time  of  the  election. 

The  knight’s  pantaloons  are  of  pearl-colored 
silk.  On  the  outside  of  the  right  knee  is 
fixed  a knot  of  open  silver  lace  and  ribbons 
intermixed,  in  the  form  of  a large  rose ; and, 
a little  below  the  knee,  is  placed  the  garter. 
His  shoes,  which  are  of  white  shammy,  with 
red  heels,  have  each  a knot  on  the  exterior 
side.  His  doublet  is  cloth  of  silver,  adorned 
before  and  behind,  and  down  the  sleeves, 
with  several  guards  or  rows  of  silver  lace, 
each  having  a row  of  small  buttons  set  down 
the  middle.  The  cuffs  are  open,  and  adorned 
with  the  before-mentioned  lace  and  ribbons 
set  in  small  loops.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
upper  seam  of  each  cuff  is  fixed  a knot  of 
silver  ribbons  that  fall  over  his  gloves,  which 
are  of  kid,  laced  at  the  top  with  silver,  and 
adorned  at  the  opening  with  a knot,  like  that 
on  the  cuff.  His  surcoat  is  of  crimson  vel- 
vet, lined  with  white  taffeta.  His  cap  is 
of  black  velvet  adorned  with  a diamond  band, 
and  a plume  of  white  feathers,  with  a heron 
sprig  in  the  middle.  The  mantle  is  of  sky- 
colored  velvet,  adorned  on  the  left  shoulder 
with  St.  George’s  cross  encircled  with  the 
garter,  wreathed  on  the  edges  with  blue  and 
gold.  The  hood  is  of  crimson  velvet  and 
lined  with  white  taffeta.  The  collar,  which 
weighs  thirty  ounces  troy,  of  gold,  was  intro- 
duced by  Henry  VIII.,  and  contains  twenty- 
six  garters  enameled,  and  as  many  knots, 
alluding  to  the  sovereign  of  the  order,  to 
which  is  pendent  the  figure  of  St.  George 
and  the  dragon,  which  is  a gold  medal,  and 
may  be  enriched  with  jewels  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  owner.  The  officers  of  the  order  are 
the  prelate  of  the  garter,  the  chancellor  of 
the  garter,  the  register  of  the  garter,  and 
black  rod,  the  last  officer  being  instituted  by 
the  founder.  The  knights  are  installed  in 
St.  George’s  Chapel,  at  Windsor. 

GASCOIGNE,  Sir  William,  an  eminent 
English  lawyer  and  judge,  born  1350,  died 
1413. 

GASSENDI,  Pierre,  an  eminent  French 


GAS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


857 


astronomer  and  philosopher,  one  of  the 
great  restorers  of  inductive  philosophy,  died 
1655,  aged  sixty-three. 

GAS,  introduced  in  London,  for  lighting 
Pall  Mall,  in  1809;  first  into  the  United 
States,  at  Baltimore,  1821. 

GASTON  DE  FOIX,  Duke  of  Nemours, 
the  nephew  of  Louis  XII.  of  France,  was 
born  in  1488.  He  ran  a brilliant  career  in 
arms,  and  fell  in  the  battle  of  Ravenna, 
April  11th,  1512. 

GATES,  Horatio,  was  an  Englishman  by 
birth,  and  the  godson  of  Horace  Walpole  ; 
scandal  said  the  filial  relationship  was  closer 
and  less  sanctified.  In  Braddock’s  disastrous 
campaign,  he  commanded  one  of  the  inde- 
pendent companies  from  New  York,  and  was 
severely  wounded.  Afterward  he  reached 
the  rank  of  major  in  the  regular  army,  but 
neither  his  pay  nor  promotion  equaled  his 
desires;  and  after  several  years  of  solicita- 
tion and  waiting  for  something  better,  he 
sold  his  commission,  a disappointed  man, 
crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1772,  purchased  an 
estate  in  Virginia,  espoused  the  popular  side, 
and  renewed  his  old  campaigning  acquaint- 
ance with  George  W ashington.  When  W ash- 
ington  was  put  at  the  head  of  the  continental 
army,  at  his  express  request  Gates  was  made 
adjutant-general,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier. 
His  experience  was  of  much  service  in  orga- 
nizing the  raw  forces  at  Cambridge.  In 
May,  1776,  he  was  made  major-general,  and 
in  June  the  command  of  the  army  engaged 
in  the  invasion  of  Canada  was  conferred  upon 
him.  Questions  of  rank  and  precedence 
arose  between  him  and  Schuyler,  the  com- 
mander of  the  northern  department.  Through 
the  intrigues  of  Gates  with  Congress,  Schuy- 
ler was  removed  in  August,  1777,  and  Gates 
made  his  successor.  Schuyler  was  then 
busy  in  opposing  the  progress  of  Burgoyne’s 
expedition;  the  glory  of  the  victory  that 
ensued  was  due  in  good  part  to  his  previous 
operations,  though  his  supplanter  had  the 
fame.  The  Conway  cabal  raised  up  Gates 
as  a rival  to  Washington,  but  their  schemes, 
although  very  annoying  and  embarrassing, 
were  finally  abortive.  When  Gates  was 
named  to  the  command  in  the  South,  General 
Lee  predicted,  “His  northern  laurels  will  be 
exchanged  for  southern  willows.”  This  was 
verified  in  the  disaster  of  Camden.  His  con- 


duct was  investigated,  and  he  was  acquitted 
of  blame.  Meantime  hostilities  had  ended. 
Gen.  Gates  removed  to  the  city  of  New  York, 
and  died  April  10th,  1806,  aged  seventy- 
eight.  A few  years  before,  he  had  manumit- 
ted his  slaves,  but  many  preferred  to  remain 
in  the  family.  Vanity  was  the  general’s 
besetting  sin,  often  obscuring  his  judgment 
and  better  traits. 

GAY,  John,  the  author  of  the  “ Beggars’ 
Opera,”  “Black-Eyed  Susan,”  and  “The 
Hare  with  Many  Friends,”  died  Dec.  4th, 
1732,  aged  forty-four.  Over  his  grave  in 
Westminster  Abbey  is  a tablet  with  a long 
recital  of  his  praises,  set  up  by  his  friends, 
the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Queensberry ; but 
few  read  more  than  the  irreverent  epitaph 
which  Gay  himself  composed: 

“Life’s  a jest,  and  all  things  show  it: 

I thought  so  once : now  I know  it.” 

Gay  and  Swift  were  fast  friends,  and  the  let- 
ter of  Pope,  announcing  Gay’s  death,  was 
thus  indorsed  by  Swift:  “On  my  dear  friend 
Mr.  Gay’s  death.  Received,  December  15th, 
but  not  read  till  the  20th,  by  an  impulse 
foreboding  some  misfortune.” 

GENGHIS  KHAN,  the  famous  Mongol 
emperor,  was  born  a.d.  1163.  He  founded 
in  1206  that  vast  empire,  the  grandeur  of 
which  was  the  theme  of  admiration  through- 
out the  world.  The  leading  men  of  the  small 
domain  left  him  by  his  father  having  rebelled 
against  him,  he  marched  upon  them  with  an 
army  of  30,000  men,  and  completely  frus- 
trated their  designs.  Tartary  and  China 
and  all  inland  Asia  fell  before  the  power  of 
the  conqueror,  whose  dominions  extended  to 
the  banks  of  the  Dnieper.  He  died  Aug. 
24th,  1227,  leaving  to  his  children  an  empire 
twelve  hundred  leagues  in  length.  The  con- 
quests of  the  great  khan  were  stained  with 
the  most  atrocious  cruelties ; his  march  was 
like  the  progress  of  a fiery  storm,  bursting 
over  several  countries  at  once,  and  involving 
them  in  ruin.  According  to  the  most  moder- 
ate calculation,  no  fewer  than  2,000,000  men 
fell  beneath  the  murdering  swnrd,  without 
reckoning  the  numbers  that  affliction  and  the 
horrors  of  slavery  consigned  to  the  grave. 
[See  Mongols.] 

GENLIS,  Stephanie,  Countess  de,  was 
born  near  Autun,  in  1746.  Soon  after  her 
birth  she  narrowly  escaped  suffocation,  for  a 


GEN 


358 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


gentleman  who  called  to  see  her  mother,  was 
about  to  sit  down  upon  the  chair  on  which 
the  infant  was  laid,  had  actually  divided  the 
flaps  of  his  coat  for  that  purpose,  and  was 
only  prevented  by  the  united  screams  of  the 
nurse  and  mother.  The  literary  talent  of 
Mademoiselle  de  St.  Aubin  early  developed 
itself,  and  induced  the  Count  de  Genlis  to 
offer  her  hfs  hand  without  ever  having  seen 
her.  She  was  governess  to  the  children  of 
the  notorious  Duke  of  Orleans,  to  whose 
number  she  added  an  illegitimate  daughter, 
afterward  the  wife  of  Lord  Edward  Fitzger- 
ald. Madame  de  Genlis  died,  after  a wander- 
ing life,  in  1830,  just  after  one  of  her  pupils 
had  become  King  of  the  French. 

GENOA  is  now  a duchy  of  Sardinia.  The 
city  of  Genoa,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast, 
has  a population  of  100,000.  The  harbor  is 
capacious  and  secure.  The  city  is  built  on  a 
declivity,  and  the  streets  are  narrow,  dirty, 
and  steep.  The  duchy  contains  1,257  square 
miles,  and  545,000  inhabitants.  Genoa  is  a 
town  of  great  antiquity.  It  was  seized  by 
the  Langobards,  after  the  fall  of  the  western 
Roman  empire,  and  came  next  into  the  hands 
of  the  Franks.  It  was  erected  into  a republic 
after  the  fall  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty. 
Quarrels  with  the  Pisans  and  Venetians  occu- 
pied the  Genoese  for  many  years.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  the  Genoese  founded 
many  and  wealthy  colonies  in  the  Levant  and 
the  Euxine.  The  French  assumed  the  sove- 
reignty of  Genoa,  but  did  not  long  retain  it. 
Internal  dissensions  not  unfrequently  enabled 
foreign  powers  to  seize  upon  the  state.  In 
1528  tranquillity  was  restored  to  Genoa,  an 
aristocratical  form  of  government  established, 
and  a doge  placed  at  the  head  of  the  state. 
Some  time  after  this  the  city  was  convulsed 
by  furious  contentions  between  the  old  and 
new  nobility,  the  two  factions  into  which 
the  aristocracy  was  divided.  By  degrees 
Genoa  lost  her  foreign  possessions,  the  last 
of  which,  Corsica,  revolted  in  1730.  During 
the  invasion  of  Italy  in  1797,  Genoa  observed 
a strict  neutrality,  but  the  dissensions  of  the 
Genoese  did  not  escape  the  vigilant  eye  of 
Napoleon.  He  established  a form  of  govern- 
ment on  the  French  representative  system, 
and  gave  it  the  title  of  the  Ligurian  republic. 
In  1805  it  was  annexed  to  the  French  empire. 
In  1815  the  congress  of  Vienna  annexed 


Genoa  to  the  territories  of  Sardinia.  The 
city  was  seized  by  revolutionists,  and  a re- 
public proclaimed  in  April,  1850,  but  General 
Marmora  quelled  the  rising  before  the  month 
was  out. 

GEORGE  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  of  England. 
[See  Hanover,  House  of.] 

GEORGIA  has  an  area  of  58,000  square 
miles  ; population  in  1870, 1,184,109,  of  whom 
638,926  were  whites,  545,142  colored,  and  40 
Chinese.  Along  the  coast  is  a level  strip, 
interspersed  with  many  swamps.  West  of 
this  tract  are  a series  of  plains  forming  the 
sand-hill  belt  or  pine  barrens,  thickly  grown 
with  forests  of  the  long-leaved  pine ; varied 
with  fine  savannahs,  verdant  and  well- 
watered,  and  ornamented  with  clumps  of 
evergreens  and  other  trees  and  shrubs.  The 
lower  sides  of  these  savannahs  are  often 
joined  by  a great  cane  swamp,  dotted  with 
coppices  and  hummocks  variously  wooded. 
The  northern  half  of  the  state  is  a hilly  re- 
gion, blessed  with  a strong  and  productive 
soil  and  mild  climate;  “fertile  and  delight- 
ful, continually  replenished  by  innumerable 
rivulets,  either  coursing  about  the  fragrant 
hills,  or  springing  from  the  rocky  precipices 
in  many  cascades,  invigorating  by  their  purity 
and  coolness  the  hot  and  sultry  air.”  Into 
this  section  the  Blue  Ridge  enters  from  North 
Carolina,  and,  suddenly  changing  its  general 
course,  runs  nearly  east  and  west  into  Ala- 
bama. The  largest  rivers  of  Georgia  are  the 
Savannah,  which  divides  it  from  South  Caro- 
lina, the  jAltamaha,  and  the  Chattahoochee, 
Along  the  Florida  border,  between  the  head- 
waters of  the  Suwanee  and  the  St.  Mary’s, 
there  is  an  extensive  series  of  swamps,  the 
Okefinokee,  covered  with  a thick  growth  of 
bay-trees,  vines,  and  underwood,  presenting 
in  the  wet  season  the  appearance  of  wide 
lakes,  with  islands  of  rich  high  land.  The 
Creeks  had  a tradition  that  somewhere  in  this 
wilderness  dwelt  a race  whose  women  were 
incomparably  beautiful ; they  called  them  the 
daughters  of  the  sun.  Some  of  the  Creek 
hunters,  when  lost  among  the  labyrinth  of 
bogs,  had  been  relieved  by  these  charming 
maids ; but  all  search  for  the  blissful  island 
was  in  vain. 

On  the  low  islands  that  line  the  Georgia  coast 
is  grown  the  long-staple  cotton,  thence  called 
Sea-island  cotton,  whose  value  exceeds  that 


GEO 


of  any  other  in  the  market.  Rice  is  the  other 
great  agricultural  staple.  Tar,  pitch,  turpen- 
tine, and  lumber,  yielded  by  the  broad  forests 
of  pine,  are  prominent  exports.  The  mineral 
resources  are  imperfectly  known : iron  ores 
are  abundant,  and  much  gold  has  been  found. 

Georgia  was  colonized  in  1732  by  a private 
company,  and  the  colony  named  in  honor  of 
George  II.  In  1733  Gen.  Oglethorpe  founded 
the  town  of  Savannah.  The  colony  was  in- 
tended as  an  asylum  to  relieve  the  distresses 
of  the  poor  in  England,  and  to  secure  the 
frontiers  of  South  Carolina  from  the  Indians 
and  Spaniards,  Several  bodies  of  Germans 
and  Highlanders  were  brought  over  soon  af- 
terward. The  lands  were  held  on  a military 
tenure.  In  1752  it  became  a royal  govern- 
ment, and  in  1755  a provincial  legislature  was 
established.  It  joined  its  sister  colonies  in 
the  Revolution,  but  from  1778  till  the  close  of 
the  war  was  occupied  by  a British  force.  Its 
territory  originally  included  the  present  states 
of  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  The  Creeks  and 
Cherokees,  whose  home  was  here,  have  been 
removed  bejmnd  the  Mississippi. 

Georgia  seceded,  Jan.  19,  1861,  and  was 
throughout  one  of  the  most  important  bases 
of  the  rebellion,  as  the  main  rebel  railroad 
systems  centered  at  Atlanta,  and  her  finan- 
cial and  agricultural  resources  were  a princi- 
pal source  of  supplies.  She  also  suffered 
severely,  especially  during  that  long  course 
of  tremendous  operations  which  included 
Chicamauga,  Chattanooga,  the  advance  on 
Atlanta,  the  fall  of  that  place  and  Sherman’s 
great  march  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea.  During 


this  same  period,  several  destructive  forays 
were  made  into  the  state  by  Union  cavalry. 

Milledgeville,  the  capital  of  the  state,  is 
pleasantly  situated  at  the  head  of  steamboat 
navigation  on  the  Oconee,  in  the  centre  of  a 
rich  cotton  district ; population  in  1870,  2,750. 
Savannah  is  finely  placed  for  a commercial 
town,  accessible  to  large  ships  from  the  sea, 
and  communicating  with  the  interior  by  the 
noble  river  on  which  it  stands.  It  is  built  on 
a plain  about  fifty  feet  above  the  water,  from 
which  it  is  a fine  sight,  with  its  spacious  and 
regular  streets,  many  public  squares,  hand- 
some buildings,  and  frequent  groves  of  trees. 
The  former  unhealthiness  has  been  done  away 
by  judicious  drainage.  Savannah  is  one  of 
the  most  flourishing  cities  in  the  South,  and 
the  great  commercial  depot  of  Georgia ; pop- 
ulation in  1870,  28,285.  It  suffered  a severe 
blow  in  1820  by  a conflagration  whose  loss 
was  set  down  at  $4,000,000.  It  was  taken  by 
the  British  in  1778,  arid  held  until  1 782.  The 
great  interior  emporium  of  Georgia  is  Augusta, 
at  the  head  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Savan- 
nah, well  laid  out  and  built,  and  the  market 
of  an  extensive  and  populous  country;  pop- 
ulation in  1870, 15,389.  Macon,  on  the  Ocmul- 
gee,  consisted  in  1822  of  a single  cabin  ; in 
1870  it  had  10,810  inhabitants,  and  its  trade 
is  rapidly  growing.  Columbus  stands  upon 
a plain  about  sixty  feet  above  the  Chattahoo- 
chee, just  below  the  falls  ; population  in  1870, 
7,401.  The  banks  of  the  river  are  here  very 
beautiful,  and  a spacious  and  regular  town 
stands  where  in  1828  the  solitude  of  the  pri- 
meval forest  lay.  Athens,  on  the  Oconee,  is 


360 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  seat  of  Franklin  College,  originally  incor- 
porated as  the  University  of  Georgia.  Atlan- 
ta, the  junction  of  three  great  railways,  has 
grown  rapidly  of  late. 

GEORGIA,  a rich  country  of  Asia,  south 
of  the  Caucasus,  between  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Caspian,  now  belonging  to  Russia.  The 
beauty  and  grace  of  its  women  have  long  been 
famous.  The  Caucasian  country  is  the  seat 
of  a great  variety  of  tribes,  differing  in  speech, 
habits,  and  many  physical  characteristics. 
The  Georgians  are  the  purest  specimens  of 
the  Caucasian  type,  which  the  old  ethnolo- 
gists made  the  highest  class  of  the  human 
race.  The  Assetes  have  a marked  affinity  in 
habits  and  customs  with  the  ancient  Germans. 
Here  are  the  Yezidis,  who  worship  the  evil 
spirit,  Armenians,  Tartars,  &c.  In  the  same 
village,  Armenians,  Georgians,  and  Tartars 
dwell  together,  yet  rarely  intermix;  each 
people  preserving  its  own  rites,  traditions, 
customs,  and  dress.  All  the  races  who  have 
passed  through  this  country  have  left  memo- 
rials. Here  are  the  dwellings  of  the  Troglo- 
dytes, entire  cities  cut  out  of  the  rock ; the 
colossal  ruins  of  aqueducts  and  canals  that 
date  to  the  times  of  the  great  monarchies  of 
Babylon,  Assyria,  and  Persia;  with  Greek 
and  Roman  edifices,  and  castles  of  the  middle 
ages.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  the  prophet 
Elijah  is  a particular  object  of  adoration  among 
almost  all  the  Caucasian  tribes,  whether  Mo- 
hammedan or  heathen.  There  are  caverns 
consecrated  to  him,  where  the  inhabitants 
assemble  on  certain  days  to  offer  sacrifices.  If 
one  is  struck  dead  by  lightning,  they  say  that 
he  was  killed  by  the  prophet  Elijah,  and  his 
relatives  rejoice. 

GERMANICUS  CiESAR,  a son  of  Claudius 
Drusus  Nero,  and  Antonia,  the  virtuous  niece 
of  Augustus.  He  was  adopted  by  his  uncle 
Tiberius,  and  raised  to  the  highest  offices  of 
state.  At  the  time  of  the  death  of  Augustus, 
he  was  employed  in  a war  with  Germany,  but 
Tiberius,  jealous  of  the  hero,  recalled  him, 
although  he  permitted  him  to  celebrate  a 
triumph  for  his  victories.  He  then  sent  him 
to  the  east  with  sovereign  authority,  but  saw 
his  successes  with  a jealous  eye.  Germanicus 
died  near  Antioch,  a.d.  19,  in  the  thirty-fourth 
year  of  his  age,  not  without  suspicion  of  poison. 

GERMANTOWN,  a town  of  Pennsylvania, 
seven  miles  north-west  of  Philadelphia,  mem- 


orable for  a battle  fought  here  on  the  4th  of 
October,  1777,  between  the  Americans,  under 
Washington,  and  the  British,  to  the  disadvan- 
tage of  the  former.  Victory  was  once  within 
the  grasp  of  the  Americans,  when,  in  the  be- 
wildering fog  that  enveloped  the  field,  the  cry 
that  the  British  were  gathering  in  their  rear, 
threw  them  into  disastrous  panic.  The  loss 
of  the  enemy  was  71  killed,  415  wounded,  and 
14  missing ; that  of  the  Americans,  150  killed, 
521  wounded,  and  400  made  prisoners. 

GERMANY  is  bounded  west  by  the  Neth- 
erlands, Belgium,  and  France ; south  by 
Switzerland  and  the  Austrian  territories  in 
Italy ; east  by  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary,  Ga- 
licia, Poland,  and  Prussia ; and  north  by  the 
Baltic.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  284, 000  square 
miles.  The  following  are  the  states  which 
form  the  Germanic  confederation:  Austria, 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Wurtem- 
burg,  Baden,  Hesse  Cassel,  Hesse  Darmstadt, 
Lauenburg,  Luxemburg,  Brunswick,  Meck- 
lenburg Schwerin,  Nassau,  Saxe  Weimar, 
Saxe  Coburg  and  Gotha,  Saxe  Meiningen  Hild- 
burghausen,  Saxe  Altenburg,  Mecklenburg 
Strelitz,  Oldenburg,  Anhalt  Dessau,  Anhalt 
Bernburg,  Anhalt  Kothen,  Schwarzburg  Son- 
dershausen,  Schwarzburg  Rudolstadt,  Licht- 
enstein, Waldeck,  Reuss,  Schauenburg  Lippe, 
Lippe  Detmold,  Hesse  Homburg,  Liibeck, 
Frankfurt,  Bremen,  and  Hamburg. 

Germany,  like  Gaul,  was  anciently  occupied 
by  numerous  tribes,  some  of  which  only  were 
subjugated  by  the  Romans,  after  a very  fierce 
and  prolonged  resistance.  It  was  afterward 
conquered  by  Charlemagne,  who  fixed  his  im- 
perial residence  in  Germany.  The  posterity 
of  Charlemagne  inherited  this  country  until 
911.  Otho  the  Illustrious,  Duke  of  Saxony, 
having  declined  the  royal  dignity  on  account 
of  his  great  age,  Conrad  I.,  first  duke  of  Fran- 
conia, was  unanimously  elected  to  fill  the 
vacant  throne  in  912.  Thence,  until  1806,  the 
empire  of  Germany  was  an  elective  monarchy. 
Frederick  Barbarossa  ascended  the  throne  in 
1152,  and  during  his  splendid  reign  was 
formed  the  famous  league  of  the  Hanseatic 
towns  for  the  protection  of  commerce.  Fred- 
erick II.  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
1212.  He  did  much  for  the  encouragement 
of  arts  and  literature. 

The  princes  of  the  empire,  assembled  in 
diet  at  Frankfort,  elected  Rodolph  of  Haps- 


GER 


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361 


burg  to  the  imperial  throne  in  1272.  He 
swayed  the  imperial  sceptre  with  ability  for 
about  eighteen  years,  and  died,  after  a short 
illness,  in  the  seventy -third  year  of  his  age. 
Albert  I.  of  Austria  was  invested  with  the 
diadem  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1298.  Under  his 
harsh  administration,  the  Swiss  revolted,  and 
the  foundation  of  the  Helvetic  republic  was 
laid. 

Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg  was  elected  in 
1308,  and  now  commenced  the  celebrated  di- 
vision of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  in  the  con- 
tests between  the  emperors  and  popes.  On 
his  death,  Louis  of  Bavaria  was  recognized  as 
lawful  possessor  of  the  throne  in  1330. 
Charles  IV.,  King  of  Bohemia,  received  the 
imperial  diadem  in  1347.  His  reign  was  pros- 
perous, and  under  his  sway  a spirit  of  opposi- 
tion to  the  corrupt  clergy  began  to  manifest 
itself.  At  the  diet  of  Nuremberg,  1356,  he 
proclaimed  the  famous  Golden  Bull,  which 
became  the  fundamental  law  of  the  empire. 
This  regulated  the  rights,  privileges,  and  du- 
ties of  the  electors ; the  manner  of  the  election 
and  coronation  of  an  emperor;  the  coinage, 
customs,  and  other  matters  of  commerce ; the 
rights  and  obligations  of  the  free  imperial 
cities,  &c. 

Sigismund  ascended  the  throne  in  1411. 
He  concurred  with  the  pope  in  convoking  the 
famous  council  of  Constance,  by  which  the 
reformer  Huss  was  condemned;  the  war  of 
the  Hussites  followed.  Albert  II.  died  in  a 
short  time,  and,  in  1440,  the  electors  placed 
upon  the  imperial  throne  Frederick  III.,  Duke 
of  Austria.  During  his  long  reign,  science 
and  learning  made  great  advance,  and  many 
universities  were  founded  throughout  Germa- 
ny. His  son  Maximilian  was  elected  king  of 
the  Romans,  and  invested  with  the  supreme 
dignity  in  1493.  He  was  an  active  and  enter- 
prising prince.  He  ended  many  abuses  which 
had  desolated  the  empire,  particularly  private 
feuds.  He  improved  the  courts,  introduced 
a system  of  police,  and  established  a post  in 
1516.  He  organized  the  army  anew  and  bet- 
ter. During  his  reign  the  Reformation  began. 
[ See  Reformation.]  At  the  death  of  Maxi- 
milian, Francis  I.  of  France,  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,  and  Charles  of  Spain  sought  the 
imperial  crown.  The  latter  was  preferred. 
[See  Charles  V.]  Ferdinand,  the  brother  of 
Charles,  succeeded  him  at  his  abdication. 


Then  came  Maximilian  II.,  the  son  of  Ferdi- 
nand, who  had  already  received  the  crown  of 
Bohemia,  and  had  been  elected  king  of  the 
Romans.  On  the  demise  of  this  illustrious 
prince,  his  eldest  son,  who  had  been  elected 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  acknowledged  as  his 
successor  to  the  crown  of  Hungary  and  Bo- 
hemia, succeeded  to  the  empire  by  the  name 
of  Rodolph  II.,  in  1576.  The  emperor  ceded 
Bohemia  to  his  brother  Matthias,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  in  1612.  On  the  demise  of  Mat- 
thias, Ferdinand  was  declared  emperor  in  1619, 
but,  on  account  of  his  fanaticism,  the  Protes- 
tants renounced  allegiance  to  him,  and  the 
‘thirty  years’  war’  was  waged  with  sanguin- 
ary animosity  by  both  parties.  Ferdinand 
was  at  first  triumphant,  and  Germany  began 
to  tremble  with  the  apprehension  of  slavish 
subjection ; Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden, 
rushing  with  impetuosity  into  the  empire,  de- 
feated tne  imperialists,  but  was  slain  on  the 
plain  of  Lutzen. 

On  the  death  of  Ferdinand  II.,  his  son,  Fer- 
dinand III.,  ascended  the  imperial  throne  in 
1637,  at  a critical  period,  and  succeeded  in 
tranquilizing  Germany,  although  the  flames 
of  war  yet  rolled  unabated.  France,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  England,  and  some  of  the  German 
states  were  confederated  against  Spain  and 
the  house  of  Austria.  At  length  a treaty  was 
concluded,  in  1648,  since  known  as  the  peace 
of  Westphalia.  By  this  treaty,  the  religious 
and  political  liberties  of  the  Germans  were 
firmly  secured  against  misrule.  On  the  death 
of  Ferdinand,  Leopold  I.  of  Hungary  and  Bo- 
hemia was  declared  duly  elected  to  the  im- 
perial throne  in  1658.  Scarcely  were  the 
troubles  in  the  north  composed,  when  a war 
with  Turkey  broke  out,  while  Louis  XIV.  of 
France  took  this  opportunity  of  marching 
against  the  German  monarch.  But  notwith- 
standing his  perplexities  and  embarrassments, 
Leopold  found  means  to  render  the  crown  of 
Hungary  hereditary  in  his  family,  an  object 
which  had  long  been  desired.  The  Archduke 
Joseph  was  chosen  sovereign  of  Hungary, 
elected  king  of  the  Romans,  and  ascended  the 
imperial  throne  in  1705.  He  governed  with 
stern  inflexibility,  and  continued  the  Spanish 
war.  The  Archduke  Charles  was  elevated  to 
the  imperial  throne,  by  the  name  of  Charles 
VI.,  in  1711.  Anne  of  England  having  ex- 
pressed her  pacific  intentions,  he  had  to  svs- 


GER 


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COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tain  the  whole  weight  of  a war  with  France 
and  Spain,  unless  he  accepted  the  terms  of 
Louis.  At  length,  however,  negotiations  were 
commenced,  and  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  re-es- 
tablished the  general  peace.  Charles  died  in 
the  twenty-ninth  year  of  his  age.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  ‘pragmatic  sanction,’  which 
secured  all  the  possessions  of  the  house  of 
Austria  to  his  daughter  the  Archduchess 
Maria  Theresa,  and  which  was  guaranteed  by 
the  states  of  the  empire,  and  by  all  the  great 
powers  of  Europe. 

The  death  of  Charles,  in  1740,  was  followed 
by  very  serious  commotions,  but  the  prag- 
matic sanction  was  preserved,  and  the  treaty 
of  Fussen  and  Aix-la-Chapelle  terminated  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  succession  in  favor  of 
Maria  Theresa.  Two  years  after  the  conclu- 
sion of  ‘ the  seven  years’  war  ’ by  the  treaty 
of  Hubertsburg,  the  Emperor  Francis,  hus- 
band of  Maria  Theresa,  ‘died  in  the  twenty- 
first  year  of  his  reign.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Joseph  II.  Joseph  joined  with  Rus- 
sia and  Prussia  in  the  base  dismemberment  of 
Poland,  but  this  did  not  prevent  hostilities 
from  being  commenced  between  Austria  and 
Prussia,  on  account  of  the  succession  to  the 
electorate  of  Bavaria.  Maria  Theresa,  Em- 
press of  Germany,  Queen  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  and  Archduchess  of  Austria,  died 
in  1780.  Joseph  II.  promulgated  a decree  in 
favor  of  the  liberty  of  the  press,  which  had 
been  hitherto  much  circumscribed  in  the 
Austrian  dominions.  In  1783  he  published 
an  edict  for  the  total  abolition  of  villanage 
and  slavery  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Sile- 
sia; and  similar  measures  were  taken  soon 
after  for  the  relief  of  the  peasants  of  Austrian 
Poland.  He  also  abolished  the  use  of  torture 
in  his  hereditary  dominions.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by^  his  brother,  Leopold  II.,  Grand- 
duke  of  Tuscany,  in  1790. 

The  French  revolution  now  attracting  the 
attention  of  all  the  European  powers,  a con- 
ference was  held  at  Pilnitz  between  the  empe- 
ror, the  King  of  Prussia,  and  the  Elector  of 
Saxony ; but,  instead  of  advising  an  imme- 
diate attack  upon  France,  Leopold  acted 
with  his  accustomed  moderation,  and  merely 
wished  to  oppose  an  effectual  security  against 
the  hurricane  which  threatened  Europe.  He 
was  afterward  persuaded  to  commence  hos- 


tilities, but  his  designs  were  soon  terminated 
by  his  death,  m the  second  year  of  his  reign. 

Francis  II.  succeeded  his  father  in  1792. 
At  the  instigation  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  he 
resolved  to  use  his  utmost  endeavors  for  the 
restoration  of  the  monarchy  in  France;  but 
the  attempts  of  the  allies  were  so  unfortunate 
in  the  first  campaign,  that  they  commenced 
the  second  with  altered  views,  and  a feeling 
of  insecurity  in  consequence  of  previous  losses. 
The  second  campaign  proved  more  successful, 
but  that  of  1794  was  disastrous  to  the  allies. 
The  fourth  campaign  again  raised  the  hopes 
of  the  Austrians.  In  1796,  from  altered 
views  of  expediency,  the  French  turned  their 
arms  upon  the  Austrian  possessions  in  Italy, 
where  the  victories  of  Bonaparte  soon  spread 
the  terror  of  his  name. 

At  length  the  court  of  Vienna,  finding  that 
all  expectations  of  effectual  opposition  to  the 
French  were  totally  unfounded,  concluded  in 
1797  the  treaty  of  Campo-Formio,  by  which 
the  emperor  ceded  to  France  the  whole  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  all  his  former  territory  in 
Italy,  but  received  in  return  the  city  of  Ven- 
ice, Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  the  Venetian 
islands  in  the  Adriatic.  However,  the  war 
was  renewed  with  great  vigor  on  both  sides, 
and,  in  1799,  the  Austrians  compelled  the 
French  to  evacuate  nearly  the  whole  of  Italy. 
The  brilliant  successes  of  the  Archduke 
Charles  in  Germany,  also,  reanimated  the 
court  of  Vienna,  and  contributed  to  break  off 
the  conferences  at  Rastadt.  In  the  mean  time, 
Bonaparte  having  returned  from  Egypt,  and 
been  chosen  first  consul  of  the  French  repub- 
lic, the  war  with  Austria  was  destined  to 
take  a new  turn.  That  general,  at  the  head 
of  an  army  of  reserve,  marched  toward  Italy, 
with  inconceivable  labor  crossed  the  Alps, 
and  advanced  to  Milan.  After  reducing  Pa- 
via, and  defeating  the  Austrians  in  the  battle 
of  Montebello,  the  French  marched  to  the 
plain  of  Marengo.  Both  the  French  and  im- 
perialists exhibited  extraordinary  skill  and 
resolution.  At  length  the  first  consul,  avail- 
ing himself  of  an  error  which  had  been  com- 
mitted, compelled  his  enemies  to  retreat. 
In  Germany  the  French  had  opened  the  cam- 
paign with  similar  success;  and  General 
Moreau,  after  defeating  the  imperialists  in 
several  engagements,  formed  a junction  with 


GER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


363 


the  army  of  Italy,  and  obliged  the  Austrians 
to  conclude  an  armistice. 

Soon  after,  preliminaries  of  peace  were 
signed  at  Paris  ; but  as  Bonaparte  refused  to 
negotiate  with  Englind,  the  emperor  would 
not  ratify  them.  Hostilities  were  therefore 
re-commenced,  and  the  Austrians  were  de- 
feated by  Moreau  in  the  decisive  battle  of 
Hohenlinden.  This  was  followed  in  1801  by 
the  treaty  of  Luneville,  by  which  the  empe- 
ror ceded  to  France  the  Belgic  provinces  and 
the  whole  of  the  country  on  the  left  side  of 
the  Rhine.  In  1805,  the  court  of  Vienna 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Russia,  against 
France.  Preparation  was  made  for  war. 
Without  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the  Rus- 
sian troops,  the  Austrians  marched  toward 
the  banks  of  the  Danube,  where  hostilities 
commenced,  and  the  French,  under  Bona- 
parte, after  a severe  contest,  succeeded  in 
defeating  the  imperialists  with  great  loss. 
The  Austrians  retreated,  and  Bonaparte  ad- 
vanced to  Munich.  From  this  time,  partial 
engagements  took  place,  in  which  the  Aus- 
trians, though  they  fought  with  bravery, 
were  uniformly  defeated.  The  whole  Aus- 
trian army  in  Suabia  now  concentrated  itself 
in  and  near  Ulm ; and  everything  seemed  to 
indicate  the  approach  of  a general  and  deci- 
sive battle.  However,  to  the  astonishment 
and  concern  of  all  Europe,  Gen.  Mack,  who 
was  in  Ulm  with  33,000  men,  without  strik- 
ing a blow  agreed  to  the  terms  of  capitulation 
offered  by  Bonaparte,  evacuated  that  import- 
ant fortress,  and  surrendered  himself  and  his 
troops  prisoners  of  war.  Bonaparte  was 
everywhere  victorious,  and  the  decisive  battle 
of  Austerlitz  compelled  an  armistice,  speedily 
followed  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg. 

In  1806,  sixteen  German  princes  renounced 
their  connection  with  the  German  empire,  and 
signed  at  Paris  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
by  which  they  acknowledged  Napoleon  as  their 
protector.  This  was  followed,  on  the  6th  of 
August,  by  the  renunciation  of  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  by  Francis,  who  assumed 
that  of  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  publicly 
absolved  all  the  German  provinces  and  states 
from  their  reciprocal  duties  toward  the  Ger- 
man empire.  In  1809,  Francis,  smarting 
under  sacrifices  already  made,  and  dreading 
farther  encroachments,  resolved  to  try  again 
the  chance  of  war,  at  a time  when  a large 


proportion  of  the  military  force  of  France  was 
employed  in  completing  the  subjugation  of 
Spain.  War  was  declared,  in  proclamations 
from  the  Archduke  Charles  and  the  Emperor 
Francis,  and  these  were  followed  by  a man- 
ifesto, stating  the  provocations  and  causes  of 
alarm  which  had  been  given  by  France  to 
Austria. 

The  Austrians  were  defeated  in  two  battles, 
one  at  Abensburg  by  Napoleon  in  person, 
and  the  other  at  Eckmuhl ; and  after  these 
defeats,  Vienna  surrendered  to  the  French 
emperor.  But  in  the  battle  of  Aspern,  which 
followed  soon  after,  Napoleon  experienced 
the  severest  check  which  his  career  had  yet 
received.  After  the  decisive  battle  of  Wa- 
gram,  an  armistice  was  concluded.  This  was 
followed  by  a peace  between  Austria  and 
France,  by  which  Francis  ceded  to  Napoleon 
all  those  parts  of  his  territory  which  bordered 
on  the  Adriatic.  Other  cessions  were  also 
made.  By  a secret  article  in  this  treaty,  the 
Emperor  Francis  agreed  to  give  his  daughter, 
the  Archduchess  Maria  Louisa,  in  marriage 
to  Napoleon.  After  the  disastrous  conse- 
quences of  the  Russian  campaign,  Austria 
declared  war  against  France,  a declaration 
which  was  followed  by  a treaty  of  amity  and 
defensive  alliance  between  the  courts  of  Vi- 
enna and  Petersburg.  Russia  and  Prussia  had 
previously  formed  treaties  with  Great  Britain. 
Sweden  had  also  joined  the  allies,  and  the 
accession  of  Bavaria  to  the  common  cause 
proved  the  general  concurrence  of  Germany 
to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Napoleon.  The  battle 
of  Leipzig  decided  the  fate  of  Germany.- 

After  Napoleon  abdicated  the  throne  of 
France  in  1814,  the  allied  powers  concluded 
a treaty  at  Paris  by  which  the  German  states 
were  to  be  independent,  and  united  by  a fed- 
eral league.  As  the  Austrian  or  Catholic 
Netherlands  were  unable  to  secure  their 
independence,  Belgium  was  annexed  to  the 
Netherlands,  forming  a single  state,  under 
the  sovereignty  of  the  house  of  Orange.  After 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  iji  1815,  a congress  of 
the  allied  powers  was  held  at  Vienna,  at  which 
the  future  tranquillity  of  Germany  was  pro- 
vided for  • by  a solemn  act  of  confederation, 
signed  by  its  sovereigns  and  free  cities,  in- 
cluding the  Emperor  of  Austria  and  the  King 
of  Prussia,  for  those  of  their  possessions  for- 
merly appertaining  to  the  German  empire, 


GER 


364 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


the  King  of  Denmark  for  Holstein,  and  the 
King  of  the  Netherlands  for  Luxemburg. 

In  1848  a closer  union  of  the  German  peo- 
ple was  proposed.  The  Prussian  king,  egged 
on  by  the  violent  excitement  then  prevalent, 
urged  the  German  princes  and  people  to 
abandon  their  local  names  and  independence, 
and  unite  under  one  guiding  hand.  This 
guide  he  offered  himself  to  be,  and  he  for- 
mally ‘fused  and  dissolved  the  name  of 
Prussia  in  that  of  Germany.’  A national 
constitutional  assembly  was  convoked  at 
Frankfort.  Austria  and  Prussia  struggled 
for  the  ascendency  in  the  proposed  empire, 
and  the  result  was  naught. 

EMPERORS  OF  GERMANY. 

CARLOVINGIANS* 

800.  Charlemagne. 

814.  Louis  the  Debonair,  King  of  France. 

840.  Lothaire,  his  son ; died  in  a monastery  at 
Treves. 

855.  Louis  II.,  his  son. 

875.  Charles  the  Bald,  King  of  France. 

877.  [Interregnum.] 

880.  Charles  the  Fat,  of  France;  crowned  King 
of  Italy ; deposed. 

887.  Arnulf,  or  Arnoul,  his  nephew ; crowned 
emperor  at  Rome  in  896. 

899.  Louis  III.,  called  IV.,  his  infant  son,  the 
last  of  the  Carlovingian  line  in  Ger- 
many. 

THE  SAXON  DYNASTY. 

911.  Conrad  I.,  Duke  of  Franconia. 

918.  Henry  I.,  the  Fowler,  son  of  Otho,  Duke 
of  Saxony. 

936.  Otho  I.,  the  Great,  his  son ; crowned  by 
Pope  John  XII.  in  962. 

973.  Otho  II.,  the  Bloody ; massacred  his  chief 
nobility  ; wounded  by  a poisoned  arrow. 
983.  Otho  III.,  the  Red,  his  son,  not  of  age ; 
poisoned. 

1002.  Henry  II.,  the  Saint,  Duke  of  Bavaria. 
1024.  Conrad  II.,  the  Salique. 

1039.  Henry  III.,  the  Black,  his  son. 

1056.  Henry  IV.,  his  son;  excommunicated  by 
Pope  Pascal  II. ; deposed  by  his  son. 
1106.  Henry  V.;  married  Maud,  or  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England. 

1125.  Lothaire  II.,  the  Saxon. 

1138.  [Interregnum.] 

1138.  Conrad  III.,  Duke  of  Franconia. 

1152.  Frederick  Barb^rossa. 

1190.  Henry  VI.,  the  Sharp,  his  son;  he  de- 
tained Richard  I.  of  England  in  cap- 
tivity. 

1198.  Philip,  brother  to  Henry;  assassinated. 
1208.  Otho  IV.,  the  Superb;  excommunicated 
and  deposed. 

1112.  Frederick  II.,  King  of  Sicily,  son  of  Henry 
VI. : deposed,  and  Henry,  Landgrave 
of  Thuringia,  elected.  Frederick  died 


in  1250,  naming  his  son  Conrad  his 
successor,  but  the  pope  gave  the  impe- 
rial title  to  William,  Earl  of  Holland. 

1250.  Conrad  IV.,  son  of  Frederick. 

1250.  William,  Earl  of  Holland;  died  in  Decem- 
ber, 1 255.  The  electors  could  not  agree 
upon  a successor. 

1256.  [Interregnum.] 

HOUSES  OF  HAPSBURG,  LUXEMBURG,  AND  BAVARIA. 

1273.  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg. 

1291.  [Interregnum.] 

1292.  Adolphus,  Count  of  Nassau,  to  the  exclu- 

sion of  Albert,  Rodolph’s  son  ; deposed, 
and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Spires. 

1298.  Albert,  Duke  of  Austria,  son  of  Rodolph; 
assassinated  by  his  nephew. 

1308.  Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg. 

1313.  [Interregnum.] 

1314.  Louis  IV.,  of  Bavaria,  and  Frederick  III., 

of  Austria,  son  of  Albert,  rival  emper- 
ors. Frederick  died  in  1330. 

1347.  Charles  IV.,  of  Luxemburg. 

1378.  Wenceslaus,  King  of  Bohemia,  his  son. 

1400.  Frederick,  Duke  of  Brunswick;  murdered 
as  soon  as  elected. 

1400.  Rupert,  Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine. 

1410.  Jossus,  Marquess  of  Moravia;  chosen  by 
one  party  of  the  electors;  died  1411. 

1410.  Sigismund,  King  of  Hungary ; elected  by 
another  party ; King  of  Bohemia  in  1419. 

HOUSE  OF  AUSTRIA. 

1438.  Albert  II.,  the  Great,  Duke  of  Austria, 

and  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 

1439.  [Interregnum.] 

1440.  Frederick  IV.,  the  Pacific. 

1493.  Maximilian,  his  son. 

1519.  Charles  V.  (I.  of  Spain),  his  grandson; 

son  of  Joan  of  Castile  and  Philip  of 
Austria;  abdicated. 

1558.  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  Hungary,  brother 
of  Charles. 

1564.  Maximilian  II.,  his  son,  King  of  Bohemia 
and  Hungary. 

1576.  Rodolph  II.,  his  son. 

1612.  Matthias,  brother  of  Rodolph. 

1619.  Ferdinand  II.,  cousin  of  Rodolph,  son  of 
the  Archduke  Charles,  King  of  Hun- 
gary. 

1637.  Ferdinand  III.,  son  of  Ferdinand  II. 

1658.  Leopold  I.,  his  son. 

1705.  Joseph  I.,  his  son. 

1711.  Charles  VI.,  brother  of  Joseph;  succeeded 
by  his  daughter. 

1740.  Maria  Theresa,  Queen  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  whose  right  to  the  empire 
was  sustained  by  England. 

1742.  Charles  VII.,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  whose 
claim  was  supported  by  France.  The 
crown  contested  in  a general  war. 
Charles  died  in  January,  17^5. 

1745.  Francis  I.,  of  Lorraine,  Grand-Duke  of 
Tuscany,  consort  of  Maria  Theresa. 

1765.  Joseph  II.,  their  son. 

1790.  Leopold  II.,  his  brother. 

1792.  Francis  II.,  his  son.  In  1804  this  prince 
took  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria 
only. 


GER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


365 


GERRY,  Elbridge,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  after- 
ward vice-president  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  at  Marblehead,  Mass.,  July  17th,  1744. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  1762, 
and  afterward,  by  his  success  in  commercial 
pursuits,  acquired  considerable  property. 
From  his  warm  patriotism,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  general  court, 
and  to  the  continental  congress  in  1775.  He 
held  the  front  rank  in  that  body  on  naval  and 
commercial  matters,  and  rendered  important 
aid  as  an  able  financier.  In  1797  he  accom- 
panied Gen.  Pinckney  and  Mr.  Marshall  on 
a ^ special  mission  to  France,  and  upon  his 
return  was  elected  governor  of  Massachusetts 
for  several  successive  years.  In  1809  and 
1810  he  was  again  raised  to  the  executive. 
In  1812  he  was  elected  vice-president,  over 
Jared  Ingersoll  of  Pennsylvania,  and  died  in 
office  at  Washington,  November,  1814. 

During  his  last  year  of  office  as  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  his  party  friends  perpe- 
trated a glaring  iniquity  in  forming  senato- 
rial districts,  which  gave  an  expressive  word 
to  the  political  vocabulary  of  the  country. 
The  object  was  to  get  a majority  of  the  legis- 
lature out  of  a minority  of  the  votes  of  the 
people.  As  an  instance,  in  the  old,  rich, 
populous  county  of  Essex,  it  was  necessary 
to  cut  a rim  in  a zigzag  course  almost  com- 
pletely around  the  county  somewhat  in  the 
shape  of  a horse-shoe.  An  ingenious  wag 
drew  a map  of  the  county  with  this  rim  of 
democratic  towns  painted  in  different  colors, 
resembling  some  monster  animal  with  many 
short  legs  and  claws — a sort  of  sea-serpent, 
ending  with  a horrible  head  and  open  jaws 
at  Cape  Ann,  and  a tail  at  Marblehead.  The 
party  trick  was  called  the  gerrymander,  and 
similar  unfairness  since  in  various  states,  has 
kept  the  word  in  use. 

GHENT.  A city  of  Belgium  [ see  Belgi- 
um], where  a treaty  of  peace  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  was  signed, 
Dec.  24th,  1814. 

GIBBON,  Edward,  an  eminent  English 
historian,  born  at  Putney,  in  1737.  He  re- 
sided much  abroad,  chiefly  at  Lausanne,  but 
was  engaged  at  horns  in  political  life  for  some 
time.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  his  great 
work,  the  “Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 


Empire,”  at  Rome,  in  1764,  as  he  sat  amidst 
the  ruins  of  the  Capitol,  “while  the  bare- 
footed friars  were  singing  vespers  in  the 
temple  of  Jupiter;”  and  he  has  eloquently 
recorded  the  mixed  emotions  with  which, 
one  moonlight  night  of  June,  1787,  in  a sum- 
mer-house in  his  garden  at  Lausanne,  he 
wrote  the  last  sentences  of  the  task  which 
had  so  long  been  his  occupation  and  pleas- 
ure. He  died  in  England,  on  the  16th  of 
January,  1794. 

GIBRALTAR,  a fortified  rock  in  Andalu- 
sia, at  the  entrance  of  the  Mediterranean, 
rising  about  1,600  feet  above  the  sea.  This 
rock,  under  its  ancient  name  of  Calpe,  and 
Mt.  Abyla  (now  Ceuta)  opposite  on  the  Afri- 
can coast,  were  called  by  the  ancients  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
eighth  century  an  army  of  Saracens  from 
Africa,  commanded  by  Tarif,  or  Tarek, 
landed  near  here.  They  erected  a castle,  and 
called  the  rock  Gibel-Tarif,  ‘the  mountain 
of  Tarif.’  At  the  downfall  of  the  Moors  the 
rock  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  by 
whom  it  was  fortified  till  it  was  thought 
impregnable.  But,  on  the  24th  of  July, 
1704,  it  was  taken  after  a dreadful  cannon- 
ade, by  an  English  and  Dutch  fleet  com- 
manded by  Sir  George  Rooke  and  the  Prince 
of  Hesse  Darmstadt.  Since  then  it  has  been 
possessed  by  the  British,  although  many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  regain  it.  It 
was  besieged  by  the  Spaniards  and  French, 
Oct.  11th,  1704;  by  the  Spaniards  in  1720 
and  1727.  But  the  most  memorable  siege 
was  that  by  the  Spaniards  and  French  from 
July,  1779,  to  February,  1783.  The  British 
garrison  numbered  only  7,000.  The  assail- 
ants had  an  army  of  40,000  men,  a thousand 
pieces  of  artillery,  and  a mighty  fleet  of  three- 
deckers,  frigates,  floating  batteries,  gun- 
boats, &c.  For  weeks,  six  thousand  shells  a 
day  were  thrown  into  the  town.  Yet  this 
great  armament  was  beaten  off,  and  wholly 
overthrown  by  the  brave  garrison,  who  were 
commanded  by  Gen.  Elliot. 

GIBSON,  George,  a native  of  Lancaster, 
Penn.,  settled  early  in  life  at  Pittsburg,  joined 
the  Revolutionary  army  as  a colonel,  and 
served  to  the  end  of  1778.  In  the  war  with 
the  Indian  tribes,  Colonel  Gibson  again  com- 
manded a regiment,  and  shared  the  fatal  dan- 


GIB 


366 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


gers  of  St.  Clair’s  defeat,  in  which  he  re- 
ceived a mortal  wound,  at  Fort  Jefferson, 
Dec.  11th,  1794. 

GIBSON,  John,  uncle  of  the  above,  born 
at  Lancaster,  Penn.,  May  23d,  1740,  served 
under  Gen.  Forbes  when  that  officer  took 
Fort  du  Quesne ; entered  the  Revolutionary 
army  as  a colonel  early  in  the  war,  and  con- 
tinued through  it ; died  at  Braddock’s  Field, 
near  Pittsburg,  April  10th,  1822. 

GIFFORD,  William,  born  in  April,  1756, 
and  early  left  an  orphan,  was  apprenticed  to 
a shoemaker.  Industry  and  perseverance 
raised  him  to  a prominent  rank  in  English 
literature  as  a satirical  poet,  a translator,  and 
a critic.  He  was  editor  of  the  Quarterly 
Review  from  its  start  in  1808  till  within  two 
years  of  his  death,  which  took  place  Dec. 
31st,  1826. 

GILBERT,  Sir  Humphrey,  half-brother  to 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  one  of  the  earliest 
English  adventurers  who  attempted  to  form 
a colony  in  America,  born  in  1539;  in  1576, 
published  UA  Treatise  to  prove  a Passage  by 
the  North-west  to  the  East  Indies.”  In  1578 
he  obtained  a patent  to  make  a settlement  in 
North  America,  and  in  that  year  made  a 
voyage  to  Newfoundland,  returned  to  Europe, 
and  in  1583,  on  his  homeward-bound  voyage, 
in  a barque  of  only  ten  tons,  from  another 
trip  to  America,  was  lost  with  all  his  crew. 

GILPIN,  Bernard,  the  ‘apostle  of  the 
north,’  was  born  in  Westmoreland  in  1517, 
and  educated  in  Catholicism.  His  inquiries 
turned  him  to  the  reformed  faith.  He  became 
rector  of  Houghton  in  Durham,  a parish 
containing  no  less  than  fourteen  villages, 
shrouded  in  ignorance  and  superstition.  He 
was  arrested  by  order  of  Bishop  Bonner,  but 
the  death  of  bloody  Mary  saved  him  from  the 
stake,  and  he  returned  to  his  zealous  work 
of  good.  His  labors  were  not  confined  to 
his  own  parish.  Every  year  he  visited  divers 
neglected  districts  in  Northumberland,  York- 
shire, Cheshire,  Westmoreland,  and  Cumber- 
land ; and  that  his  own  flock  might  not  suf- 
fer, he  was  at  the  expense  of  a constant 
assistant.  In  all  his  journeys  he  did  not  fail 
to  visit  the  gaols  and  places  of  confinement ; 
and  by  his  labors  and  affectionate  manner 
of  behavior,  he  is  said  to  have  reformed  many 
abandoned  persons  in  those  abodes  of  human 
misery.  He  had  set  times  and  places  of 


preaching,  in  the  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, which  were  as  regularly  attended  as  the 
assizes.  If  there  was  a church  in  the  place, 
he  made  use  of  it ; if  not,  of  barns  or  any 
other  large  buildings.  He  had  an  enthusi- 
astic warmth  in  his  addresses,  which  turned 
many  to  a sense  of  religion,  who  had  never 
thought  of  anything  serious  before.  Danger 
and  fatigue  were  in  his  estimation  abundantly 
compensated  by  advantage  accruing  to  his 
uninstructed  fellow-creatures.  This  good 
man  is  said  to  have  amassed,  by  unwearied 
application,  a vast  stock  of  knowledge;  to 
have  been  ignorant  of  no  part-  of  learning  in 
esteem  at  that  time ; to  have  been  more  than 
usually  skilled  in  the  classic  languages,  his- 
tory, and  poetry : but  everything  he  made 
subservient  to  the  nobility  and  benefit  of  his 
Christian  ministry.  He  established  and  sus- 
tained excellent  schools;  generous  bounty 
was  dispensed  by  his  hand ; and  his  door  was 
ever  open  to  the  poor  or  the  stranger.  Lord 
Burleigh’s  offer  of  a bishopric  he  refused: 
his  ambition  worked  itself  out  in  good  deeds. 
“Meanwhile  age  began  to  grow  upon  him. 
After  his  lean  body  was  quite  worn  out  with 
diversity  of  pains-taking,  at  the  last  even,  feel- 
ing beforehand  the  approach  of  death,  he 
commanded  the  poor  to  be  called  together, 
unto  whom  he  made  a speech,  and  took  his 
leave  of  them.  Afterwards  he  did  the  like 
to  others.  He  used  many  exhortations  to  his 
schollers,  to  his  servants,  and  divers  others, 
and  fell  asleep  in  great  peace  in  the  sixty- 
sixth  year  of  his  age,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
1583.” 

GLAUBER,  JonN  Rodolph,  a German 
chemist,  and  dabler  in  alchemy ; he  dis- 
covered the  sulphate  of  soda,  now  known  as 
Glauber’s  salt;  flourished  1640-1660. 

GLENCOE,  Massacre  of.  In  August, 
1691,  a proclamation  was  issued  by  Wil- 
liam III.  of  England,  offering  indemnity  to 
such  insurgents  as  should  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  king  and  queen  on  or  before 
the  last  day  of  the  year ; and  the  chiefs  of 
such  clans  as  had  been  in  arms  for  James  II. 
soon  embraced  the  offer.  But  Macdonald  of 
Glencoe  was  prevented  by  accident,  not  de- 
sign, from  tendering  his  submission  within 
the  limited  time.  He  did  not  roach  Inverary 
till  the  new  year  had  come  in.  The  sheriff, 
however,  yielding  to  the  importunities  and 


GLE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


367 


even  tears  of  the  aged  chieftain,  administered 
to  him  the  oath  of  allegiance  then,  and  sent 
an  explanation  of  the  circumstances  to  the 
privy  council  at  Edinburgh.  But  Stair  and 
Breadalbane  were  the  enemies  of  Macdonald ; 
they  persuaded  William  that  the  Macdonalds 
were  great  obstacles  to  the  pacification  of  the 
Highlands ; and  the  royal  command  was  ob- 
tained “ for  the  good  and  saftie  of  the  Coun- 
trie,  that  thes  miscriants  be  cut  off 'root  and 
branch.”  Capt.  Campbell,  of  Argyle’s  regi- 
ment, repaired  to  Glencoe  with  a hundred 
and  twenty  men.  He  was  the  uncle  of  young 
Macdonald’s  wife,  and  he  and  his  troops 
were  received  by  the  unsuspecting  Highland- 
ers with  the  utmost  hospitality.  The  orders 
were  “ to  fall  upon  the  rebels  the  Macdonalds 
of  Glencoe,  and  put  all  to  the  sword  under 
seventy yet  for  several  days  this  dread 
intent  was  concealed,  and  butchers  and  vic- 
tims dwelt  in  peace  with  one  another.  The 
mask  dropped  on  the  night  of  Feb.  13th, 
1691.  Macdonald  was  shot  dead  at  his  bed- 
side. His  aged  wife  was  stripped  naked  by 
the  soldiers,  who  tore  the  rings  from  her 
fingers  with  their  teeth.  Neither  age  nor 
sex  was  spared.  Thirty-eight  persons  were 
massacred,  and  several  who  fled  among  the 
mountains  perished  by  starvation  and  expos- 
ure. The  hamlet  was  laid  in  ashes. 

GLENDOWER,  Owen,  a celebrated  Welsh 
chieftain,  born  in  1354.  He  was  the  deter- 
mined foe  of  Henry  IV.,  and  for  a long  time 
kept  up  a marauding  warfare  which  was 
highly  annoying  to  the  English.  He  died, 
unsubdued,  Feb.  24th,  1416. 

GLISSON,  Francis,  president  of  the  col- 
lege of  Physicians,  London,  died  in  1677, 
aged  eighty.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Royal  Society,  and  was  eulogized  by 
Boerhaave  and  Haller. 

GLUCK,  Christopher,  the  Chevalier,  an 
eminent  German  musical  composer,  died  at 
Vienna,  1787,  aged  seventy-one. 

GOBELJN,  Giles,  famous  as  a dyer  of 
scarlet  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  of  France, 
and  the  founder  of  the  works  where  the 
beautiful  Gobelin  tapestry  has  been  produced. 

GODFREY  of  Bouillon,  Marquis  of  An- 
vers and  Duke  of  Brabant,  was  the  son  of 
Eustace  II.,  Count  of  Boulogne,  and  was  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century. 
He  served  with  distinction  under  Henry  IV., 


Emperor  of  Germany,  but  acquired  an  im- 
perishable fame  in  the  first  crusade.  At 
Nice,  Elessa,  and  Antioch,  he  particularly 
distinguished  himself,  and  in  July,  1099,  he 
took  Jerusalem,  after  a siege  of  five  weeks. 
On  taking  possession  of  the  city,  he  threw 
off  his  armor,  clothed  himself  in  a mantle, 
and,  with  bare  head  and  naked  feet,  went  to 
the  Church  of  the  Sepulchre.  On  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem, 
in  the  same  year,  Godfrey’s  virtues  were* 
declared  to  be  pre-eminent ; the  princes  con- 
ducted him  to  the  church  which  covered  the 
tomb  of  Christ,  and  offered  him  a crown. 
But  he  refused  to  wear  a diadem  of  gold 
where  his  Saviour  wore  a crown  of  thorns, 
and  modestly  claimed  only  the  honor  of  being 
the  defender  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  He 
enjoyed  it  but  a short  time,  for  he  died  July 
18th,  1100,  just  one  year  after  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem. 

GODFREY,  Thomas,  inventor  of  the  quad- 
rant commonly  called  Hadley’s,  by  whom  he 
was  cheated  out  of  the  credit  of  the  inven- 
tion ; born  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  died  in 
December,  1749. 

GODMAN,  John  D.,  an  eminent  American 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  and 
at  an  early  age  was  apprenticed  to  a printer. 
Disliking  his  business,  he  shipped  as  a sailor 
on  board  the  Chesapeake  flotilla,  in  the  war 
of  1813.  Having  afterward  studied  medicine, 
he  settled  in  New  York,  and  was  offered  the 
professorship  of  anatomy  in  Rutger’s  Medical 
College.  The  state  of  his  health,  however, 
rendered  traveling  necessary,  and  he  went  to 
Vera  Cruz,  but  without  experiencing  the 
relief  which  he  hoped.  He  died  in  Philadel- 
phia, April  17th,  1830,  in  the  thirty-second 
year  of  his  age.  His  “Natural  History  of 
American  Quadrupeds,”  and  his  “Rambles 
of  a Naturalist”  were  deservedly  popular. 

GODOLPHIN,  Sidney,  Earl  of,  and  lord 
high  treasurer  of  England,  was  born  in  Corn- 
wall, and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  the  reigns  of  Charles  II.  and 
James  II.,  although  he  had  voted  for  the 
exclusion  of  the  latter  in  1680.  He  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  treasury  on  the 
accession  of  Queen  Anne,  but  was  obliged  to 
retire  from  office  in  1710.  He  died  in  1712. 

GODWIN,  William,  the  author  of  “Caleb 
Williams,”  was  born  in  1756,  and  died  in 


368 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


1836.  He  was  a voluminous  writer,  a warm 
republican  in  politics,  and  an  eccentric  and 
remarkable  man. 

GOETHE,  John  Wolfgang  von,  bom  Aug. 
28th,  1749,  at  Frankfort  on  the  Maine.  He 
displayed  an  early  fondness  for  literature  and 
the  arts,  which  increased  with  his  years.  His 
studies  embraced  the  whole  circle  of  the  sci- 
ences. In  1771  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  laws.  About  the  year  1776,  on  the  invi- 
tation of  the  grand-duke,  he  went  to  Weimar, 
where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life,  loaded 
by  his  patron  with  honors,  ennobled,  made 
a privy  counselor,  and  for  many  years  prime 
minister.  Owing  in  part  to  the  liberal 
patronage  of  the  grand-duke,  the  little  court 
of  Weimar  was  a distinguished  focus  of  Ger- 
man literature ; and  in  the  early  years  of  the 
present  century,  this  place  reckoned  among 
its  residents  more  than  twenty  writers  of 
note,  at  the  head  of  whom  were  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Wieland,  Herder,  and  for  a time 
Kotzebue. 

The  following  particulars  of  the  life  of  this 
celebrated  man  were  written  not  long  before 
his  death.  “It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a 
man  who  had  arrived  at  the  age  of  eighty-one 
with  fewer  infirmities  than  Goethe.  The 
prodigious  activity  of  his  mind  seems  not  to 
have  worn  out  his  bod)',  although  the  latter, 
it  is  said,  was  put  to  the  proof  by  his  juvenile 
irregularities.  His  elevated  form,  the  strik- 
ing regularity  of  his  features,  his  imposing 
and  noble  bearing,  the  athletic  proportions 
of  his  body,  seem  to  have  suffered  no  injury 
from  age ; he  holds  himself  as  upright  as  a 
young  man  of  eighteen ; no  apparent  infirmity 
accompanies  his  years,  and  the  wrinkles  of 
his  face  hardly  indicate  a man  of  sixty. 
There  is  in  his  behavior  and  countenance 
something  cold  and  reserved,  which  adds  to 
the  emotion  which  is  felt  in  beholding  him. 
He  rarely  determines,  in  the  interviews 
which  he  grants  to  strangers,  to  display  the 
resources  of  his  genius;  and  visitors  are 
sorry  to  observe  that  these  hours  of  audience 
are  only  moments  of  repose  for  his  spirit, 
perhaps  of  annoyance.  It  is  said  that  this 
reserve  always  disappears  in  favor  of  strang- 
ers who  arrive  at  Weimar  preceded  by  a 
literary  reputation.  Goethe  has  felt  obliged 
to  impose  this  reserve  upon  himself  to  avoid 
the  unhappy  consequences  of  frankness  which 


once  distinguished  him,  and  it  is  said  that 
English  travelers  have  not  a little  contributed 
to  it  by  the  indiscretion  they  have  shown  in 
publishing  in  their  journals  incorrect  frag- 
ments of  their  conversation  with  him. 

“The  life  which  Goethe  leads  at  present 
bears  the  impress  of  that  vigor  of  mind  and 
body,  which  he  has  succeeded  in  preserving. 
With  a freshness  and  activity  of  mind  that 
eighty  y*ears  of  a laborious  life  have  not 
impaired,  he  knows  how  to  profit  by  every 
moment  of  the  day.  By  six  o’clock  in  the 
morning  he  is  at  work,  and  he  permits  no 
interruption  until  the  hour  of  noon.  During 
these  long  mornings  he  writes  letters,  com- 
poses, reviews  his  complete  works,  and  ar- 
ranges his  correspondence  with  Schiller,  of 
which  the  first  volume  has  been  published 
some  months.  At  noon  strangers  are  admit- 
ted. After  dinner,  he  assembles  at  his  house, 
about  four  or  five  o’clock,  the  limited  number 
of  the  elect  who  have  the  happiness  to  live 
in  habits  of  intimacy  with  him.  The  eve- 
nings of  Goethe  are  consecrated  to  reading ; 
he  reads  with  a prodigious  rapidity,  which 
would  be  but  a defect,  were  it  not  accom- 
panied by  an  astonishing  memory  and  an 
extraordinary  faculty  of  analysis.  He  is  but 
seldom  seen  at  the  theatre,  and  the  theatre 
of  Weimar  feels  this  abandonment  but  too 
sensibly.  Goethe  was  formerly  the  manager, 
perhaps  we  may  call  him  the  creator  of  it: 
it  was  he  who,  aided  by  Schiller,  formed  all 
the  actors  who,  for  more  than  a quarter  of  a 
century,  shone  in  the  first  rank  upon  the 
German  stage,  and  made  the  little  theatre  of 
Weimar  the  true  school  of  the  dramatic  art 
in  Germany.” 

Goethe  died  at  Weimar,  March  22d,  1832, 
aged  eighty-two.  He  was  an  eminent  author 
and  a romantic  poet,  held  in  great  repute  by 
his  countrymen  and  admirers,  and  styled  the 
patriarch  of  German  literature ; according  to 
a writer  in  the  Foreign  Quarterly  Review, 
“the  first  man  of  his  nation  and  time;”  and 
according  to  Prince  Puckler  Muskau,  “the 
third  in  the  great  triumvirate  with  Homer  and 
Shakspeare.”  Among  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  productions  of  Goethe  are  the  “ Sor- 
rows of  Wcrther,”  “Faust,”  and  “Wilhelm 
Meister’s  Apprenticeship.”  He  maintained 
for  many  years  a tranquil  empire  over  the 
literature  of  his  country,  which  was  implicitly 


GOE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  369 


acquiesced  in  by  the  candidates  for  literary 
fame;  yet  many  of  his.  voluminous  works 
have  been  much  complained  of,  as  charac- 
terized by  unintelligible  mysticism,  and  as 
of  irreligious  and  immoral  tendency. 

GOFFE,  William,  one  of  the  judges  of 
Charles  I.,  and  a general  under  Cromwell. 
When  the  Stuarts  were  restored,  he,  with 
Whalley,  another  of  the  regicides,  came  to 
New  England,  and  found  concealment  at  New 
Haven,  Hadley,  and  elsewhere.  Sept.  1st, 
1675,  Hadley  was  attacked  by  Indians.  The 
savages  were  repelled  by  an  aged  man,  who 
suddenly  appeared  and  headed  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  disappeared  as  suddenly  after  the 
victory.  This  man,  regarded  as  an  angel  at 
the  time,  was  afterward  discovered  to  be 
Goflfe,  who  for  many  years  was  secreted 
there.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  1680. 

GOLDSMITH,  Oliver,  an  eminent  poet 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Ireland, 
Nov.  10th,  1728.  His  father  was  a poor 
curate.  He  studied  at  Dublin,  Edinburgh, 
and  Leyden,  and  took  a doctor’s  degree  at 
Padua,  a maternal  uncle  defraying  part  of  the 
expenses.  Having  made  the  tour  of  Europe 
on  foot,  supporting  himtelf  by  flute-playing, 
he  reached  London,  after  a long  absence,  with 
but  a few  pence  in  his  pocket.  Here  he 
sustained  himself  by  his  pen,  and  compiled 
many  works,  besides  composing  those  which 
have  rendered  his  name  immortal.  His  poem 
of  “ The  Traveller  ” gained  him  an  enviable 
poetical  reputation.  His  fame  was  estab- 
lished on  a firm  basis  by  “The  Deserted 
Village.”  Improvident,  like  many  men  of 
genius,  he  was  about  to  marry  his  landlady 
to  cancel  a debt  he  owed  her,  when  the  sale 
of  the  manuscript  of  his  novel  “ The  Vicar 
of  Wakefield,”  which  met  the  approbation 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  afforded  him  a temporary 
relief.  An  adventure  of  his  own  formed  the 
groundwork  of  his  highly  successful  comedy, 
“ She  Stoops  to  Conquer.”  He  put  up  at  the 
house  of  a gentleman,  mistaking  it  for  an  inn, 
and  amused  the  inmates  by  calling  out  lustily 
for  whatever  he  wanted,  ordering  the  ser- 
vants, slapping  his  host  upon  the  back,  and 
asking  to  see  the  bill  of  fare  ; his  mortifica- 
tion, on  discovering  his  mistake,  can  easily 
be  imagined.  He  died  April  4th,  1774.  He 
was  eccentric  even  to  absurdity,  and  in 
society  showed  the  simplicity  of  La  Fontaine. 


Garrick,  in  some  extemporaneous  verses, 
spoke  of  him  as 

“Noll, 

Who  wrote  like  an  angel,  but  talked — like  poor 
Poll.” 

The  debts  he  left  amounted  to  £2,000.  “ W as 

ever  poet  so  trusted  before  ? ” said  Dr.  John- 
son. “No  man,”  said  the  doctor  also,  “was 
wiser  when  he  had  a pen  in  his  hand,  or  nspre 
foolish  when  he  had  not.” 

GONZALVO,  Hernandez  v Aguilar,  of 
Cordova,  commonly  called  the  ‘ great  captain,’ 
was  born  in  1443.  This  celebrated  Spaniard 
served  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  the 
conquest  of  Grenada,  where  he  took  several 
strong  places  from  the  Moors.  Ferdinand 
gave  him  command  of  the  forces  which  he 
sent  into  the  kingdom  of  Naples  to  succor 
Frederick  and  Alphonso.  After  having  gained 
his  purpose,  he  returned  to  Spain,  and  then, 
serving  against  the  Turks,  wrested  Zante  and 
Cephalonia  from  them.  He  was  afterward, 
in  consequence  of  his  various  victories,  ap- 
pointed viceroy  of  Naples,  with  unlimited 
powers.  He  died  in  1515. 

GOOKIN,  Daniel,  major-general  of  Mas* 
sachusetts  from  1681  to  1687,  the  year  of  his 
death.  He  was  an  Englishman,  but  came  to 
Virginia  in  1621,  and  in  1644  removed  to 
New  England  that  he  might  enjoy  freedom 
of  worship.  He  was  the  author  of  “Histori- 
cal Collections  of  the  Indians  in  New  Eng- 
land,” and  a zealous  coadjutor  of  the  Rev. 
John  Eliot. 

GORDIUS,  a king  of  Phrygia,  who  fast- 
ened the  pole  of  his  chariot  -with  so  ingenious 
a knot  that  the  oracle  promised  the  empire  of 
Persia  to  the  man  who  should  loose  it.  Alex- 
ander the  Great  cut  it  with  his  sword. 

GORE,  Christopher,  a governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, born  in  Boston  in  1758,  was  the 
son  of  a mechanic.  His  education  was  com- 
pleted at  Harvard  University ; he  studied  law 
and  practiced  it  with  success.  He  was  the 
first  United  States  district  attorney  for  Massa- 
chusetts, and  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
settle  the  claims  on  England  for  the  spoliations 
committed  by  her  upon  the  property  of  the 
Americans.  In  1809  he  was  chosen  gover- 
nor of  Massachusetts,  but  remained  in  office 
only  one  year.  In  1814  he  was  chosen 
United  States  senator.  He  died  in  retire- 
ment, March  1st,  1827. 


GOR 


370 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


GORE,  John,  the  friend  and  companion  of 
Capt.  Cook,  born  in  Virginia,  1735,  entered 
the  British  navy  early  in  Hie,  and  made  his 
first  voyage  round  the  world  with  Com- 
modore Byron.  In  1768,  he  was  appointed 
second  lieutenant  of  the  Endeavor,  under 
Captain  Cook,  and  again  circumnavigated  the 
earth.  In  1776,  he  was  appointed  first  lieu- 
tenant of  the  Resolution,  and,  by  the  succes- 
sive deaths  of  Captains  Cook  and  Clerke, 
returned  to  Europe,  October,  1780,  commander 
of  the  squadron.  He  ended  his  days  as  one 
of  the  captains  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  Aug. 
10th,  1790,  aged  fifty -five. 

GOTHS,  an  ancient  barbarous  tribe,  whose 
origin  is  very  uncertain.  They  wrere  said 
to  come  from  Scandinavia.  For  a long  time 
they  resided  in  Germany,  whence  they  finally 
forced  their  way  and  made  themselves  formid- 
able to  the  Romans.  Under  Alaric,  they  took 
and  plundered  Rome.  The  Goths  of  the  east 
were  called  Ostrogoths,  and  those  of  the  west 
Visigoths. 

GRACCHUS,  Tiberius  Sempronius  and 
Caius,  the  sons  of  the  celebrated  Cornelia, 
lost  their  lives  in  attempting  to  reform  the 
republic.  With  a winning  eloquence,  affected 
moderation,  and  uncommon  popularity,  Tibe- 
rius began  to  revive  the  agrarian  law,  which 
had  already  caused  dissensions  among  the 
Romans.  His  proposition  passed  into  a law, 
but  he  was  killed  in  the  midst  of  a tumult, 
for  happening  to  raise  his  hand  to  his  head, 
his  enemies  declared  that  he  signified  a de- 
sire for  a crown,  and  he  was  slain  in  the 
outbreak  of  popular  fury  which  ensued.  His 
brother  Caius  supported  the  cause  of  the 
people  with  more  vehemence  and  less  modera- 
tion than  Tiberius,  and  his  success  animated 
his  resentment  against  the  nobles.  With  the 
privileges  of  a tribune,  he  treated  the  patri- 
cians with  contempt,  and  this  behavior  hast- 
ened his  ruin.  He  fled  with  a large  number 
of  his  adherents,  but  the  consul  Opinius 
attacked  and  defeated  them,  and  slew  their 
leader,  b.c.  121,  about  thirteen  years  after  the 
unfortunate  end  of  Tiberius. 

GRAHAM,  Sylvester,  the  untiring  advo- 
cate of  a vegetarian  system  of  dietetics  in 
America,  died  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  Sept. 
11th,  1851,  aged  fifty-five.  He  was  a native 
of  Suffield,  Conn. 

GRANT,  U.  S.  See  Appendix,  p.  972. 

G 


GRATTAN,  Henry,  was  born  about  1750 
in  Dublin.  He  wal  elected  into  the  Irish 
parliament  in  1775,  and  by  his  powerful  re- 
monstrances obtained  for  his  country  a par- 
ticipation in  the  commerce  of  Britain,  for 
which  he  was  rewarded  by  a vote  of  £50,000. 
In  1 790  he  was  returned  for  the  city  of  Dublin, 
and  from  that  time  was  the  active  leader  of 
the  opposition  till  the  union  with  England, 
which  measure  he  resisted  with  all  his  elo- 
quence. When  it  was  effected,  he  accepted 
a seat  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  Malton ; 
his  principal  exertions  were  called  forth  in 
advocating  the  claims  of  the  Catholics,  to 
which  cause  he  fell  a martyr,  by  leaving  Ire- 
land in  an  exhausted  state,  to.carry  the  peti- 
tion with  which  he  was  intrusted  to  England. 
He  died,  soon  after  his  arrival,  May  14th, 
1820 ; and  his  remains  were  interred  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  No  government  ever  dis- 
mayed him  ; the  world  could  not  bribe  him. 
He  only  thought  of  Ireland ; lived  for  no 
other  object ; dedicated  to  her  his  beautiful 
fancy,  his  elegant  wit,  his  manly  courage,  and 
all  the  splendor  of  his  astonishing  eloquence. 
He  was  so  born,  and  so  gifted,  that  all  the 
attainments  of  humati  genius  were  within  his 
reach ; but  he  thought  the  noblest  occupation 
of  man  was  to  make  other  men  happy  and 
free ; and  in  that  straight  line  he  went  on  for 
fifty  years,  without  one  side  look,  without 
one  yielding  thought,  without  one  motive  in 
his  heart  which  he  might  not  have  laid  open 
to  the  view  of  God  and  man. 

GRAY,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
London  in  171 6.  After  completing  the  course 
of  education  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  he  made 
the  tour  of  Europe  with  his  friend  Horace 
Walpole,  returning  in  1741.  The  remainder 
of  his  life  was  passed  in  literary  retirement. 
He  was  forever  laying  gigantic  literary  plans, 
which  he  wanted  the  perseverance  to  execute. 
He  wrote  little,  and  published  only  after 
mature  deliberation.  His  “ Ode  on  a Distant 
Prospect  of  Eton  College,”  “ Hymn  to  Ad- 
versity,” “The  Bard,”  and  “Elegy  in  a 
Country  Church-yard,”  are  inimitable.  This 
distinguished  poet  died  of  a gout  in  the 
stomach,  July  30th,  1771. 

GREECE.  Ancient  Greece  contained  about 
22,121  square  miles.  It  was  bounded  on  the 
west  by  the  Ionian  Sea,  south  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean, east  by  the  iEgean,  and  north  by 
E 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


871 


Illyria  and  Macedonia.  This  country  has 
been  esteemed  superior  to  every  other  part 
of  the  earth,  on  account  of  the  salubrity  of 
the  air,  the  temperature  of  the  climate,  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and,  above  all,  the  fame, 
learning,  and  arts  of  its  inhabitants.  It  is 
severed  by  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  The  north- 
ern part  contained  Thessaly,  Epirus,  Acarn- 
ania,  /Etolia,  Locris,  Doris,  Phocis,  Boeotia, 
Megaris,  and  Attica.  The  southern  part, 
called  the  Peloponnesus,  contained  Laconia, 
Messenia,  Arcadia,  Elis,  Argolis,  Achaia, 
Sicyonia,  and  Corinth.  Sketches  of  these 
distinct  states  are  given  elsewhere. 

The  history  of  Greece  is  darkened,  in  its 
primitive  ages,  by  the  mists  of  fable.  The 
inhabitants  believed  that  they  were  the  orig- 
inal dwellers  in  the  country,  and  sprang  from 
the  earth  whereon  they  dwelt;  and  they 
heard  with  contempt  the  probable  conjec- 
tures which  traced  their  origin  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  Asia  and  the  colonies  of  Egypt.  In 
the  first  periods  of  their  history,  the  Greeks 
were  governed  by  monarchs ; and  there  were 
as  many  kings  as  there  were  cities.  The 
monarchical  power  gradually  decreased ; the 
love  of  liberty  established  the  republican 
governments  ; till  no  part  of  Greece  remained 
in  the  hands  of  an  absolute  sovereign.  The 
expedition  of  the  Argonauts  first  rendered 
the  Greeks  respectable  among  their  neigh- 
bors; in  the  succeeding  age,  the  wars  of 
Thebes  anft  Troy  gave  opportunity  to  their 
heroes  to  display  their  valor  in  the  field  of  ' 
battle.  The  simplicity  of  the  ancient  Greeks 
rendered  them  virtuous ; and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Olympic  games  in  particular, 
where  the  only  reward  of  the  conqueror  was 
a laurel  crown,  contributed  to  their  aggrand- 
izement, making  them  ambitious  of  fame,  and 
not  the  slaves  of  riches. 

The  austerity  of  their  laws,  and  the  educa- 
tion of  their  youth,  particularly  in  Lacedae- 
mon, rendered  them  brave  and  active,  insen- 
sible to  bodily  pain,  fearless  and  intrepid  in 
the  hour  of  danger.  The  celebrated  battles 
of  Marathon,  Thermopylae,  Salamis,  Plataea, 
and  Mycale  sufficiently  show  what  superi- 
ority a well  trained  though  small  army  pos- 
sesses over  millions  of  undisciplined  barba- 
rians. After  many  signal  victories  over  the 
Persians,  the  Greeks  became  elated  with  their 
success,  and  when  they  found  no  one  able 


to  dispute  their  power  abroad,  they  turned 
their  arms  against  each  other,  and  leagued 
with  foreign  states  to  destroy  the  most  flour- 
ishing of  their  cities.  The  Messenian  and 
Peloponnesian  wars  are  examples  of  the  dread- 
ful calamities  which  arise  from  civil  discord 
and  long  prosperity ; and  the  ease  with  which 
the  gold  and  sword  of  Philip  of  Macedon  cor- 
rupted and  enslaved  Greece,  fatally  proved 
that  when  a nation  becomes  indolent  and  lux- 
urious at  home,  it  ceases  to  be  respectable  in 
the  eyes  of  neighboring  states.  The  annals 
of  Greece,  however,  abound  with  singular 
proof  of  heroism  and  resolution.  While  tfte 
Greeks  rendered  themselves  so  illustrious  by 
their  military  exploits,  the  arts  and  sciences 
were  assisted  by  conquest,  and  received  fresh 
lustre  from  the  liberal  patronage  bestowed  on 
them. 

From  the  dominion  of  Macedon, , Greece 
passed  under  the  yoke  of  Rome.  From  the 
fifteenth  century  until  a recent  period,  Greece 
was  subject  to  the  Turkish  government. 
Although  degraded,  changed  from  what  she 
was,  there  was  yet  something  in  modern 
Greece  to  remind  the  world  of  former  days 
of  glory.  Ere  the  storm  of  the  revolution 
broke  forth,  the  bard  could  sing : 

“ On  Suli’s  rock,  and  Parga’s  shore, 

Exists  the  remnant  of  a line 

Such  as  the  Doric  mothers  bore, 

And.  there,  perhaps,  some  seed  is  sown, 

That  Heracleidan  blood  might  own.” 

The  Greek  revolution  broke  out  at  a village 
of  Achaia,  March  23d,  1821.  At  length 
England  took  the  part  of  the  Greeks,  and  a 
Russian,  French,  and  British  squadron,  under 
Admiral  Sir  Edward  Codrington,  destroyed 
the  Turkish-Egyptian  armada  of  110  ships, 
in  the  bay  of  Navarino,  Oct.  20th,  1827.  In 
1828,  the  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey 
broke  out,  and  the  interference  of  foreign 
power  produced  the  pacification  of  Greece 
in  1829.  The  Turks  were  compelled  to  yield 
their  grasp.  A monarchy  was  finally  estab- 
lished and  Otho  of  Bavaria  was  called  to  the 
throne  in  1833.  After  a troubled,  inefficient 
and  unprosperous  reign,  Otho  absconded  from 
Athens,  Oct.  13,  1862 ; six  days  afterwards 
a revolution  broke  out  to  secure  a change  of 
dynasty ; a provisional  government  was 
formed  which  continued  until  June,  1863, 
when  the  youngest  son  of  the  King  of  Den- 


GRE 


372 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


mark  accepted  the  throne,  and  became  king 
by  the  title  of  George  I. 

Modern  Greece  has  an  area  of  19,250  square 
miles;  population  in  1861,  1,330,933. 

GREENE,  Col.  Christopher,  a relation  of 
Gen.  Nathaniel  Greene,  and  a native  of  War- 
wick, Rhode  Island,  was  born  1737,  and  in 
May,  1775,  entered  the  service  as  a lieuten- 
ant. He  was  with  Montgomery  at  Quebec, 
where  he  became  a prisoner.  Soon  after  his 
exchange  in  1777,  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  Fort  Mercer,  at  Red  Bank,  N.  J.,  which 
he  gallantly  defended  against  the  British. 
He  fell  May  22d,  1781,  in  an  action  with  some 
tories  near  New  York. 

GREENE,  Nathaniel,  was  born  of  Qua- 
ker parentage  at  Warwick,  R.  I.,  May  22d, 
1742.  He  early  evinced  an  attachment  to 
learning  and  a fondness  for  a martial  life.  He 
took  up  arms  for  his  country’s  defense  when 
he  heard  of  the  affair  at  Lexington ; the 
Quakers  disowned  him.  He  was  among  the 
first  brigadier-generals  commissioned  by  Con- 
gress, rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
was  in  the  battles  of  Trenton,  Princeton, 
Brandywine,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth. 
In  December,  1780,  he  took  the  command  of 
the  army  in  the  South,  where  he  continued  till 
the  close  of  the  war.  In  1785  he  went  to  Geor- 
gia to  look  after  an  estate  which  he  had  pur 
chased  there,  and  died  from  a sun-stroke  near 
Savannah,  June  19  th,  1786.  He  was  one.  of 
the  ablest  of  Washington’s  generals,  and  one 
of  his  most  attached  and  faithful  friends. 

GREENLAND,  an  extensive  country  of 
North  America,  belonging  to  Denmark.  The 
natives  belong  to  the  Esquimaux  family,  and 
are  rude  in  their  manners,  and  confined  in 
their  ideas.  They  are  of  diminutive  size^ 
clothed  in  skins,  and  subsisting  by  hunting 
and  fishing.  Their  religious  notions  are  rude 
and  primitive.  There  are  several  settlements 
upon  the  coast  of  Greenland,  many  of  them 
being  made  by  the  Moravian  missionaries. 
Greenland  was  discovered  at  the  end  of  the 
tenth  century,  and  soon  colonized  from  Ice- 
land. It  is  said  that  in  1406  there  were 
almost  two  hundred  villages,  but  the  colony 
was  suddenly  lost  to  the  world : vast  floes  of 
ice  blockaded  the  coast,  and  shut  out  all 
supplies.  Davis  rediscovered  Greenland  in 
1 586.  The  Northmen  called  this  country 
Greenland  because  its  verdure  was  so  much 


more  luxurious  than  that  of  Iceland.  A 
wonderful  change  has  taken  place  in  this 
land.  The  reindeer  and  the  hare  have  both 
disappeared;  fields  once  fertile  are  now  oc- 
cupied by  enormous  glaciers  ; the  shores,  too, 
are  beset  with  immense  fields  of  ice,  which 
forbid  the  approach  of  the  inquiring  mar- 
riner ; and  of  the  once  flourishing  Scandina- 
vian settlements,  nothing  remains  but  vague 
intimations.  History  forgot  them  nearly  five 
hundred  years  ago  and  recorded  nothing  of 
their  fate. 

GREENOUGH,  Horatio,  a sculptor  of 
eminence,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1805,  passed 
much  time  in  the  pursuit  of  his  art  in  Italy, 
and  died  in  Boston,  Dec.  18th,  1852. 

GREENVILLE,  Sir  Bevil,  grandson  of  Ad- 
miral Greenville,  was  born  1596,  and  slain  in 
the  battle  of  Lansdown,  near  Bath,  1643, 
fighting  for  King  Charles. 

GREENVILLE,  Sir  Richard,  commander 
of  the  first  English  colony  sent  to  North  Amer- 
ica, was  born  in  1540.  Greenville  shared  with 
Howard,  Drake,  Raleigh,  Hawkins4  Frobisher, 
the  renown  of  defeating  the  Spanish  Armada. 
In  1591  he  was  made  vice-admiral  of  a squad- 
ron sent  out  to  the  West  Indies.  In  this 
expedition  he  fell  in  with  a superior  force, 
and  in  the  action  his  ship  was  taken  and 
himself  mortally  wounded. 

GREGORY.  Sixteen  popes  have  born  this 
name.  Gregory  I.,  surnamed  the  Great, 
succeeded  Pelagius  II.,  in  590,  and  intro< 
duced  many  of  the  present  ceremonies  of  the 
Romish  church.  He  was  of  a noble  family 
and  induced  to  take  monastic  vows  by  a 
disgust  of  worldly  affairs.  He  died  in  604. 
Gregory  VII.  is  better  known  by  his  orig- 
inal name  of  Hildebrand.  [ See  Hildebrand.] 
Gregory  XIII.,  the  greatest  civilian  and  can- 
onist of  his  time,  to  whom  we  owe  the  refor- 
mation of  the  calendar,  born  1502,  reigned 
from  1572  to  1585.  [, See  Time,] 

GRENVILLE,  George,  born  in  1722,  en- 
tered parliament  in  1750,  and  took  a prom- 
inent part  in  the  public  affairs  of  Great 
Britain.  During  his  ministry  the  stamp  act 
was  brought  forward.  He  died  Nov.  13th, 
1770.  He  married  the  daughter  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Wyndham.  Richard,  his  brother,  Earl 
Temple  (1711-1779),  was  also  a leading 
statesman,  though  neither  so  honest  nor  capa- 
George’s  third  son,  William  Wyndham, 


ble. 
GRE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


373 


afterward  Lord  Grenville,  was  a distinguished 
and  powerful  statesman,  and  was  the  nom- 
inal head  of  the  * all-the-talents  ’ ministry, 
which  came  in  upon  Mr.  Pitt’s  death,  and  was 
soon  shattered  by  the  death  of  Mr.  Fox. 

The  secret  of  the  authorship  of  “Junius” 
was  said  to  have  been  intrusted  to  Lord  Gren- 
ville, and  the  rumor  was  that  it  would  be  dis- 
closed after  his  death ; the  office  of  making 
the  disclosure,  some  have  supposed,  was  con- 
fided to  his  nephew,  Lord  Nugent.  He  died 
at  his  seat,  Dropmore,  in  Buckinghamshire, 
on  the  12  th  of  January,  1834,  aged  seventy  - 
four. 

GREY,  Lady  Jane,  an  unfortunate  and 
most  amiable  lady,  the  daughter  of  Henry 
Grey,  Marquis  of  Dorset,  by  Lady  Frances 
Brandon,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Suffolk, 
was  of  royal  descent  on  both  sides.  She  was 
born  in  1537,  at  Bradgate  Hall,  her  father’s 
seat  in  Leicestershire,  and  early  in  life  gave 
proofs  of  uncommon  genius.  She  worked 
admirably  with  her  needle ; wrote  an  elegant 
hand ; played  well  on  several  instruments ; 
and  was  well  versed  in  Greek  and  Latin,  be- 
sides being  conversant  with  French  and  Ital- 
ian. Roger  Ascham,  “the  schoolmaster  of 
princes,”  has  given  a beautiful  and  affecting 
narrative  of  his  interview  with  her  at  Bradgate 
Hall,  where  he  found  her  reading  Plato’s  Phoe- 
don  in  Greek,  while  the  family  were  amusing 
themselves  in  the  park. 

In  1551,  her  father  was  created  Duke  of 
Suffolk ; and  at  this  time  Lady  Jane  Grey 
was  much  at  court,  where  the  ambitious  Duke 
of  Northumberland  projected  a marriage  be- 
tween her  and  his  son,  Lord  Guilford  Dudley, 
which  took  place  at  the  end  of  May,  1553. 
Soon  after  this  Edward  VI.  died,  having  been 
prevailed  upon,  in  his  last  illness,  to  settle  the 
crown  upon  the  Lady  Jane,  who,  against  her 
will,  was  proclaimed  with  great  pomp.  The 
splendor  of  royalty,  however,  endured  but  a 
short  time.  The  nation  was  dissatisfied,  and 
the  nobility  incensed  at  the  presumption  of 
Northumberland,  so  that  Mary  was  not  long 
in  obtaining  the  victory,  and  with  an  indig- 
nant spirit  she  determined  on  revenge.  Lady 
Jane  and  her  husband,  after  having  been  con- 
fined in  the  Tower  some  months,  were  ar- 
raigned and  condemned  to  death,  Nov.  3d, 
1553.  The  sentence  was  not  carried  into  ex- 
ecution until  the  12th  of  February  in  the  fol- 


lowing year,  when  Lord  Guilford  first  suffered, 
and  his  wife  immediately  afterward,  on  the 
same  scaffold.  She  died  with  the  firmness 
and  meekness  of  a martyr ; and  such  no  doubt 
she  was,  since  her  Protestant  principles  were 
more  offensive  to  the  queen  than  the  part  she 
had  been  compelled  to  act.  On  the  evening 
previous  to  her  death  she  sent  a letter  written 
in  Greek  to  her  sister;  and  even  after  seeing 
the  headless  body  of  her  husband  carried  to 
the  chapel,  she  wrote  three  sentences,  in 
Greek,  Latin,  and  English,  in  a table  book, 
which  she  presented  to  the  lieutenant  of  the 
Tower. 

GRIDLEY,  Jeremiah,  a distinguished  law- 
yer, who  was  born  in  1705,  and  flourished  in 
Massachusetts  before  the  revolution.  Al- 
though a warm  opponent  of  the  British  min- 
istry, he  accepted  the  office  of  attorney-gen- 
eral of  the  province  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
and  defended  the  writs  of  assistance,  but  was 
completely  refuted  by  James  Otis,  who  had 
studied  law  in  his  office.  He  died  in  Boston, 
Sept.  7th,  1767. 

GRIMSTON,  Sir  Harbottle.  An  English 
lawyer  of  much  repute,  lived  (notwithstanding 
his  name)  almost  ninety  years,  dying  in  1683. 

GRISWOLD,  Roger,  a governor  of  Connec- 
ticut, was  the  son  of  Gov.  Matthew  Griswold, 
and  born  at  Lyme  in  that  state  in  1762.  He 
was  educated  at  Yale  College,  and  chosen 
member  of  Congress  in  1794.  In  1807  he  ac- 
cepted the  office  of  judge  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Connecticut,  and,  after  serving  as  lieutenant- 
governor,  in  1811  was  chosen  governor.  He 
died  at  Norwich,  Oct.  12th,  1812. 

GROTIUS,  or  De  Groot,  Hugo,  a famous 
scholar  and  statesman,  born  at  Delft,  April 
10th,  1583.  So  precocious  were  his  powers, 
that  he  had  a European  reputation  at  fifteen. 
Grotius,  having  espoused  the  cause  of  a relig- 
ious sect  called  the  Remonstrants,  was  con- 
demned to  imprisonment  for  life  in  the  fortress 
of  Louvenstein,  but  having  concealed  himself 
in  a chest  in  which  his  wife  had  sent  him  some 
books,  he  was  carried  out  of  the  castle  unsus- 
pected. After  wandering  about  in  several 
countries,  having  been  banished  forever  from 
his  own,  he  went  to  Stockholm  in  1634,  and 
was  appointed  counselor  of  state,  and  ambas- 
sador to  the  French  court.  Although  person- 
ally obnoxious  to  Cardinal  Richelieu,  he  held 
this  office  for  ten  years,  and  then  returned  to 


GRO 


874 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Sweden,  passing  through  his  native  country, 
where  his  reception  was  most  flattering.  He 
solicited  his  dismission  from  the  Queen  of 
Sweden ; after  leaving  her  court,  he  was  taken 
sick  at  Rostock,  in  Pomerania,  and  died  there, 
August  28th,  1645.  He  was  a profound  and 
elegant  scholar,  and  a powerful  writer  upon 
international  law. 

GROUCHY,  Emanuel,  Count,  a marshal  of 
France,  born  at  Paris  in  1766,  and  known  as 
a brave  and  successful  soldier  in  the  wars  of 
Napoleon,  is  memorable  for  his  singular  con- 
duct at  Waterloo.  With  thirty-five  thousand 
men  and  eighty  pieces  of  artillery  under  his 
orders,  he  remained  immovable  either  by  the 
prayers  or  the  threats  of  the  other  generals, 
in  a position  which  could  only  be  justified  by 
the  strict  letter  of  his  instructions.  It  is  not 
certain  that  he  intended  to  betray  the  cause 
of  Napoleon,  but  his  culpable  indecision  con- 
tributed decidedly  to  the  result  of  the  conflict. 
He  was  restored  to  his  military  rank  on  the 
accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  died  in  1847. 

GUATEMALA,  the  largest  and  most  north- 
ern of  the  five  republics  of  Central  America, 
has  a territory  of  59,000  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  1,100,000.  The  resources  of 
this  fertile  country  wait  for  the  magic  touch 
of  enterprise  and  industry.  Many  of  the  ab- 
original tribes  are  yet  in  the  perfect  indepen- 
dence of  barbarian  life.  Guatemala  la  Nueva, 
the  seat  of  government,  was  founded  in  1775, 
and  contains  40,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situa- 
ted on  the  river  Yacas,  twenty-six  miles  from 
the  Pacific. 

GUELPHS,  one  of  the  two  great  factions 
which  divided  Europe  in  the  middle  ages, 
during  the  contest  between  the  papal  and 
imperial  power.  The  Guelphs  sustained  the 
pope,  the  Ghibellines  the  emperor.  Guelph 
is  the  family  name  of  the  dynasty  now  upon 
the  British  throne. 

GUESCLIN,  Bertrand  du,  constable  of 
France,  and  one  of  her  most  renowned  gener- 
als, born  in  1314,  at  the  castle  of  Motte  Broon, 
near  Rennes.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  years, 
he  won  a prize  in  a tournament.  After  the 
battle  of  Poictiers,  and  the  losses  of  Charles, 
Du  Guesclin  came  forward  and  redeemed  the 
honor  of  his  country,  wresting  from  the  hands 
of  the  English  almost  all  their  possessions. 
He  died,  in  the  midst  of  triumph,  before  Cha- 
teau-neuf-de-Raudon,  July  13th,  1380.  He 


had  nothing  pleasing  or  noble  in  his  person, 
and  owed  his  honors  wholly  to  his  own  exer- 
tions. 

GUIANA,  a country  of  South  America, 
formerly  of  vast  extent.  At  present,  what 
was  formerly  Spanish  Guiana  belongs  to  Ven- 
ezuela, and  Portuguese  Guiana  to  Brazil.  The 
remaining  portions  are  divided  between  the 
English,  Dutch,  and  French.  Parts  of  Guiana 
are  yet  wild  and  imperfectly  known,  and  in 
its  interior  the  El  Dorado  of  the  Spaniards 
was  formerly  believed  to  exist. 

French  Guiana,  or  Cayenne,  is  an  alluvial, 
swampy  region,  covered  with  forests  whose 
trees  are  as  prodigious  in  size  as  they  are  va- 
rious in  species.  Here  thrive  fine  aromatics 
unknown  to  other  regions  of  the  west.  The 
Cayenne  is  the  most  pungent  and  delicate  of 
peppers.  But  a serious  obstacle  to  settlement 
is  presented  by  the  pestilential  vapors  steam- 
ing from  the  woods  and  marshes.  The  French 
colonized  Cayenne  in  1625.  After  having 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  English  and  the 
Dutch,  it  revolted  to  its  original  possessors  in 
1677.  In  a settlement  on  a great  scale  at- 
tempted in  1763,  there  perished  13,000  per- 
sons-: so  that  during  the  revolution,  deporta- 
tion'to  Cayenne  was  considered  almost  as  fatal 
as  Sentence  of  death.  Within  the  last  few 
years,  many  Frenchmen  have  been  banished 
to  this  poisonous  spot  as  a penalty  for  their 
opposition  to  the  despotism  of  Louis  Napoleon. 

Surinam,  or  Dutch  Guiana,  is  the  most  im- 
portant  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  this  west- 
ern world.  The  colonies  of  Demerara,  Ber- 
bice,  and  Essequibo  formerly  belonged  to 
Holland,  but  were  conquered  by  the  English, 
and  since  1814  have  constituted  British  Gui- 
ana. The  industry  of  the  new  owners,  with 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  has  rendered  this  one 
of  the  most  productive  regions  on  the  conti- 
nent. 

GUIDO  RENI,  commonly  called  Guido, 
was  born  at  Bologna  in  1575.  His  father 
was  a musician,  and  he  was  intended  for  the 
same  calling.  But  at  an  early  age  he  evinced 
a decided  taste  for  painting,  and  he  became 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  the 
Caracci.  Guido  resided  some  twenty  years  in 
Rome,  and  came  away  abruptly,  during  the 
pontificate  of  Urban  VIII.,  in  consequence  of 
an  offensive  reprimand  from  Cardinal  Spinola. 
He  had  been  commissioned  to  paint  one  of  the 


GUI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


375 


altar-pieces  of  St.  Peter’s,  and  had  received 
four  hundred  scudi  in  advance;  but  after  a 
few  years  not  having  even  commenced  the 
picture,  the  cardinal  rather  harshly  reminded 
him  of  the  money  advanced  for  which  he  had 
done  nothing.  Guido  at  once  restored  the 
four  hundred  scudi,  and  in  a few  days  left 
Rome : all  attempts  to  induce  his  return  were 
vain.  He  lived  in  great  splendor  at  Bologna, 
where  he  died  Aug.  18th,  1642,  and  was  in- 
terred with  great  pomp  in  the  church  of  San 
Domenico.  Notwithstanding  the  princely  in- 
come that  he  received  for  many  years,  his 
habits  of  gaming  and  profuse  liberality  em- 
barrassed his  circumstances,  and  he  died  in 
debt.  It  was  during  the  latter  unhappy  pe- 
riod of  his  career,  that  he  sold  his  time  for  so 
much  an  hour  to  certain  dealers,  one  of  whom 
tasked  the  painter  so  rigidly  as  to  stand  by 
him,  watch  in  hand,  while  he  worked. 

GUILFORD,  Battle  of.  A battle  was 
fought  between  the  British  under  Cornwallis 
and  the  Americans  under  Greene,  March  13th, 
1781,  near  Guilford  Court  House,  N.  C.  The 
combat  lasted  two  hours.  The  American  force 
was  twice  that  of  the  British,  and  was  very 
advantageously  posted.  No  battle  in  the 
course  of  the  war  reflected  more  honor  on  the 
courage  of  the  royal  troops.  The  panic  and 
flight  of  the  North  Carolina  militia  turned  the 
scale  against  Gen.  Greene ; the  British  gained 
a nominal  victory,  the  Americans  retreating 
in  good  order.  The  loss^on  the  side  of  Corn- 
wallis was  more  than  600  killed  and  wounded ; 
that  of  Greene’s  army  was  over  400,  and  many 
of  the  militia  were  reported  missing,  having 
forsaken  the  field  for  their  firesides. 

GUILLOTIN,  Joseph  Ignatius,  an  eminent 
physician,  born  in  1738,  was  the  inventor 
(about  1785)  of  the  instrument  of  death  called 
by  his  name.  His  humane  design  was  to  ren- 
der capital  punishment  less  painful  by  decap- 
itation, and  he  was  greatly  annoyed  that  the 
guillotine  should  be  named  after  him.  He 
was  imprisoned  during  the  revolutionary 
troubles,  and  ran  some  hazard  of  suffering  the 
fatal  stroke  of  his  own  invention.  But  he 
escaped,  and  lived  till  1814,  greatly  respected. 
An  engine  called  the  maiden,  somewhat  sim- 
ilar to  the  guillotine,  was  in  use  in  Halifax, 
Yorkshire,  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth.  It  was 
introduced  into  Scotland  by  the  regent  Morton, 


for  the  decapitation  of  his  political  opponents, 
and  he  himself  lost  his  head  under  it  in  1581. 

GUISE,  a town  and  dukedom  of  France,  in 
Picardy,  besieged  by  the  Spaniards  in  1528. 
The  Dukes  of  Guise  were  very  important  per- 
sonages in  all  the  affairs  of  France,  from  the 
reign  of  Francis  I.  to  that  of  Henry  IV.  This 
family  was  a branch  of  the  house  of  Lorraine, 
promoted  by  Francis  I.  in  1528  from  Counts 
of  Guise  to  Dukes.  The  first  thus  raised  was 
Claude,  the  son  of  Rene  II.  One  of  his 
daughters  wedded  James  V.  of  Scotland,  and 
was  the  mother  of  Queen  Mary.  He  had  eight 
sons,  among  whom  were  Francis,  Duke  of 
Guise,  Claudius,  Duke  of  Aumale,  and  Rene, 
Marquis  of  Elbceuf.  Francis  gallantly  defend- 
ed Metz  against  Charles  V.  and  took  Calais 
from  the  English.  He  was  virtually  monarch 
of  France.  He  was  the  head  of  the  League, 
and  the  great  opponent  of  Conde  and  the  Hu- 
guenots. He  was  assassinated  in  1563.  He 
was  the  father  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Guise,  and 
Charles,  Duke  of  Maine,  &c.  Henry  placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  holy  league,  was 
slain  in  the  states  of  Blois,  by  the  order  of . 
King  Henry  III.,  in  1588.  The  Duke  of  Maine 
took  up  arms  against  Henry  IV.,  till  at  last, 
in  1594,  he  was  forced  to  submit  to  that  vic- 
torious prince. 

GULF  STREAM.  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able of  all  known  oceanic  phenomena  is  the 
mighty  current  which  ceaselessly  flows  from 
west  to  east,  across  the  bosom  of  the  North 
Atlantic.  The  fountain-head  of  this  ocean- 
river,  as  it  may  well  be  termed,  is  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  Thence  it  flows  north-easterly 
along  the  shores  of  the  United  States,  until  it 
reaches  the  banks  of  Newfoundland;  then 
stretches  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  British 
islands,  where  it  divides  into  two  parts,  one 
flowing  northward  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  the  other 
southward  to  the  Azores.  In  the  whole  world, 
there  is  not  another  so  majestic  flow  of  water 
as  this  ocean-river.  Its  current  is  more  rapid 
than  the  Amazon  or  the  Mississippi.  In  the 
severest  droughts  it  never  fails ; in  the  great- 
est floods  it  never  overflows.  Though  its 
banks  and  bed  consist  of  cold  water,  yet  the 
river  itself  is  warm ; and  so  great  is  the  want 
of  affinity  between  these  waters,  so  reluctant 
are  they  to  mingle  with  each  other,  that  their 
line  of  junction  is  often  distinctly  visible  to 


GUL 


376 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  eye : one-half  of  a ship  may  frequently  be 
perceived  floating  in  the  cold  ocean  water,  the 
other  half  in  this  warm  current,  known  to 
mariners  and  geographers  as  the  Gulf  Stream. 

Long  before  the  discovery  of  America,  the 
Gulf  Stream,  by  carrying  nuts,  bamboos,  and 
artificially  carved  pieces  of  wood  to  the  shores 
of  Europe,  indicated  the  existence  of  a western 
continent.  Columbus  himself  was  told  by  a 
settler  in  the  Azores,  that  even  strange  boats 
had  been  seen,  constructed  so  that  they  could 
not  sink,  and  managed  by  broad-faced  men  of 
foreign  appearance.  Were  these  Esquimaux 
Indians?  Wallace,  in  his  “Account  of  the 
Islands  of  Orkney,”  tells  us  that  in  1682  an 
Esquimaux  was  seen  in  his  canoe  off  the  south 
side  of  the  island  of  Edda  by  many  persons, 
who  could  not  succeed  in  reaching  him  ; and 
another  was  seen,  in  1684,  off  the  island  of 
Westram.  Moreover,  he  says,  “Be  the  seas 
never  so  boisterous,  these  boats,  being  made 
of  fish-skins,  are  so  contrived  that  they  can 
never  sink,  but  are  like  sea-gulls  swimming 
on  the  top  of  the  water.”  Two  more  of  these 
current-drifted  canoes  wei*e  subsequently 
found  on  the  shores  of  the  Orkneys ; one  was 
sent  to  Edinburgh,  the  other  hung  up  i.i  the 
church  of  Burra. 

As  if  determined  to  make  its  course  and 
existence  known  to  the  most  unobservant,  the 
Gulf  Stream  carried  the  main-mast  of  the  Eng- 
lish ship  Tilbury,  that  was  destroyed  by  fire 
off  the  coast  of  St.  Domingo,  during  the  seven 
years’  war,  to  the  coast  of  Scotland.  But, 
again,  it  carried  to  Scotland  a number  of  casks 
of  palm-oil,  that  were  recognized,  by  their 
marks  and  brands,  to  be  part  of  the  cargo  of 
a ship  that  had  been  wrecked  near  Cape  Lopez 
in  Africa.  How  could  this  last  remarkable 
drift  come  to  pass  ? Simply  thus : the  Gulf 
Stream,  which  we  have  compared  to  a river, 
is  in  reality  a part  of  a great  system  of  oceanic 
circulation.  The  branch  that  turns  off  from 
the  British  islands,  southward  to  the  Azores, 
joins  the  great  equatorial  current  which,  flow- 
ing to  the  westward  from  the  coast  of  Africa, 
enters  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  emerges  from 
the  Straits  of  Florida  as  the  Gulf  Stream.  The 
casks  of  palm-oil,  then,  had  twice  traversed 
the  Atlantic — first  from  east  to  west  in  the 
equatorial  current,  and  secondly  from  west  to 
east  in  the  Gulf  Stream — before  they  found  a 
resting-place  on  the  coast  of  Scotland. 


If  we  were  to  place  little  pieces  of  cork, 
chaff,  or  other  light  bodies,  in  a basin  of  water, 
and  give  the  water  a circular  motion,  the  light 
substances  would  crowd  together  in  the  cen- 
tre, where  there  is  the  least  motion.  So  it  is 
in  the  great  basin  of  the  Atlantic,  where  the 
Sargasso  Sea  forms  the  centre  of  the  whirl 
caused  by  the  circular  motion  of  the  equato- 
rial current  and  the  Gulf  Stream.  This  sea, 
situated  about  midway  in  the  Atlantic,  in  the 
triangular  space  between  the  Azores,  Cana- 
ries, and  Cape  de  Yerd  Islands,  covering  a 
space  equal  in  extent  to  the  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, is  so  thickly  matted  over  with  a 
peculiar  weed  ( Fucus  natans)  that  the  speed 
of  vessels  passing  through  it  is  often  greatly 
retarded.  To  the  eye,  at  a short  distance,  it 
seems  substantial  enough  to  walk  upon,  and 
countless  hosts  of  small  Crustacea  dwell  on  this 
curious  carpet  of  the  ocean.  Columbus  sailed 
through  it,  on  his  first  voyage  of  discovery,  in 
spite  of  the  terrors  of  his  less  adventurous 
companions,  who  believed  that  it  marked  the 
limits  of  navigation ; and  its  position  has  not 
altered  since  that  time.  This  Sargasso,  or 
Sea  of  Lentils,  as  the  Spaniards  first  termed 
it,  has  a historical  interest.  In  the  celebrated 
bull  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  in  1493,  when  he 
divided  the  world  between  the  Spaniards  and 
the  Portuguese,  he  decreed  that  the  Sargasso 
Sea  was  to  be  their  mutual  boundary  to  all 
eternity ! 

The  Gulf  Stream  .preserves  its  identity  in 
physical  characteristics  throughout  the  many 
thousand  miles  of  its  continuous  flow;  the 
only  change  undergone  is  that  of  degree.  As 
its  waters  gradually  commingle  with  those  of 
the  clasping  sea,  their  deep  blue  tint  declines, 
their  high  temperature  diminishes,  the  speed 
with  "which  they  press  forward  abates.  The 
maximum  of  velocity,  where  the  stream  quits 
the  narrow  channel  of  Bernini,  which  com- 
presses its  #gress  from  the  gulf,  is  about  four 
miles  an  hour ; off  Cape  Hatteras,  where  it 
has  gained  a breadth  of  seventy-five  miles,  the 
velocity  is  reduced  to  three  miles.  On  the 
parallel  of  the  Newfoundland  banks,  it  is  far. 
ther  reduced  to  one  and  a half  miles  an  hour, 
and  this  gradual  abatement  of  force  is  contin- 
ued across  the  Atlantic.  The  highest  temper- 
ature observed  is  eighty-five  degrees. 

The  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  do  not,  in 
any  part  of  their  course,  touch  the  bottom  of 


GUL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


377 


the  sea.  They  are  everywhere  defended  from 
so  comparatively  good  a conductor  of  heat  by 
a cushion  of  cold  water,  one  of  the  best  of 
non-conductors ; the  genial  warmth  is  carried 
thousands  of  miles  to  fulfill  its  destined  pur- 
poses. On  a winter-day,  the  temperature  of 
the  stream,  as  far  north  as  Cape  Hatteras,  is 
from  twenty  to  thirty  degrees  higher  than  the 
water  of  the  surrounding  ocean.  Even  after 
flowing  three  thousand  miles,  it  preserves  in 
winter  the  heat  of  summer.  With  this  tem- 
perature it  crosses  the  fortieth  degree  of  north 
latitude,  and  there  overflowing  its  liquid  banks, 
spreads  itself  out,  for  thousands  of  square 
leagues,  over  the  cold  waters  around,  covering 
the  ocean  with  a mantle  of  warmth.  Moving 
now  more  slowly,  but  dispensing  its  genial  in- 
fluence more  freely,  it  at  last  meets  the  British 
islands.  By  these  it  is  divided,  one  part  go- 
ing into  the  polar  basin  of  Spitzber'gen,  the 
other  entering  the  Bay  of  Biscay ; but  each 
with  a warmth  considerably  above  the  ocean 
temperature. 

Modern  ingenuity  has  suggested  a method 
of  warming  buildings  by  means  of  hot  water. 
The  north-western  parts  of  Europe  are  warmed 
in  similar  manner  by  the  Gulf  Stream.  The 
torrid  zone  is  the  furnace ; the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  boilers;  the  Gulf 
Stream,  the  conducting-pipe ; from  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland  to  the  shores  of  Europe  is 
the  great  hot-air  chamber,  spread  out  so  as  to 
present  a large  surface.  Mere  the  heat,  con- 
veyed into  this  warm-air  chamber  of  mid- 
ocean, is  taken  up  by  the  prevailing  west 
winds,  and  dispensed  over  Britain  and  other 
countries,  where  it  is  so  much  required. 
Such,  in  short,  is  the  influence  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  upon  the  climate,  that  Ireland  is 
clothed  in  robes  of  evergreen  grass ; while  in 
the  same  latitude,  on  the  American  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  is  the  frost-bound  coast  of  Labrador. 
In  1831  the  harbor  of  St.  John’s,  Newfound- 
land, was  closed  with  ice  so  late  in  the  season 
as  June ; yet  the  port  of  Liverpool,  two  de- 
grees farther  north,  has  never  been  closed  by 
frost  in  the  severest  winter.  The  Laplander 
cultivates  barley  in  a latitude  which  in  every 
other  part  of  the  world  is  doomed  to  perpet- 
ual sterility.  The  benefit  thus  conferred  by 
the  Gulf  Stream  is  a remarkable  accident.  It 
obviously  depends  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  con- 
tinuing to  be  a gulf,  which,  however,  it  might 


easily  cease  to  be.  A subsidence  of  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama  to  the  extent  of  a couple  of 
hundred  feet  (and  such  subsidences  have  taken 
place  in  geological  times  all  over  the  world), 
would  allow  the  equatorial  current  of  the  At- 
lantic to  pass  through  into  the  Pacific,  instead 
of  being  reflected  back  to  European  coasts. 
Britain  would  become  a Labrador,  and  cease 
to  be  the  seat  of  a numerous  and  powerful 
people. 

While  the  Gulf  Stream  is  covering  Europe’s 
shores  with  verdure,  ripening  the  harvests  of 
England  and  the  vintage  of  France,  its  influ- 
ence is  equally  beneficial  at  its  fountain-head 
in  the  western  world.  The  Caribbean  Sea 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  encompassed  on 
one  side  by  the  chain  of  West  India  Islands, 
and  on  the  other  by  the  Cordilleras  of  the 
Andes,  contracting  with  the  Isthmus  of  Dari- 
en, and  again  expanding  over  the  plains  of 
Central  America  and  Mexico.  On  the  extreme 
summits  of  this  range  are  the  regions  of  eter- 
nal snow ; next  in  descent  is  the  tierra  tem- 
plada,  or  temperate  region ; and  lower  still  is 
what  the  Spaniards  truly  and  emphatically 
have  termed  tierra  caliente , the  burning  land. 
Descending  still  lower  is  the  level  of  the  sea, 
where,  were  it  not  for  this  wonderful  system 
of  aqueous  circulation,  the  peculiar  features 
of  the  surrounding  country  assure  us  we 
should  find  the  hottest  and  most  pestilential 
climate  in  the  world.  But  as  the  waters  be- 
come heated,  they  are  carried  off  by  the  Gulf 
Stream,  and  replaced  by  cooler  currents  en- 
tering the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  surface-water 
flowing  out  is  four  degrees  warmer  than  the 
surface-water  entering  to  supply  its  place. 

As  in  a hot-water  apparatus  for  warming 
a building,  the  water  cooled  in  the  hot-air 
chamber  flows  back  to  the  boiler ; so  one 
part  of  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  after 
giving  out  their  heat,  flow  toward  the  equa- 
torial current,  the  other  to  the  polar  basin 
of  Spitzbergen.  The  secrets  of  the  Arctic 
regions  are  hidden  by  impenetrable  ice ; but 
we  know  that  a return-current,  bearing  im- 
mense icebergs,  comes  down  from  the  dreary 
north,  through  Davis’s  Strait,  and  meets  the 
Gulf  Stream  at  the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 
Scoresby  counted  at  one  time  six  hundred 
icebergs  starting  off  on  their  southward  jour- 
ney by  this  current,  which,  pressing  on  the 
waters  of  the  Stream,  curves  its  channel  into 


GUL 


378 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


a ‘ bend,’  in  shape  resembling  a horse-shoe, 
and  some  hundreds  of  miles  in  area.  This 
bend  is  the  great  receptacle  or  harbor  of  the 
icebergs  which  drift  down  from  the  north, 
and  are  here  melted  by  the  warm  waters  of 
the  Gulf  Stream.  Who  dare  say  that,  in  the 
course  of  ages,  the  banks  of  Newfoundland 
have  not  been  formed  by  the  earth,  stones, 
and  gravel  carried  down  to  that  spot  by  these 
very  icebergs  ? Such  is  the  distinctness 
kept  up  between  the  warm  and  cold  water, 
that,  though  this  northern  current  forms  a 
large  bend  or  indentation  in  the  Gulf  Stream, 
it  does  not  commingle  with  it ; the  former 
here  divides  into  two  parts,  one  actually 
under-running  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  other 
flowing  south-westerly  between  it  and  tile 
coast  of  America. 

Though  the  Gulf  Stream  was  noticed  by 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, we  are  indebted  to  Dr.  Franklin  for  the 
first  chart  of  its  course.  Being  in  London 
in  1770,  his  attention  was  called  to  a memo- 
rial which  the  board  of  customs  at  Boston 
had  sent  to  the  lords  of  the  treasury,  stating 
that  the  Falmouth  packets  were  generally  a 
fortnight  longer  on  their  voyage  to  Boston 
than  common  trading-vessels  were  from  Lon- 
don to  Rhode  Island.  They  therefore  begged 
that  the  Falmouth  packets  should  be  sent  to 
Providence  instead  of  to  Boston.  This  ap- 
peared very  strange  to  Franklin,  as  the  trad- 
ers were  deeply  laden  and  badly  manned 
vessels,  to  say  nothing  of  the  extra  distance 
between  London  and  Falmouth.  He  con- 
sulted a Nantucket  whaling-captain  named 
Folger,  who  happened  to  be  in  London  at  the 
time.  Folger  immediately  explained  the 
mystery  by  stating  that  the  Rhode  Island 
trading-captains  were  acquainted  with  the 
course  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  while  those  of  the 
English  packet-service  were  not.  The  latter 
kept  in  it,  and  were  set  back  from  sixty  to 
seventy  miles  per  day,  while  the  former 
merely  ran  across  it.  At  the  request  of 
Franklin,  the  Nantucket  whaler  traced  the 
course  of  the  Stream,  and  the  doctor  had  it 
engraved,  and  sent  copies  to  the  Falmouth 
captains,  who  treated  the  communication 
with  contempt.  This  course  of  the  Stream, 
as  laid  down  by  Folger,  has  been  retained 
in  our  charts  almost  to  the  present  day. 
Who  taught  this  unscientific  Nantucket 


whaler  so  accurately  the  course  of  this 
mighty  current,  then  so  little  known?  It 
was  the  whales,  the  gigantic  prey  he  followed 
in  the  ocean.  The  right  whale  ( Balcena 
mysticetus ),  as  seamen  term  it,  never  enters 
the  warm  water  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which, 
as  well  as  the  warm  waters  of  the  torrid 
zone,  is  as  a wall  of  fire  to  these  creatures. 
But  they  delight  to  congregate,  seeking  for 
food,  along  the  edges  of  the  Stream;  and 
thus  Folger,  through  the  experience  of  many 
voyages,  was  enabled  so  correctly  to  denote 
its  course. 

The  Gulf  Stream  of  the  Atlantic  has  its 
counterpart  in  the  Pacific.  The  latter  flows 
out  of  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  just  as  the 
Atlantic  current  flows  out  of  the  Straits  of 
Florida.  The  coast  of  China  is  its  United 
States;  the  Philippines  its  Bermudas;  the 
Japanese  islands  its  Newfoundland.  The 
climates  of  the  Asiatic  coast  correspond  with 
those  of  America  along  the  Atlantic ; and 
those  of  Columbia,  Washington,  and  Van- 
couver are  duplicates  of  those  of  Western 
Europe  and  the  British  islands ; the  climate 
of  California  resembles  that  of  Spain;  and 
the  sandy  plains  and  rainless  regions  of 
Lower  California  remind  us  of  Africa.  The 
course  of  this  Stream  has  not  yet  been  traced 
out,  but  it  sets  southwardly  along  the  coast 
of  California  and  Mexico,  as  the  Gulf  Stream 
does  along  the  west  coast  of  Africa  to  the 
Cape  Verd  Islands.  This  current,  too,  has 
its  Sargasso  Sea ; to  the  west,  from  Califor- 
nia, of  the  southwardly  set,  lies  the  pool  in 
which  the  drift-wood  and  sea-weed  of  the 
North  Pacific  are  gathered.  Inshore  of,  but 
counter  to,  the  China  stream,  along  the  east- 
ern shores  of  Asia,  is  found  a current  of  cold 
water,  resembling  that  between  the  Gulf 
Stream  and  the  American  coast.  Like  its 
counterpart,  it  is  the  nursery  of  valuable 
fisheries. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT,  a conspiracy  formed 
in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  James  I.  of 
England,  for  the  re-establishment  of  popery. 
The  Roman  Catholics  had  expected  great 
favor  and  indulgence  from  James,  both  be- 
cause he  was  a descendant  of  Mary,  a rigid 
Catholic,  and  because  he  had  shown  some 
favor  to  that  religion  in  his  youth ; but  they 
soon  discovered  their  mistake,  and  were  at 
once  surprised  and  enraged  to  find  James, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


379 


ori  all  occasions,  express  his  resolution  of 
strictly  executing  the  laws  enacted  against 
them,  and  of  persevering  in  the  policy  of  his 
predecessor.  This  declaration  determined 
certain  desperate  men  among  them  to  destroy 
the  king  and  parliament  at  a blow.  They 
stored,  in  the  vaults  under  the  parliament- 
house,  thirty -six  barrels  of  gunpowder,  pur- 
chased in  Holland,  and  covered  them  with 
coals  and  fagots.  The  meaning  of  a warning 
but  ambiguous  letter,  received  by  Lord  Mon- 
teagle,  was  first  penetrated  by  the  king.  The 
care  of  searching  the  vaults  devolved  upon 
the  Earl  of  Suffolk,  the  lord  chamberlain, 
who  purposely  delayed  the  search  until  the 
day  before  the  meeting  of  parliament,  Nov. 
5th,  1605.  He  remarked  the  great  piles  of 
fagots  which  lay  in  the  vault  under  the  house 
of  peers,  and  seized  a man  preparing  for  the 
terrible  enterprise,  dressed  in  a cloak  and 
boots,  with  a dark  lantern  in  his  hand.  This 
was  one  Guy  Fawkes,  who  had  just  dis- 
posed every  part  of  the  train  for  taking  fire 
the  next  morning ; the  matches  and  other 
combustibles  being  found  in  his  pockets. 
The  whole  of  the  design  was  now  discov- 
ered ; but  the  atrocity  of  his  guilt,  and  the 
despair  of  pardon,  inspiring  him  with  resolu- 
tion, he  told  the  officers  of  justice  with  an 
undaunted  air  that  had  he  blown  them  and 
himself  up  together,  he  had  been  happy. 
Before  the  council  he  displayed  the  same 
intrepid  firmness,  mixed  even  with  scorn  and 
disdain,  refusing  to  discover  his  associates, 
and  showing  no  concern  but  for  the  failure 
of  his  enterprise.  But  his  bold  spirit  was 
at  length  subdued;  after  confinement  in 
the  Tower  for  two  or  three  days,  on  being 
shown  the  rack,  his  courage  failed  him,  and 
he  made  a full  discovery  of  his  accomplices, 
to  the  number  of  eighty.  Catesby  and  Percy 
were  killed;  Sir  Everard  Digby,  R-ock wood, 
Winter,  Garnet,  a Jesuit,  and  others,  were 
executed,  as  was  also  Guy  Fawkes. 

GUNTER,  Edmund,  an  eminent  English 
mathematician,  author  of  the  scale  and  chain 
which  bear  his  name,  died  in  1626,  aged 
forty-five. 

GUSTAYUS  I.  of  Sweden,  commonly 
called  Gustavus  Yasa,  was  imprisoned  when 
Christian  II.  of  Denmark  sought  to  enslave 
his  country.  Having  escaped  from  prison  in 
1519,  he  arrived  at  Lubeck  after  meeting 


with  various  difficulties.  The  father  of  Gus- 
tavus perished  in-  the  wholesale  slaughter  of 
Swedish  nobles  by  Christian  in  1520.  Pro- 
scribed by  the  tyrant,  he  fled  into  Dalecarlia, 
where  he  roused  the  miners  to  revenge  the 
wrongs  of  their  country.  The  young  hero 
found  the  peasants  prepared  to  receive  him 
with  open  arms,  and  to  swear  to  revenge  the 
massacre  at  Stockholm  with  the  last  drop  of 
their  blood.  The  brave  Dalecarlians  flocked 
to  the  standard  of  Gustavus,  who  was  from 
this  moment  irresistible.  After  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Danes,  Gustavus  was  proclaimed 
King  of  Sweden  and  of  the  two  Gothlands 
in  1523,  and  he  soon  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing the  doctrines  of  Luther  in  his  dominions. 
In  1531,  Christian  made  preparations  for  re- 
covering the  throne,  but  his  vast  armament 
was  defeated  with  great  slaughter.  In  1542, 
Gustavus  prevailed  on  the  states  to  render 
the  crown  hereditary  in  his  own  family. 
This  valiant,  wise,  and  virtuous  hero,  the 
true  deliverer  of  his  country,  died  in  1560, 
at  the  age  of  seventy. 

GUSTAYUS  ADOLPHUS,  Kingof  Sweden, 
succeeded  his  father,  Charles  IX.,  in  1611,  at 
the  age  of  eighteen.  Russia,  Poland,  and 
Denmark  were  then  enemies  of  Sweden.  Gus- 
tavus, having  placed  the  Chancellor  Oxen- 
stiern  at  the  head  of  the  administration  of 
civil  affairs,  took  charge  himself  of  the  mar- 
tial operations,  and  in  1613  prosecuted  the 
war  against  Denmark  with  such  vigor  and 
success,  that,  through  the  mediation  of  Great 
Britain  and  Holland,  an  advantageous  peace 
was  procured,  by  which  the  Danish  monarch 
renounced  all  pretensions  to  the  throne.  He 
was  equally  successful  with  the  Russians, 
who  ceded  to  him  the  fine  province  of  Livo- 
nia and  part  of  the  province  of  Novogorod. 
His  hostilities,  however,  with  his  cousin 
Sigismund  of  Poland,  were  of  longer  dura- 
tion, and  were  productive  of  those  glorious 
events  which  procured  him  a conspicuous 
rank  among  the  most  distinguished  warriors 
of  his  time.  The  King  of  Poland  could  not 
forget  the  Swedish  crown,  of  which  he  had 
been  deprived  by  the  impolitic  conduct  of 
his  father  and  himself,  and  formed  a plot  for 
seizing  on  Gustavus,  who,  however,  avoided 
the  snare. 

The  Swedish  monarch,  having  prepare^ a 
numerous  fleet,  laid  siege  to  Riga  in  1621. 


GUS 


880 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Gustavus  proved  victorious,  but  allowed 
the  besieged  to  capitulate  on  honorable 
terms.  During  a series  of  years  he  was  en- 
gaged in  constant  warfare,  which  afforded 
him  opportunities  of  training  the  Swedes, 
and  forming  those  intrepid  commanders  and 
formidable  battalions  which  long  kept  Europe 
in  alarm.  At  length,  in  1629,  Gustavus  glo- 
riously terminated  the  war  with  Poland,  and 
obtained  large  cessions  of  territory.  He  did 
not,  however,  long  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his 
victories  in  peace. 

The  war  between  the  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants, which  laid  Germany  waste  in  this 
century,  had  already  commenced.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  was  looked  to  as  the  champion  of 
the  reformed  faith.  This,  with  the  resent- 
ment he  felt  against  the  emperor  for  aiding 
Poland,  and  his  ambition  to  curb  the  power 
of  the  house  of  Austria,  determined  him  to 
march  into  Germany  in  1630.  He  reduced 
Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  and  various  other 
places,  and  compelled  the  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg to  unite  his  troops  with  the  Swedish 
battalions.  He  then  invaded  Saxony.  In 
1631,  Tilly  awaited  Gustavus  at  Leipzig  with 
an  army  of  40,000  men.  The  Swedish  mon- 
arch led  his  troops  to  the  attack,  and  after 
an  obstinate  conflict  obtained  a decisive  vic- 
tory. He  then  penetrated  into  Bavaria,  and 
levied  contributions  on  the  opulent  districts 
of  Germany.  The  battle  of  Lutzen  ensued 
in  1632,  on  the  fate  of  which  contest  that 
of  Europe  appeared  to  depend.  The  Swedish 
infantry  performed  prodigies  of  valor,  broke 
the  line  of  the  imperialists,  and  seized  their 
cannon.  Victory  had  already  declared  for 
the  Swedes,  when  Gustavus  was  found 
stretched  among  the  slain.  His  death 
plunged  Sweden  into  the  greatest  affliction, 
but  his  triumphant  bands  for  a time  supported 
her  military  reputation. 

GUSTAVUS  III.  of  Sweden,  the  eldest 
son  of  Adolphus  Frederick,  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp,  was  born  in  1746,  and  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  his  father’s  death,  Feb.  12th, 
1771.  The  country,  which  was  convulsed 
throughout,  was  tranquillized  by  the  prudent 
measures  of  Gustavus,  who  was  wise,  firm, 
and  accomplished,  although  fond  of  pleasure 


and  ambitious.  He  determined  to  take  part 
against  the  French  revolutionists,  and  thereby 
gave  very  general  dissatisfaction.  A con- 
spiracy was  formed  against  him;  the  most 
prominent  members  were  the  Counts  Horn, 
Ribbing,  and  Ankarstroem,  and  he  was  shot 
by  the  latter  at  a masquerade  at  Stockholm, 
March  15  th,  1792. 

GUSTAVUS  IV.,  his  son,  deposed  and 
banished  in  1809,  died  in  Switzerland,  after 
wandering  through  Europe  under  various 
names  and  the  most  straitened  circumstances. 

GWINNETT,  Button,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
England  in  1732,  and  came  to  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  in  1770.  Soon  afterward  he  purchased 
a large  tract  of  land  in  Georgia,  which  he 
made  his  permanent  residence.  He  took  an 
active  share  in  the  affairs  of  the  Revolution, 
and  was  in  Congress  in  1776.  Subsequently 
he  assisted  in  framing  a state  constitution  for 
Georgia,  and  was  chosen  the  first  governor 
under  it.  He  died  May  27th,  1777,  from  a 
wound  received  in  a duel  with  Gen.  McIntosh. 

GYPSIES.  These  mysterious  vagabonds 
are  the  most  widely  diffused  yet  distinct  race 
on  the  earth,  not  excepting  even  the  Jews. 
They  first  made  their  appearance  in  Europe 
about  1517,  in  Bohemia,  whence  they  are 
sometimes  called  Bohemians.  Their  origin 
has  been  a matter  of  much  doubt.  The 
common  belief  was  (as  some  of  the  earliest 
hordes  in  Europe  stated,  and  as  the  name 
‘ gypsy  ’ implied)  that  they  came  from  Egypt, 
being  driven  forth  by  the  Turks.  Their 
supposed  skill  in  the  black  art  gave  them  a 
universal  reception  in  that  early  age  of  cre- 
dulity and  superstition.  Notwithstanding  the 
persecution  and  proscription  they  have  so 
generally  met,  they  are  yet  found  in  all  parts 
of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and 
some  even  are  leading  the  same  wandering 
life  in  our  own  country.  Through  all  their 
intercourse  with  other  nations,  they,  like  the 
Jews,  have  preserved  their  manners,  customs, 
usage,  and  appearance  unchanged.  They 
have  a tongue  of  their  own,  which  has  been 
traced  to  an  Indian  origin.  They  call  them- 
selves Roumani. 


GYP 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


381 


H. 


HAHNEMANN,  Samuel,  was  born  of  poor 
parents  at  Meissen  in  Saxony,  1755,  and 
received  his  diploma  as  doctor  in  physic  at 
Heidelberg  in  1781.  His  researches  led  him 
to  propound  a new  theory  of  medical  science, 
now  known  as  homoeopathy,  in  support  of 
which  he  published  numerous  treatises.  He 
died  at  Paris  in  1843. 

HALE,  Sir  Matthew,  one  of  the  most 
upright  judges  that  ever  sat  upon  the  Eng- 
lish bench,  born  in  1609,  died  in  1676.  Rich- 
ard Baxter  said,  “ I believe  he  would  have 
lost  all  he  had  in  the  world,  rather  than  do 
an  unjust  act.” 

HALE,  Nathan,  the  martyr-spy  of  the 
American  Revolution,  was  born  in  Coventry, 
Conn.,  June  6th,  1755.  He  graduated  with 
honor  at  Yale  College  in  1775,  and  was  teach- 
ing school  at  New  London,  when  news  of  the 
blood  spilt  at  Lexington  thrilled  through  the 
land.  “ Let  us  march  immediately,”  said  he, 
“and  never  lay  down  our  arms  until  we 
obtain  our  independence.”  He  enrolled  at 
once  as  a volunteer,  and  sought  the  scene  of 
action.  After  the  disastrous  battle  of  Long 
Island,  it  was  an  anxious  question  with  Gen. 
Washington,  what  would  be  the  next  move 
of  the  victorious  British  against  the  scanty 
and  ill-appointed  patriot  army  ? He  directed 
Colonel  Knowlton  to  select  some  competent 
person,  who  should  seek  the  royal  camp 
and  penetrate  the  veil  in  which  Howe  had 
shrouded  his  designs.  Col.  Knowlton  ap- 
plied to  various  officers,  with  ill  success: 
men  who  did  not  fear  the  hazard  could  not  bear 
the  ignominy  of  the  task  of  a spy.  Young 
Hale  undertook  it,  assigning  these  reasons 
against  the  remonstrances  of  his  comrades  : 
“I  think  I owe  to  my  country  the  accom- 
plishment of  an  object  so  important,  and  so 
much  desired  by  the  commander  of  her  ar- 
mies ; and  I know  no  other  mode  of  obtain- 
ing the  information  than  by  assuming  a 
disguise  and  passing  into  the  enemy’s  camp. 
I am  sensible  of  the  consequences  of  discov- 
ery and  capture  in  such  a situation.  But 
for  a year  I have  been  attached  to  the  army 
and  have  not  rendered  any  material  service, 
while  receiving  a compensation  for  which 


make  no  return.  Yet  I am  not  influenced  by 
the  expectation  of  promotion  or  pecuniary 
reward.  I wish  to  be  useful,  and  every  kind 
of  service  necessary  for  the  public  good  be- 
comes honorable  by  being  necessary.  If  the 
exigencies  of  my  country  demand  a peculiar 
service,  its  claims,  to  the  performance  of  that 
service  are  imperious.”  In  the  plain  costume 
of  a schoolmaster,  he  crossed  the  sound  from 
the  Connecticut  shore,  gained  the  perilous 
knowledge  he  sought,  reached  in  safe  return 
the  point  where  ho  had  landed  on  the  Long 
Island  shore,  and  there  was  captured.  The 
telltale  notes  and  draughts  in  which  he  had 
put  his  observations,  revealed  his  errand ; he 
was  borne  to  New  York,  and  sentenced  to  be 
hanged  the  next  morning  at  daybreak.  The 
provost  marshal  treated  the  doomed  man 
with  an  awful  cruelty,  refusing  him  the  solace 
of  a Bible  and  the  use  of  writing  materials ; 
the  intercession  of  a young  lieutenant  pro- 
cured the  latter.  The  calm  message  home 
which  Hale  penned  for  his  mother,  was  tom 
in  pieces  by  the  wretch,  “ that  the  rebels 
should  never  know  they  had  a man  who  could 
die  with  such  firmness.”  Injuries  and  taunts 
could  not  shake  the  firm  spirit  of  the  young 
hero ; his  dying  words  were,  “ I only  regret 
that  I have  but  one  life  to  live  for  my  coun- 
try ! ” He  was  executed  September  22d, 
1776.  The  place  of  his  burial  is  unknown. 
He  was  betrothed  to  a young  lady  in  Con- 
necticut, who  survived  him  many  years, 
dying  in  1845.  She  had  wedded  and  borne 
children,  but  her  last  thoughts  on  earth 
were  busy  with  her  maiden  memories ; she 
murmured,  just  before  death,  “ Write  to 
Nathan  ! ” 

HALIDON  HILL,  Battle  of.  Fought 
near  Berwick,  between  the  English  and 
Scots,  July  19th,  1333.  The  latter  were 
sorely  defeated,  13,000  being  slain,  while  the 
southron  loss  was  small.  After  this  victory 
Edward  III.  placed  Edward  Baliol  on  the 
Scottish  throne. 

HALIFAX.  George  Saville,  Marquis 
of  Halifax,  a celebrated  English  statesman, 
was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1630.  He  was. 
created  a peer  for  his  loyalty  at  the  restora- 


I 

HAL 


S82 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


tion,  and  in  1682  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  a marquis,  soon  after  which  he  was  made 
lord  privy  seal.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  James  II.,  he  was  appointed  presi- 
dent  of  the  council,  but  on  refusing  his  consent 
to  the  repeal  of  the  test  acts,  he  was  dis- 
missed. In  the  convention  parliament,  he 
sat  as  speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
concurred  in  all  the  measures  of  the  Revolu- 
tion; but  afterward  he  joined  the  opposition. 
He  died  in  1695. 

HALL,  Lyman,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
Connecticut,  in  1731,  graduated  at  Yale, 
studied  medicine,  and  went  to  South  Caro- 
lina in  1752.  He  was  a practicing  physician 
in  Georgia  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revo- 
lution. He  at  once  was  ready  to  devote 
his  property  and  person  to  the  service  of  his* 
country,  and  in  1775  he  was  chosen  a dele- 
gate to  the  general  congress,  then  assembled 
in  Philadelphia.  He  was  at  the  North  until 
after  the  evacuation  of  Savannah  in  1782,  when 
he  returned  ana  found  all  his  property  con- 
fiscated to  the  crown.  In  1783,  he  was 
chosen  governor  of  the  state  of  Georgia,  and 
died  in  retirement  in  Burke  county  in  1790. 

HALL,  Robert,  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
of  modern  preachers,  born  near  Leicester  in 
1764,  was  the  son  of  a Baptist  clergyman. 
He  learned  to  read  from  inscriptions  on  grave- 
stones, and  at  an  early  age  was  a prodigy  of 
learning.  While  yet  a boy  he  found  his 
favorite  reading  in  Edwards  on  the  Will  and 
Butler’s  Analogy.  He  spent  some  time  at 
King’s  college,  Aberdeen,  where  he  had  for 
fellow-student  and  warm  friend,  Sir  James 
Mackintosh.  From  their  partiality  for  Greek 
literature,  the  twain  were  dubbed  “Plato 
and  Herodotus.”  The  eloquent  orations  and 
evangelical  discourses  wherewith  he  admin- 
istered to  the  Baptist  church  at  Cambridge 
won  him  the  foremost  rank  among  British 
preachers.  He  suffered  acute  pains  from  a 
disease  of  the  spine,  and  in  1804  he  began  to 
be  afflicted  by  occasional  insanity,  which  at 
last  rendered  it  necessary  that  his  connection 
with  the  flock  at  Cambridge  should  bo  sev- 
ered. He  recovered  completely,  and  spent 
twenty  years  in  useful  and  brilliant  ministry 
at  Leicester,  removing  in  1826  to  Bristol, 
•where  he  labored  till  within  a fortnight  of 


his  death,  which  came  the  21st  of  February, 
1831. 

HALLE,  a Prussian  city,  in  the  province 
of  Saxony,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Saale, 
containing  30,000  inhabitants.  Its  univer- 
sity ranks  deservedly  very  high.  It  was  the 
scene  of  an  obstinate  conflict,  Oct.  17th,  1806, 
three  days  after  the  battle  of  Jena. 

HALLEY,  Edmund,  an  eminent  astrono- 
mer, born  in  London,  Nov.  8th,  1656,  died 
Jan.  14th,  1742. 

HAMBURG,  a free  city  of  Germany,  situ- 
ated on  the  Elbe,  about  eighty  miles  from  its 
mouth,  containing  229,941  inhabitants.  It 
was  founded  in  the  reign  of  Charlemagne, 
and  was  originally  a fort  called  Hammen- 
burg.  In  1618,  it  was  admitted  into  the 
number  of  imperial  towns,  subject  to  the 
counts  of  Holstein.  In  1768,  however,  the 
subjection  was  annulled,  and  Hamburg  was 
confirmed  into  an  independent  city.  In 
1807  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  a large 
French  garrison,  and  Bonaparte  seized  a part 
of  its  public  funds.  In  1810,  it  was  incor- 
porated into  the  French  empire ; and  in  1813, 
an  unsuccessful  effort  was  made  to  shake 
off  the  French  yoke.  A contribution  of 
$9,000,000  was  then  levied  upon  it,  and  the 
most  positive  orders  were  given  to  defend  it, 
at  whatever  sacrifice,  against  the  allies.  This 
led  to  incalculable  distress,  to  the  destruction 
of  the  houses  on  the  ramparts,  to  the  seizure 
of  considerable  merchandise,  and,  finally,  of 
the  bank  funds,  by  Davoust.  At  last,  the 
city  was  evacuated,  in  May,  1814,  and  a 
part  of  the  bank  funds  were  restored  by  the 
Bourbons.  Thrift  and  energy  insured  a 
return  of  prosperity.  Hamburg  was  smitten 
by  a mighty  conflagration  in  May,  1842, 
which  left  twenty  thousand  people  houseless. 
The  territory  of  Hamburg  is  about  150  square 
miles,  and  the  total  population  217,000,  the 
most  of  whom  are  Lutherans. 

HAMILTON,  Alexander,  was  born  in  the 
island  of  Nevis,  W.  I.,  in  1757.  At  the  age 
of  sixteen,  he  entered  Columbia  College,  New 
York,  in  which  institution  he  greatly  distin- 
guished himself.  At  the  age  of  seventeen 
he  published  political  essays  in  favor  of  the 
colonial  cause,  so  powerful  and  brilliant  that 
they  were  at  first  attributed  to  Mr.  Jay,  then 
in  the  prime  of  life.  At  nineteen,  eager  to 


HAM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


383 


Hamilton’s  monument  in  trinity  church-yard,  new  yoRk. 


peril  his  life  for  liberty,  Hamilton  entered  the 
army ; he  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain  of 
artillery,  and  Washington  appointed  him  his 
aid-de-camp,  ranking  as  lieutenant-colonel, 
when  he  was  but  twenty  years  of  age.  At 
the  siege  of  Yorktown,  he  was  in  the  hottest 
of  the  fire,  and  headed  an  assault  which  car- 
ried one  of  the  outworks.  After  the  war  he 
commenced  the  study  of  the  law  in  New 
York,  and  was  speedily  admitted  to  practice. 
In  1783  he  was  chosen  member  of  Congress, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  ability,  un- 
. wearied  industry,  and  patriotism.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  which  met  at 
Philadelphia  for  the  purpose  of  framing  the 
federal  constitution.  The  essays  which,  with 
Jay  and  Madison,  he  published  under  the 
title  of  “The  Federalist,”  contributed  Very 
essentially  to  render  the  constitution  popular. 
As  secretary  of  the  treasury,  to  which  office 
he  was  appointed  in  1789,  he  gained  the 
reputation  of  one  of  the  greatest  financiers  of 
the  age.  In  1795  he  retired  into  private 
life,  but  in  1798,  as  inspector-general,  he  or- 
ganized the  army  intended  to  repel  the  threat- 


ened invasion  of  the  French,  and  in  1799,  on 
the  death  of  Washington,  he  succeeded  to 
the  chief  command.  June  11th,  1804,  in 
consequence  of  a dispute  between  Colonel 
Burr  and  General  Hamilton,  the  parties  met 
at  Hoboken,  and  Hamilton  was  killed  at  the 
first  shot,  standing  on  the  fatal  spot  where 
his  eldest  son  had  recently  been  slain  in  a 
similai  rencontre.  Hamilton  married  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  Gen.  Schuyler.  She  died 
in  1854,  at  the  advanced  age  of  ninety-six. 

HAMILTON,  Sir  William,  a distinguished 
metaphysician,  professor  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  died  in  1857. 

HAMPDEN,  John,  was  born  at  London 
in  1594.  He  belonged  to  one  of  the  worship- 
ful and  ancient  country  families  of  England, 
as  did  most  of  the  parliamentary  leaders 
in  the  great  contest  with  the  crown.  He  sat 
in  the  earlier  parliaments  of  Charles  I.,  but 
took  no  prominent  part  till  he  so  manfully 
stood  forth  against  the  unauthorized  tax  for 
ship  money  in  1636.  The  king  unsuccess- 
fully sought  his  impeachment.  Whe^  resort 
to  arms  became  necessary,  Hampden  , oised  a 


HAM 


834 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


regiment  from  his  tenantry,  and  brought  to 
the  field  the  same  courage  and  capacity  he 
had  shown  in  discussion.  He  was  killed  in 
an  engagement  with  Prince  Rupert,  June  8th, 
1643. 

HANAU,  a province  of  Hesse-Cassel,  the 
capital  of  which,  Hanau,  on  the  Kinzig,  con- 
tains about  16,000  inhabitants.  In  1792, 
Hanau  was  attacked,  but  not  occupied,  by 
the  French.  October  30th,  1813,  an  Austrian 
and  Bavarian  corps  opposed  here  the  great 
army  of  the  French,  in  their  retreat  from 
Leipsic : a sanguinary  conflict  took  place,  in 
which  the  former  were  forced  to  retire. 

HANCOCK,  John,  was  born  at  Quincy,  in 
Massachusetts.  Having  lost  his  parents 
early,  he  was  sent  to  Harvard  College,  where 
he  graduated  in  1754,  by  his  uncle,  a rich 
and  benevolent  merchant  of  Boston,  to  whose 
wealth  and  business  he  succeeded  in  1764. 
After  the  battle  of  Lexington,  when  pardon 
was  offered  to  the  rebels  in  case  of  submission 
to  the  royal  authority,  Hancock  and  Adams 
were  the  only  Americans  excepted  by  Gage 
from  the  offer  of  mercy.  After  having  been 
president  of  the  provincial  congress  of  Massa- 
chusetts, Hancock  wTas  sent  to  the  general 
congress  at  Philadelphia  in  1775,  and  filled 
the  presidential  chair  of  that  body  until  1779, 
when  sickness  compelled  him  to  relinquish  it. 
He  was  annually  chosen  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts from  1780  till  1785.  In  1787  he 
was  re-elected,  and  filled  the  post  until  his 
death,  Oct.  8th,  1793,  at  the  age  of  fifty-six 
years.  As  the  president  of  Congress,  he  was 
the  first  to  sign  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. 

HANDEL,  George  Frederic,  a native  of 
Saxony,  born  February  24th,  1684.  He  pro- 
duced his  earliest  operas  at  Hamburg.  In 
1710,  he  visited  England,  and  his  fame  and 
fortune  were  there  established.  In  1741,  he 
brought  out  his  master-piece,  the  oratorio  of 
“The  Messiah.”  Toward  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  was  afflicted  with  total  blindness. 
He  died  April  13th,  1759,  leaving  a fortune 
of  £20,000.  His  appetites  were  coarse,  his 
person  ungainly,  and  his  temper  violent, 
although  an  external  roughness  was  compen- 
sated by  a humane  and  generous  heart. 

The  following  anecdote  strikingly  illus- 
trates his  manners  and  his  peculiar  humor. 
Dr.  Graene,  a personal  friend,  as  well  as  a 


warm  admirer  of  Handel,  brought  to  the 
great  German  an  anthem  of  his  own  compo- 
sition, requesting  the  favor  of  his  opinion  and 
remarks  upon  it.  Handel  readily  received 
the  production,  promised  to  examine  it  imme- 
diately, and  invited  the  doctor  to  breakfast 
with  him  the  next  day.  Dr.  Greene  accord- 
ingly waited  on  the  illustrious  musician. 
Handel  received  him  with  cordiality,  gave 
him  an  elegant  breakfast,  treated  him  with 
every  politeness,  but  constantly  continued  to 
evade  hi,s  visitor’s  questions  respecting  his 
opinion  of  the  anthem.  Greene,  at  length, 
too  impatient  to  wait  any  longer  for  the  great 
composer’s  decision  on  the  merits  of  his 
piece,  exclaimed  vehemently,  “My  dearest 
friend,  keep  me  no  longer  in  suspense — tell 
me,  I pray  you — tell  me  what  do  you  think 
of  my  anthem?”  Handel,  who  had  found  it 
scientifically  written,  but  very  deficient  in 
melody,  answered,  “Oh,  it  is  ver  fine,  my 
dear  doctor,  ver  fine  indeed ; only  it  do  vant 
air,  and  so  I flung  it  put  of  de  vindow.” 

The  publisher  of  one  of  Handel’s  operas 
cleared  £1,500  by  it;  this  caused  the  com- 
poser to  say,  “My  dear  sir,  as  it  is  only  right 
that  we  should  be  upon  an  equal  footing,  you 
shall  compose  the  next  opera,  and  I will  sell 
it.” 

HANNIBAL,  son  of  Hamilcar  Barcas,  born 
b.c.  247,  was  a celebrated  Carthaginian  gen- 
eral. He  was  educated  in  his  father’s  camp, 
and  inured  from  his  early  years  to  the  labors 
of  the  field,  having  passed  into  opain  when 
nine  years  old.  Before  leaving  Carthage 
Hamilcar  swore  him  to  eternal  enmity  to  the 
Romans.  After  his  father’s  death,  he  had 
the  command  of  the  cavalry  in  Spain,  and 
some  time  after,  upon  the  death  of  Hasdrubal, 
he  was  invested  with  the  command  of  all  the 
armies  of  Cartilage,  though  not  yet  in  the 
twenty -fifth  year  of  his  age.  In  three  years  • 
of  continual  success,  he  subdued  all  the  na- 
tions of  Spam  which  opposed  the  Carthagin- 
ian power,  and  took  Saguntum  after  a siege 
of  gight  months.  This  city  was  in  alliance 
with  Rome,  and  its  foil  was  the  cause  of  the 
second  Punic  war,  which  Hannibal  prepared 
to  support  with  all  the  courage  and  prudence 
of  a finished  general.  The  army  with  which 
he  entered  Italy  amounted,  by  the  largest 
computation,  to  100,000  foot  and  20,000 
horse.  With  this  overwhelming  force  he 


HAN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


385 


THB  HANCOCK  HOUSE  IN  BOSTON. 


passed  the  Alps,  conquered  his  opponents, 
crossed  the  Apennines,  invaded  Etruria,  de- 
feated Flaminius  at  the  lake  Thrasymene, 
and  Caius  Terentius  and  L.  JEmilius  in  the 
fatal  battle  of  Cannae.  Had  Hannibal,  imme- 
diately after  this  battle,  marched  his  army  to 
the  gates  of  Rome,  it  must  have  yielded 
amidst  the  general  consternation ; but  his 
delay  continued  so  long  that  the  Romans 
recovered  their  hopes,  and  when  he  finally 
approached  the  walls,  he  was  informed  that 
the  piece  of  ground  on  which  his  army  then 
stood,  was  being  sold  at  a high  price  in  the 
Roman  forum.  He  then,  after  some  time, 
retired  to  Capua,  the  luxuries  of  which  ener- 
vated bis  troops,  and  unfitted  them  for  action  ; 
this  gave  rise  to  the  saying  that  “ Capua  was 
a Cannae  to  Hannibal.”  Marcellus,  who  suc- 
ceeded the  cautious  Fabius  in  the  fiel$,  first 
taught  the  Romans  that  Hannibal  was  not 
invincible.  Scipio  having  passed  over  into 
Africa,  the  Carthaginians  now  recalled  Han- 
nibal to  combat  the  adventurous  Romans. 
After  sixteen  years  of  flattering  triumph,  the 
Carthaginian  general  left  Italy,  met  Scipio  at 

25 


Zama,  was  defeated,  and  fled  to  Adrumetura. 
The  Carthaginians  procured  peace  on  favora- 
ble terms,  and  Hannibal  fled  to  Syria,  but  he 
was  pursued  from  place  to  place  by  the  ani- 
mosity of  the  Romans,  and  at  length  killed 
himself  at  the  court  of  Prusias,  King  of 
Bithynra,  b.c.  183,  aged  sixty-four  years'. 

HANNO,  a Carthaginian  general  of  high 
reputation,  who  was  conquered  by  Scipio  in 
Spain.  He  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
great  navigator,  who  lived  three  or  four  cen- 
turies earlier. 

HANOVER,  in  the  north  of  Germany,  was 
erected  into  a kingdom  in  1814.  It  contains 
14,800  Square  miles,  and  1,819,777  inhabit- 
ants. The  Hartz  mountains  contain  silver, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  &c.  When  Napoleon  had 
obtained  dominion  over  almost  the  whole  con- 
tinent in  1811,  Hanover  became  an  integral 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  which  had 
been  formed  of  provinces  ceded  by  Prussia 
and  others  to  France,  and  of  which  Jerome 
Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon,  was  the 
sovereign.  Hanover,  its  capital,  suffered 
severely  during  its  occupation  by  the  French 


HAN 


386 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


from  1803  to  1813 ; out  was  relieved  from 
their  presence  by  the  arrival  of  Bernadotte, 
with  an  allied  force,  on  the  6th  of  November 
of  the  latter  year.  The  city  of  Hanover,  cap- 
ital of  the  kingdom,  has  40,000  inhabitants. 
Gottingen,  a city  on  the  Leine,  contains 
10,000  inhabitants,  and  is  famous  for  its  uni- 
versity, founded  by  George  II.  in  1734. 

HANOVER,  House  of.  Elizabeth,  daugh- 
ter of  James  I.  of  England,  married  with 
Frederick,  the  Elector-Palatine  of  Bohemia. 
Their  daughter  Sophia  became  the  wife  of 
Ernest  Augustus,  Duke  of  Brunswick  Lunen- 
burg, and  first  Elector  of  Hanover.  In  1701 
the  English  parliament  limited  the  succession 
of  the  crown,  after  William  III.  and  Queen 
Anne,  if  the  latter  had  no  issue,  to  the  Prin- 
cess Sophia  of  Hanover,  and  the  heirs  of  her 
body,  being  Protestants.  Accordingly,  upon 
the  death  of  Anne,  Sophia’s  son  George  Lewis, 
Elector  of  Hanover  and  Duke  of  Brunswick 
Lunenburg,  became  also  King  of  Great  Brit- 
ain as  George  I.  He  was  born  May  28th, 
1660,  and  had  married  his  cousin  Sophia, 
heiress  of  Brunswick  Zell.  He  was  pro- 
claimed King  of  England,  Aug.  1st,  1714,  and 
landed  at  Greenwich  in  the  following  month. 
At  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  the  Whigs 
had  the  ascendency,  both  in  and  out  of  par- 
liament. In  1715  a revolution  broke  out  in 
Scotland  in  favor  of  the  Pretender,  but  was 
quelled  without  much  trouble,  although  there 
were  many  who  were  decidedly  opposed  to 
the  existing  government.  In  1715  the  bill 
for  septennial  parliaments  was  brought  into 
the  house  of  lords  by  the  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire, and  passed  both  houses.  In  1718  a 
quadruple  alliance  of  England,  Holland, 
France,  and  Germany,  was  formed  against 
Spain,  and  the  Spanish  were  defeated  by  Sir 
George  Byng  on  the  coast  of  Sicily.  In  1720 
was  started  the  celebrated  South  Sea  scheme, 
which  involved  thousands  of  families  in  ruin. 
In  1721  Bishop  Atterbury  was.  seized  and 
conveyed  to  the  Tower,  and  afterward  ban- 
ished on  suspicion  of  treason;  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  the  Earl  of  Orrery,  and  others  were 
imprisoned  for  participation  in  the  plot.  In 
1725  the  treaty  of  Hanover  was  signed  to 
counteract  the  first  treaty  of  Vienna.  In 
1727  the  king  visited  his  electoral  dominions 
at  Hanover,  but  being  seized  with  a paralytic 
disorder  on  the  road  from  Hanover  to  Hol- 

H 


land,  he  was  conveyed  to  Osnaburgh,  June 
11th,  1727,  where  he  died,  in  the  thirteenth 
year  of  his  reign.  The  disaffection  toward 
the  Elector  of  Hanover,  on  his  arrival  in  Eng- 
land, was  very  great,  and  the  populace  gave 
no  equivocal  signs  of  it.  One  time  a noisy 
mob  surrounded  a carriage  which  contained 
some  German  ladies  of  the  court,  and  assailed 
their  ears  with  epithets  of  abuse  more  fluent 
than  elegant.  One  of  the  foreigners,  putting 
her  head  out  of  the  carriage-window,  said,  in 
her  broken  English,  “My  good  peoples',  we 
ish  come  for  all  your  goods.”  “ Yes,”  replied 
a surly  fellow  in  the  crowd,  “and  for  all  our 
chattels  too.” 

George  Augustus,  the  first  George’s  son, 
came  to  the  throne  as  George  II.  He  was 
born  Oct.  30th,  1683,  and  was  created  Prince 
of  Wales,  Oct.  4th,  1714.  In  1704  he  married 
Wilhelmina  Caroline  Dorothea,  of  Branden- 
burg- Anspach,  and  in  1727  succeeded  his 
father.  In  1729  the  peace  of  Seville  w*as 
concluded  with  Spain,  but  the  war  with  that 
country  was  renewed  in  1739.  In  1742  Sir 
Robert  Walpole  resigned,  after  having  been 
minister  for  nearly  twenty  years,  and  in  the 
same  year,  the  king,  espousing  the  cause  of 
Maria  Theresa,  marched  against  the  French, 
whom  he  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Dettingen, 
but  without  gaining  much  advantage.  In 
1745  Charles  Edward,  the  young  Pretender, 
landed  in  Scotland,  but  was  finally  defeated  at 
Culloden.  The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was 
concluded  in  1748.  In  1754  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  French  in  America  brought  on 
that  war  which  resulted  happily  for  Great 
Britain,  and  some  of  the  successes  of  which 
in  America  are  attributable  to  the  bravery 
of  the  provincial  troops.  In  the  midst  of 
general  prosperity,  George  II.  died  at  Ken- 
sington, Oct.  25th,  1760,  in  the  seventy- 
seventh  year  of  his  age  and  thirty-third  of 
his  reign.  He  possessed  no  shining  qualities, 
and  despised  learning. 

Quarrels  between  the  monarch  and  the 
heir  apparent  marked  this  dynasty.  Thus 
George  II.  while  Prince  of  Wales  had  not 
been  on  the  best  of  terms  with  his  father. 
Similar  disagreement  sundered  him  in  turn 
from  his  son  Frederick.  The  houses  in  Lon- 
don to  which  George  Augustus,  and  after- 
ward Frederick,  retired  when  in  disfavor  at 
St.  James’s,  were  familiarly  known  as  4 pouting 
\R 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


387 


houses.’  Frederick  died  before  his  hither, 
and  the  grandson,  George  III.,  was  heir  to 
the  crown.  His  long  and  eventful  reign  we 
have  mentioned  in  our  sketch  of  England. 
His  mother  was  the  Princess  Augusta  of 
Saxe  Gotha,  who  gave  him  birth  June  4th, 
1738.  He  succeeded  his  grandfather,  George 
II.,  Oct.  25th,  1760 ; married  Charlotte  Sophia, 
Princess  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Sept.  8th, 
1761  ; and  both  were  crowned  Sept.  22d  in 
the  same  year.  He  was  deranged  in  mind 
from  October,  1788,  to  March,  1789.  On  the 
24th  of  April,  1789,  he  went  in  procession  to 
St.  Paul’s,  to  offer  thanks  for  his-  recovery. 
The  malady  returned  in  1801,  and  afflicted 
him  till  1804;  he  relapsed  in  1810,  and 
died  in  Windsor  Castle,  Jan.  29th,  1820,  in 
the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age,  and  the 
sixtieth  of  his  reign.  Queen  Charlotte  died 
in  1818.  George  III.  was  a virtuous  man,  a 
good  husband  and  father.  Before  his  time 
the  English  court  had  the  licentiousness  of 
France  with  the  coarseness  of  Germany. 
Under  the  influence  of  George  and  his  excel- 
lent consort,  decency  was  restored.  But  his 
virtue  was  not  shared  by  all  his  numerous 
offspring ; the  Duke  of  York  and  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland  were  notoriously  profligate ; 
they  were  outdone  in  vice  and  shame  by  their 
eldest  brother,  George  IV. 

He  was  born  Aug.  12th,  1762.  Well  edu- 
cated and  talented,  he  abused  the  gifts  be- 
stowed upon  him,  and  in  his  youth  plunged 
into  the  guiltiest  excesses.  Loaded  with 
debt,  he  at  length  adopted  a system  of 
retrenchment,  sold  his  splendid  racing-stud, 
and  reduced  his  whole  establishment.  With 
the  assistance  of  parliament,  he  extricated 
himself  from  his  difficulties.  The  indignation 
excited  by  a nefarious  transaction  of  his, 
which  was  exposed  by  the  Jockey  Club,  com- 
pelled him  to  abandon  the  .turf.  The  fat 
young  debauchee  became  enamored  with  Mrs. 
Fitzherbert,  a brilliant  and  lovely  widow  of 
twenty-five.  His  heart,  he  declared,  was  now 
seriously  affected ; the  fair  widow  divided  his 
affection  with  the  bottle ; and  his  wooing  was 
as  assiduous  as  was  her  avoidance  of  him. 
She  remained  obdurate  to  all  entreaty,  till 
one  day  several  gentlemen  of  the  prince’s 
household  arrived  at  her  house  in  the  utmost 
consternation,  informing  her  that  the  life  of 
the  prince  was  in  imminent  danger ; that  he 


had  stabbed  himself,  and  that  only  her  imme- 
diate presence  could  save  him.  There  prob- 
ably never  was  a man  more  ridiculous  wLen 
playing  the  part  of  a lover  than  this  Prince 
of  Wales.  To  have  himself  bled,  in  order 
that  he  might  look  pale  and  interesting  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Cynthia  of  the  minute,  was  with 
him  no  unusual  trick.  On  this  occasion, 
however,  it  was  positively  declared  that  he 
had  stabbed  himself,  and  the  emissaries  be- 
sought the  young  widow  to  hasten  and  heal 
the  wound.  She  proceeded  to  Carlton  House, 
under  the  very  proper  guardianship  of  the 
Duchess  of  Devonshire.  She  found  the  prince 
pale  and  covered  with  blood.  “The  sight,” 
we  are  told,  “so  overpowered  her  faculties 
that  she  was  deprived  almost  of  all  conscious- 
ness. The  prince  told  her  that  nothing  could 
induce  him  to  live,  unless  she  promised  to 
become  his  wife,  and  permitted  him  to  put  a 
ring  round  her  finger.”  She  repented,  how- 
ever, of  her  betrothal,  fled  beyond  the  sea, 
and  remained  a year  on  the  continent,  en- 
deavoring to  avoid  the  perilous  suit.  Couri- 
ers with  ardent  dispatches  followed  her  with 
such  speed  and  in  such  numbers  that  the 
suspicious  French  government  at  last  began 
to  clap  them  in  prison.  George  once  wrote 
her  a love-letter  of  seven  and  thirty  pages,  in 
which  he  assured  her  that  his  father  would 
connive  at  the  union.  She  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  was  privately  married  to  the  prince. 
But  she  was  wife  and  yet  no  wife.  Public 
attention  was  turned  to  the  match ; parlia- 
ment began  to  inquire  into  the  matter ; and 
Mr.  Fox  was  authorized  by  the  princely  liar 
to  deny  that  he  was  married.  The  pressure 
of  his  ill-gotten  debts  induced  him,  in  1795,  to 
marry  Caroline  Amelia  Augusta,  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick.  Her  sufferings  and 
persecution  excited  the  world’s  indignation 
against  her  heartless  husband.  One  daugh- 
ter, the  Princess  Charlotte,  was  the  only  off- 
spring of  this  unhappy  and  unhallowed  union. 
This  lovely  and  virtuous  girl  wedded  Prince 
Leopold,  afterward  King  of  the  Belgians ; 
the  hope  of  the  nation  was  turned  to  lament- 
ation by  her  death  in  childbed,  Nov.  5th, 
1817,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-one.  Her 
injured  mother  died  in  1821,  shortly  after 
her  husband  ascended  the  throne. 

George  IV.  had  been  regent  during  the  long 
insanity  of  his  father.  His  reign  as  king 


HAN 


383 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


was  not  long.  He  died  July  26th,  1830. 
On  his  death-bed  he  received  a touching  note 
from  Maria  Fitzherbert,  long  separated  from 
him,  as  from  a wife  offering  her  services  to 
her  husband.  She  died  in  March,  1837. 
George  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Wil- 
liam, Duke  of  Clarence,  who  had  spent  much 
of  his  life  in  the  naval  service.  The  sailor 
king  had  his  errors,  but  what  with  compari- 
son to  his  brother,  and  his  own  bluff  good 
nature,  he  was  very  popular.  His  queen 
was  Adelaide,  sister  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe 
Meinengen,  who  survived  him  some  twenty 
years.  William  IY.  died  June  20th,  1837. 
The  kingdom  of  Hanover  was  subject  to  the 
Salique  law,  by  which  a woman  can  not  hold 
the  sceptre.  Victoria,  a girl  of  eighteen,  the 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Kent,  was  the  heir 
to  the  British  crown.  The  throne  of  Han- 
over therefore  fell  to  the  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land, her  uncle,  and  Victoria  became  Queen 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  She  was  mar- 
ried Feb.  10th,  1840,  to  her  cousin,  Prince 
Albert,  of  Saxe-Coburg.  The  crown  is  not 
likely  to  lack  an  heir  in  the  direct  line; 
Victoria  -and  Albert  are  blessed  wuth  nine 
children : Victoria  Adelaide  Mary  Louisa, 
Princess  Royal,  born  Nov.  21st,  1840 ; married 
to  Prince  Frederick  William  of  Prussia,  Jan- 
uary, 1858.  Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales, 
born  Nov.  9th,  1841.  Alice  Maud  Mary, 
born  April  25th,  1843.  Alfred  Ernest, 
bom  Aug.  6th,  1844.  Helena  Augusta  Vic- 
toria, born  May  25th,  1846.  Louisa  Carolina 
Alberta,  born  March  18th,  1848.  Arthur 
Patrick  Albert,  born  May  1st,  1850.  Leo- 
pold George  Duncan  Albert,  born  April  7th, 
1853.  Beatrice  Mary  Victoria  Feodore,  born 
April  17th,  1857. 

There  were  thirteen  children  born  from  the 
marriage  of  George  III.  with  Queen  Char- 
lotte ; and  yet,  of  this  numerous  family  there 
are  singularly  few  legitimate  descendants  in 
the  present  generation.  The  sons  were  seven: 
George,  Prince  of  Wales,  afterward  George 
IV.  ; Frederick,  Duke  of  York ; William, 
Duke  of  Clarence,  afterward  William  IV. ; 
Edward,  Duke  of  Kent;  Ernest,  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  afterward  King  of  Hanover; 
Augustus,  Duke  of  Sussex,  and  Adolphus, 
the  Duke  of  Cambridge.  Of  the  six  daugh- 
ters, the  names  in  the  order  of  birth  stand 
thus : the  Princess  Royal,  Charlotte  Augusta, 


who  was  married  to  the  King  of  Wurtem- 
burg ; the  Princess  Augusta,  who  died  unmar- 
ried ; the  Princess  Elizabeth,  who  was  married 
to  the  Prince  of  Hesse  Homburg ; the  Prin- 
cess Mary,  who  was  married  to  her  cousin, 
the  Duke  of  Gloucester;  and  the  Princesses 
Sophia  and  Amelia,  both  of  whom  died  un- 
married. The  last  of  these  children  on  earth 
was  Mary,  Duchess  of  Gloucester,  wrho  expired 
April  30th,  1857,  at  the  age  of  eight}r-one. 
Queen  Victoria,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Kent ; the  King  of  Hanover,  son  of  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland ; and  the  three  children  of  the 
late  Duke  of  Cambridge, — these  are  the  only 
lawful  grand-children  of  the  third  George 
that  survive;  and  the  Princess  Charlotte, 
daughter  of  George  IV.,  is  the  only  one  who 
has  passed  away. 

HANSEATIC  LEAGUE.  In  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  sea  and  land 
were  infested  wi  ,h  pirates  and  robbers.  The 
German  trade  being  exposed  to  accidents  by 
land  and  sea,  Hamburg  and  Lubeck,  in  the 
year  1241,  entered  into  a confederacy  in  which 
they  agreed  to  defend  each  other  from  all 
attacks  and  from  every  act  of  violence.  This 
league  was  soon  after  joined  by  Brunswick ; 
it  was  named  by  way  of  eminence,  the  Hanse, 
meaning  a league  for  mutual  defense.  Many 
other  towns  joined  in  a short  time.  In 
1260  a meeting  of  the  members  was  held 
at  Lubeck,  and  continued  there  every  three 
years.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  this  league 
attained  everywhere  a high  political  import- 
ance, and  enjoyed  extensive  and  uncommon 
privileges,  till  at  last  it  became  the  mistress 
of  lands  and  seas  and  crowns.  So  it  contin- 
ued for  a length  of  time,  till  the  traveling 
becoming  more  secure,  and  the  circumstan- 
ces that  gave  it  rise  being  changed,  the  Han- 
seatic League  began  to  fall.  The  last  diet 
was  held  at  Lubeck  in  1630.  The  largest 
number  of  the  Hanse  towns  was  eighty-five. 

HARDICANUTE,  son  of  Canute  and  Em- 
ma, and  the  opponent  of  Harold,  filled  the 
thrones  of  England  and  Denmark  for  a short 
time.  He  made  himself  odious  by  the  impo- 
sition of  taxes,  and  died  of  repletion  at  the 
nuptials  of  a Danish  lord  in  1041. 

HARLEY,  Robert,  Earl  of  Oxford  and 
Mortimer,  a distinguished  statesman  in  the 
time  of  Queen  Anne,  was  born  in  1661.  He 
was  impeached  in  1715,  on  suspicion  of  favor- 


11  AR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


889 


ing  the  restoration  of  the  exiled  Stuarts,  and 
was  confined  in  the  Tower  a couple  of  years. 
He  was  finally  set  free,  and  died  May  21st, 
1724.  He  was  a great  patron  of  literature, 
and  by  him  the  Harleian  Library,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  was  brought  together. 

HAROLD  I.,  of  England,  was  the  son  of 
Canute,  by  Alfwen,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Southampton.  He  was  proclaimed  King  of 
England  on  the  death  of  Canute  in  1035,  and 
was  supported  by  the  Danes,  in  opposition 
to  Earl  Godwin  of  Kent,  who  favored  Hardi- 
canute.  He  died  in  1039. 

HAROLD  IT.,  son  of  Earl  Godwin,  usurped 
the  English  throne  against  Edgar,  after  the 
death  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  1066.  He 
was  defeated  and  slain  in  the  fatal  battle  of 
Hastings,  Oct.  14th,  1066. 

HARO  UN  al  Rasciiid  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Saracenic  caliphs ; the  ter- 
ritories which  he  governed  extended  from 
Egypt  to  Khorassan.  He  was  no  less  distin- 
guished for  his  taste,  and  the  encouragement 
he  afforded  to  literature  and  the  arts,  than 
for  his  power.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
the  Caliph  Mahadi,  and  succeeded  his  elder 
brother,  Hadi,  a.d.  786.  He  differed  in  so 
many  respects  from  the  despots  of  the  east, 
that  he  obtained  the  name  of  al  Raschid,  ‘the 
just.’  The  caliph  was  fond  of  personally 
ascertaining  the  condition  of  his  people,  when, 
rid  of  the  dazzling  attributes  of  rank,  he  feared 
no  concealment  on  their  part.  Many  instan- 
ces of  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  his  decisions 
have  come  down  to  us.  A merchant,  having 
lost  a purse  containing  a large  sum  of  money, 
caused  the  loss  to  be  proclaimed,  with  an 
accurate  description  of  the  purse  and  the 
value  of  its  contents,  offering  a large  reward 
to  the  person  who  should  find  and  restore  it. 
After  some  days  had  elapsed,  a poor  laborer 
presented  himself  before  ar  magistrate  with 
the  purse,  and  claimed  of  the  merchant  (who 
was  summoned)  the  reward  which  belonged 
to  him.  The  merchant,  rejoiced  at  finding  his 
money,  thought  to  avoid  payment  of  the 
reward  by  declaring  that  the  purse  contained, 
in  addition  to  the  money,  an  emerald  of  great 
value,  which  the  finder  must  be  compelled  to 
restore.  The  poor  laborer  was  overwhelmed 
by  this  assertion,  and  the  magistrate  appeared 
at  a loss,  but  the  caliph,  who  was  present  in 
disguise,  advanced  and  decided  the  case. 


“Since,”  said  he,  “the  merchant  declares 
that  the  purse  which  he  lost  contained  a sum 
of  money  and  an  emerald,  and  since  the  finder 
of  this  purse  swears,  and  the  seal  upon  the 
purse  proves,  that  he  has  taken  no  precious 
gem,  this  can  not  be  the  purse  which  the  mer- 
chant has  lost.  Let,  then,  its  present  holder 
endeavor  to  discover  the  real  owner,  and, 
(ailing  to  do  so,  appropriate  the  prize ; and  let 
the  merchant  make  diligent  search  for  the 
money  and  the  emerald  which  he  has  lost ; 
the  present  property  being,  as  he  has  proved, 
none  of  his.” 

Haroun  was  an  ardent  lover  of  learning, 
and  caused  it  to  be  disseminated  throughout 
his  realms.  He  was  a warm  admirer  of  the 
ancient  classics,  and  translations  of  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey,  with  other  works  of  antiquity, 
made  his  people  acquainted  with  the  beauties 
of  Greek  and  Roman  literature.  He  invaded 
the  Greek  empire  no  fewer  than  eight  times, 
conquering  in  802  the  Emperor  Nicephorus, 
who  had  refused  to  pay  him  the  customary 
tribute.  The  Greek  monarch  was  compelled 
to  pay  a heavier  tribute  to  the  caliph,  and 
promise  not  to  rebuild  the  frontier  towns 
which  hacf  been  ruined  and  plundered.  The 
caliph’s  destruction  of  the  family  of  the  Bar- 
mecides displays  the  stern  resolution  of  a 
despot.  He  had  experienced  the  care  of 
Yahia,  the  head  of  the  Barmecide  famity,  who 
had  superintended  his  education ; the  eldest 
of  Yahia’s  sons  was  a general  who  had  served 
his  country  well ; the  second  was  Giafar,  the 
caliph’s  prime  vizier,  and  the  two  other  sons 
were  in  responsible  and  dignified  stations. 
The  Barmecides  were  in  favor  with  all  classes, 
and  Giafar  stood  high  in  the  graces  of  the 
caliph.  Indeed,  so  warmly  attached  was  the 
latter  to  the  vizier,  that,  for  the  sake  of  enjoy- 
ing his  company  with  that  of  his  beloved 
sister  Abassa,  he  united  them  in  marriage, 
but  placed  capricious  restrictions  upon  their 
intimacy.  On  the  disobedience  of  the  pair, 
all  the  violent  passions  .of  the  caliph  were 
aroused.  He  publicly  sacrificed  Giafar  to  his 
resentment,  and  impoverished  the  whole  fam- 
ily. Haroun,  at  the  height  of  splendor  and 
fame,  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Emperor  Char- 
lemagne, bearing,  among  other  presents,  a 
water-clock,  an  elephant,  and  the  keys  of  the 
holy  sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  The  caliph  was 
seized  with  a mortal  illness  while  preparing 


HAR 


390 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


to  depart  upon  a military  expedition,  and 
died  at  Tous,  in  Khorassan,  a.d.  809,  in  the 
forty-seventh  year  of  his  age,  and  the  twenty- 
third  of  his  reign.  No  other  of  the  Saracenic 
caliphs  ever  attained  the  height  of  power 
and  popularity  which  Haroun  al  Raschid 
gained,  and  although  some  of  his  acts  are 
inexcusable,  yet  considering  the  examples 
furnished  by  his  age,  and  the-  preceding,  we 
can  not  withhold  from  him  a large  share  of 
praise.  Haroun  is  one  of  those  characters 
which  are  equally  the  delight  of  history  and 
romance,  and  while  the  graver  acts  of  his 
reign  employ  the  pen  of  the  rigid  annalist, 
his  varied  adventures  are  themes  for  the  gay 
eloquence  of  such  works  as  the  “Arabian 
Nights’  Entertainments.” 

HARPER,  Robert  Goodloe,  was  born  near 
Fredericksburg,  Va.,  of  poor  parents.  He 
served  a short  time  in  a troop  of  light  horse, 
but  he  soon  withdrew  from  the  service  for 
the  purpose  of  completing  his  education. 
He  entered  Princeton  College,  and  while  dis- 
tinguishing himself  in  the  upper  classes,  he 
was  employed  in  the  instruction  of  the  lower. 
After  leaving  college  he  went  to  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  where  he  studied  law,  but  soon  retired 
to  an  interior  district  to  practice.  Some 
essays  in  a newspaper  gave  a favorable  idea 
of  his  talents  and  principles ; he  was  elected 
to  the  legislature,  arid  soon  after  to  Congress. 
In  1801  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in 
Baltimore,  having  married  the  daughter  of 
Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton.  He  defended 
Judge  Chase  on  his  impeachment.  He  was 
afterward  senator  in  Congress,  but  his  pro- 
fessional duties  compelled  him  to  resign. 
He  died  suddenly  on  the  15th  of  January, 
1825,  aged  sixty. 

HARRIS,  John,  the  first  compiler  of  a dic- 
tionary of  arts  and  sciences  in  England,  died 
a beggar,  1719,  aged  forty-nine. 

HARRISON,  Benjamin,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Berke- 
ley, Virginia.  He  was  educated  at  William 
and  Mary  College,  and  began  his  public  career 
in  the  Virginia  assembly  in  1764.  From  1774 
to  1777  he  was  a delegate  to  Congress,  chair- 
man of  the  board  of  war,  speaker  of  the 
house  of  burgesses,  and  governor  of  Virginia 
from  1782  to  1784;  he  was  extremely  popu- 
lar and  useful.  He  died  in  April,  1791. 

HARRISON,  William  Henry,  the  youngest 


son  of  Benjamin  Harrison  (above),  wras  born 
on  the  9th  of  February,  1773,  at  Berkeley  in 
Charles  City  county,  Virginia,  about  twenty- 
five  miles  below  Richmond.  His  father  was 
a descendant  of  the  great  General  Harrison 
who  held  a commission  under  Cromwell. 
His  mother  was  Elizabeth  Bassett,  a niece  of 
the  wife  of  General  Washington.  At  the  time 
of  Benjamin  Harrison’s  death,  in  1791,  his 
estate  having  become  embarrassed  in  the  pub- 
lic service,  William  Henry  was  at  Hampden 
Sidney  College,  qualifying  himself  for  the 
study  of  medicine,  but  when  the  news  of  the 
Indian  outrages  on  the  frontiers  reached  Vir- 
ginia, he  determined  to  enter  the  army.  This 
resolution,  which  was  opposed  by  his  guard- 
ian, the  celebrated  financier  Robert  Morris, 
was  warmly  approved  by  the  illustrious 
Washington,  who  gave  him  the  commission 
of  ensign  in  the  first  regiment  of  artillery, 
then  stationed  at  Fort  Washington  on  the 
Ohio,  near  the  spot  where  Cincinnati  now 
stands.  Just  after  he  arrived  at  the  post,  the 
news  of  Gen.  St.  Clair’s  defeat  by  the  Indians 
on  the  Wabash  reached  it,  and  though  he 
was  urged  to  relinquish  his  new  profession, 
on  the  grounds  of  the  extreme  hardships  and 
deprivations  of  the  service,  and  his  youth  and 
apparently  slender  constitution,  he  promptly 
and  decidedly  rejected  the  advice.  Soon  after, 
he  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the 
escort  of  a train  of  pack-horses,  destined  to 
furnish  supplies  to  Fort  Hamilton  on  the 
Miami,  twenty  or  thirty  miles  north  of  Fort 
Washington.  This  service  required  especial 
prudence  and  sagacity,  and  was  performed 
by  him,  though  a mere  youth,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  obtain  the  warm  commendation 
of  Gen.  St.  Clair. 

Judge  Burnet,  in  his  “Transactions  of  the 
Historical  Society  of  Ohio,”  speaks  thus  of 
this  circumstance:  “Soon  after  the  battle 
and  defeat  of  St.  Clair,  which  was  on  the  4th 
of  November,  1791,  General  Harrison,  then 
a subaltern,  was  sent  in  command  of  a small 
detachment  from  Fort  Washington  to  Forts 
Hamilton  and  Jefferson.  It  was  in  the  midst 
of  one  of  the  severest  winters  ever  known  in 
this  country.  Subalterns,  as  you  know, 
were  not  permitted  to  march  on  horseback. 
Of  course  this  youthful  hero,  not  then  twenty 
years  of  age,  marched  on  foot,  through  the 
snow,  at  the  head  of  his  detachment,  'vith 


HAR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


391 


his  knapsajck  on  his  back ; and  although  the 
woods  were  swarming  with  Indians,  who  had 
been  released  from  the  necessity  of  watching 
the  army,  he  marched  to  the  place  of  his  des- 
tination in  safety,  after  as  severe  an  exposure 
to  frost,  fatigue,  and  danger  as  was  endured 
at  an.y  time  during  the  war.” 

From  this  time  forward,  the  best  years  of 
his  life  were  devoted  to  his  country.  In  1792 
he  was  made  a lieutenant,  and  in  1793  Gen. 
Wayne  appointed  him  one  of  his  aids,  which 
he  continued  to  be  during  the  war.  On  the 
20th  of  August,  1794,  in  marching  down  the 
Maumee,  Gen.  Wayne  with  900  men  was 
attacked  by  Indians  to  the  number  of  2,000, 
and  put  them  to  flight.  In  his  official  account 
he  mentions  that  his  “ faithful  and  gallant  aid, 
Lieutenant  Harrison,  rendered  most  essential 
service,  by  communicating  orders  in  every 
direction,  and  by  his  conduct  and  bravery  ex- 
citing the  troops  to  press  for  victory.”  In 
August,  1795,  peace  was  concluded  at  Green- 
ville. Soon  after,  Harrison  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  captain,  and  placed  in  command 
of  Fort  Washington. 

When  Gen.  Wayne  died  in  1797,  Capt. 
Harrison  resigned  his  commission,  and  was 
made  secretary  of  the  North-western  Terri- 
tory, and  ex  officio  lieutenant-governor,  Gen. 
St.  Clair  being  governor.  This  office  he  filled 
with  so  much  approbation,  that  he  was  chosen 
by  the  inhabitants  their  first  delegate  to  Con- 
gress. His  popularity  was  increased  by  his 
wish  that  the  public  lands  should  be  sold  in 
small  quantities  to  actual  settlers,  instead  of 
permitting  speculators  to  purchase  them  in 
large  ones,  which  object  he  accomplished,  as 
well  as  a reform  in  the  method  of  locating 
military  land-warrants.  The  North-west  Ter- 
ritory being  divided  into  two,  Ohio  and  Indi- 
ana, he  was  made  governor  of  the  latter  in 
1799,  in  which  office  his  power  was  very 
extended,  including  that  of  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs,  and  commissioner  for  treating 
with  the  Indians.  The  territory  included 
the  present  states  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michi- 
gan, and  Wisconsin ; the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  at  Vincennes,  a village  on  the 
Wabash.  Harrison’s  conduct  as  governor 
was  held  in  high  estimation,  and  Adams, 
Jefferson,  and  Madison  successively  appointed 
him  for  a period  of  thirteen  years. 

In  1806,  through  the  intrigues  of  two 


celebrated  chiefs  of  the  Shawnee  tribe, 
Tecumseh  and  his  brother  the  Prophet,  the 
Indians  began  again  to  be  troublesome. 
Their  hostile  demonstrations  gradually  in- 
creased. Gov.  Harrison  endeavored,  unsuc- 
cessfully, to  conciliate  them.  The  brothers, 
incited  by  British  emissaries,  were  untiring 
in  their  endeavors  for  a league  of  all  the 
tribes  against  the  whites,  till  they  had  about 
them  a thousand  warriors.  These  committed 
atrocious  depredations  along  the  frontier,  till 
even  the  governor’s  house  was  scarcely  con- 
sidered, safe  from  their  attacks.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1809,  a council  convened  at  Fort  Wayne, 
at  which  Gov.  Harrison  negotiated  with  the 
Miamies,  Delawares,  Pottawatomies,  and 
Kickapoos,  a large  purchase  of  land.  Tecum- 
seh was  much  dissatisfied  with  this  treaty 
when  he  heard  of  it,  and  he  threatened  the 
lives  of  some  of  the  chiefs  by  whom  it  had 
been  concluded.  Hearing  this,  Harrison 
invited  him  to  come  to  Vincennes,  stipulating 
that  he  should  not  bring  with  him  more  than 
thirty  warriors.  But,  alleging  suspicion  of 
treachery  from  the  Americans,  he  came  with 
more  than  four  hundred,  armed.  He  also 
refused  to  hold  the  conference'  at  the  ap- 
pointed place,  which  was  under  the  portico 
of  the  governor’s  house,  insisting  that  it 
should  be  in  a neighboring  grove.  The  coun- 
cil was  held  August  12th,  1810.  Tecumseff 
complained  of  injustice  that  Indians  had  re- 
ceived. To  an  explanation  from  Harrison, 
he  fiercely  shouted,  “ It  is  false ! ” His  war- 
riors sprang  to  their  feet  and  brandished  their 
clubs  and  tomahawks.  They  eyed  the  gov- 
ernor with  ferocious  gaze.  His  military  escort 
numbered  but  twelve  men,  and  they  were 
cut  off  from  him  by  the  threatening  Indians. 
They  advanced,  and  would  have  fired  upon 
the  maddened  savages,  had  not  Harrison  re- 
strained them.  The  moment  was  perilous, 
but  the  cool  bravery  of  the  governor  was 
equal  to  it.  In  a calm,  firm  voice,  he  said  to 
Tecumseh,  “You  are  a bad  man:  I will  have 
no  further  talk  with  you.  You  must  now 
take  your  departure  from  these  settlements, 
and  hasten  immediately  to  your  camp.” 
Tecumseh  was  cowed  by  the  governor’s 
dauntless  bearing,  and  the  next  day  he 
apologized  for  his  insolence.  No  satisfactory 
result  came  of  the  council ; and  Tecumseh 
withdrew  to  Tippecanoe,  the  residence  of 


HAR 


592 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  Prophet,  and  the  brothers  continued  their 
machinations.  A blow  against  the  ruthless 
marauders  became  unavoidable,  and  the  for* 
bearance  of  the  American  government  was  at 
last  exhausted.  The  next  year  Gov.  Har- 
rison received  orders  to  march  against  the 
Prophet’s  town.  Hastily  assembling  a force 
of  900  men,  he  advanced,  and  on  the  9th  of 
November,  1811,  the  famous  battle  of  Tippe- 
canoe was  fought.  In  this  fierce  contest,  the 
cool  courage  of  Harrison  was  gallantly  con- 
spicuous ; victory  crowned  the  bravery  of 
himself  and  his  men.  Notwithstanding  this 
decisive  blow,  Tecumseh  and  the  Prophet  con- 
tinued busy  in  mischief,  and  when  war  broke 
out  with  England  in  1812,  their  activity  was 
redoubled.  Gov.  Harrison  received  a briga- 
dier-general’s commission  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States,  and  President  Madison  in- 
vested him  with  the  command  of  the  north- 
western army,  nominally  consisting  of  ten 
thousand  men,  but  undisciplined,  destitute, 
and  scattered  over  a wide  region.  The  trust 
was  as  trying  as  it  was  important.  The 
marked  points  of  the  campaign  of  1813  un- 
der his  direction,  were  the  glorious  defense 
of  Fort  Meigs,  and  the  important  and  deci- 
sive victory  won  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames, 
the  5th  of  October,  in  which  Tecumseh  fell, 
and  by  which  the  north-western  frontier  was 
relieved  from  danger.  Harrison  had  received 
the  promotion  of  major-general.  The  jeal- 
ousy of  Gen.  Armstrong,  the  secretary  of 
war,  ousted  him  from  active  service,  and  led 
him  to  tender  his  resignation  early  in  1814. 

From  1816  to  1819  he  was  a representative 
in  Congress  from  Ohio.  He  was  earnest  for 
the  recognition  of  the  South  American  repub- 
lics. He  assiduously  and  successfully  labored 
for  the  relief  of  the  veterans  who  had  served 
in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  as  well  as  those 
who  had  been  wounded  or  otherwise  disabled 
in  the  late  war  with  Great  Britain.  In  1825 
he  took  his  seat  as  United  States  senator  from 
Ohio.  He  supported  the  administration  of 
John  Quincy  Adams,  and  in  1828  that  presi- 
dent appointed  him  minister  to  the  South 
American  republic  of  Colombia.  His  mis- 
sion was  cut  short  by  the  accession  of  Gen. 
Jackson,  one  of  whose  first  acts  was  his  re- 
call. After  his  return  he  led  a quiet  life  upon 
his  little  farm  at  North  Bend,  on  the  Ohio 
River  a few  miles  below  Cincinnati.  He  had 


given  his  life  to  his  country’s  service,  not  te 
the  accumulation  of  fortune,  and  his  means 
were  small.  He  took  the  office  of  clerk  to 
the  court  of  Hamilton  county,  and  this  mod- 
est station  he  held  till  1840,  when  the  people 
called  him  to  the  highest  office  in  their  gift. 

The  joy  with  which  his  elevation  to  the 
executive  was  hailed  soon  changed  to  a na- 
tion’s mourning.  The  cares  of  office,  and 
the  devotion  with  which  he  entered  into  its. 
onerous  duties,  wore  heavily  upon  him;  a 
severe  cold  was  followed  by  an  attack  of 
bilious  pleurisy  that  baffled  medical  skill,  and 
his  useful  and  honorable  life  closed  April  4th, 
1841,  just  one  month  from  the  day  of  his  in- 
auguration. Party  distinctions  were  merged 
in  sorrow  for  his  untimely  decease,  and 
throughout  the  land  funeral  honors  were 
paid  to  his  memory.  Minute  guns  were 
fired,  bells  were  tolled,  and  resolutions  ex- 
pressive of  the  most  profound  regret  were 
adopted  in  almost  every  town  and  village 
throughout  the  Union.  It  being  the  first 
instance  of  the  death  of  a chief  magistrate 
while  occupying  the  presidential  chair,  the 
impression  made  was  doubly  strong.  The 
funeral  ceremonies  at  Washington  were  very 
impressive.  Mr.  Tyler,  who  as  vice  presi- 
dent succeeded  to  the  office  of  chief  magis- 
trate, issued  a recommendation  to  the  people 
of  the  Union  to  observe  the  14th  of  May  as 
a day  of  fasting  and  humiliation,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  affliction  the  nation  had  sus- 
tained. It  was  almost  unanimously  observed, 
and  very  few  clergymen  in  the  country  failed 
to  improve  the  opportunity  to  impress  upon 
the  minds  of  their  hearers  the  weight  of  our 
national  sins,  and  the  solemn  lesson  given 
them  of  the  vanity  of  all  earthly  distinctions 
and  honors.  Ohio  could  not  relinquish  her 
claim  to  the  remains  of  one  who,  from  the 
age  of  nineteen,  had  been  devoted  to  her  best 
interests.  A committee  of  her  most  respect- 
able inhabitants  went  on  to  Washington, 
and  were  permitted  to  convey  them  to  North 
Bend,  where,  on  the  mound  under  which 
they  are  deposited,  a modest  tomb  denotes  to 
the  eye  of  the  traveler  sailing  upon  the  Ohio, 
the  spot  where  rests  the  patriot,  hero,  and 
Christian. 

In  person  General  Harrison  was  tall  and 
slender.  Although  his  constitution  was  not 
the  most  robust,  habitual  activity  and  tem- 


HAS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


393 


perance  secured  him  a bodily  vigor  seldom 
surpassed.  He  was  of  generous  disposition, 
and  easy  and  unostentatious  in  manners.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-one,  while  stationed  as  a 
captain  at  Fort  Washington  (where  the 
queenly  city  of  Cincinnati  now  stands),  he 
married  Anna,  the  daughter  of  John  Cleves 
Symmes,  the  founder  of  the  Miami  settle- 
ments. Four  sons  and  a daughter  died  be- 
fore him ; Mrs.  Harrison,  a son,  and  three 
daughters  survived. 

HART,  John,  a signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  was  born  at  Hopewell,  N.  J., 
about  1715.  He  tilled  the  earth,  and  his  mind 
was  strong,  though  little  cultivated  by  letters. 
He  was  a member  of  the  congress  of  1774, 
and  soon  after  signing  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence retired  from  that  body.  When 
New  Jersey  became  the  theatre  of  war,  he 
suffered  much  loss  at  the  hands  of  the  loyal- 
ists. He  died  in  1780,  and  was  buried  at  Rah- 
way, N.  J. 

HARTLEY,  David,  an  eminent  English 
metaphysician,  died  in  1757,  aged  fifty-three. 

HARVEY,  William,  M.  D.,  the  discoverer 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  born  at  Folke- 
stone in  1578,  died  in  London,  June  3d,  1657. 

HASTINGS,  a borough,  market  town,  and 
cinque-port  in  Sussex,  memorable  for  the  bat- 
tle fought  in  its  vicinity,  Oct.  14th,  1066, 
which  gave  the  English  crown  to  William  the 
Conqueror. 

HASTINGS,  Warren,  was  born  Dec.  6th, 
1732,  near  Daylesford,  in  Worcestershire,  and 
Was  sent  to  India,  as  a writer  in  the  com- 
pany’s service,  in  1750.  tie  diligently  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  duties  of  his  station,  and 
in  his  leisure  studied  the  oriental  languages. 
After  fourteen  years’  residence  in  Bengal  he 
returned  to  England;  but  in  1769  he  went 
out  again,  as  second  in  council  at  Madras, 
where  he  remained  about  two  years,  and 
then  removed  to  the  presidency  at  Calcutta. 
He  held  the  post  of  governor-general  till 

1785.  For  his  bold  and  unscrupulous  meas- 
ures against  Hyder  Ali,  and  in  the  various 
dangerous  exigencies  of  his  administration, 
grave  charges  of  injustice,  cruelty,  and  op- 
pression were  brought  against  him  in  parlia- 
ment, supported  by  such  men  as  Fox,  Burke, 
and  Sheridan.  He  returned  to  England  in 

1786,  and  an  impeachment  followed. 

The  trial  began  on  the  13th  of  February, 


1788;  in  the  words  of  Macaulay,  the  high 
court  of  parliament  was  to  sit  according  to 
forms  handed  down  from  the  days  of  the 
Plantagenets,  on  an  Englishman  accused  of 
exercising  tyranny  over  the  lord  of  the  holy 
city  of  Benares,  and  the  ladies  of  the  princely 
house  of  Oude.  The  place  was  worthy  of 
such  a trial.  It  was  the  great  hall  of  William 
Rufus ; the  hall  which  had  resounded  with 
acclamations  at  the  inauguration  of  thirty 
kings ; the  hall  which  had  witnessed  the  just 
sentence  of  Bacon,  and  the  just  absolution 
of  Somers ; thediall  where  the  eloquence  of 
Strafford  had  for  a moment  awed  and  melted 
a victorious  party,  inflamed  with  just  resent- 
ment ; the  hall  where  Charles  had  confronted 
the  high  court  of  justice,  with  the  placid 
courage  that  has  half  redeemed  his  fame. 
Neither  military  nor  civil  pomp  was  wanting. 
The  avenues  were  lined  with  grenadiers. 
The  streets  were  kept  clear  by  cavalry.  The 
peers,  robed  in  gold  and  ermine,  were  mar- 
shaled by  garter  king-at-arms.  The  judges, 
in  their  vestments  of  state,  attended  to  give 
advice  on  points  of  law.  Near  a hundred 
and  seventy  lords,  three-fourths  of  the  upper 
house,  walked  in  solemn  order  from  their 
usual  place  of  assembling  to  the  tribunal. 
The  junior  baron  present  led  the  way,  George 
Eliot,  Lord  Heathfield,  recently  ennobled  for 
his  memorable  defense  of  Gibraltar  against 
the  fleets  and  armies  of  France  and  Spain. 
The  long  procession  was  closed  by  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk,  earl  marshal  of  the  realm,  by  the 
great  dignitaries,  and  by  the  brothers  and 
sons  of  the  king. 

The  gray  old  walls  were  hung  with  scarlet. 
The  long  galleries  were  crowded  by  an  audi- 
ence such  as  has  rarely  excited  the  fears  or 
the  emulation  of  an  orator.  ‘ There  were 
gathered  together  from  all  parts  of  a great, 
free,  enlightened,  and  prosperous  empire, 
grace  and  female  loveliness,  wit  and  learning, 
the  representatives  of  every  science  and  of 
every  art.  There  were  seated  round  the 
queen  the  fair-haired  young  daughters  of  the 
house  of  Brunswick.  There  the  ambassadors 
of  great  kings  and  commonwealths  gazed  with 
admiration  on  a spectacle  which  no  other 
country  in  the  world  could  present.  There 
Siddons,  in  the  prime  of  her  majestic  beauty, 
looked  with  emotion  on  a scene  surpassing 
all  the  imitations  of  the  stage.  There  Gib- 


HAS 


394 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


bon,  the  historian  of  the  Roman  empire, 
thought  of  the  days  when  Cicero  pleaded  the 
cause  of  Sicily  against  Yerres,  and  when, 
before  a senate  that  still  retained  some  show 
of  freedom,  Tacitus  thundered  against  the 
oppressor  of  Africa.  The  spectacle  had 
allured  Reynolds  from  that  easel  which  has 
preserved  the  thoughtful  foreheads  of  so 
many  writers  and  statesmen,  and  the  sweet 
smiles  of  so  many  noble  matrons.  There 
appeared  the  voluptuous  charms  of  Mrs. 
Fitzherbert,  to  whom  the  heir  of  the  throne 
had  in  secret  plighted  his  fai^h.  There  were 
the  members  of  that  brilliant  society  which 
quoted,  criticised,  and  exchanged  repartees, 
under  the  rich  peacock  hangings  of  Mrs. 
Montague.  And  there  the  ladies,  whose  lips, 
more  persuasive  than  those  of  Fox  himself, 
had  carried  the  Westminster  election  against 
palace  and  treasury,  shone  round  Georgiana, 
Duchess  of  Devonshire. 

The  serjeants  made  proclamation.  Hast- 
ings advanced  to  the  bar,  and  bent  his  knee. 
The  culprit  was  indeed  not  unworthy  of  that 
great  presence.  He  had  ruled  an  extensive 
and  populous  country,  had  made  laws  and 
treaties,  had  sent  forth  armies,  had  set  up 
and  pulled  down  princes.  And  in  his  high 
place  he  had  so  borne  himself,  that  all  had 
feared  him,  that  most  had  loved  him,  and 
that  hatred  itself  could  deny  him  no  title  to 
glory,  except  virtue.  He  looked  like  a great 
man,  and  not  like  a bad  man.  A person 
small  and  emaciated;  yet  deriving  dignity 
from  a carriage  which,  while  it  indicated 
deference  to  the  court,  indicated  also  habitual 
self-possession  and  self-respect;  a high  and 
intellectual  forehead  ; a brow  pensive,  but  not 
gloomy ; a mouth  of  inflexible  decision ; a 
face  pale  and  worn,  but  serene, — such  was 
the  aspect  with  which  the  great  proconsul 
presented  himself  to  his  judges.  His  counsel 
accompanied  him ; men  all  of  whom  were 
afterward  raised  by  their  talents  and  learning 
to  the  highest  posts  in  their  profession — the 
bold  and  strong-minded  Law,  afterward  chief- 
justice  of  the  king’s  bench ; the  more  hu- 
mane and  eloquent  Dallas,  afterward  chief- 
justice  of  the  common  pleas ; and  Plomer, 
who,  nearly  twenty  years  later,  successfully 
conducted  in  the  same  high  court  the  defense 
of  Lord  Melville,  and  subsequently  became 
vice-chancellor  and  master  of  the  rolls. 


But  neither  the  culprit  nor  his  advocates 
attracted  so  much  notice  as  his  accusers.  In 
the  midst  of  the  blaze  of  red  drapery,  a 
space  had  been  fitted  up  with  green  benches 
and  tables  for  the  Commons.  The  managers, 
with  Burke  at  their  head,  appeared  in  full 
dress.  The  collectors  of  gossip  did  not  fail 
to  remark  that  even  Fox,  generally  so  regard- 
less of  his  appearance,  had  paid  to  the  illus- 
trious tribunal  the  compliment  of  wearing  a 
bag  and  sword.  Pitt  had  refused  to  be  one 
of  the  conductors  of  the  impeachment ; and 
his  commanding,  copious,  and  sonorous  elo- 
quence was  wanting  to  that  great  muster  of 
various  talents.  Age  and  blindness  had  un- 
fitted Lord  North  for  the  duties  of  a public 
prosecutor ; and  his  friends  were  left  without 
his  excellent  sense,  his  tact,  and  his  urbanity. 
But  in  spite  of  the  absence  of  these  two  dis- 
tinguished members  of  the  lower  house,  the 
box  in  which  the  managers  stood  contained 
an  array  of  speakers  such  as  perhaps  had 
not  appeared  together  since  the  great  age  of 
Athenian  eloquence.  There  were  Fox  and 
Sheridan,  the  English  Demosthenes  and  the 
English  Hyperides.  There  was  Burke,  igno- 
ant,  indeed,  or  negligent,  of  the  art  of  adapt- 
ing his  reasonings  and  his  style  to  the 
capacity  and  taste  of  his  hearers,  but  in 
amplitude  of  comprehension  and  richness  of 
imagination  superior  to  every  other  orator, 
ancient  or  modern.  There,  with  eyes  rever- 
ently fixed  on  Burke,  appeared  the  finest 
gentleman  of  the  age,  his  form  developed  by 
every  manly  exercise,  his  face  beaming  with 
intelligence  and  spirit — the  ingenious,  the 
chivalrous,  the  high-souled  Windham. 

The  charges  and  the  answers  of  Hastings 
were  first  read.  The  ceremony  occupied  two 
whole  days,  and  was  rendered  less  tedious 
than  it  would  otherwise  have  been,  by  the 
silver  voice  and  just  emphasis  of  Cowper,  the 
clerk  of  the  court,  a near  relation  to  the 
amiable  poet.  On  the  third  day,  Burke  rose. 
Four  sittings  were  occupied  by  his  opening 
speech,  which  was  intended  to  be  a general 
introduction  to  all  the  charges.  With  an 
exuberance  of  thought  and  a splendor  of  dic- 
tion which  more  than  satisfied  the  highly 
raised  expectation  of  the  audience,  he  de- 
scribed the  character  and  institutions  of  the 
natives  of  India,  recounted  the  circumstances 
in  which  the  Asiatic  empire  of  Britain  had 


HAS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


395 


originated,  and  set  forth  the  constitution  of 
the  company  and  of  the  English  presidencies. 
Having  thus  attempted  to.  communicate  to 
his  hearers  an  idea  of  eastern  society  as  vivid 
as  that  which  existed  in  his  own  mind,  he 
proceeded  to  arraign  the  administration  of 
Hastings,  as  systematically  conducted  in  defi- 
ance of  morality  and  public  law.  The  energy 
and  pathos  of  the  great  orator  extorted  ex- 
pressions of  unwonted  admiration  from  the 
stern  and  hostile  chancellor  [Lord  Thurlow], 
and,  for  a moment,  seemed  to  pierce  the 
resolute  heart  of  the  defendant.  The  ladies 
in  the  galleries,  unaccustomed  to  such  dis- 
plays of  eloquence,  excited  by  the  solemnity 
of  the  occasion,  and  perhaps  not  unwilling  to 
display  their  taste  and  sensibility,  were  in  a 
state  of  uncontrollable  emotion.  Handker- 
chiefs were  pulled  out ; smelling-bottles 
were  handed  round;  hysterical  cries  and 
sobs  were  heard;  and  Mrs.  Sheridan  was 
carried  out  in  a fit.  At  length  the  orator 
concluded.  Raising  his  voice,  till  the  old 
arches  of  Irish  oak  resounded,  “Therefore,” 
said  he,  “hath  it  with  all  confidence  been 
ordered  by  the  Commons  of  Great  Britain, 
that  I impeach  Warren  Hastings  of  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors.  I impeach  him 
in  the  name  of  the  Commons’  house  of  par- 
liament, whose  trust  he  has  betrayed.  I im- 
peach him  in  the  name  of  the  English  nation, 
whose  ancient  honors  he  has  sullied.  I im- 
peach him  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  India, 
whose  rights  he  has  trodden  under  foot,  and 
whose  country  he  has  turned  into  a desert. 
Lastly,  in  the  name  of  human  nature  itself, 
in  the  name  of  both  sexes,  in  the  name  of 
every  age,  in  the  name  of  every  rank,  I im- 
peach the  common  oppressor  of  all.” 

The  trial  thus  strikingly  commenced  was 
for  a time  the  great  event  of  interest  for  the 
English  public.  With  the  brilliant  speech 
of  Sheridan  in  June,  the  excitement  culmin- 
ated ; he  occupied  two  whole  days,  and  the 
hall  was  crowded  to  suffocation,  some  paying 
even  fifty  guineas  for  a place  to  hear  him. 
The  spectacle  had  now  lost  the  charm  of  nov- 
elty ; the  great  displays  of  rhetoric  were 
over ; there  remained  only  dry  details  of  evi- 
dence, and  bickerings  between  the  managers 
of  the  impeachment  and  the  counsel  for  the 
defense.  More  stirring  occurrences  diverted 
attention  from  Indian  affairs,  and  at  times 


the  impeachment  was  almost  forgotten.  A 
well  constituted  tribunal,  sitting  regularly 
six  days  in  the  week,  would  have  finished 
the  trial  in  less  than  three  months.  But  it 
was  impracticable  for  the  house  of  lords  to 
give  more  than  a few  days  to  the  impeach- 
ment, during  each  session  of  parliament ; the 
trial  was  not  terminated  till  the  spring  of 
1795.  Hastings  was  then  acquitted.  But 
he  was  a ruined  man ; the  legal  expenses  of 
his  defense  had  been  enormous,  the  other 
outlays  perhaps  still  larger.  He  was  par- 
tially reimbursed  by  an  annuity  which  his 
friends  in  the  East  India  Company  settled 
upon  him,  and  by  other  reward  that  they 
bestowed  upon  him.  The  last  twenty-four 
years  of  his  life  were  chiefly  spent  in  retire- 
ment at  Daylesford,  the  manor  of  his  ancestors, 
which,  from  boyhood,  it  had  been  his  desire 
to  recover.  He  died  Aug.  22d,  1818. 

HAUSER,  Caspar,  a personage  whose  his- 
tory is  enveloped  in  mystery,  died  at  Anspach, 
Bavaria,  of  wounds  inflicted  by  an  unknown 
assassin,  Dec.  17th,  1833.  On  the  26th  of 
May,  1828,  a youth,  apparently  about  sixteen 
or  seventeen  years  of  age,  was  found  at  one 
of  the  gates  of  Nuremberg;  he  was  unable  to 
give  any  account  of  himself,  nor  could  it  be 
discovered  who  brought  him  there,  whence 
he  came,  or  who  he  was.  He  was  four  feet 
and  nine  inches  in  height ; was  very  pale ; 
had  a short  delicate  beard  on  his  chin  and 
upper  lip;  his  limbs  were  slender;  his  feet 
bore  no  marks  of  having  been  confined  in 
shoes ; he  scarcely  knew  how  to  use  his  fin- 
gers or  hands ; and  his  attempts  to  walk  re- 
sembled the  first  efforts  of  a child.  He  under- 
stood nothing  that  was  said  to  him,  and  only 
replied  in  a few  words  of  unintelligible  gib- 
berish; his  countenance  was  expressive  of 
gross  stupidity.  He  held  in  his  hand  a letter 
addressed  to  the  captain  of  one  of  the  cavalry 
companies  of  Nuremberg,  dated  “Bavarian 
frontiers ; place  nameless.”  Its  purport  was 
that  the  bearer  had  been  left  with  the  writer, 
who  was  a poor  laborer,  in  October,  1812, 
and  who,  not  knowing  his  parents,  had 
brought  him  up  in  his  house,  without  allowing 
him  to  stir  out  of  it.  A note  accompanying 
the  letter  contained  these  words : “ His  father 
was  one  of  the  light  cavalry ; send  him,  when 
he  is  seventeen  years  old,  to  Nuremberg,  for 
his  father  was  stationed  there.  He  was  born 


HAU 


396 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


April  30th,  1812.  I am  a poor  girl,  and  can 
not  support  him ; his  father  is  dead.”  A pen 
being  put  into  his  hands,  he  wrote  in  plain 
letters  Caspar  Hauser.  He  appeared  to  be 
hungry  and  thirsty,  but  manifested  great 
aversion  to  eating  or  drinking  anything  that 
was  offered  to  him  except  bread  arid  water. 
He  fell  into  the  hands  of  persons  who  treated 
him  kindly,  and  taught  him  the  use  of  lan- 
guage ; and  he  manifested  the  most  amiable 
and  grateful  disposition.  But  he  could  give 
no  account  of  himself,  except  that,  as  far  back 
as  he  could  remember,  he  had  always  inhab- 
ited a small  cell,  continually  seated  on  the 
ground,  with  his  feet  naked,  and  having  no 
covering  except  a shirt  and  trousers,  and  he 
had  never  seen  the  sky.  When  he  awoke 
.from  sleep  he  was  accustomed  to  find  near 
him  some  bread  and  a pitcher  of  water ; but 
he  never  saw  the  face  of  the  person  who 
brought  them ; and  it  was  at  Nuremberg  that 
he  first  learnt  there  were  other  living  crea- 
tures besides  himself  and  the  man  with  whom 
he  had  always  been.  Previous  to  his  death 
Hauser  resided  at  Anspach,  where  he  had  a 
little  employment  in  the  registrar-office,  and 
Lord  Stanhope  had  also  provided  for  his  sup- 
port. Some  time  before  his  assassination,  an 
ineffectual  attempt  had  been  made  upon  his 
life,  by  the  same  assassin,  it  is  supposed,  that 
finally  inflicted  the  fatal  blow  with  a dagger. 

HAVELOCK,  Sir  Henry,  was  born  at 
Bishopwearmouth  in  1795,  and  educated  at 
the  Charter  House.  About  1813,  in  conse- 
quence of  adverse  fortune,  Ingress  Park,  his 
father’s  property  in  Kent,  was  sold  to  govern- 
ment; Havelock  was  entered  at  the  Middle 
Temple,  and  attended  the  lectures  of  Chitty, 
the  eminent  special  pleader,  where  his  most 
intimate  associate  was  Sir  Thomas  Talfourd, 
the  author  of  “Ion.”  An  elder  brother  had 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Peninsular  war 
and  at  Waterloo,  and  Henry,  yielding  to  the 
military  propensities  of  his  family,  endeavored 
to  obtain  a commission.  A month  after 
Waterloo,  he  was  appointed  second  lieutenant 
in  the  rifle  brigade. 

Havelock  served  for  eight  years  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  embarked  for  India 
in  1823.  Next  year  the  first  Burmese  war 
broke  out ; he  was  present  at  the  actions  of 
Napadee,  Patanagoh,  and  Paghan.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  was  associated  with  Cap- 


tain Lumsden  and  Dr.  Knox  on  a mission  to 
the  court  of  Ava,  and  had  an  audience  of  the 
“Golden  Foot,”  when  the  treaty  of  Yandaboo 
was  signed.  In  1827  he  published  the  “His- 
tory of  the  Ava  Campaigns.”  In  1838  he 
was  promoted  to  a captaincy,  after  having 
served  twenty-three  years  as  a subaltern.  An 
army  was  now  collected  for  the  invasion  of 
Afghanistan,  and  Havelock  accompanied  it  on 
the  staff  of  Sir  Willoughby  Cotton.  He  went 
through  the  first  Afghan  campaign,  was  pres- 
ent at  the  storming  of  Ghuznee  and  the  oc- 
cupation of  Cabul,  and  then  returned  to  India 
with  Sir  Willoughby  Cotton.  Having  ob- 
tained leave  to  visit  the  presidency,  he  pre- 
pared a “Memoir  of  the  Afghan  Campaign,” 
which  was  soon  after  printed  in  London.  He 
returned  to  the  Punjaub  in  charge  of  a detach- 
ment, and  was  placed  on  the  staff  of  Gen. 
Elphinstone,  as  Persian  interpreter. 

When  the  Eastern  Ghilzies,  having  lisen, 
blockaded  Cabul,  Havelock  was  sent  to  join 
Sir  Robert  Sale,  then  marching  back  to  India, 
and  was  present  at  the  forcing  of  the  Khoord 
Cabul  pass,  at  the  action  of  Tezeen,  and  all 
the  other  engagements  of  that  force  till  it 
reached  Jellalabad.  In  the  final  attack  on 
Mahomed  Akbar,  in  April,  1842,  which  obliged 
that  chief  to  raise  the  siege,  Havelock,  com- 
manded the  right  column,  and  defeated  him 
before  the  other  columns  could  come  up.  For 
this  he  was  promoted  to  a brevet  majority, 
and  was  made  companion  of  the  bath.  He 
was  then  nominated  Persian  interpreter  to 
General  Pollock,  and  was  present  at  the  action 
of  Mamoo  Keil,  and  the  second  engagement  at 
Tezeen.  He  proceeded  with  Sir  John  McCas- 
kill’s  force  into  the  Kohistan,  and  had  an  im- 
portant share  in  the  brilliant  affair  at  Istaliff. 
Next  year  he  was  promoted  to  a regimental 
majority,  and  nominated  Persian  interpreter 
to  the  commander-in-chief,  Sir  Hugh  Gough. 
At  the  close  of  1843  he  accompanied  the  army 
to  Gwalior,  and  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of 
Maharajore.  In  1844  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  by  brevet.  In  1 845 
he  proceeded  with  the  army  to  meet  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Sikhs,  and  was  actively  engaged  in 
the  battles  of  Moodkee,  Ferozeshah,  and  So- 
braon.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  Sutlej  cam- 
paign he  was  appointed  deputy  adjutant-gen- 
eral of  the  queen’s  troops  at  Bombay.  The 
second  Sikh  war  now  broke  out,  and  his  elder 


HAV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


397 


brother,  Coi.  William  Havelock,  was  killed  at 
Kamnuggur.  His  own  regiment  having  been 
ordered  into  the  field,  he  quitted  his  staff*  em- 
ployment at  Bombay,  in  order  to  join  it,  and 
had  proceeded  as  far  as  Indore  when  his  fur- 
ther progress  was  countermanded,  and  he  re- 
turned to  his  post. 

Twenty-five  years  of  incessant  and  laborious 
service  now  began  to  tell  on  his  constitution, 
and  his  medical  adviser  in  1849  sent  him  to 
Europe  for  two  years,  for  the  restoration  of 
his  health.  He  returned  to  Bombay  in  1851, 
and  was  soon  after  made  brevet-colonel,  and 
appointed,  through  the  kindness  of  Lord  Har- 
dinge,  by  whose  side  he  had  fought  in  the 
three  battles  of  the  Sutlej,  quartermaster-gen- 
eral, and  then  adjutant-general,  of  the  queen’s 
troops  in  India.  On  the  dispatch  of  the  ex- 
pedition to  Persia,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
second  division,  and  commanded  the  troops  at 
Mohammerah,  the  glory  of  which  action  was, 
however,  reserved  for  the  naval  force.  On 
the  conclusion  of  peace  he  returned  to  Bom- 
bay, and  embarked  in  the  Erin  for  Calcutta, 
in  which  vessel  he  was  wrecked,  in  1857,  off* 
the  coast  of  Ceylon.  Five  days  after,  he  ob- 
tained a passage  in  the  Fire  Queen,  and  on 
reaching  Calcutta,  was  immediately  sent  up 
to  Allahabad  as  brigadier-general,  to  command 
the  movable  column,  to  act  against  the  insur- 
gent sepoys. 

He  first  attacked  the  mutineers  at  Futty- 
pore,  on  the  12th  of  July;  on  the  15th,  at 
Asung,  and  at  Pandoo  Nuddee;  on  the  16th 
at  Cawnpore,  he  had  a horse  shot  under  him, 
and  the  enemy  lost  twenty-three  guns.  Ad- 
vancing from  Cawnpore  on  the  29th,  he  cap- 
tured Oonao,  Busserut  Gunge,  and  nineteen 
guns.  This  position  he  was  obliged  to  give 
up,  but  he  retook  it  on  the  5th  of  August, 
inflicting  great  slaughter.  On  the  12th  of 
August  he  again  defeated  the  mutineers,  and 
on  the  16th  attacked  them  at  Bithoor.  Event- 
ually receiving  reinforcements  under  Sir  James 
Outram,  he  entered  Lucknow  on  the  25th  of 
September,  and  held  his  ground  there  until 
the  garrison  was  finally  relieved  by  Sir  Colin 
Campbell  on  the  17th  of  November.  The 
severe  toils  of,  the  campaign  had  told  upon 
the  gallant  general’s  health ; he  died  on  the 
24th  of  November,  1857.  Havelock  was  as 
conspicuous  for  his  piety  as  for  his  briery. 

HAWKE,  Lord  Edward,  a gallant  English 


admiral,  the  son  of  a barrister,  was  born  in 
1713,  and  entered  the  naval  service  as  a mid- 
shipman at  the  age  of  twelve.  In  1744  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the  action  of  Toulon. 
November  20th,  1759,  he  gained  a great  vic- 
tory over  the  French  fleet  commanded  by  Con- 
flans  in-fQuiberon  Bay,  though  it  was  a lee 
shore,  and  the  sea  ran  high  in  the  midst  of  a 
storm.  The  projected  invasion  of  England 
was  thus  defeated.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1776,  a few  years  after  he  had  been 
appointed  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  He  died 
Oct.  14th,  1781. 

HAYDN,  Francis  Josepii,  an  eminent  com- 
poser, the  author  of  the  great  oratorio  of  the 
“ Creation,”  was  born  near  Vienna,  in  March, 
1732.  He  visited  England,  but  spent  most  of 
bis  life  at  Vienna,  near  which  place  he  died, 
May  31st,  1809. 

HAYNE,  Isaac,  a native  of  South  Carolina, 
distinguished  himself  by  his  services  during 
the  Revolution.  After  the  capture  of  Charles- 
ton, he  took  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  Great 
Britain,  with  the  express  stipulation  that  he 
should  not  bear  arms  against  his  country. 
When,  in  violation  of  British  promises,  he 
was  summoned  to  join  the  British  standard, 
he  refused,  and  was  in  consequence  condemned 
by  a court  of  inquiry,  and  hanged,  on  the  4th 
of  August,  1781.  . 

HAYTI  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  West 
Indian  islands,  lying  between  Jamaica  and 
Porto  Rico,  having  an  area  of  29,000  square 
miles.  It  is  sometimes  called  St.  Domingo 
and  sometimes  Hispaniola.  In  the  centre 
rises  a lofty  mountain  range,  its  sides  covered 
with  vegetation,  and  noble  woods,  and  leaping 
streams  that  fertilize  the  plains  below.  The 
principal  productions  of  the  island  are  coffee, 
the  sugar-cane  (for  making  rum),  cotton,  cat- 
tle, and  some  tobacco.  Here  Columbus  found- 
ed his  first  colony,  under  the  name  of  Hispan- 
iola. After  the  rapacity  of  the  Spaniards  had 
drained  the  gold-mines,  and  their  cruelty  had 
extirpated  the  natives,  St.  Domingo  was  neg- 
lected for  the  richer  lands  of  Peru  and  Mexico. 
In  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  the  French  gained 
the  western  third  of  the  island,  which  in  their 
hands  attained  a prosperity  and  opulence  sur- 
passing not  only  the  Spanish  part,  but  the 
whole  Spanish  West  Indies. 

When  in  1791  the  French  revolution  de- 
clared all  men  free  and  equal,  the  slaves  of  St. 


398 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Domingo  carried  the  doctrine  out  for  them- 
selves: they  drove  out  their  former  task- 
masters with  dreadful  slaughter.  Toussaint 
l’Ouverture  established  a republic  in  1801. 
After  he  had  been  treacherously  borne  off  to 
France,  the  negroes  rallied  under  Dessalines, 
who  set  up  a military  despotism  and  called 
himself  James  I.  Dessalines  restored  the 
name  of  Hayti,  by  which  the  natives  called 
the  island  when  Columbus  discovered  it. 
After  his  murder  in  1806,  French  Hispaniola 
was  divided  into  two  states : the  northern 
coast  was  formed  into  a negro  republic  under 
Christophe,  who  in  1811  took  the  title  of 
Emperor  Henry  I. ; the  plains  about  Port  au 
Prince  became  a mulatto  republic  under 
Petion.  Continual  war  subsisted  between 
these  two  states.  Boyer  in  1813  succeeded 
Petion  as  president:  Christophe  committed 
suicide  in  1820,  and  Boyer  subjected  not  only 
his  empire,  but  Spanish  Hispaniola  also. 
Boyer  was  deposed  in  1844,  and  a struggle 
for  power  ensued,  which  terminated  in  March, 
1847,  by  the  election  of  Gen.  Faustin  So- 
louque  as  president.  He  declared  himself,  in 
Aug.  1849,  emperor.  Gen.  Fabre  Geffrard 
proclaimed  a republic  at  Gonaives,  Dec.  22, 
1808,  and  Faustin  was  forced  to  abdicate. 
Geffrard  has  since  been  president.  The  cap- 
ital is  Port-au-Prince.  The  eastern  part  of 
the  island  made  itself  an  independent  repub- 
lic (of  San  Domingo)  under  Gen.  Santana, 
Feb.  27,  1844,  who,  however,  being  gained 
over  by  Spain,  proclaimed,  March  16,  1861, 
that  San  Domingo  was  re-u*nited  to  Spain. 
Hostilities  followed,  but  in  1865,  the  Spanish 
forces  were  obliged  to  evacuate  the  island 
and  it  was  left  still  free. 

JIAZLITT,  William,  an  able  critic  on 
poetry,  the  drama,  and  the  fine  arts,  was  the 
son  of  a Unitarian  minister  in  Shropshire. 
He  died  in  London,  Sept.  18th,  1830,  at  the 
age  of  fifty-two. 

HEATH,  William,  born  at  Roxbury,  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  1737,  and  died  in  his  native 
place,  Jan.  24th,  1814,  aged  seventy-seven. 
Amongst  the  first  to  take  up  arms  in  favor  of 
his  insulted  country,  he  was  appointed  by 
the  provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts,  in 
1775,  a brigadier-general,  and  was  by  the 
continental  congress,  in  1776,  raised  to  the 
rank  of  major-general.  He  commanded  on 
the  Hudson  in  1779.  He  M as  the  last  sur- 


vivor of  the  major-generals  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. 

HEBER,  Reginald,  was  the  son  of  a cler- 
gyman in  Cheshire.  At  Brazennose,  Oxford, 
he  ranked  high  for  his  scholastic  attainments 
and  poetical  abilities.  He  relinquished  tempt- 
ing prospects  at  home  to  accept  the  arduous 
bishopric  of  Calcutta,  in  1823.  His  earnest 
labors  were  cut  short  by  an  apoplectic  stroke, 
April  1st,  1826,  in  the  forty -third  year  of  his 
age. 

HECTOR,  the  brave  son  of  Priam,  King 
of  Troy,  killed  by  Achilles. 

HECUBA,  daughter  of  Dymas,  King  of 
Thrace,  and  second  wife  of  Priam.  She  sur- 
vived the  fall  of  Troy  but  a short  time,  and 
was  stoned  to  death  by  the  Greeks,  who  were 
exasperated  at  her  bitter  reproaches. 

HEGEL,  George  William  Frederick,  an 
eminent  German  metaphysician,  born  at 
Stuttgardt  1770,  died  at  Berlin,  Nov.  14th, 
1831. 

HEGIRA,  the  flight  of  Mohammed  from 
Mecca  to  Medina,  from  which  era  the  Moham- 
medans begin  their  computation  of  time. 
They  fix  it  on  the  16th  of  July,  a.d.  622. 

HELEN,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  Leda, 
wife  of  Tyndarus,  as  it  is  fabled,  by  Jupiter, 
who  introduced  himself  to  her  notice  in*  the 
form  of  a swan.  She  married  Menelaus, 
whom  she  forsook  for  Paris,  son  of  Priam, 
who  bore  her  to  Troy,  and  thus  kindled 
the  flame  of  war  between  the  Greeks  and 
Trojans.  She  was  received  by  Menelaus 
after  the  fall  of  Troy,  but  on  his  death  was 
murdered  by  Polyxo  of  Argos,  the  widow  of 
one  of  the  warriors  killed  before  Troy. 

HELIOGABALUS.  Marcus  Aurelius  An- 
toninus, a Roman  emperor,  son  of  Yarius 
Marcellus,  was  called  Heiiogabalus,'  from 
having  been  a priest  of  the  sun  in  Phoenicia. 
At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  invested  with 
the  purple  on  the  death  of  Macrinus,  but  his 
cruelty  and  licentiousness  were  such  that  his 
subjects  rose  against  him,  and  his  head  was 
severed  from  his  body,  March  10th,  a.d.  222, 
in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  age.  He  bur- 
thened  his  subjects  with  the  most  oppressive 
taxes ; his  halls  were  covered  with  carpets  of 
gold  and  silver  tissue ; his  mats  were  made 
with  the  down  of  hares  and  the  soft  feathers 
foun(^  under  the  wings  of  pari  ridges.  He 
often  invited  the  lowest  of  the  people  to  share 


HEL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


399 


his  banquets,  and  made  them  sit  down  on 
large  bellows  full  of  wind,  which,  by  suddenly 
emptying  themselves,  threw  the  guests  on  the 
ground,  and  left  them  a prey  to  wild  beasts. 
He  tied  some  of  his  favorites  to  a large  wheel, 
and  was  particularly  delighted  to  see  them 
whirled  round  like  Ixion,  alternately  sus- 
pended in  the  air  and  plunged  beneath  the 
water. 

HELLE,  in  fable,  a daughter  of  Athamas 
and  Nephese,  who,  to  escape  from  the  perse- 
cution of  her  step-mother  Ino,  trusted  herself 
to  the  back  of  a golden  ram,  from  which  she 
fell  and  was  drowned  in  that  part  of  the  sea 
called  the  Hellespont,  now  the  Dardanelles. 

HEMANS.  Felicia  Dorothea  Browne 
was  born  at  Liverpool,  September  25th,  1793. 
Her  union  with  Capt.  Hemans  in  1812  proved 
an  unhappy  one,  and  they  separated  in  1818. 
Her  poems  are  marked  by  beautiful  purity 
of  sentiment  and  gentle  pathos.  The  grace- 
ful poetess  died  at  Dublin,  May  lGth,  1835. 

HENGIST,  the  first  Saxon  king  of  Kent, 
about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  He  was 
invited  to  the  aid  of  the  Britons  against  the 
Scots  and  Piets,  and  received  from  the  hands 
of  Vortigern  the  whole  of  Kent,  for  which  he 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage.  However,  he 
leagued  with  the  enemies  of  Britain,  and 
committed  great  ravages  beyond  the  limits 
of  his  territory.  He  died  in  the  year  488. 

HENRY  I.  of  France.  Constance  his  moth- 
er endeavored  to  set  his  younger  brother, 
Robert,  upon  the  throne  ; but,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Robert  IT.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  Henry 
defeated  the  queen’s  army,  and  obliged  his 
brother  to  content  himself  with  the  dukedom 
of  Burgundy.  In  his  time  Pope  Leo  IX. 
held  a council  at  Rheims  in  France,  and  the 
Normans  headed  by  Robert  Guiscard,  took 
Naples  and  Sicily  from  the  Saracens.  He 
died  Aug.  4th,  1060. 

HENRY  IV.  of  France,  called  the  Great, 
born  in  1553,  was  son  of  Anthony  of  Bour- 
bon, Duke  of  Vendome,  and  Jeanne  d’Albret, 
Queen  of  Navarre.  After  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  he  signalized  himself  against 
the  leaguers,  and  on  the  death  of  Henry  III. 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  taking  the  title  of 
King  of  France  and  Navarre.  His  enemies 
endeavored  in  vain  to  make  the  old  Cardinal 
de  Bourbon  king  under  the  title  of  Charles 
X.  Henry  was  victorious  at  Arques,  Ivry, 


and  elsewhere.  Although,  to  make  sure  of  his 
crown,  he  embraced  Catholicism,  he  secured 
the  Huguenots  by  the  edict  of  Nantes.  With 
the  aid  of  his  able  minister,  the  Duke  of  Sully, 
he  did  much  to  raise  the  country  from  the 
plight  into  which  misrule  and  contention  had 
plunged  it.  The  Duke  de  Biron’s  execution, 
in  1602,  was  the  only  example  of  severity  in 
his  reign  ; and  France  had  enjoyed  peace  for 
sixteen  years,  when  the  fanatic  Ravaillac,  with 
a knife,  stabbed  the  king  in  his  coach  at  Paris, 
May  14th,  1610,  when  on  the  eve  of  march- 
ing to  fight  on  the  side  of  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Germany.  Henry  was  an  able  and 
popular  prince.  Amours  were  the  great 
blemishes  upon  his  character,  and  he  set  a 
pernicious  example  that  his  subjects  were  but 
too  ready  to  follow.  His  first  wife  was  Mar- 
garet de  Valois,  sister  of  Charles  IX. ; after 
her  divorce  he  wedded  Marie  de  Medicis,  who 
was  regent  after  his  death. 

HENRY  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  son  of 
Otho,  Duke  of  Saxony,  succeeded  Conrad,  his 
brother-in-law,  in  919.  He  reduced  Arnold, 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  vanquished  the  Hunga- 
rians, Bohemians,  Sclavonians,  and  Danes. 
He  took  the  kingdom  of  Lorraine  from  Charles 
the  Simple,  defeated  the  Hungarians  a second 
time,  and  killed  8,000  of  their  number.  He 
died  of  an  apoplexy  in  936. 

HENRY  III.  of  Franconia,  surnamed  the 
Black,  succeeded  Conrad  II.  in  1039.  He  de- 
feated the  Bohemians  (that  denied  him  tribute) 
in  his  second  campaign,  and  restored  Peter  to 
the  throne  of  Hungary,  whence  his  subjects 
had  driven  him  in  1043 ; reduced  the  petty 
princes  of  Italy,  and  made  war  on  the  Hunga- 
rians. He  died  at  Bothfeld  in  Saxony,  in  1056. 

HENRY  I.  of  England,  the  youngest  son 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  was  born  in  1068. 
Upon  the  death  of  his  brother  William  Rufus 
in  1100,  he  hastened  to  Winchester,  secured 
the  royal  treasure,  and  usurped  the  crown. 
He  removed  the  odious  restrictions  of  the 
curfew ; his  marriage  with  Matilda,  daughter 
of  Malcolm,  King  of  Scotland,  and  also  a de- 
scendant of  the  ancient  Saxon  line,  still  fur- 
ther ingratiated  him  with  the  common  peo- 
ple. Robert,  the  eldest  son  of'  the  Conqueror, 
having  returned  from  Palestine  to  his  duchy 
of  Normandy,  difficulties  arose  between  the 
brothers;  Henry  invaded  Robert’s  domain, 
and  in  the  battle  of  Tinchebray  (1106)  the 


HEN 


400 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


latter  was  defeated  and  captured.  Henry- 
reigned  over  Normandy,  and  Robert,  for  the 
remaining  eight  and  twenty  years  of  his  life, 
lay  imprisoned  in  Cardiff  Castle.  Queen 
Matilda  died  May  1st,  1119;  she  had  borne 
the  king  one  daughter,  Maud,  or  Matilda,  who 
had  wedded  Henry  Y.  of  Germany,  and  one 
son,  Prince  William.  In  1120  Henry  passed 
over  to  Normandy  with  his  son,  that  the 
barons  of  the  duchy  might  pay  their  homage 
to  the  young  prince.  On  the  voyage  home, 
the  crew  of  Prince  William’s,  vessel  were  in 
liquor  ;*  she  struck  upon  the  rocks  near  Bar- 
fleur ; only  one  of  the  many  lives  on  board 
was  spared,  that  of  a butcher  of  Rouen. 
Prince  William,  his  newly  married  bride,  his 
bastard  brother  Richard,  his  fair  cousin  Lucia, 
and  the  throng  of  gay  nobles  composing  his 
retinue, — all  were  drowned.  * King  Henry, 
Some  say,  never  smiled  again.  In  1129  he 
married  Adelais,  daughter  of  Godfrey,  Earl 
of  Louvaine ; she  survived  him.  Henry  died 
Dec.  1st,  1135,  of  a surfeit  of  lampreys,  a 
fish  of  which  he  was  inordinately  fond.  This 
king’s  scholarship  so  far  surpassed  the  ordi- 
nary attainments  of  his  time  that  he  was 
surnamed  Beauclerc. 

HENRY  II.,  III.,  IY.,  Y.,  YI.,  Kings  of 
England.  [ See  Plantagenet.] 

HENRY  YII.,  VIII.,  Kings  of  England. 
[See  Tudor.] 

HENRY,  Matthew,  the  celebrated  com- 
mentator on  the  Scriptures,  was  born  in  1662 
in  Flintshire,  whither  his  parents  had  retired 
after  his  father,  Rev.  Philip  Henry,  was 
ejected  from  his  parish  for  nonconforming. 
Matthew  became  a dissenting  minister  at 
Chester,  where  he  continued  with  great  use- 
fulness for  twenty -five  years.  In  1712  he 
removed  to  Hackney,  near  London.  Of  sev- 
eral theological  works  put  forth  by  this  excel- 
lent divine,  the  largest  and  best  known  is  his 
Commentary  on  the  Bible,  which  he  did  not 
live  to  complete.  He  died  of  apoplexy  in 
June,  1714. 

HENRY,  Patrick,  son  of  John  Henry,  was 
born  in  the  colony  of  Virginia,  May  29th, 
1736.  Passionately  addicted  to  field  sports, 
and  averse  to  toil  of  any  kind,  even  the  ele. 
ments  of  education  were  mastered  by  him 
with  distaste,  although  he  had  a strong  mind 
and  a retentive  memory.  At  the  age  of  eight- 
een he  married  Miss  Skelton,  and  settled  on 


a farm ; but  agricultural  as  well  as  mercan- 
tile pursuits,  in  which  he  had  previously 
embarked,  possessed  no  charm  for  him,  and 
he  was  unsuccessful.  As  a final  effort,  he 
resolved  to  attempt  the  law,  and  was  licensed 
to  practice  after  six  weeks'  preparatory  study. 
For  several  years  his  practice  was  limited  and 
the  wants  of  his  family  extreme.  The  first 
argument  that  he  made  was  in  1763,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  clergy’s  tobacco  stipend.  His 
eloquence  electrified  his  hearers,  gained  his 
cause,  and  put  him  at  once  in  the  front  rank 
of  his  profession.  In  1765  he  was  elected 
member  of  the  house  of  burgesses,  and  intro- 
duced his  celebrated  resolutions  on  the  stamp 
act.  In  the  midst  of  the  debate  on  this 
occasion,  he  exclaimed,  “ Caesar  had  his 
Brutus,  Charles  the  First  his  Cromwell,  and 

George  the  Third” “Treason!”  cried  the 

speaker — “ Treason,  treason  ! ” echoed  from 
every  part  of  the  house.  Henry  faltered  not 
for  an  instant,  but,  taking  a loftier  attitude, 
and  fixing  on  the  speaker  an  eye  of  fire,  he 

added “ may  profit  by  their  example.  If 

this  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it.”  Henry 
served  his  country  in  various  posts,  was  sent 
to  the  congress  at  Philadelphia  in  1774,  took 
the  field,  and  was  elected  governor  of  the 
commonwealth  of  Virginia.  In  1791  he 
retired  from  public  life,  and  died  June  6th, 
1799.  His  eloquence  was  manly  and  con- 
vincing, and  his  voice  powerful’  and  musical. 
The  following  was  his  language  in  1775: 

“It  is  vain,  sir,  to  extenuate  the  matter. 
Gentlemen  may  cry,  peace , peace — but  there 
is  no  peace.  The  war  is  actually  begun. 

“ The  next  gale  that  sweeps  from  the  north 
will  bring  to  our  ears  the  clash  of  resounding 
arms ! Our  brethren  are  already  in  the  field  ! 
Why  stand  we  here  idle  ? What  is  it  that  gen- 
tlemen wish  ? What  would  they  have  ? Is 
life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  pur- 
chased at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery? 
Forbid  it,  Almighty  God!— I know  not  what 
course  others  may  take,  but  as  for  me,  give 
me  liberty  or  give  me  death!" 

He  took  his  seat.  No  murmur  of  applause 
was  heard.  The  effect  was  too  deep.  After 
the  trance  of  a moment,  several  members 
started  from  their  seats.  The  cry,  “ To  arms,” 
seemed  to  quiver  on  every  lip,  and  gleam 
from  every  eye ! Richard  Henry  Lee  arose 
and  supported  Mr.  Henry  with  his  usual 


HEN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


401 


spirit  and  elegance.  But  his  melody  was  lost 
amidst  the  agitations  of  that  ocean  which  the 
master  spirit  of  the  storm  had  lifted  up  on 
high.  That  supernatural  voice  still  sounded 
in  their  ears  and  shivered  along  their  arte- 
ries. They  heard,  in  every  pause,  the  cry 
of  liberty  or  death.  They  became  impatient 
of  speech ; their  souls  were  on  fire  for  action. 

HERCULANEUM,  an  ancient  city  not  far 
from  Naples,  which  was  buried  by  an  erup- 
tion of  Vesuvius,  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  Aug. 
24th,  a.d.  79.  It  has  been  excavated,  and 
presents  a most  curious  and  interesting  spec- 
tacle. The  same  eruption  destroyed  Pompeii. 

HERCULES,  a fabulous  Grecian  hero,  the 
son  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmena,  the  wife  of  Am- 
phitryon, king  of  Thebes.  In  vain  did  the 
jealous  Juno  send  two  serpents  to  kill  the 
young  hero  in  his  cradle : he  strangled  them 
both,  and  thus  displayed  to  all  the  divinity 
of  his  origin.  He  had  to  combat  for  a long 
time  the  enmity  of  Juno,  who  exacted  of  him 
twelve  labors,  independently  of  other  signal 
actions  which  he  performed.  1.  He  killed 
the  Ncmcan  lion,  to  deliver  the  kingdom  of 
Mycene,  and  wore  his  skin  in  the  remainder 
of  his  exploits.  2.  He  slew  the  Lernean 
hydra,  whose  heads  multiplied  sevenfold  on 
being  severed.  3.  He  brought  to  Eurystheus 
upon  his  shoulders,  the  Erymanthean  boar, 
an  animal  of  a prodigious  size.  4.  He  sub- 
dued the  golden-horned  and  brazen-hoofed 
stag  of  Diana.  5.  He  destroyed  with  his 
arrows  the  foul  Stymphalian  birds  of  extra- 
ordinary size  and  voracity.  6.  He  cleansed 
the  Augaean  stables.  7.  He  tamed  the 
furious  bull  of  Crete.  8.  He  gave  Diomedes 
to  be  devoured  by  his  own  horses,  which  had 
been  fed  on  human  flesh.  9.  He  vanquished 
the  Amazons,  whose  queen,  Hippolyta,  he 
gave  in  marriage  to  his  friend  Theseus.  10. 
He  brought  the  oxen  of  Geryon,  king  of  Spain, 
to  Greece.  This  was  only  effected  by  killing 
this  monarch,  formidable  for  his  triple  head. 

11.  He  obtained  the  golden  apples  of  the  gar- 
den of  the  Hesperides,  by  killing  the  dragon 
with  a hundred  heads  that  guarded  them. 

12.  He  dragged  away  Cerberus,  the  three- 
headed dog  that  watched  the  gate  of  hell, 
into  which  he  descended  twice,  once  with  his 
friend  Theseus,  and  afterward  to  seek  the 
queen  Alceste,  who  devoted  herself  to  death 
for  her  husband  Admetus. 

26 


The  centaur  Nessus  having  insulted  De- 
janira,  the  wife  of  Hercules,  the  hero  killed 
him  with  an  arrow,  the  barb  of  which  was 
poisoned  with  the  blood  of  the  Lernean  hydra. 
The  dying  centaur  persuaded  Dejanira  to  give 
a tunic  dipped  in  his  blood  to  her  husband, 
in  token  of  reconciliation.  Hercules  had  no 
sooner  clothed  himself  in  this  garment  than 
he  perceived  that  he  was  poisoned  by  it.  He 
accordingly,  with  the  help  of  Philoctetes, 
built  a funeral  pile  on  Mount  (Eta,  and  ex- 
pired in  the  flames.  But  Jupiter  received 
him  in  the  ranks  of  the  gods,  and  gave  him 
in  marriage  Hebe,  the  beautiful  goddess  of 
youth.  Hercules  is  generally  represented 
as  a robust  man,  leaning  on  his  club.  On 
his  shoulders  he  wears  the  skin  of  the  Ne- 
mean  lion,  and  in  his  hands  he  holds  the 
Hesperian  fruit. 

Abyla,  a mountain  of  Africa,  and  Calpe 
(now  Gibraltar)  directly  opposite,  were  for- 
merly called  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  from  a 
tradition  that  this  Samson  of  the  Greeks 
forced  them  asunder  to  form  a junction 
between  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Mediterranean.  In  this  tale  we  perceive  the 
reminiscence  of  a great  convulsion  of  nature 
that  separated  Europe  and  Africa. 

HERO  and  LEANDER.  Their  amour  is 
famous.  Their  fidelity  was  so  great,  and 
their  love  so  ardent,  that  Leander  frequently, 
in  the  night,  eluded  the  vigilance  of  his  fam- 
ily, and  swam  the  Hellespont  from  Abydos 
to  Sestos,  while  Hero,  a beautiful  priestess  of 
Venus,  held  a burning  torch  as  a beacon  to 
guide  his  course.  After  many  stolen  trysts, 
thus  obtained,  Leander  was  drowned  one 
stormy  night ; and  Hero,  in  despair,  threw 
herself  from  her  tower,  and  perished  in  the 
sea,  627  b.c.  The  Hellespont  is  now  called 
the  strait  of  the  Dardanelles.  [/See  Abydos.] 

HERMANN,  the  deliverer  of  Germany 
from  the  Roman  yoke,  was  born  18  b.c.  He 
was  educated  at  Rome,  and  honored  by  Au- 
gustus with  the  knighthood,  and  the  rights 
of  citizenship.  But  from  attachment  to  the 
land  of  his  birth,  he  instigated  the  Germans 
to  revolt.  After  various  fortunes  he  was 
assassinated  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  his 
age. 

HEROD,  surnamed  the  Great,  wras  born 
at  Ascalon,  Judea,  b.c.  71.  He  reigned  in 
Judea  as  a vassal  of  the  Romansv  and  ren- 


HER 


402 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


dered  himself  odious  by  his  tyranny.  As 
he  knew  that  the  day  of  his  death  would 
become  a day  of  mirth  and  festivity,  he 
ordered  the  most  illustrious  of  his  subjects  to 
be  confined  and  murdered  the  very  instant 
he  expired,  that  every  eye  in  the  kingdom 
might  seem  to  shed  tears  at  the  death  of 
Herod.  This  order  was  never  executed.  He 
died  a dreadful  death  in  the  seventieth  year 
of  his  age,  after  a reign  of  forty  years,  which 
was  rendered  memorable  by  the  birth  of 
Christ. 

HERODOTUS,  ‘the  Father  of  History,’ 
born  at  Halicarnassus  in  Caria,  b.c.  484, 
flourished  b.c.  440  ; time  of  his  death  un- 
known. His  history  includes  a period  of 
234  years,  from  b.c.  713  to  479. 

HERRINGS,  Battle  of  the.  This  battle 
was  fought  in  1429,  when  the  English  were 
besieging  Orleans.  The  Due  de  Bourbon, 
trying  to  cut  off  a convoy  from  the  English 
camp,  was  severely  beaten.  The  convoy 
being  laden  with  herrings,  the  battle  thence 
had  its  ludicrous  name. 

HERSCHEL,  Sir  William,  born  in  Hano- 
ver, November  15th,  1738,  came  to  England 
in  1757,  and  was  at  first  a humble  musician. 
Love  of  science  led  him  to  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  astronomy.  Too  poor  to 
purchase  a telescope,  he  constructed  one 
with  his  own  hands,  grinding  and  polishing 
the  specula  himself.  He  completed  in  1774 
a five  feet  Newtonian  reflector  with  which  he 
could  see  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  and  the 
belt  of  Saturn.  He  discovered  the  planet 
Uranus  in  1781.  He  died  August  25th,  1822. 

HESSE-CASSEL,  an  electorate,  and  a 
member  of  the  Germanic  confederacy,  con- 
taining 736,392  inhabitants  in  1855.  The 
sovereigns  of  Hesse-Cassel  formerly  filled 
their  coffers  by  hiring  out  their  subjects  as 
mercenaries  in  foreign  wars.  Several  thou- 
sand Hessians  were  employed  by  the  British 
in  the  American  Revolution.  The  grand 
duchy  of  Hesse  Darmstadt  has  854,314  in- 
habitants, and  the  little  landgraviate  of  Hesse 
Homburg,  25,000. 

HEWES,  Joseph,  a signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  at  Kingston, 
N.  J.,  in  1730.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton, 
became  a merchant,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty 
settled  in  North  Carolina.  After  sitting  sev- 
eral years  in  the  colonial  assembly,  he  was 


elected  to  Congress  in  1774.  He  was  com- 
pelled by  sickness  to  leave  his  seat  in  1779, 
and  died  Nov.  10th  of  that  year. 

HEYWARD,  Thomas,  Jr.,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  a native  of 
St,  Luke’s,  S.  C.,  born  in  1746.  Having 
studied  law  at  the  Temple  in  London,  he 
practiced  his  profession  in  his  native  state, 
and  soon  entered  upon  political  life.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1775,  and  left  that 
body  in  1778  to  fill  a judicial  station  at  home. 
He  commanded  a battalion  of  militia  during 
the  siege  of  Charleston,  was  made  prisoner 
upon  the  surrender,  and  sent  with  others  to 
St.  Augustine.  He  retired  from  public  life 
in  1778,  and  died  in  March,  1809. 

HIERO  I.,  a king  of  Syracuse  after  his 
brother  Gelon,  rendered  himself  odious  by 
his  tyranny  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign. 
He  made  war  against  Theron,  the  tyrant  of 
Agrigentum,  and  took  Himera.  He  obtained 
three  different  crowns  at  the  Olympic  games, 
two  in  horse-races,  and  one  in  a chariot-race. 
The  first  Olympic  ode  of  Pindar  is  inscribed 
to  him,  and  mention  is  made  of  his  horse 
Phrenicus,  by  which  he  was  the  winner  of 
the  Olympic  crown.  The  ancient  races  were 
somewhat  different  from  the  modern ; at  the 
former,  honor  alone  was  the  reward  of  the 
winner,  and  no  one  lost  either  his  character 
or  his  money.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign, 
the  conversation  of  Simonides,  Epicharmus, 
Pindar,  &c.,  softened  the  roughness  of  Hiero’s 
manners  and  the  severity  of  his  government, 
and  tended  to  render  him  the  patron  of  learn- 
ing, genius,  and  merit.  He  died  after  a reign 
of  eighteen  years,  b.c.  467,  leaving  the  crown 
to  his  brother  Thrasybulus,  who  disgraced  it 
by  his  tyranny. 

HIERO  II.,  a descendant  of  Gelon,  reigned 
about  two  hundred  years  after  the  preceding. 
He  was  appointed  to  carry  on  the  war  against 
the  Carthaginians.  He  joined  his  enemies  in 
besieging  Messina,  which  had  surrendered  to 
the  Romans;  but  he  was  beaten  by  Appius 
Claudius,  the  Roman  consul,  and  obliged  to 
retir ) to  Syracuse,  where  he  was  soon  blocked 
up.  Seeing  all  hopes  of  victory  lost,  he  made 
peace  with  the  Romans  and  proved  so  faith- 
ful to  his  engagements,  during  the  fifty-nine 
years  of  his  reign,  that  the  Romans  never 
had  a more  firm  or  attached  ally.  He  died 
in  the  ninety -fourth  year  of  his  age,  about  225 


HIE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


403 


HIERUU  LY  RHICS. 


b.c.  He  was  universally  regretted,  and  all 
the  Sicilians  showed  by  their  lamentations 
that  they  had  lost  a common  father  and  a 
friend.  He  liberally  patronized  the  learned, 
and  employed  the  talents  of  Archimedes  for 
the  good  of  his  country. 

HIEROGLYPHICS,  or  ‘sacred engraving,’ 
was  the  name  given  first  to  the  sculptures 
and  inscriptions  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt : 
it  is  now  often  used  to  denote  simply  picture 
writing,  which  is  seen  in  its  rudest  state 
upon  the  buffalo  skins  of  our  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,  &c.  A new  charm  was  given  to 
similar  sculptures,  and  indeed  to  the  study 
of  antiquity  in  general,  by  Champollion’s  dis- 
covery of  the  key  to  these  so  long  inexplica- 
ble mysteries.  This  indefatigable  scholar, 
after  many  years  of  toil,  at  last  succeeded 
in  deciphering  every  inscription  presented  to 


him  ! He  discovered  that  these  hieroglyphics 
were  usually  employed  as  mere  alphabetic 
letters ; that  when  thus  read,  they  yield 
regular  compositions  in  the  Coptic  or  old 
Egyptian  language. 

The  hieroglyphic  writing  is  eminently 
monumental.  It  is,  from  the  nature  of  the 
signs  which  it  employs,  a species  of  painting, 
and  it  presents  a various  and  picturesque 
aspect  which  distinguishes  it  essentially  from 
every  other  method  of  writing.  The  hiero- 
glyphic characters  do  in  fact  exhibit  images 
of  almost  every  material  object  in  creation : 
celestial  bodies,  human  figures  in  various 
positions,  human  limbs  taken  separately, 
wild  and  domestic  quadrupeds,  limbs  of  ani- 
mals, birds,  fishes,  reptiles,  insects,  vegeta- 
bles, plants,  flowers,  and  fruits,  buildings, 
furniture,  coverings  for  feet  and  legs,  head- 


HIE 


404 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


dresses,  weapons,  ornaments  and  sceptres, 
tools  and  instruments  of  various  sorts,  vases, 
cups,  and  the  like,  geometrical  figures,  and 
fantastic  forms.  The  figures  are  arranged  in 
columns,  vertical  or  horizontal,  and  grouped 
together,  as  circumstances  required,  so  as  to 
leave  no  spaces  unnecessarily  vacant.  We 
can  not  go  into  a detailed  account  of  the  vari- 
ous methods  of  Egyptian  writing,  but  give 
a familiar  specimen  of  the  phonetic  and  al- 
phabetic, an  illustration  of  which  is  pre- 
sented on  the  preceding  page.  To  write 
the  word  ‘Boston’  (see  cut,  A),  for  ‘b’  the 
Egyptians  would  look  for  some  familiar  ob- 
ject, the  name  of  which  began  with  ‘b,’  say 
a censer,  which  is  called  in  Egyptian  berbe, 
and  the  engraving  would  be  the  more  appro- 
priate to  use,  from  the  church-going  character 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Boston ; in  looking 
round  for  an  object  whose  name  begins  with 
‘o,’  the  literary  character  of  the  city  would 
suggest  the  reed,  an  instrument  of  writing 
anciently,  and  now  so  used  in  the  East ; this, 
in  Egyptian,  is  o~ke  ; for  ‘s’  take  a star,  sion  ; 
for  ‘t’  a hand,  tot ; for  ‘o,’  again,  to  have  a 
variety,  instead  of  the  Egyptian  tufted  reed, 
as  above,  they  might  take  an  abbreviation  of 
it,  the  curled  line ; for  ‘ n,’  we  have  the  vul- 
ture, noure , or,  Better,  the  sign  for  inunda- 
tion, neph.  Fig.  B gives  an  Egyptian  speci- 
men of  the  symbolical  style,  in  what  is  gen- 
erally called  an  anaglyph.  It  is  a female 
winged  sphinx,  founded  on  a block  of  black 
granite.  The  sphinx  was  an  emblem  of 
strength  and  wisdom,  the  body  being  that 
of  a lion,  and  the  head  human.  The  name 
Tmauhmot  (daughter  of  Horus,  a king  of  the 
eighteenth  dynasty  of  Egypt)  is  read  in  the 
oval.  This,  then,  is  a symbolical  image  of 
the  queen  herself ; and  the  flowers  of  lotus, 
underneath,  are  evidently,  though  emblem- 
atically, taken  for  the  Nile,  and  for  the 
whole  country  of  Egypt.  The  sphinx,  in- 
stead of  a paw,  has  a hand,  raised  in  the  atti- 
tude of  protection.  The  whole,  then,  seems 
to  be  in  praise  of  a monarch,  and  to  signify 
“a  monument  raised  to  the  memory  of  Queen 
Tmauhmof,  s‘yled  the  guardian  and  protec- 
tress of  the  land  of  Egypt,  by  her  wisdom 
and  strength.” 

HILDEBRAND  succeeded  Alexander  II. 
as  pope  in  the  year  1073,  taking  the  name 
of  Gregory  VII.  Being  advanced  by  the  suf- 


frages of  the  cardinals  without  the  emperor’s 
authority,  the  better  to  confirm  himself  in 
the  pontificate  he  abolished  the  imperial 
power  of  conferring  investiture  upon  bishops 
and  clergymen,  and  became  an  inveterate 
enemy  of  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  He  pre- 
vailed upon  Rodolph,  Duke  of  Suabia,  to 
assume  the  title  of  emperor  and  take  up  arms 
against  Henry ; but  Rodolph  being  over- 
thrown and  slain,  Henry  marched  directly 
into  Italy,  besieged  Rome,  took  the  city, 
and  established  Clement  III.  upon  the  papal 
throne.  Gregory  fled  to  Salerno,  and  there 
died,  after  having  enjoyed  the  papal  dignity 
twelve  years.  He  was  the  first  who  bore  the 
exclusive  title  of  pope,  which  theretofore  had 
been\common  to  other  bishops. 

HILL,  Rowland,  son  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill, 
was  born  at  Hawkestone,  Shropshire,  in 
1745,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge. 
He  was  a Calvinistic  Methodist,  and  took 
Whitfield  for  his  model.  His  discourses 
were  singular,  being  sometimes  crowded  with 
puns  and  stories,  while  at  others  their  solem- 
nity was  unbroken.  Some  of  his  straits  are 
mentioned  in  his  diary.  “1767,  Jan.  1st, 
preached  at  Chesterton ; we  had  the  honor 
of  a mob ; no  other  harm  was  done  than  the 
windows  broke.”  “Thursday,  in  a barn,  for 
the  first  time,  with  much  comfort.  God 
send,  if  I am  to  live,  this  may  not- be  my  last 
barn.  Some  gownsmen  were  there,  but  they 
were  not  permitted  to  do  more  than  gnash 
their  teeth.”  Mr.  Hill  used  to  be  circum- 
spect in  receiving  recruits.  To  a person  who 
had  a great  desire  to  preach,  and  talked 
about  hiding  his  talents,  he  replied  that  “the 
closer  he  hid  them  the  better.”  Robert  Hall 
once  replied  to  a shoemaker,  who  expressed 
a similar  reluctance  to  hide  his  talents  in  a 
napkin,  “The  smallest  pocket-handkerchief 
you  have  will  do,  sir.”  Mr.  Hill,  in  his 
“field  campaigns,”  used  to  go  to  large  towns 
on  market-days,  and  address  the  assemblage 
in  the  market-houses.  When  he  heard  of  a 
fair  or  a revel,  he  preached  there  in  spite  of 
the  violence  with  which  he  was  assailed,  and 
often  with  success.  His  favorite  text  was 
“Come  ye  out  from  among  them.”  The 
freshness  and  originality  of  his  addresses 
attracted  crowds  to  hear  him.  He  preached 
on  Calton  Hill  in  Edinburgh  to  an  audience 
of  ten  thousand.  Nor  was  he  admired  by  a 


HIL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


405 


vulgar  and  uneducated  class  only ; Sheridan 
used  to  say,  “I  often  go  to  hear  Rowland 
Hill,  because  his  ideas  come  red-hot  from  the 
heart.”  The  eccentricities  of  manner,  the 
quaintness  of  expression,  the  anecdotes  and 
witticisms  in  the  pulpit,  were  forgotten  by 
his  regular  hearers,  in  the  rich  vein  of  ster- 
ling piety  and  spiritual  instruction  that 
marked  the  service.  He  died  April  11th, 
1833. 

HILLHOUSE,  James,  a man  very  highly 
respected  for  his  private  virtues,  and  his 
great  and  long  continued  public  services, 
was  born  at  Montville,  Conn.,  Oct.  21st, 
1754,  and  died  at  New  Haven,  Dec.  29th, 
1832.  He  was  a member  of  the  senate  from 
1796  to  1810. 

HIPPIAS  AND  HIPPARCHUS,  two  sons 
of  Pisistratus,  tyrant  of  Athens,  whom 
they  succeeded  527  b.c.  Hipparchus  was 
slain  in  a conspirac}^  512  b.c.,  by  Harmodius 
and  Aristogiton,  who  had  devoted  themselves 
to  their  country.  Hippias  alone  now  held 
the  reins  of  government,  but  he  became 
odious,  and  on  the  siege  of  Athens  by  the 
Lacedaemonians,  he  surrendered  the  city  and 
retired  to  Ligseum,  on  the  Hellespont,  509  b.c. 
Thus  Athens  once  more  recovered  its  liberty. 
An  attempt  was  afterward  made  to  restore 
Hippias  to  the  government  of  Athens.  By 
some  authors  he  is  said  to  have  perished  at 
the  battle  of  Marathon ; but  others  assert 
that  he  died  at  Lemnos  in  poverty  and  dis- 
tress. 

HIPPOCRATES,  a celebrated  Greek  physi- 
cian, born  460  b.c.  He  is  called  the  Father 
of  Medicine.  The  time  of  his  death  is  un- 
known. 

HOADLEY,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish divine,  Bishop  of  Bangor  and  of  Win- 
chester, died  in  1761,  aged  eighty -five. 

HOBBES,  Thomas,  a celebrated  English 
philosopher,  died  in  1769,  aged  ninety-one. 

HOCHE,  Lazake,  born  in  1768,  was  a 
brave  and  skillful  general  in  the  French  revo- 
lutionary army.  He  accomplished  the  pacifi- 
cation of  La  Vendee  and  Brittany ; headed 
the  expedition  against  Ireland  in  1796,  which 
was  dispersed  by  storms;  and  in  1797  was 
put  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Sambre 
and  the  Meuse.  He  died  in  this  year,  after 
a short  illness. 

HOCHKIRCHEN,  Battle  of,  between  the 


Prussians  under  Frederick  the  Great,  and  the 
Austrians  under  Count  Daun,  Oct.  14th, 
1758.  Frederick  was  taken  unawares,  and 
wras  defeated. 

HOFER,  Andrew,  the  Tell  of  the  Tyrol, 
a heroic  Tyrolese  who  headed  an  insur- 
rection of  his  countrymen  on  the  10th  of 
April,  1809.  His  resistance  to  the  French 
was  chivalric,  and  successful  on  many  occa- 
sions. After  he  found  farther  resistance 
useless,  he  concealed  himself,  but  was  be- 
trayed by  a priest,  conveyed  to  Mantua,  and 
shot,  February  20th,  1810.  He  met  his  fate 
with  firmness,  rejoicing  that  he  had  done  his 
duty. 

HOGARTH,  William,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  10th,  1697.  He  was  apprenticed 
at  an  early  age  to  a silversmith,  but  at  the 
expiration  of  his  time,  in  1718,  he  took  to 
engraving  in  copper  for  the  booksellers.  In 
1730  he  married  the  only  daughter  of  Sir 
James  Thornhill,  against  the  father’s  will, 
and  set  up  as  a portrait  painter  with  con- 
siderable success.  He  now  commenced  his 
remarkable  series  of  satirical  paintings  re- 
flecting on  the  social  abuses  of  the  time; 
producing  “The  Harlot’s  Progress”  in  1734, 
“The  Rake’s  Progress”  in  1735,  and  “Mar- 
riage a la  Mode”  in  1745.  In  1753  he  ap- 
peared as  an  author  in  his  “ Analysis  of 
Beauty.”  In  1757  he  was  appointed  serjeant 
painter  to  the  king.  He  died  in  London, 
Oct.  26th,  1764,  and  wras  buried  at  Chiswick. 

HOGG,  James  (commonly  called  ‘the 
Ettrick  Shepherd’),  was  born  Jan.  25th, 
1772 ; he  greatly  prided  himself  that  his 
birth-day  was  the  anniversary  of  that  of 
Burns.  He  was  a native  of  Ettrick  Vale,  in 
picturesque  Selkirkshire.  A love  of  romance 
and  poetry,  he  inherited  from  his  mother, 
wThose  memory  was  thickly  stored  with  the 
ancient  legends  and  ballads  of  Scotland ; and 
his  solitary  watches  over  his  flocks  on  the 
hills  and  among  the  glens  heightened  his 
imagination.  The  “Queen’s  Wake”  estab- 
lished his  fame  as  an  author;  it  consists 
of  a collection  of  tales  and  ballads  supposed 
to  be  sung  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  by  the 
native  bards  of  Scotland,  assembled  at  a royal 
wake  at  Holyrood,  in  order  that  the  fair 
monarch  might  prove  the  wondrous  powers 
of  Scottish  song.  The  worldly  schemes  of 
the  Shepherd  were  seldom  successful ; he 


* HOG 


406 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


made  two  disastrous  attempts  at  farming ; 
and  his  sole  support,  for  the  latter  years  of 
his  life,  was  the  remuneration  afforded  by 
his  literary  labors.  He  lived  in  a cottage 
which  he  had  built  at  Altrive,  on  a piece  of 
moorland  presented  to  him  by  the  Duchess 
of  Buccleuch.  His  love  of  angling  and  field 
sports  amounted  to  a passion,  and  when  he 
could  no  longer  fish  or  hunt,  he  declared  his 
belief  that  his  death  must  be  near.  In  the 
autumn  of  1835  he  was  attacked  with  a drop- 
sical complaint ; and  on  the  21st  of  Novem- 
ber of  that  year,  after  some  days  of  insensi- 
bility, he  breathed  his  last  as  calmly,  and 
with  as  little  pain,  as  he  * ever  fell  asleep  in 
his  gray  plaid  on  the  hillside.  His  death 
was  deeply  mourned  in  the  vale  of  Ettrick, 
for  all  rejoiced  in  his  fame,  and,  notwith- 
standing his  personal  foibles,  the  Shepherd 
was  generous,  kind-hearted,  and  charitable 
far  beyond  his  means. 

HOHENLINDEN,  a village  of  Bavaria, 
eighteen  miles  east  of  Munich,  remarkable 
for  the  great  defeat  which  the  Austrian  army 
sustained  here  on  the  3d  of  November,  1800, 
from  the  French  under  Moreau. 

HOLBEIN,  IIans,  an  eminent  Swiss  paint- 
er, died  in  London,  1554,  aged  fifty-six.  He 
was  the  favorite  artist  of  Henry  VIII. 

HOLLAND.  [See  Netherlands.] 

HOLSTEIN,  a duchy  in  the  north  of  Ger- 
mmy,  belonging  to  Denmark.  It  contains 
3,259  square  miles,  and  479,000  inhabitants, 
mostly  Lutherans.  Almost  the  whole  of  the 
country  is  fruitful.  The  King  of  Denmark  is 
Duke  of  Holstein,  by  virtue  of  which  he  has 
a place  in  the  German  confederation.  War 
subsisted  between  Denmark  and  the  duchies 
of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  in  1849  and  1850. 
The  matters  of  difference  were  patched  up  by 
the  intervention  of  Austria  and  Prussia. 

HOLT,  Sir  John,  an  eminent  English  law- 
yer and  judge,  died  in  1709',  aged  sixty-seven. 
He  was  a firm  opponent  of  the  oppressions  of 
the  crown. 

IIOLWELL,  John  Zephantah,  was  one  of 
the  few  survivors  of  the  party  of  146  English, 
who  were  confined  by  the  Nabob  of  Bengal 
in  1756,  in  what  was  called  the  Black  Hole 
at  Calcutta.  Mr.  Holwell  wrote  ah  account 
of  this  dreadful  affair,  which  he  survived 
forty-two  years,  dying  in  1798,  aged  eighty- 
nine.  [See  Black  Hole.] 


HOLYOKE,  Edward  Augustus,  M.  D.,  son 
of  the  Rev.  Edward  Holyoke,  president  of  Har- 
vard College,  was  born  Aug.  1st,  1728,  in 
Essex  county,  Mass.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1746,  and  commenced  the  practice 
of  medicine  at  Salem  in  1749.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished in  his  profession,  and  published 
several  scientific  disquisitions.  He  died  the 
31st  of  March,  1829,  being  then  over  one 
hundred  years  of  age. 

HOMER,  the  most  celebrated  poet  of  anti- 
quity, was,  according  to  common  tradition, 
born  on  the  river  Meles,  not  far  from  Smyrna. 
His  father’s  name  was  Moeon,  and  his  moth- 
er’s Critheis.  Seven  cities  contended  for  the 
honor  of  being  his  birth-place : Smyrna,  Colo- 
phon, Chios,  Argos,  Athens,  Rhodes,  and 
Salamis.  It  is  doubtful  whether  he  lived  in 
the  tenth,  ninth,  or  eighth  century  before 
Christ.  Little  is  known  of  Homer.  He  has 


homer. 


been  represented  as  blind,  but  this  must  have 
been  a misfortune  occurring  in  his  latter  days, 
for  his  descriptions  could  only  have  been 
given  by  a man  possessed  of  sight.  He  wan- 
dered about  singing  his  poems,  which  were 
handed  down  from  mouth  to  mouth,  and  from 
generation  to  generation,  after  his  death,  un- 
til they  were  finally  transmitted  to  paper,  and 
thus  preserved  from  oblivion.  The  poems 
attributed  to  Homer  are  the  Iliad  and  the 
Odyssey : the  subject  of  the  Iliad  is  the  re- 
venge taken  by  Achilles  on  Agamemnon  for 
depriving  him  of  his  mistress,  Briseis,  during 
the  siege  of  Troy,  and  the  evils  which  in  con- 
sequence befell  the  Greeks : the  Odyssey  nar- 
>M 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


407 


rates  the  adventures  of  Ulysses,  returning 
from  Troy  to  Ithaca,  his  native  island. 

HONORIUS,  the  first  emperor  of  the  West- 
ern empire  of  Rome,  succeeded  his  father 
Theodosius  the  Great,  with  his  brother  Arcadi- 
us,  a.d.  395.  He  was  neither  bold  nor  vicious, 
but  he  was  of  a modest  and  timid  disposition, 
unfit  for  enterprise,  and  fearful  of  danger.  He 
conquered  his  enemies  by  means  of  his  gener- 
als, and  suffered  himself  and  his  people  to  be 
governed  by  ministers  who  took  advantage  of 
their  imperial  master’s  indolence  and  inactiv- 
ity. He  died  of  the  dropsy,  in  the  thirty- 
ninth  year  of  his  age,  Aug.  loth,  a.d.  423. 

HOOD,  Robin,  an  outlaw  in  the  time  of 
Richard  I.,  who  dwelt  chiefly  in  Sherwood 
Forest,  Nottinghamshire,  and  was  the  most 
romantic  and  courteous  of  bandits,  as  well  as 
the  most  powerful.  He  took  from  the  rich, 
but  he  gave  to  the  poor.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  bled  to  death  by  a nun,  to  whom  he  ap- 
plied for  phlebotomy,  in  the  year  1247. 

HOOD,  Samuel,  Viscount,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Hood,  vicar  of  Thorn- 
combe,  in  Devonshire  ; at  which  place  he  was 
borji  in  1724.  He  went  to  sea  at  the  age  of 
sixteen,  and,  for  his  gallantry  in  taking  a 
fifty-gun  ship,  was  made  a post-captain  in 
1759.  In  1780,  jvith  the  rank  of  admiral,  he 
sailed  to  the  West  Indies,  where  he  defeated 
the  attempt  made  upon  St.  Christopher’s  by 
the  Comte  de  Grasse.  He  also  had  an  active 
part  in  the  victory  obtained  over  that  com- 
mander on  the  12th  of  April,  1782  ; for  which 
he  was  created  Baron  Hood  of  Catherington, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Ireland.  In  1784  he  was 
elected  into  parliament  for  Westminster ; he 
vacated  his  seat,  on  being  named  one  of  the 
lords  of  the  admiralty,  in  1787.  In  1793  he 
was  appointed  to  command  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, where  he  distinguished  himself  by 
taking  possession  of  Toulon,  and,  when  it  was 
no  longer  tenable,  destroying  the  arsenal, 
dock-yard,  and  shipping.  After  this  he  made 
himself  master  of  Corsica,  and  then  returned 
to  England,  where  he  was  made  a viscount, 
and  governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital.  He 
died  at  Bath,  January  27th,  1816. 

HOOD,  Thomas,  a poet  and  prose-writer  of 
the  utmost  humor  and  pathos,  died  in  1845, 
aged  forty -seven.  His  lot  was  lifelong  toil, 
threatened  by  poverty,  and  embittered  by  ill 
health. 


HOOKER,  Richard,  author  of  “ Ecclesias- 
tical Polity,”  died  in  1600,  aged  forty-seven. 
This  learned  theologian  having  occasion  to 
visit  London,  and  arriving  from  Oxford  wet 
and  weary,  received  so  much  kindness  and 
attention  from  his  hostess  that  she  completely 
won  his  confidence.  The  good  man  came  to 
be  persuaded  by  her  that  his  constitution  was 
tender;  that  it  was  best  for  him  to  have  a 
wife,  who  might  prove  a nurse  to  him,  such 
a one  as  might  both  prolong  his  life  and 
make  it  comfortable;  and  such  a one  she 
could  and  would  provide  for  him,  if  he  thought  * 
fit  to  marry.  The  helpmate  she  provided 
was  her  own  daughter,  silly,  clownish,  and 
withal  a perfect  Xantippe.  Hooker  married 
her,  however,  according  to  his  promise,  and 
had  an  especial  occasion  to  practice  the  spirit 
of  resignation  during  his  seventeen  years  of 
wedlock,  the  remnant  of  his  life. 

HOOPER,  William,  a signer  of  the  Declar- 
ation of  Independence,  was  born  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  June  17th,  1742,  the  son  of  a Scotch 
clergyman,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard. 
He  studied  law  under  James  Otis,  and  com- 
menced practice  at  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  in 
1767.  He  was  a member  of  the  colonial 
legislature  in  1773,  and  the  next  year  was 
sent  to  the  continental  congress,  where  he 
served  till  1777,  when  he  resigned  and  re- 
turned home.  In  1786  he  was  elected  a 
judge,  and  in  October,  1790,  he  departed 
from  life.  He  advocated  the  caus^  of  liberty 
both  with  pen  and  voice,  and  was  its  active 
champion.  Among  the  documents  from  his 
pen  was  an  address  to  the  people  of  Jamaica 
in  1775. 

HOPKINS,  Stephen,  a signer  of  the  Declar- 
ation of  Independence,  was  born  in  Scituate, 
R.  I.,  March  7th,  1707.  He  was  chosen 
speaker  of  the  general  assembly  in  1741.  In 
1751  he  was  appointed  chief-justice  of  the 
superior  court  of  Rhode  Island,  and  in  1774  a 
delegate  to  Congress.  Previous  to  this,  he 
had  held  for  some  years  the  office  of  governor 
of  Rhode  Island.  In  1778  he  was  a fourth 
time  chosen  member  of  Congress.  He  died 
July  13th,  1 785,  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight. 
He  was  bred  as  a farmer,  and  afterward  en- 
gaged in  commerce  at  Providence.  Although 
a self-taught  man,  he  was  an  excellent  math- 
ematician, and  well  versed  in  political  econo- 
my and  science. 


HOP 


408 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


HOPKINSON,  Francis,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1737.  After  receiving  a col- 
legiate education  and  having  studied  law,  he 
visited  England  for  two  years,  and  upon  his 
return  became  distinguished  in  his  profession. 
He  resided  at  Borden  town,  N.  J.,  when  the 
war  of  the  Revolution  broke  out,  and  was 
chosen  a delegate  to  Congress  from  that  state 
in  1776.  He  strongly  advocated  independ- 
ence, and  w’as  an  active  member.  He  was 
.afterward  judge  of  the  district  court  for 
Pennsylvania.  He  was  a wit  and  a poet,  as 
well  as  a lawyer  and  judge.  He  died  May 
9th,  1790. 

HORACE.  Quintus  Horatius  Flaccus,  a 
celebrated  Roman  poet,  was  born  at  Venu- 
sium  b.c.  65.  He  was  well  educated,  and 
fought  for  liberty  at  Philippi,  b.c.  42.  He 
gained  the  favor  of  Maecenas,  but  lived  in 
retirement,  and  even  refused  the  splendid 
offers  of  Augustus,  preferring  the  peaceful 
solitude  of  his  Sabine  farm.  He  died  sudden- 
ly, 9 b.c.,  in  the  fifty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

II  OR  ATI  I,  three  Roman  brothers,  who 
during  the  reign  of  Tullus,  to  prevent  the 
effusion  of  blood  in  a general  battle,  engaged 
the  Curiatii,  three  Alban  brothers,  to  decide 
the  contest.  Two  of  the  Horatii  were  slain, 
when  the  surviving  brother,  feigning  flight, 
permitted  the  Curiatii,  who  were  disabled  by 
wounds,  to  approach  him  one  by  one,  and 
then  slew'them  singly,  thus  deciding  the  con- 
test in  favor  of  the  Romans.  The  conqueror 
stained  his  triumph  by  murdering  his  sister, 
because,  amidst  her  country’s  joy,  she  could 
shed  tears  at  the  death  of  her  lover,  one  of 
the  Curiatii. 

HORATIUS,  surnamed  Codes,  ‘the  one- 
eyed,’  alone  sustained  the  attack  of  the  Etru- 
rian army,  while  his  friends  broke  down  the 
bridge  over  the  Tiber  that  led  to  Rome,  be- 
hind him.  He  then  committed  himself  to  the 
waves,  armed  as  he  was,  and  reached  Rome 
in  safety.  This  exploit  was  performed  b.c. 
507. 

HOWARD,  John,  the  philanthropist,  was 
born  at  Hackney,  in  1726.  He  was  bound 
apprentice  to  a grocer  in  London ; but  dis- 
liking the  business,  and  inheriting  an  inde- 
pendent fortune,  he  purchased  his  indentures, 
and  made  the  tour  of  France  and  Italy.  On 
his  return,  he  married  a widow  lady,  much 


older  than  himself,  who  died  about  three 
years  afterward.  In  1756  he  undertook  a 
voyage  to  Lisbon,  to  see  the  place  after  the 
earthquake ; but  on  the  voyage  the  ship  was 
taken  by  a French  privateer,  and  carried  to 
France.  On  being  released,  Mr.  Howard  re- 
tired to  a villa  in  the  New  Forest;  and,  in 
1758,  married  a second  time;  but  lost  his 
lady  in  1765.  About  this  time  he  settled  at 
Cardington,  near  Bedford,  where  his  time 
was  much  occupied  in  benevolent  objects, 
and  in  the  education  of  his  son,  who  after- 
ward became  hopelessly  insane.  In  1773  he 
received  the  office  of  high  sheriff,  which  led 
him  to  make  inquiries  into  the  state  of  pris- 
ons. With  this  view  he  visited  every  prison 
in  the  united  kingdom,  and  traveled  through 
France,  Germany,  Holland,  Italy,  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, and  Turkey.  He  published,  in  1777, 
a work  entitled  “The  State  of  the  Prisons  in 
England  and  Wales,”  dedicated  to  the  House 
of  Commons.  In  1780  appeared  an  appendix, 
with  an  account  of  the  author’s  travels  ip 
Italy.  He  also  printed  a description  of  the 
Bastile,  a translation  of  Tuscany’s  new  code 
of  civil  law;  and,  in  1789;  “An  Account  of 
Europe.”  The  plague  was  now  the  object  of 
his  researches,  and,  with  a design  of  ascer- 
taining the  nature  of  this  disorder,  and  the 
means  of  curing  it,  he  set  out  for  the  east; 
but  died  of  a malignant  epidemic,  at  Cherson, 
in  the  south  of  Russia,  January  20th,  1790. 
A statue  has  been  erected  to  his  memory  in 
St.  Paul’s  Cathedral. 

HOWARD,  John  Eager,  a gallant  officer 
in  the  American  revolution,  was  born  in 
Maryland,  June  4th,  1752.  He  principally 
distinguished  himself  in  the  southern  cam- 
paigns, and  received  a wound  at  the  battle  of 
Eutaw,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  never 
recovered.  He  was  chosen  governor  of  Mary- 
land in  1788,  and  filled  the  post  for  three 
years.  From  1796  till  1803  he  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  senate  of  the  United  States.  Col. 
Howard  died  in  October,  1827. 

HOWARD,  Charles,  Earl  of  Nottingham, 
was  the  son  of  William  Lord  Howard,  of 
Effingham,  and  grandson  of  Thomas,  the  sec- 
ond Duke  of  Norfolk.  He  was  born  in  1536. 
He  went  in  1559  to  congratulate  Francis  II. 
of  France  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  ; and 
in  1569  was  made  general  of  the  horse  in  the 
army  sent  against  the  Earls  of  Northumber- 


HOW 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


409 


land  and  Westmoreland.  The  next  )rear  he 
went  with  a fleet  of  men-of-war  to  convoy  the 
Princess  Anne  of  Austria  to  Spain ; and  in 
1573  he  succeeded  his  father  in  his  titles  and 
estate.  The  same  year  he  was  installed 
knight  of  the  garter,  and  made  lord  chamber- 
lain  of  the  household ; and  in  1585  he  was 
constituted  lord  high  admiral  of  England.  In 
1588  he  commanded  the  fleet  which  defeated 
and  dispersed  the  Spanish  armada;  and,  in 
1596,  when  another  invasion  was  apprehend- 
ed, he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  at 
sea,  as  the  Earl  of  Essex  was  on  the  land. 
In  this  expedition  Cadiz  was  taken,  and  the 
Spanish  fleet  burnt ; for  which  he  was  made 
Earl  of  Nottingham  and  justice-itinerant  of  all 
the  forests  south  of  Trent.  In  1601  he  sup- 
pressed the  Earl  of  Essex’s  rebellion,  and  was 
principally  concerned  in  bringing  that  noble- 
man to  the  block.  James  I.  continued  him 
in  all  his  employments ; and  at  the  coronation 
the  earl  acted  as  lord  high  steward.  In  1 605 
he  went  ambassador  to  Spain;  and  in  1613 
he  conveyed  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  on  her 
marriage,  to  Flushing.  He  died  in  1624. 

HQ  WARD,  Henry,  Earl  of  Surrey,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  third  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
by  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  Stafford, 
Duke  of  Buckingham.  He  was  born  in  1516. 
He  was  well  educated,  talented,  and  chivalric. 
While  at  Florence  he  issued  a general  chal- 
lenge, and  in  a splendid  tournament  main- 
tained the  beauty  of  his  mistress  Geraldine 
at  the  point  of  the  lance ; he  was  completely 
victorious.  In  1542  he  served  in  the  army, 
under  his  father,  in  Scotland;  and  in  1544 
he  went  as  field-marshal  to  Boulogne,  where, 
being  then  knight  of  the  garter,  he  was  con- 
stituted king’s  lieutenant  and  captain-general. 
Happening,  however,  to  prove  unfortunate  in 
an  attempt  upon  the  enemy’s  convoy  of  pro- 
visions, he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Henry 
VIII.,  which  hastened  his  ruin.  Some  in- 
temperate language,  used  by  him,  was  caught 
hold  of ; charges  were  brought  against  him, 
and  he  was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill,  Janua- 
ry 19th,  1546-7. 

HOWARD,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Surrey,  and 
third  Duke  of  Norfolk,  was  born  in  1473.  He 
was  bred  to  arms,  and  soon  after  the  accession 
of  Henry  VIII.  was  honored  with  the  order  of 
the  garter.  He  succeeded  his  brother,  Sir 
Edward  Howard,  as  high  admiral,  in  1513 ; 


and  the  victory  of  Flodden  Field  was  chiefly 
owing  to  his  valor  and  skill.  For  this,  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Norfolk  was  restored  to  his 
father,  and  he  was  himself  created  Earl  of 
Surrey.  In  1521  he  went  to  Ireland  as  lord 
lieutenant,  and  while  there  suppressed  a dan- 
gerous rebellion.  Notwithstanding  these  ser- 
vices, he  was  sent  to  the  Tower  by  Henry, 
at  the  close  of  his  reign,  and  kept  there  till 
the  accession  of  Mary,  when  he  was  released, 
and  contributed  to  suppress  W yatt’s  rebellion. 
He  died  in  1554. 

HOWE,  George,  Viscount,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Sir  E.  Scrope,  second  Viscount  Howe 
in  Ireland.  He  was  the  second  in  command 
in  Abercrombie’s  expedition,  and  fell  before 
Ticonderoga  in  1758,  aged  thirty-four.  He 
was  the  idol  of  the  army,  both  regular  and 
provincial,  and  his  untimely  death  was  lament- 
ed throughout  the  colonies. 

HOWE,  Richard,  Earl,  the  second  son  of 
Sir  Emanuel  Scrope,  second  Viscount  Howe, 
was  born  in  1725,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
went  on  board  the  Severn,  part  of  the  squad- 
ron destined  for  the  South  Seas  under  Anson. 
In  1745  he  was  with  Admiral  Vernon,  and 
soon  after  was  made  commander  of  the  Balti- 
more sloop,  in  which,  with  another  armed 
vessel,  he  beat  off  two  French  ships  conveying 
troops  and  ammunition  to  the  Pretender ; for 
which  he  was  made  a post-captain.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  with  France,  he  com- 
manded the  Dunkirk ; with  which  he  took 
the  Alcide,  a French  sixty-four,  off  Newfound- 
land. In  1757  he  served  under  Sir  Edward 
Hawke,  and  his  ship,  the  Magnanime,  battered 
the  fort  on  the  Aix  till  it  surrendered.  After 
this  he  was  appointed  commodore  of  a squad- 
ron, with  which  he  took  the  town  of  Cher- 
bourg, and  destroyed  the  basin.  When  France 
entered  into  war  to  aid  America  against  Eng- 
land, Lord  Howe  was  sent  to  America  to  op- 
pose D’Estaing.  In  1782  he  was  made  an 
English  viscount,  and  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  sent  to  the  relief  of  Gibral- 
tar, which  object  he  accomplished.  The  next 
year  he  was  made  first  lord  of  the  admiralty ; 
but  soon  resigned  that  station  to  Lord  Keppel. 
In  1788  he  was  created  an  English  earl.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  hostilities  with  France,  in 
1793,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  channel  fleet ; and  on  the  1st  of  June,  in 
the  following  year,  he  gained  a complete  vic- 


HOW 


410 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tory  over  the  French,  who  lost  seven  ships  of 
the  line.  For  this  he  received  the  thanks  of 
parliament;  the  king  visited  him  on  board 
his  ship,  presented  him  with  a valuable  sword, 
and  made  him  knight  of  the  garter.  The  last 
service  rendered  by  his  lordship  to  his  coun- 
try, was  in  reducing  the  mutinous  seamen  to 
their  duty  by  kindness,  at  Portsmouth  in 
1797.  He  died  August  5th,  1799. 

HOWE,  Sir  William,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, succeeded  General  Gage  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  forces  in  America  in  1775.  He 
defeated  the  Americans  in  the  battle  of  Long 
Island,  1776,  took  possession  of  New  York, 
and  in  the  October  of  the  same  year,  repelled 
the  Americans  at  Germantown.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  his  command  by  Clinton,  in  1778. 
His  death  took  place  in  1814. 

HUDSON,  Henry,  an  eminent  naval  com- 
mander and  discoverer  in  North  America,  from 
1607  to  1610.  In  the  latter  year,  whilst  nav- 
igating the  bay  which  now  bears  his  name, 
his  crew  mutinied,  and  put  him,  his  son,  and 
seven  others  on  shore,  where  they  no  doubt 
perished. 

HUGH  CAPET,  Duke  and  afterward  King 
of  France,  was  the  son  of  Hugh  the  Great, 
who  dying  left  him  under  the  protection  of 
Richard  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy.  Lothaire, 
King  of  France,  pleased  with  Hugh’s  prudence 
and  generosity,  gave  him,  in  960,  the  dukedom 
of  France,  with  the  earldom  of  Paris  and  Poi- 
tou. Louis  Y. , dying  fifteen  or  sixteen  months 
after  his  father,  Hugh  Capet  was  proclaimed 
king  at  Noyon,  and  crowned  at  Rheims,  987. 
Charles  I.,  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  son  of 
Louis  IV.,  the  only  man  of  the  royal  blood 
left  in  France,  was  taken  prisoner  by  Hugh, 
and  died  in  992. 

HUGUENOTS,  the  name  given  in  1560  by 
the  Catholics  of  France  to  their  Protestant 
countrymen,  as  a term  of  reproach.  Thou- 
sands of  them  perished  in  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  and  the  persecutions  that  fol- 
lowed. Henry  IV.  secured  their  safety  and 
rights  by  the  edict  of  Nantes.  Its  revocation 
by  Louis  XI Y.,  and  the  cruelties  of  the  drag- 
onnade,  drove  throngs  into  exile.  The  man- 
ufactures of  England  had  their  start  from  the 
Flemings  who  fled  from  the  Low  Countries 
before  the  pitiless  Duke  of  Alva : they  received 
new  impulse  from  the  Huguenot  artisans. 
Many  Huguenots  sought  an  asylum  beyond 


the  sea.  Some  settled  in  Rhode  Island ; oth- 
ers in  Ulster  and  Orange  counties,  New  York, 
where  their  descendants  are  numerous  at  this 
day ; more  made  their  home  in  South  Caro- 
lina, sowing  those  seeds  of  civil  liberty  which 
ripened  so  nobly  during  the  Revolution. 

HULL,  Isaac,  was  born  at  Derby,  Conn., 
in  1775.  He  began  to  follow  the  sea  when  a 
mere  lad,  and  at  the  establishment  of  the  navy 
received  a lieutenant’s  commission.  To  him 
the  first  British  flag  was  struck  on  the  ocean, 
during  the  war  of  1812 ; this  was  on  the  19th 
of  August,  1812,  when  the  frigate  Guerriere, 
commanded  by  Capt.  Dacres,  was  captured  by 
the  frigate  Constitution,  after  a close  action  of 
thirty  minutes.  Commodore  Hull  died  at 
Philadelphia,  Feb.  13th,  1843. 

HULL,  William,  was  an  officer  in  the  Rev- 
olutionary army.  He  afterward  reached  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  and  was  governor  of 
Michigan  territory.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  war  of  1812,  he  commanded  the  north- 
western army.  He  surrendered  his  whole 
force  at  Detroit  to  Gen.  Brock,  Aug.  16th, 
1812.  For  this  reverse,  Gen.  Hull  was  con- 
demned by  a court-martial  to  be  shot ; a sen- 
tence which  was  mitigated  in  consideration  of 
his  previous  services  and  his  age.  He  lived 
to  see  his  character  vindicated,  dying  in  1825, 
aged  seventy-two. 

HUME,  David,  the  philosopher  and  histo- 
rian, died  at  Edinburgh,  his  native  city,  Aug. 
25th,  1776,  aged  sixty -five. 

HUMPHREYS,  David,  was  born  at  Derby, 
Conn.,  July,  1752.  In  1780  he  was  appointed 
aid  to  Gen.  Washington,  with  whom  he  re- 
mained through  the  residue  of  the  war,  and 
at  its  termination  accompanied  him  to  Vir- 
ginia. Col.  Humphreys  wras  distinguished 
for  his  gallantry  and  military  skill  at  the  siege 
of  Yorktown.  He  remained  with  Gen.  W ash- 
in  gton  until  1790,  with  the  exception  of  two 
years’  residence  in  France.  In  1790  he  was 
appointed  minister  to  Portugal,  and  afterward 
to  Spain.  He  died  Feb.  21st,  1818,  aged  sixty- 
six.  He  was  much  interested  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  merino  sheep  into  this  country. 

HUNGARY,  the  country  of  the  Magyars, 
or  Hungarians.  They  are  represented  as  de- 
rived from  the  Huns  of  Attila.  A complete 
account  of  ancient  Hungary  would  present 
little  more  than  the  melancholy  picture  of  a 
perpetual  seat  of  war.  The  Romans  for  a time 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  411 


assumed  the  ascendant,  and  obtained  a decided 
superiority  over  the  opposite  and  conflicting 
parties.  The  Hungarians  have  been  thought 
to  belong  to  the  Finnish  nations,  from  the 
resemblance  there  is  between  certain  words 
of  their  respective  dialects.  The  Magyars 
appear  to  have  been  a principal  division  of 
that  great  northern  people  near  the  Altai 
Mountains,  whence  issued  the  hordes  who 
introduced  such  changes  in  the  character  of 
nations,  Asiatic  and  European.  So  far  as  the  I 
Magyars  are  concerned,  their  progress  from 
the  Altai  Mountains  seems  obvious.  About 
the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  we  find  a divi- 
sion of  them  entering  the  plains  of  Munkatz, 
under  their  leader,  Almus,  whose  son  Arpad 
was  the  first  duke  of  Hungary.  In  a few 
years  (896)  Arpad  had  dispossessed  several  of 
the  princes  of  Hungary,  and  contracted  alli- 
ances with  others.  He  subdued  a considera- 
ble portion  of  the  Moravian  kingdom,  and,  in 
the  ardor  of  conquest,  was  for  attempting  to 
establish  himself  in  the  territories  of  the  Em- 
peror Arnulph.  Arpad  finally  extended  his 
conquests  into  Bavaria,  Suabia,  Franconia, 
and  Italy;  his  exertions  were  divided,  but 
everywhere  successful.  Ilis  son  Zoltan,  in 
907,  had  penetrated  into  Alsatia,  Lorraine, 
and  France.  While  the  genius  of  the  state 
was  thus  aspiring  to  eminence,  the  strength 
of  others  seemed  proportionately  paralyzed, 
as  if  the  unremitting  cruelties  characteristic 
of  Attila  were  again  to  be  feared. 

The  imputation  of  ferocity  affixed  to  the 
name  of  the  Huns  inspired  terror,  till  their 
fourth  duke,  Geysa,  diverted  their  ferocious 
dispositions  into  other  channels.  The  .atten- 
tion he  bestowed  in  giving  a tinge  of  religion 
to  the  mind  and  manners  of  his  countrymen, 
operated  as  an  incentive  to  their  civilization. 
It  was  not  until  the  commencement  of  the 
eleventh  century,  that  a people  rude,  and 
proud  of  their  rudeness,  were  induced  to  lay 
aside  their  barbarous  habits.  Stephen,  their 
last  duke  and  first  king,  introduced  the 
Christian  religion,  and  those  social  institu- 
tions, which,  if  left  to  operate  unrestrained, 
give  a stamp  to  the  character  of  a people. 
He  died  in  1038,  after  a reign  of  forty-one 
years,  during  which  he  had  established  laws 
in  the  interior,  reunited  Transylvania  to  his 
kingdom,  subjugated  the  Sclavi  and  Bulgari- 


ans, and  effected  much  for  the  amelioration  of 
society  and  morals. 

On  the  death  of  Stephen,  Hungary  be- 
came subject  to  the  tyranny  of  various 
princes,  the  country  being  involved,  for 
nearly  a century,  in  the  horrors  of  civil  war. 
In  this  distracted  state  of  the  kingdom,  vari- 
ous usurpers  aspiring  to  the  throne,  the 
churches  were  destroyed,  and  the  ministers 
of  religion  persecuted.  Any  intervals  of 
peace  were  interrupted  by  the  Bulgarians, 
Wallachians,  Russians,  Croats,  &c.,  renewing 
their  inroads.  Under  Ladislaus  I.,  1077,  the 
country  enjoyed  some  tranquillity ; religion, 
commerce,  legislation,  tempered  the  bold 
independence  of  a dark  age ; and  as  a war- 
rior, he  also  became  the  temporary  savior  of 
his  country.  John  Corvin,  or  Hunniades, 
was  justly  celebrated  for  his  military  achieve- 
ments in  the  wars  with  Amurath  II.  and 
Mohammed  IT.  His  son,  Matthias  Corvin, 
was  unanimously  elected  king  in  1458,  and 
gave  early  indications  of  great  gifts  and 
talents,  adding  not  a little  to  the  lustre  of  his 
father’s  acquirements.  From  his  character, 
policy,  military  operations,  and  great  power, 
he  has  been  described  as  one  of  the  most 
accomplished  kings  of  Hungary.  Such  was 
the  force  of  his  mind,  that  his  views  extended 
to  whatever  could  secure  his  government, 
and  render  it  formidable.  His  ends  were 
great,  and  his  means  prudent ; he  kept  both 
the  Turks  and  Austrians  at  bay,  and,  as  a 
politician  and  hero,  was  watchful  over  his 
enemies,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  To  his 
other  eminent  qualities,  this  king  added  a 
measure  of  literary  reputation.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  conversant  with  the  languages, 
arts,  and  sciences  of  his  time ; the  country 
flourished  under  his  establishments,  civil  and 
military ; and  the  love  of  his  subjects  shows 
the  great  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by 
them.  Compared,  generally,  with  his  con- 
temporaries in  power,  the  energy  of  his  mind 
seems  worthy  of  admiration.  He  knew  how 
to  anticipate  hostile  designs,  and  we  find  the 
kingdom,  under  his  government,  preponder- 
ating in  the  balance  of  Europe.  Matthias 
had  no  children,  and  the  election  of  a new 
king  occasioned  a scene  of  distress.  Under 
Louis  II.  in  1516,  the  Turks  besieged  Bel- 
grade, which  surrendered  to  their  arms ; and 


HUN 


412 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


this  was  followed  by  various  other  successes. 
In  the  famous  battle  of  Mohatz  (1526),  Louis 
was  defeated  and  slain ; Buda  was  given  up 
to  pillage ; and  the  ferocious  barbarians,  un- 
der Solyman  II.,  after  plundering  the  coun- 
try, converted  the  scene  of  their  depredations 
into  an  immense  desert.  The  country  was 
now  convulsed  with  disputes  about  the  suc- 
cession, the  Archduke  Ferdinand  being  op- 
posed by  John  Zapolski,  who  was  finally 
seated  on  the  throne.  Zapolski  died  in 
1540,  and  the  Hungarians  invited  Ferdinand 
to  the  throne.  The  country  was  again  deso- 
lated and  crimsoned  with  blood.  In  1564 
Maximilian  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  laid 
claim  to  the  crown,  but  it  was  not  till  1570 
that  a peace  was  finally  ratified  between  the 
Hungarians  and  Germans ; John  Sigismund, 
son  of  Zapolski,  was  created  Prince  of  Tran- 
sylvania. The  next  circumstance  to  be  no- 
ticed and  recorded,  is  the  definitive  subjection 
of  the  Hungarians  to  the  imperial  house  of 
Austria.  At  the  accession  of  Charles  VI., 
Emperor  of  Germany,  a definitive  treaty,  in 
1711,  terminated  all  differences;  it  was  not 
till  then  that  every  principle  of  internal  hos- 
tility, all  those  evils  which  had  proved  a 
hindrance  to  civilization,  disappeared.  As 
the  Hungarians  were  now  united  to  the  Aus- 
trian dynasty,  the  series  of  their  kings  is  that 
of  the  emperors. 

The  Austrian  rule  was  on  many  accounts 
unpopular,  and  ardent  patriots  dreamed  of  a 
restoration  of  that  independence  which  had 
been  lost  in  the  Austrian  empire.  When, 
in  1848,  France  set  the  fires  of  revolution  a 
blazing,  they  soon  caught  in  Hungary.  A 
provisional  government  was  set  up,  at  the 
head  of  which  was  the  eloquent  Kossuth. 
For  a time  a brilliant  struggle  kept  the  Aus- 
trian power  at  bay ; but  dissensions  weakened 
the  patriots ; Kossuth,  great  as  were  his  elo- 
quence and  patriotism,  lacked  decision ; the 
czar  sent  an  army  in  aid  of  the  imperial  des- 
potism; the  Austrians  were  victorious  in 
several  fields ; and  on  the  11th  of  August, 
1849,  Kossuth,  in  obedience  to  his  colleagues, 
resigned  his  authority  into  the  hands  of  Gor- 
gei,  the  commander  of  the  army,  and  fled  into 
Turkey.  Gorgei  completed  the  negotiations 
he  had  before  commenced  with  the  Russian 
general,  for  an  unconditional  surrender.  On 


the  17th  of  August  the  Hungarians  laid  down 
their  arms ; the  contest  was  at  an  end.  The 
hapless  nation  suffered  severely  under  the 
restored  domination  of  Austria,  which  was 
now  far  more  severe  than  ever. 

Hungary,  as  at  present  limited,  contains 
69,325  square  miles,  and  in  1857  had  a popu- 
lation of  9,900,785.  Pesth,  the  most  popu- 
lous city  and  the  ancient  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, stands  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Danube, 
opposite  Buda  ; population  131,705. 

HUNS,  a warlike  tribe  of  Scythia,  or  Tar- 
tary, who  invaded  Europe  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. The  ravages  of  Attila,  their  leader, 
gained  him  the  name  of  ‘the  scourge  of  God.’ 
It  was  to  check  the  invasions  of  this  people, 
that  the  Chinese  built  their  great  wall  about 
200  b.c. 

HUNTER,  John,  the  eminent  surgeon, 
died  very  suddenly  in  St.  George’s  Hospital, 
London,  Oct.  16th,  1793,  aged  sixty-five. 
His  elder  brother,  William  (1717-1783),  was 
also  a distinguished  anatomist. 

HUNTINGDON,  Selina,  Countess  of,  was 
the  second  daughter  of  Washington,  Earl  Fer- 
rers. She  was  born  in  1707,  and  left  the 
widow  of  Theophilus  Hastings,  Earl  of  Hunt- 
ingdon, in  1747.  She  was  the  friend  of 
Whitfield  and  the  W esleys,  in  aid  of  whose 
evangelical  schemes,  by  the  rearing  of  chap- 
els, the  maintenance  of  ministers,  the  founda- 
tion of  seminaries  for  their  training,  &c., 
her  ample  jointure  and  her  active  labors  were 
bestowed.  She  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty- 
four. 

HUNTINGTON,  Samuel,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
Windham,  Conn.,  July  3d,  1732.  He  was 
the  son  of  a farmer,  and  educated  at  a com- 
mon school.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two,  he 
was  admitted  to  practice  law  in  his  native 
place,  but  shortly  afterward  removed  to  Nor- 
wich. In  1764  he  was  representative  of 
Norwich  to  the  general  assembly,  and  in  the 
next  year  king’s  attorney;  in  1774  he  was 
made  a judge  of  the  superior  court.  In  1775 
he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  council  of 
Connecticut,  and  in  1776  he  took  his  seat  as 
a delegate  to  the  general  congress.  In  1779 
he  succeeded  John  Jay  as  president  of  that 
body.  He  was  made  chief-justice  of  Connec- 
ticut, then  lieutenant-governor;  and  in  1786 


HUN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


413 


he  succeeded  Mr.  Griswold,  as  governor  of 
Connecticut,  filling  the  office  till  his  death, 
January  5th,  1796. 

HUSS,  John,  the  celebrated  reformer,  was 
a native  of  Bohemia,  born  in  1370,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Prague.  He  early 
perceived  the  corruption  of  the  Romish 
church,  and  exposed  its  prevalent  abuses 
freely,  although  persecuted  by  several  popes. 
He  finally  appeared  at  the  council  of  Con- 
stance under  a safe-conduct  from  the  Emperor 
Sigismund : yet  nevertheless  he  was  thrown 
into  prison,  and,  after  some  months  of  con- 
finement, sentenced  to  be  burned  alive.  This 
dreadful  fate  he  met  with  resignation  and 
lofty  faith,  July  6th,  1415,  and  his  ashes 
were  thrown  into  the  Rhine.  The  rebellion 
of  the  followers  of  Huss  lasted  fifteen  years, 
and  filled  Bohemia  with  bloodshed. 

HUTCHINSON,  Thomas,  born  at  Boston, 
1711,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1727. 
He  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1758,  and  chief-justice  in 
1760.  In  1771  he  was  made  royal  governor 
of  Massachusetts.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Gage  in  1774,  and  retreated  to  England, 
where  he  lived  in  retirement  at  Brompton, 


and  died  June  3d,  1780,  in  his  sixty-ninth 
year.  At  one  time  a Boston  mob  attacked 
his  house,  which  was  nearly  demolished. 
His  uniform  support  of  the  ministerial  meas- 
ures made  him  exceedingly  unpopular. 

HYDER  ALI,  an  eastern  prince  of  Mo- 
hammedan origin,  the  formidable  enemy  to 
the  British  in  India.  He  was  frequently  suc- 
cessful, and,  in  1766  his  dominions  contained 
70,000  square  miles.  He  died  in  1782,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Tippoo  Saib,  his  son. 

HYMEN.  Hymenseus,  an  Athenian  youth 
of  extraordinary  beauty,  but  low  birth,  be- 
came enamored  of  the  daughter  of  one  of 
the  noblest  of  his  countrymen.  The  rank 
of  his  mistress  preventing  his  suit,  he  fol- 
lowed her  wherever  she  went,  disguised  as  a 
woman.  A procession  to  Eleusis  was  seized 
by  pirates,  and  Hymen,  after  sharing  the 
captivity  of  his  mistress,  effected  her  rescue. 
He  was  rewarded  by  her  hand,  and  so  great 
was  his  felicity  i»  wedlock  that  the  Atheni- 
ans instituted  festivals  in  his  honor  about 
1350  b.c.,  and  solemnly  invoked  him  at  their 
nuptials,  believing  that  no  union  could  be 
joyous  or  fortunate  without  his  aid. 


I. 


ICELAND,  a large  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  near  the  confines  of  the  polar  circle, 
belonging  to  Denmark.  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  it  in  981.  Among  its  curiosi- 
ties are  the  Geysers,  or  boiling  springs,  and 
the  numerous  volcanoes,  the  largest  of  which 
is  Mount  Hecla,  whose  terrific  eruptions  have 
often  caused  the  greatest  distress  amhng  the 
inhabitants.  The  islanders  are  simple,  frugal, 
industrious,  and  pious ; the  lower  classes  are 
well  informed.  The  staple  exports  are  fish, 
oil,  eider  down,  sulphur,  and  salted  mutton. 
Iceland  was  discovered  in  the  middle  of  the 
ninth  century,  and  settled  by  Norsemen  in 
874. 

ILLINOIS  contains  55,405  square  miles, 
and  in  1870  had  2,539,891  inhabitants.  The 
Mississippi  forms  the  western  boundary  of 
this  rich  country ; the  Ohio  the  southern ; the 
W abash  and  Lake  Michigan  wash  a large  part 


of  the  eastern  line ; while  the  interior  is  pene- 
trated by  such  noble  and  navigable  streams 
as  the  Illinois,  the  Rock,  and  the  Kaskaskia. 
A small  tract  in  the  south  is  hilly,  and  the 
northern  portion  is  also  somewhat  broken ; 
but  the  general  surface  is  almost  a uniform 
level,  or  slightly  undulating.  About  two- 
thirds  of  the  state  consisted  of  prairies,  on 
whose  wide  expanses  cultivation  is  rapidly 
encroaching.  The  barrens,  or  oak  openings, 
partake  as  it  were  at  once  of  the  character  of 
the  forest  and  the  prairie.  They  rise  from  a 
grassy  turf  seldom  encumbered  with  brush- 
wood, but  not  unfrequently  broken  by  jungles 
of  rich  and  gaudy  flowering  plants,  and  of 
dwarf  sumach.  Among  the  oak  openings 
you  find  some  of  the  most  lovely  landscapes 
of  the  west,  and  travel  for  miles  and  miles 
through  varied  parks  of  natural  growth,  with 
all  the  diversity  of  gently  swelling  hill  and 


ILL 


414 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


dale:  here,  trees  grouped,  or  standing  single.; 
and  there,  arranged  in  long  avenues,  as 
though  by  human  hands,  with  slips  of  open 
meadow  between.  Sometimes  the  openings 
are  interspersed  with  clear  lakes  of  enchanting 
beauty.  The  alluvial  bottoms  are  tracts  of 
great  fertility.  Lead  is  found  in  the  north- 
western corner  of  Illinois  in  exhaustless 
quantities.  Bituminous  coal,  iron,  and  cop- 
per are  also  obtained.  Maize  and  wheat  are 
the  great  staples  of  the  state.  In  the  north 
are  stony  tracts,  but  elsewhere  the  plough 
may  furrow  millions  of  acres  without  turning 
even  a pebble. 

Settlements  were  made  along  the  Missis- 
sippi by  the  French  from  Canada  toward  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  as  at  Caho- 
kia  and  Kaskaskia.  The  whole  of  this  region 
was  abandoned  to  the  English  by  the  peace 
of  1763.  In  1809  Illinois  was  organized  as 
a territory,  and  its  admission  into  the  Union 
followed  in  1818.  The  state  is  named  from 
its  great  central  river,  whose  appellation  is 
aboriginal,  meaning  ‘ the  river  of  men.’  By 
the  constitution  the  elective  franchise  per- 
tains to  every  white  major  citizen,  who  has 
resided  in  the  state  for  one  year.  Dueling  is 
a disqualification  for  office.  The  state  sen- 
ate is  elected  for  four  years,  one-half  bienni- 
ally ; the  lower  house  for  two  years.  The 
sessions  are  biennial.  The  governor  is  elected 
for  four  years.  The  three  judges  of  the  su- 
preme court  have  terms  of  nine  years,  one 
being  chosen  triennially  by  the  people.  There 
are  nine  judicial  districts.  Circuit  judges  are 


chosen  from  each  district  and  hold  office  for 
six  years.  Considerable  provision  is  made  by 
the  state  for  education. 

Springfield,  the  capital,  on  the  border  of 
a beautiful  prairie,  had  19,811  inhabitants  in 
1870.  The  great  city  of  Illinois  is  Chicago. 
It  numbered,  in  1870,  298,977  inhabitants. 
In  the  early  part  of  October,  1871,  the  busi- 
ness portion  of  the  city  was  partially  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  over  $150,000,000  worth  of  prop- 
erty was  destroyed.  Efforts  are  being  made  to 
rebuild  the  burned  portion  of  the  city,  and  the 
enterprise  which  has  characterized  its  citizens 
is  further  evidenced  in  this  work  of  recon- 
struction. Alton,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  three  miles  above  the  confluence 
of  the  Missouri,  is  the  chief  town  of  western 
Illinois ; population  8,665.  Peoria  and  Quin- 
cy are  flourishing  towns. 

INDIA.  This  region,  between  Cape  Co- 
morin and  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  formerly 
called  the  Peninsula  within  the  Ganges,  is 
known  in  the  Persian  language  as  Hindus- 
tan, the  country  of  the  Hindoos.  The  area 
is  about  1,300,000  square  miles,  or  more  than 
ten  times  the  extent  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
200,000,000.  The  coast-line  amounts  to 
3,200  miles,  of  which  1,800  miles  are  washed 
by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  1,400  miles  by  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.  Intersected  by  vast  and 
lofty  mountain  ranges,  the  Indian  peninsula 
presents  a remarkably  varied  surface  of  table- 
land, plain,  and  valley ; and  extending  as  it 
does  from  8°  4'  to  34°  N.  lat.,  with  some- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


415 


times  tracts  half  a mile  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  there  are  many  varieties  of  climate  and 
a great  range  of  temperature. 

The  island  of  Rameserum,  off  the  coast  of 
Southern  India,  is  low,  sandy,  uncultivated, 
but  celebrated  for  the  extent  and  splendor 
of  its  great  pagoda ; it  is  still  visited  by  pil- 
grims from  all  parts  of  Hindustan.  The 
isolated  mountain  region  of  Southern  India 
rises  to  7,000  and  8,000  feet,  the  highest  land 
south  of  the  Himalayas.  Here  are  the  do- 
minions of  the  Rajah  of  Travancore  and  the 
Rajah  of  Cochin. 

The  region  south  of  the  river  Nerbudda, 
separated  from  Southern  India  by  the  Gap 
of  Coimbatore,  is  called  the  Deccan.  It  is 
mostly  an  elevated  table-land,  the  greatest 
portion  still  under  the  sway  of  Hindoo  or 
Mohammedan  princes,  in  alliance  with  the 
British.  The  kingdom  of  Mysore,  in  the 
south,  is  governed  by  a Hindoo  prince.  In  the 
north  are  the  territories  of  the  Nizam  of  Hy- 
drabad,  or  Hyderabad ; Ilydrabad,  the  capi- 
tal, is  noted  for  its  traffic  in  diamonds ; this 
was  formerly  called  the  kingdom  of  Golconda. 
East  of  this  are  the  possessions  of  the  Rajah 
of  Berar  or  Nagpoor.  The  territory  of  the 
Rajah  of  Colapore  extends  along  the  West- 
ern Ghauts.  The  Deccan  is  skirted  on  every 
side  by  lofty  ranges  of  mountains,  known  as 
the  Ghauts,  from  which  the  descent  to  the 
low  narrow  belt  along  the  seashore  is  steep 
and  difficult.  The  southern  part  of  the  nar- 
row coast  between  the  Western  Ghauts  and 
the  Indian  Ocean  is  called  Malabar.  On 
these  Western  Ghauts,  between' 12°  and  14° 
N.  lat.,  grows  the  only  sandal-wood  in  Hin- 
dustan ; it  is  an  important  export  to  China 
and  Japan.  The  city  of  Goa,  belonging  to 
the  Portuguese,  lies  on  the  western  coast: 
once  it  was  splendid  and  populous,  with. mag- 
nificent dwellings  and  many  elegant  churches 
and  monasteries ; these  are  now  decaying, 
and  the  ancient  town,  now  very  unhealthy, 
is  scantily  peopled.  A new,  well-built  town, 
five  miles  nearer  the  sea,  called  Panjim,  is 
the  residence  of  the  Portuguese  viceroy,  and 
has  20,000  inhabitants.  Mah6  is  a French 
settlement  on  this  coast,  with  a trade  in 
pepper.  On  the  Nilgherry  Mountains,  only 
eleven  degrees  from  the  equator,  the  climate 
and  productions  of  Europe  are  found.  Here 
are  established  sanitary  stations,  where  Eu- 


ropeans may  regain  their  health  when  im- 
paired by  a long  residence  in  hot  countries. 
The  country  between  the  Eastern  Ghauts  and 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  comprises  the  central  and 
northern  Carnatic,  with  the  Guntoor  Circar. 
Here  is  the  Coromandel  coast,  Madras,  the 
French  settlement  of  Pondicherry,  and  the 
Danish  one  of  Tranquebar.  The  coast  is 
much  exposed,  and  during  the  south-west 
monsoon  the  only  smooth  water  is  the  harbor 
of  Coringa. 

Central  India,  or  the  mountain  region  of 
Northern  Hindustan,  has  nearly  the  form  of 
a triangle,  whose  base  is  the  Yindhya  Mount- 
ains, and  the  apex  near  Delhi.  To  this  region 
belong  Gujerat  and  Cutch.  The  country  is 
for  the  most  part  in  the  possession  of  native 
rulers,  the  Mahratta  princes,  Scindia,  Ilolkar, 
the  Guicowar,  the  Rajpoots,  and  the  Rajah 
of  Rewa. 

The  Ganges  rises  among  the  highest  Hima- 
layas, and  enters  the  sea  by  a man}^-branched 
delta,  after  a course  of  nearly  1,500  miles. 
The  great  plain  drained  by  it  and  its  afflu- 
ents is  the  most  fertile,  the  best  cultivated, 
and  the  most  thickly  inhabited  portion  of 
Hindustan,  containing  more  than  one-half  of 
its  population.  Here  are  the  cities  of  Be- 
nares, Calcutta,  Cawnpoor,  Delhi,  Lucknow, 
&c.  This  region  is  entirely  under  British 
rule ; the  kingdom  of  Oude  was  their  last 
acquisition. 

The  Indus  rises  on  the  table-land  of  Thi- 
bet. The  extensive  plain  of  the  Indus  com- 
prehends the  Punjaub  (country  of  the  five 
rivers),  Sinde,  &c.  The  Punjaub  has  very 
fertile  and  very  sterile  tracts  ; rice  is  the 
chief  object  of  agriculture.  The  Sikhs  are 
the  principal  inhabitants.  The  Punjaub  is 
now  a British  province,  and  Lahore  the  seat 
of  rule.  Sinde  is  indebted  for  its  fertility  to 
the  inundations  of  the  Indus ; as  far  as  these 
extend,  the  country  yields  abundant  crops. 
It  is  thinly  peopled.  It  was  formerly  ruled 
by  chiefs  of  Belooch  descent,  called  ameers ; 
it  is  now  annexed  to  the  Bombay  presidency. 

The  Himalayas  form  the  northern  boundary 
of  India.  The  range  is  some  1,500  miles  in 
length,  with  a breadth  between  80  and  120 
miles  ; it  may  occupy  a surface  of  150,000 
square  miles.  In  its  arms  the  Cashmere  val- 
ley is  enclosed.  The  highest  portion  of  the 
Himalayas  is  the  Dhawalaghiri  range,  where 


IND 


416 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  summit  of  Ghosa  Cotee  attains  an  eleva- 
tion of  28,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  highest  land  known  on  the  globe.  The 
word  ‘Himalaya’  is  Sanscrit,  meaning,  ‘the 
abode  of  frost’ 

The  aboriginal  tribes,  besides  the  Hindoos, 
are  few  and  only  found  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  India.  The  foreigners  are  partly 
Asiatics  and  partly  Europeans.  The  Asiatics 
have  come  by  sea  and  by  land.  To  the  former 
class  belong  the  Arabs,  who  are  very  numer- 
ous on  the  coast  of  Malabar.  Some  Parsees, 
or  Guebres,  are  dispersed  through  the  cities 
on  the  coast  between  Bombay  and  Surat. 
The  Asiatics  who  entered  by  land  chiefly 
settled  in  the  plains  of  the  Ganges  and  the 
Indus.  They  came  with  the  conquerors  who 
at  several  epochs  have  established  their  em- 
pires here.  They  are  mostly  Afghans,  are 
commonly  called  Patans,  and  number  about 
IO^OOOjOOO.  The  Europeans  are  chiefly  de- 
scendants of  the  Portuguese,  and  most  nu- 
merous along  the  western  coast.  Their 
number  is  between  one  and  two  million. 
The  British  race  is  pre-eminent  in  power ; 
yet  it  numbers  less  than  100,000. 

India  is  rich  in  gems ; not  diamonds  only, 
but  rubies,  emeralds,  sapphires,  turquoises, 
opals,  amethysts,  and  almost  every  known 
gem,  arc  found,  of  great  purity  and  beauty. 
Gold  is  rare.  There  is  iron  of  good  quality. 
The  celebrated  Damascus  blades  bore  testimo- 
ny of  old  to  the  worth  of  Indian  steel,  and  there 
is  still  some  produced  of  equally  fine  quality. 
Lead,  copper,  zinc,  and  tin  also  exist  in  vari- 
ous districts.  The  forests  furnish  valuable 
woods — ebonjq  satin-wood,  calamander,  teak, 
saul-wood,  and  the  useful  bamboo.  The 
most  important  crop  of  India  is  cotton.  It 
is  inferior  to  the  cotton  of  the  United  States 
in  length  of  fibre  and  in  cleanliness.  The 
other  great  staple  of  India  is  rice,  grown  in 
every  variety  of  soil  and  in  every  climate. 
The  land  is  rich  in  dyes.  India  rubber  has 
long  been  exported  to  England.  Tobacco  is 
grown  considerably,  but  of  inferior  quality. 
Maize  is  freely  cultivated,  but  it  is  far  from 
equalling  to  the  American  corn. 

India  is  comprised-  in  three  great  political 
divisions,  the  presidencies  of  Bengal  (includ- 
ing the  sub-presidency  of  Agra,  or  the  north- 
western provinces),  Madras,  and  Bombay, 
the  former  the  seat  of  the  governor-general 


and  the  supreme  council.  These  divisions 
include  not  only  the  territories  under  the 
direct  rule  of  the  British,  but  also  most  of 
the  native  states,  some  of  which  are  sub- 
sidiary, some  tributary,  some  protected,  and 
some  nominally  independent ; but  all  are 
more  or  less  under  British  control.  Nearly  a 
million  and  a half  sterling  has  been  annually 
paid  in  pensions  to  conquered  native  princes. 

The  antiquity  of  the  Hindoos  is  undoubt- 
edly great ; little  change  has  taken  place  in 
their  religion,  manners,  or  customs,  for  more 
than  two  thousand  years.  Hindustan  was 
very  slightly  known  to  the  ancients.  They 
had  some  vague  idea  of  its  extent  and 
wealth,  but  they  had  little  knowledge  of  its 
interior.  Various  attempts  were  made  to 
subdue  the  land  : Alexander  the  Great  car- 
ried his  victorious  arms  across  the  frontier  ; 
Seleucus  advanced  as  far  as  the  Ganges ; 
Semiramis  pushed  her  forces  against  the  In- 
dians ; and  other  adventurers  essayed  their 
subversion.  Whatever  successes  they  gained 
appeared  not  to  result  to  their  advantage ; 
the  people  resisted  their  invaders  with  great 
bravery.  The  Romans  never  extended  their 
conquests  as  far  as  India. 

Commerce  between  India  and  the  western 
nations  of  Asia  appears  to  have  been  carried 
on  from  the  earliest  times.  Indian  articles 
found  their  way  into  Europe  through  the 
Phoenician  merchants.  After  the  foundation 
of  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  the  Indian  traffic 
was  sustained  almost  exclusively  by  its  mer- 
chants. 

Hardly  anything  is  known  of  the  history 
of  India  from  the  time  of  Alexander  to  the 
Mohammedan  conquest.  The  Greek  king- 
dom of  Bactria,  founded  by  Theodotus,  a 
lieutenant  of  the  S}^rian  monarchs,  b.c.  255, 
comprised  a considerable  part  of  northern 
India.  It  was  overthrown,  b.c.  126,  by  the 
Tartars  (called  Scythians  by  the  Greeks),  who 
possessed  the  greater  part  of  north-western 
Hindustan  till  they  were  driven  beyond  the 
Indus,  b.c.  56,  by  Vicramaditya  I.  The 
earliest  invasion  of  the  Mohammedans  was 
made  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century 
under  Mahmoud  Ghazni,  who  led  twelve  ex- 
peditions in  all  into  Hindustan,  sacking  cities, 
carrying  off  their  treasure,  and  trying  to  ex- 
terminate the  inhabitants,  since  he  could  not 
convert  them  to  the  faith  of  Islam.  Inva- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


417 


sions  and  conquests  followed,  and  in  1093 
Delhi  was  taken,  and  made  the  capital  of  the 
Mohammedan  empire  in  India.  In  1398 
Tamerlane  descended  upon  India  with  his 
conquering  horde  of  Tartars,  massacring  the 
inhabitants  of  every  place  through  which  he 
passed,  and  defeating  the  Indian  army  with 
immense  slaughter.  He  carried  away  a great 
booty  and  a vast  retinue  of  slaves,  leaving 
the  country  a desert  which  he  had  found  a 
garden.  In  1526  Baber,  a descendant  of 
Tamerlane,  took  Delhi,  and  established  the 
Tartar  dynasty,  or  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
the  Mogul  empire.  The  emperor  was  known 
in  Europe  as  the  Great  Mogul.  Akbar, 
Shah  Jehan,  Aurungzebe,  were  emperors  of 
great  renown. 

In  1738  Nadir  Shah,  or  Kouli  Khan,  the 
ambitious  monarch  of  Persia,  crossed  the 
Indus  with  a brave  and  veteran  army,  and 
soon  decisively  defeated  the  Mogul’s  troops. 
Nadir  Shah’s  stay  at  Delhi  was  marked  by 
rapacity  and  bloodshed  ; a hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  of  the  inhabitants  were  massacred, 
and  the  conqueror  is  said  to  have  borne  off 
over  $100,000,000  in  treasure  ! By  this  blow 
the  power  of  the  emperor  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed ; only  one  imperial  army  ever  entered 
the  field  after  this,  and  that  was  defeated  by 
the  Rohillas  in  1749.  Delhi,  and  a few  miles 
around  it,  constituted  almost  the  sole  terri- 
tory of  the  descendants  of  Tamerlane;  while 
the  governors  of  districts  and  provinces,  un- 
der the  names  of  rajahs,  nabobs,  and  a variety 
of  others,  became  independent  sovereigns. 

The  Portuguese  were  the  first  nation  of 
Europe  that  got  a foothold  in  India ; Vasco 
de  Gama  landed  at  Calicut,  May  20th,  1498. 
By  the  possession  of  Malacca  they  commanded 
the  trade  of  the*  Indian  archipelago  ; and  by 
their  numerous  settlements  along  the  Mala- 
bar coast,  especially  at  Goa  and  Diu,  they 
monopolized  the  commerce  with  Europe. 
Under  their  rule  the  inquisition  was  planted 
in  India,  and  its  shambles  dripped  with  hor- 
rors. In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  English,  Dutch,  and  French  began 
to  make  settlements  along  the  coast,  and  the 
Portuguese  lost  their  dominions  almost  as 
rapidly  as  they  had  acquired  them.  They 
still  possess  Goa,  Damaun,  and  Diu.  The 
Dutch  never  gained  much  political  power  in 
Hindustan,  though  at  one  time  they  carried 
27 


on  the  greater  part  of  the  Indian  trade.  The 
French  obtained  extensive  possessions  in  the 
Deccan,  of  which  they  retain  only  Pondi- 
cherry, Carical,  Yanaon,  Mahe,  and  Chander- 
nagore. 

The  first  maritime  mercantile  adventure 
from  England  direct  to  India  wTas  in  1591. 
In  1600  a charter  wTas  given  to  an  association 
of  merchants,  under  the  designation  of  “ The 
Governor  and  Compan}'-  of  London  Mer- 
chants trading  to  the  East  Indies.”  In  1615 
an  English  ambassador,  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  wras 
sent  to  the  court  of  the  Mogul  emperor,  by 
whom  he  wTas  cordially  received.  The  Eng- 
lish East  India  Company  wrere  pretty  suc- 
cessful in  their  voyages ; and  after  victoriously 
contending  with  the  Portuguese  in  several 
naval  engagements,  they  at  length  succeeded 
(1612)  in  forming  a factory  at  Surat,  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  by  permission  of  the  Emperor 
Jehan  Ghir.  They  had  to  struggle  against 
the  enmity  of  both  the  Portuguese  and  the 
Dutch.  In  1639  permission  wms  obtained  to 
erect  a fortress  at  Madras.  Accident  laid 
the  foundation  of  their  powrer  in  Bengal  in 
1652,  when,  through  the  influence  of  a medi- 
cal gentleman  who  had  successfully  used  his 
professional  skill  at  the  court  of  the  Mogul, 
a license  was  given,  for  the  merely  nominal 
sum  of  thirty  thousand  rupees,  permitting 
the  English  East  India  Company  to  trade  to 
an  unlimited  extent,  free  from  all  payment 
cf  duties.  The  first  English  post  was  at 
Ilooghly,  twenty-three  miles  higher  up  the 
river  than  Calcutta.  It  wrns  not  until  1698 
that  the  factory  wTas  removed  to  Calcutta, 
and  Fort  William  built. 

Bombay  had  been  ceded  to  the  Portuguese 
by  the  Mogul  in  1630.  It  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  England  on  the  marriage  of  Charles 
II.  wTith  the  Infanta  Catherine  of  Portugal. 
By  the  marriage  contract,  Charles  was  to 
receive  £500,000  in  money,  the  town  of  Tan- 
gier in  Africa,  and  the  island  of  Bombay  with 
its  dependencies,  together  wdth  permission 
for  his  subjects  to  carry  on  a free  trade  with 
the  Portuguese  settlements  in  India  and  Bra- 
zil. The  island  was  transferred  to  the  East 
India  Company  in  1668. 

The  wars  waged  between  France  and  Eng- 
land in  the  eighteenth  century  extended  into 
India.  Hostilities  commenced  in  1747,  and 
wrere  waged  with  spirit  by  both  sides,  the 


IND 


418 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


abilities  of  Clive  contributing  to  the  successes 
of  the  English,  until  in  1755  a cessation  took 
place.  In  1750,  the  authorities  at  Calcutta 
having  been  induced  by  dread  of  the  French 
to  strengthen  their  fortifications,  Surajah 
Dowlah,  the  soubahdar  of  Bengal,  who  had 
never  been  friendly  to  the  English,  made  this 
a pretext  for  attacking  the  place.  The  out- 
posts were  assailed  on  the  18th  of  June,  1756, 
and  after  two  days  the  fort  was  carried  by 
storm.  The  tragedy  of  the  Black  Hole  fol- 
lowed. On  the  first  day  of  the  next  year 
Calcutta  was  retaken  by  the  English  ; on  the 
23d  of  June  following  the  nabob  was  de- 
feated at  Plassey  by  Clive ; and  earl}'-  in  July 
he  was  assassinated  by  the  son  of  his  suc- 
cessor. From  this  time  may  be  dated  the 
beginning  of  the  absolute  government  of  the 
English  in  Bengal. 

On  the  Coromandel  coast,  meantime,  affairs 
were  going  on  very  indifferently  for  the  Eng- 
lish. But  things  again  took  a turn,  all  the 
enterprises  of  the  French  commander  going 
awry.  His  attempt  upon  Wandewash,  in 
1760,  was  extremely  unfortunate.  Chelta- 
put,  Arcot,  Timery,  Carical,  Cillambaram, 
Alamparva,  Trincomalee,  Cuddalore,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English.  Pondicherry  was 
invested,  and  capitulated  Jan.  15th,  1761 ; 
the  power  of  the  French  in  India  being  thus 
annihilated. 

In  1767  a new  enemy  appeared  in  the 
Deccan — Hvder  Ali,  Prince  of  Mysore,  who 
had  raised  himself  from  the  rank  of  a sub- 
ordinate soldier  and  established  a principality 
for  himself.  For  several  years  he  baffled  the 
attempts  of  the  English  to  crush  him,  and 
he  often  gained  advantages  over  them  in  bat- 
tle. In  1781  Sir  Eyre  Coote  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief ; -he  defeated  Hyder  in 
several  severe  engagements.  In  the  midst 
of-  the  contest  with  the  English  II)rdcr  died, 
and  there  succeeded  him  as  Sultan  of  Mysore 
his  bloodthirsty  son,  Tippoo  Saib.  He  waged 
war  for  several  }rears,  till  Seringapatam,  the 
capital  of  Mysore,  was  stormed,  and  Tippoo 
slain,  May  4th,  1709. 

To  enumerate  in  detail  all  the  conquests 
and  intrigues  h}*-  which  the  British  extended 
their  empire  in  India  would  far  oiftrun  our 
limits.  From  1801  to  the  close  of  1805  the 
first  Mahrntta  war  lasted,  in  which  Gen. 
Wellesley,  the  future  Duke  of  Wellington, 


distinguished  himself,  especially  at  Assay e. 
The  second  Mahratta  war  continued  from 
1806  till  1822.  At  the  renewal  of  the  Com- 
pany’s charter  in  1813,  only  the  monopoly 
in  the  trade  between  China  and  England  was 
retained;  unrestricted  intercourse  with  the 
Indian  possessions  was  allowed  to  British 
merchants.  In  1824  the  Burmese  commenced 
hostilities ; Rangoon  was  taken  by  the  Brit- 
ish, and  the  Burmese  several  times  defeated ; 
in  February,  1826,  the  Burmese  monarch, 
humbled  and  disheartened,  made  peace,  ced- 
ing a large  tract  of  territory,  and  paying 
£1,000,000  sterling. 

At  the  renewal  of  the  charter  in  1833,  not 
only  was  the  monopoly  of  the  China  trade 
abolished,  but  the  Company  was  restricted 
from  carrying  on  any  commercial  operations 
whatever  on  its  own  account,  and  was  con- 
fined entirely  to  the  territorial  and  political 
management  of  the  vast  empire  beneath  its 
sway.  The  disastrous  Afghan  expedition  we 
have  already  spoken  of  under  Afghanistan. 
As  a sequel  came  hostilities  with  the  Ameers 
of  Scinde;  their  army  of  30,000  foot  and 
5,000  horse  was  routed  on  a bloody  field  by 
Sir  Charles  Napier  with  a little  band  of  2,100, 
and  Scinde  was  annexed  to  the  British  em- 
pire. The  next  great  storm  of  bloodshed 
was  the  war  with  the  Sikhs,  who  crossed  the 
Sutlej  and  attacked  the  British  at  Ferozepore, 
Dec.  14th,  1845.  At  Moodkee,  Ferozeshah, 
Aliwal,  and  Sobraon,  within  sixty  days,  the 
Sikhs  were  defeated,  and  the  war  ended.  A 
second  war  with  the  Sikhs  began  in  1848. 
Chillianwallah  and  Goojerat  were  the  deci- 
sive battles.  March  14th,  1849,  the  Sikhs 
laid  down  their  arms,  and  surrendered  un- 
conditionally. The  Punjaub  was  annexed  to 
the  British  dominions.  In  both  wars  the 
victories  over  the  Sikhs  were  bought  by  a 
heavy  sacrifice  of  British  blood  and  life.  In 
1852  a second  war  with  Burmah  resulted 
in  the  annexation  of  Pegu ; and  in  1856  the 
large,  rich  province  of  Oude  was  taken  from 
its  profligate  king. 

Edmund  Burke  accused  his  countrymen  of 
having  sold  every  monarch,  prince,  and  state 
in  India,  broken  every  contract,  and  ruined 
every  prince  and  every  state  who  had  ever 
trusted  them.  India  has  presented  a novel 
spectacle.  A handful  of  strangers  from  a 
small  ocean  isle,  dwelling  among  a people 


IND 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


419 


differing  every  way  from  them,  draw  from 
the  country  a revenue  of  £27,000,000;  they 
fill  the  highest  offices  of  state;  they  have 
power  over  98,000,000  of  people,  and  exer- 
cise indirect  authority  over  52,000,000  more 
whom  they  suffer  to  be  ruled  through  native 
princes.  Their  sway  extends  over  a space 
half  as  large  as  Europe.  The  chiefs  of  this 
vast  empire  had  neither  crown  nor  sceptre. 
Subjected  at  home  to  the  same  laws  as  other 
citizens,  placed  under  the  same  power,  their 
rise  was  as  silent  as  their  fall ; they  reigned 
or  died  unknown  to  their  subjects.  These 
masters,  these  kings,  were  merchants — mer- 
chant princes  in  truth ! they  composed  the 
English  East  India  Company. 

A veil  may  well  be  drawn  over  the  blood}1' 
contests  and  oppressive  measures  by  which 
the  natives  of  India  were  crushed,  their 
princes  ruined  and  betrayed,  their  wealth 
stolen  from  them,  and  their  rights  trampled 
under  foot,  without  remorse  or  hesitation. 
Eloquent  and  upright  men  in  England  indig- 
nantly denounced  the  conduct  of  the  Com- 
pany— in  vain.  Confiding  in  their  wealth, 
steeled  by  an  unrelenting  avarice,  proud  in  a 
constant  success,  they  smiled  at  every  attempt 
to  shake  their  power  or  impeach  their  officers. 
The  native  sovereigns  were  not  backward  to 
inflict  revolting  cruelties  in  retaliation.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  Mohammedan 
rulers  who  had  sway  before  the  advent  of  the 
British,  were  themselves  usurpers,  and  that 
their  despotisms  were  cruel  and  treacherous. 
Notwithstanding  the  crimes  that  have  sullied 
the  rule  of  the  British,  it  has  on  the  whole 
been  beneficial  to  the  unhappy  country.  For 
the  wrongs  of  which  they  were  guilty  they 
have  reaped  an  awful  harvest. 

For  a long  time  the  Mohammedans  of  Up- 
per India  had  been  discontented  with  their 
subordinate  position,  but  it  was  of  no  use  to 
try  to  throw  off  the  British  yoke  so  long  as 
the  Hindoo  soldiery  continued  true"  to  their 
salt.  The  high-caste  sepoys  of  the  Bengal 
army  being  mostly  Brahmins,  they  obtained 
a consideration  for  religious  scruples  and 
whims  which  gradually  impaired  and  ulti- 
mately destroyed  all  discipline.  When  it 
became  absolutely  necessary  to  curtail  some 
of  their  privileges,  they  considered  them- 
selves aggrieved,  and  to  arrogance  added  dis- 
content. The  introduction  of  improved  mus- 


kets rendering  the  use  of  greased  cartridges 
necessary,  a quantity  was  sent  out  from  Eng- 
land. The  sepoys  objected  to  them  because 
they  might  have  been  greased  with  the  fat 
of  cows  or  pigs ; the  former  is  an  object  of 
especial  veneration,  the  latter  of  abhorrence 
and  hatred,  and  by  tasting  the  fat  of  either 
caste  would  be  lost.  The  issue  of  the  obnox- 
ious cartridges  was  at  once  discontinued. 
This  was  in  January,  1857.  A mutinous 
spirit,  however,  gradually  cropped  out  in  the 
Bengal  native  army.  In  March  several  regi- 
ments were  disbanded,  followed  by  others, 
till  in  June  the  army  had  lost,  by  disband- 
ment and  desertion,  80, COO  men.  In  April 
eighty-five  of  the  native  cavalry  at  Meerut 
refused  to  use  their  cartridges  ; they  were 
committed  to  jail,  May  9th.  On  the  10th 
the  native  troops  rose,  fired  on  their  officers, 
killing  Col.  Finnis  and  others,  released  their 
imprisoned  comrades  and  hundreds  of  crimi- 
nals, massacred  many  Europeans,  fired  the 
public  buildings,  and  then  marched  off  for 
Delhi.  The  sepoys  there  welcomed  the  mu- 
tineers and  fraternized  with  them.  Delhi 
was  soon  wholly  in  their  hands.  The  titular 
king  of  Delhi  was  proclaimed  emperor.  The 
fate  of  the  Europeans  resident  in  Delhi  was 
awful.  Delicate  women  were  stripped  of  their 
clothing,  violated,  turned  naked  into  the 
streets,  beaten  with  canes,  pelted  with  filth, 
and  abandoned  to  the  beastly  lusts  of  the 
rabble  until  welcome  death  relieved  them. 
Men  were  slowly  hacked  to  pieces,  burned 
to  death,  or  horribly  mutilated.  A sepoy 
snatched  a child  from  its  mother’s  arms,  and 
dashed  its  brains  out  on  the  pavement  before 
her.  Atrocities  so  terrible  and  disgusting 
that  they  can  never  be  hinted  at  on  the  page 
of  history  were  the  fate  of  the  Englishmen 
and  Englishwomen  throughout  this  reign  of 
horror. 

Similar  mutinies  followed  at  various  points, 
accompanied  by  similar  outrages.  In  several 
instances  some  of  the  rebelling  sepoys  pro- 
tected their  British  officers  and  enabled  them 
to  escape ; in  others  they  were  loud  in  profess- 
ing loyalty,  and  swore  to  defend  the  English 
to  the  last  drop  of  their  blood, — yet  the  mo- 
ment after,  perfidiously  shooting  them  down, 
and  marching  to  join  the  insurgents  at  Delhi. 
It  became  evident  that  the  whole  Bengal 
army  was  leavened  with  the  spirit  of  evil. 


IND 


420 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


It  was  a force  of  upward  of  150,000  men. 
The  European  troops  in  Bengal  were  less 
than  25,000,  and  were  distributed  through 
the  country  at  about  a hundred  military  sta- 
tions. Some  disaffection  appeared  in  the 
Bombay  army,  but  it  was  more  promptly  met ; 
there  had  been  less  regard  to  high  caste  paid 
there,  and  there  was  better  discipline.  The 
Madras  sepoys  generally  exhibited  a striking 
example  of  fidelity.  Most  of  the  native 
princes  kept  their  faith  with  the  British  gov- 
ernment during  this  critical  period.  The 
villagers  showed  little  love  for  the  insurgents, 
a fact  testifying  that  the  trouble  was  a mu- 
tiny, not  a popular  insurrection. 

The  news  of  these  horrible  massacres 
caused  great  excitement  in  England.  Regi- 
ment after  regiment  was  sent  to  the  relief, 
and  Sir  Colin  Campbell  hurried  on  to  take 
the  command.  Lucknow  was  besieged  by 
the  insurgents,  and  the  men  of  the  garrison 
of  Cawnpore  were  massacred  by  Nena  Sa- 
hib. The  heroic  Havelock  came  up  too.  late 
to  avert  this  terrible  catastrophe,  and  the  day 
before  he  entered  Cawnpore  Nena  Sahib 
finished  the  tragedy  by  murdering  the  wo- 
men and  children.  This  was  in  the  middle 
of  July,  1857.  Not  till  the  19th  of  Septem- 
ber was  Havelock’s  force  strong  enough  to 
advance  to  the  relief  of  the  long  beleaguered 
band  at  Lucknow.  On  the  25th,  when  a few 
hours  must  have  given  the  besieged  over  to 
their  pitiless  foe,  Havelock  and  succor  came, 
and  they  were  saved.  Meanwhile  a British 
army  had  gathered  before  the  walls  of  Delhi, 
and  on  the  7th  of  September  the  siege  com- 
menced. Several  successful  assaults  were 
made,  with  great  loss  of  life,  and  on  the  eve- 
ning of  the  20th,  the  rebels  evacuated  the 
city  and  suburbs.  Among  the  prisoners 
made  was  the  wretched  old  King-  of  Delhi ; 
his  life  and  that  of  his  wife  were  spared ; his 
‘ wo  sons  and  grandson  were  shot.  The  fall 
of  Delhi  scattered  the  rebels  through  the 
land,  and  the  war  assumed  more  of  a guer- 
rilla character. 

•The  force  with  which  Havelock  relieved 
Lucknow  not  being  strong  enough  to  protect 
the  retreat  of  the  women  and  children  to 
Cawnpore,  he  remained  at  Lucknow ; the 
insurgents  again  besieged  it,  and  the  position 
of  its  defenders  became  quite  critical.  One 
of  Sir  Colin  Campbell’s  first  movements  was 


for  its  relief.  He  prosecuted  hostilities 
against  the  insurgents  with  his  proverbial 
energy,  and  with  much  hard  fighting  before 
the  dose  of  1858  the  mutiny  was  quelled. 
Sir  Colin  was  elevated  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Clyde. 

The  missionaries  in  India  were  not  spared 
in  this  whirlwind  of  fire  and  blood.  Ten  of 
these  devoted  men,  with  their  wives,  were 
slain ; of  whom  four  belonged  to  the  Ameri- 
can Presbyterian  mission  at  Futtehgur.  The 
destruction  of  mission  property  was  immense. 
The  mission  bungalow  residences,  the  schools, 
the  churches  or  chapels,  the  libraries  and 
stores  of  books,  were  destroyed.  The  ex- 
tensive printing-presses  of  the  American 
mission  at  Allahabad,  and  of  the  Church  of 
England  nrssion  at  Agra,  with  the  fonts  of 
type,  and  Bible,  and  tract,  and  school-book 
depositories, — the  accumulated  results  of  the 
knowledge,  experience,  and  toil  of  many  a 
devoted  spirit  for  many  years, — all  disap- 
peared. 

In  1858  the  East  India  Company  ceased  to 
exist,  and  by  act  of  parliament  the  control 
of  India  came  into  the  hands  of  the  crown. 

The  following  have  been  the  governors- 
general  of  India  : — 

Warren  Hastings  assumed  the  government  April 
13th,  1772. 

Sir  John  Macpherson,  Feb.  1st,  1785. 

Lord  Cornwallis,  Sept.  12th,  1786. 

Sir  John  Shore  (afterward  Lord  Teignmouth), 
Oct.  28th,  1793. 

Lord  (afterward  Marquis)  Cornwallis  again:  he 
relinquished  the  appointment. 

Sir  Alured  Clarke,  April  6th,  1798. 

Lord  Mornington  (afterward  Marquis  Wellesley), 
May  17th,  1798. 

Marquis  Cornwallis  again,  July  30th,  1805. 

Sir  George  Hilaro  Barlow,  Oct.  10th,  1805. 

Lord  Minto,  July  31st,  1807. 

Earl  of  Moira  (afterward  Marquis  Hastings),  Oct. 
4th,  1813. 

Hon.  John  Adam,  Jan.  13th,  1823. 
lit.  Hon.  George  Canning ; he  relinquished  the 
appointment. 

Lord  Amherst,  Aug.  1st,  1823. 

Hon.  Wm.  Butterworth  Bayley,  March  13th, 
1S28. 

Lord  Wm.  Cavendish  Bentinck,  July  4th,  1828. 
Sir  Charles  Theophilus  (afterward  Lord)  Metcalfe, 
March  20th,  1835. 

Lord  Auckland,  March  4th,  1836. 

Lord  Ellenborougii,  Feb.  28th,  1842. 

William  Wilberforce  Bird,  June  loth,  1844. 

Siv  Henry  (afterward  Viscount)  Ilardinge,  July 
23d,  1844. 

Lord  Dalhousie,  Jan.  12th,  1848. 

Lord  Canning,  July,  1855. 


IND 


421 


history  and 

Calcutta,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Bengal,  and  the  seat  of  supreme  government 
for  British  India,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Hoogly,  one  of  the  arms  of  the  Ganges, 
a hundred  miles  from  the  sea.  Drainage  has 
ameliorated  the  unhealthiness  of  its  site.  It 
was  a small  native  village  when  the  English 
established  their  factory  in  1656.  Fort  Wil- 
liam was  built  by  Clive  in  1757.  The  town 
extends  more  than  six  miles  along  the  river, 
having  an  average  width  of  three  miles. 
The  population,  with  the  suburbs,  is  esti- 
mated at  500,000,  made  up  of  a strange 
hodgepodge  of  Eurasions  (half-breeds),  Ar- 
menians, Jews,  Moguls,  Parsees,  Arabs,  Bur- 
mese, Madrasses,  native  Christians,  and 
British.  The  great  mass  speak  the  Bengalee 
language,  and  many  the  Ilindustanee  also. 
No  springs  are  found  for  a hundred  and  forty 
feet  below  the  surface,  and  for  good  water 
the  people  are  dependent  upon  tanks  filled 
by  the  periodical  rains.  Calcutta  is  the  great 
emporium  of  trade  and  commerce  for  all  Ben- 
gal. Flocks  of  kites,  vultures,  crows,  and 
adjutant  cranes  clear  away  the  surplus  food 
provided  for  Europeans,  which  is  thrown  at 
night  into  the  streets,  since  it  can  not  be  kept 
in  that  climate,  and  the  religious  prejudices 
of  the  natives  forbid  them  to  consume  it. 
These  feathered  scavengers  are  aided  by 
foxes,  jackals,  and  wild  dogs  from  the  jun- 
gles, who  prowl  and  howl  through  the  ways 
at  night.  The  markets  are  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  choice  meats,  game,  fish,  and 
fruits.  Several  institutions  for  literary,  sci 
entific,  and  educational  objects  have  been  es- 
tablished by  the  English. 

The  sacred  city  of  Benares,  in  Bengal, 
rises  like  an  amphitheatre  on  the  high  north- 
ern bank  of  the  Ganges.  It  has  more  than 
600,000  inhabitants,  and  the  dense  masses  at 
the  great  Hindoo  festivals  present  an  extra- 
ordinary scene.  The  natives  call  Benares 
Casi  or  Cashi,  ‘ the  splendid,’  and  it  is  re- 
garded with  peculiar  reverence.  It  abounds 
in  temples.  A college  for  the  instruction  of 
Hindoos  in  their  own  literature  was  founded 
here  by  the  British  government  in  1791. 
Benares  is  a great  mart  for  diamonds  and 
other  gems,  which  are  brought  principally 
from  the  Bundelcund.  The  cit}r  was  ceded 
to  the  East  India  Company  by  the  Nabob  of 


BIOGRAPHY. 

Oude  in  1775.  A Hindoo  imagines  that  if 
he  dies  in  Benares,  his  eternal  felicity  is  cer- 
tain. 

The  city  of  Bombay  is  situated  on  an 
island  of  the  same  name,  on  the  western 
coast  of  India ; population,  566,000.  It  is 
belted  with  fortifications.  The  trade  of  Bom- 
bay is  very  great,  cotton  being  the  largest 
export. 

Madras  lies  on  the  eastern  coast.  Fort  St. 
George  was  built  in  1639,  and  a factory  estab- 
lished here.  The  population  is  300,000,  and 
fhere  are  several  populous  suburbs.  The 
coast  has  no  indentation,  nor  has  Madras  any 
harbor  or  pier.  A heavy  swell  rolls  in  shore 
throughout  the  year,  and  vessels  anchor  in 
the  open  roads  a mile  or  so  out.  Consider- 
able difficulty  is  frequently  experienced  in 
landing  passengers  and  goods. 

The  languages  of  India  may  be  divided 
into  two  great  classes.  I.  Languages  de- 
rived from  the  Sanscrit,  spoken  in  the  north- 
ern and  central  provinces — the  Hindee, 
Bengalee,  Punjaubee,  Mahratta,  Guzerattee, 
Cutchee,  Boondela,  Brig  Bhakhur,  Ooriya, 
and  Asamese.  II.  Languages  less  closely 
dependent  upon  the  Sanscrit,  spoken  in  the 
southern  parts — the  Teloogoo,  Tamul,  Cana- 
rese,  Malayala,  and  Cingalese.  The  common 
language  of  Mohammedans  is  Hindustanee ; 
this  is  a compound  of  Hindee,  the  primi- 
tive language  of  the  Hindoos,  with  Arabic 
and  Persian,  the  speech  of  their  Moham- 
medan conquerors.  Legislative  acts  are 
translated  into  Persian,  Bengalee,  and  Hin- 
dustanee. 

The  Hindoos  from  earliest  times  have  been 
divided  into  four  castes,  or  races.  The  Brah- 
mins occupy  the  first  rank ; their  proper 
duties  are  to  teach  the  Vedas  or  sacred  books, 
to  perform  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  and  to 
meditate' upon  divine  and  holy  objects.  The 
Kshatriya,  or  military  class,  is  said  by  the 
Brahmins  to  be  extinct,  but  the  Rajpoots 
claim  to  belong  to  this  class.  The  Vaisyas 
are  agriculturists,  herdsmen,  and  hunters. 
The  Sudras  are  handicraftsmen  and  artisans, 
and  the  lowest  and  most  degraded  class  in 
Hindoo  society.  The  Hindoos  of  the  present 
day  are  divided  into  numerous  sects,  all  of 
modern  origin,  and  most  of  them  differing 
very  much  from  the  ancient  religion. 


IND 


422 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


INDIANA  has  an  area  of  33,809  square 
miles,  and  in  1870  had  a population  of 
1,680,637.  In  some  quarters  the  surface  is 
hilly,  but  the  greater  portion  of  the  state  is 
level  or  slightly  undulating.  The  land  is 
generally  rich  and  productive,  and  along  the 
streams  lie  strips  of  alluvion  that  are  almost 
exhaustless  in  fertility.  The  state  is  well 
watered  by  many  fine  streams,  some  of  them 
navigable,  as  the  Wabash  and  the  White.  It 
is  rich  in  indigenous  timber;  the  oak,  the 
walnut,  the  sycamore,  and  the  poplar  attain 
a noble  size ; oaks  and  beeches  are  the  most 
prevalent.  Indiana  is  a great  grain-growing 
state ; her  manufactures  are  yet  in  embryo. 
Bituminous  coal  is  abundant. 

The  first  settlement  in  Indiana  was  made  at 
Vincennes  on  the  Wabash,  by  the  French, 
in  1702.  All  this  region  passed  into  the 
hjinds  of  the  British  by  treaty,  and  was 
wrested  from  them  in  the  Revolution.  The 
early  white  dwellers  in  these  then  distant 
wilds  suffered  severely  from  the  tomahawk 
and  scalping-knife  of  the  savage.  Indiana 
was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1816.  The 
present  constitution  was  framed  in  1851. 
The  governor  is  elected  for  four  years ; the 
senate  for  the  same  term  ; and  the  representa- 
tives for  two  years.  The  general  assembly 
meets  biennially  on  the  first  Monday  of  Jan- 
uary. The  right  of  suffrage  is  bestowed  upon 
every  male  citizen  of  the  United  States  who 
is  of  age  and  has  resided  in  the  state  six 
months,  and  to  every  white  foreign-born  male 
who  shall  have  resided  in  the  United  States 


one  year,  in  the  state  six  months,  and  have 
duly  declared  his  intention  to  become  a citi- 
zen of  the  United  States.  No  soldier,  sea- 
man, or  marine  can  vote.  Liberal  legislation 
has  provided  for  public  instruction,  and  there 
are  institutions  at  Indianapolis  where  all  the 
blind  and  deaf-mute  children  of  the  state 
are  educated  without  charge  for  board  or  tu- 
ition. 

Indianapolis,  the  capital,  was  laid  out  in 
1821  : in  1820  its  site  was  covered  with  a 
dense  forest,  which  in  1870  had  given  place 
to  the  homes  of  48,244  people.  It  was  plan- 
ned upon  noble  dimensions ; the  broad  streets, 
intersecting  one  another  at  right  angles,  bear 
the  names  of  the  different  states  of  the  Union. 
Evansville,  on  the  Ohio,  is  a thriving  town 
of  (1870)  21,830  inhabitants.  New  Albany, 
farther  up  the  river,  is  laid  out  with  great 
regularity,  is  the  seat  of  a good  business,  and 
the  largest  town  in  the  state  ; population  in 
1870,  17,693.  Madison  still  above,  is  hand- 
somely built  of  brick,  with  broad  straight 
streets,  and  is  a place  of  enterprise ; popula- 
tion in  1870,  16,581. 

INDIANS.  The  aboriginal  population  of 
America  consists  of  two  distinct  races — the 
Esquimaux,  inhabiting  the  seaboard  districts 
of  the  Arctic  regions ; and  the  copper-colored 
Indians,  who  were  spread  over  all  the  rest 
of  the  continent.  The  question  as  to  the  ori- 
gin of  the  latter  has  never  been  solved,  and 
perhaps  is  beyond  the  province  of  history. 
Notwithstanding  some  partial  differences  of 
complexion  and  stature,  and  a prodigious 


1ND 


BISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


423 


diversity  in  languages,  a strong  family  char- 
acter pervades  the  Indians  of  both  Americas. 
Humboldt  testifies  that  the  Indians  of  New 
Spain  bear  a general  physical  resemblance  to 
those  of  Canada,  Florida,  Peru,  and  Brazil. 

In  their  civil  and  social  state,  however,  there 
has  been  a great  difference  among  the  abo- 
rigines. The  Aztecs  of  Mexico,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Cundinamarca,  the  Peruvians,  and 
the  ancient  possessors  of  Central  America, 
all  made  much  progress  in  civilization,  con- 
trasting strongly  with  the ' bold  and  terrible 
traits  of  the  barbarous  tribes,  many  of  whom 
seemed  sunk  in  the  lowest  misery. 

From  Hudson’s  Bay  to  Mexico,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the 
whites  found  the  country  possessed  by  many 
petty  and  independent  tribes,  who  were  gene- 
rally enemies  to  one  another.  They  were  in 
the  rudest  state  of  society,  wandering  from 
place  to  place,  without  science  and  without 
arts,  with  no  metallic  instruments,  and  own- 
ing no  domestic  animals.  A little  corn  was 
raised  by  the  labor  of  their  women  with  a 
clamshell  or  the  scapula  of  a buffalo  ; this 
they  devoured  with  savage  improvidence,  and 
subsisted  during  the  rest  of  the  year  upon 
precarious  supplies  of  game  and  fish.  They 
were  thinly  scattered  over  a wide  extent  of 
country,  fixing  their  summer  residence  upon 
some  fertile  spot,  and  roaming  during  the 
winter,  with  their  families  and  their  mat  or 
skin  houses,  in  search  of  the  animals  neces- 
sary for  food  or  clothing.  Their  numbers 
never  could  have  been  considerable,  for  their 
habits  could  exist  only  in  a boundless  forest 
and  among  a sparse  population.  Where 
each  family  requires  for  its  daily  con- 
sumption a deer,  an  elk,  or  a buffalo,  the 
herd  which  is  to  supply  the  demand  must 
occupy  an  extensive  district  of  country. 
Their  hostilities  often  brought  on  a scarcity 
of  provisions,  which  led  to  famine,  fright- 
ful suffering,  and  death.  Some  of  the  tribes 
indulged  in  the  horrid  banquet  of  human 
flesh. 

Throughout  the  continent,  with  some  rare 
exceptions,  the  woman  was  the  slave  of  the 
man : she  performed  all  the  menial  offices, 
bore  the  burdens,  tilled  the  ground,  and  in 
many  cases  was  not  counted  worthy  to  eat 
or  speak  before  fhe  other  sex.  Polygamy 
was  by  no  means  uncommon,  though  often 


checked  by  the  difficulty  of  procuring,  or  the 
hardship  of  supporting,  more  than  one  wife. 

In  general  the  American  Indians  seem  to 
have  entertained  the  idea  of  a Great  Spirit, 
a Master  of  Life,  in  short  a Creator ; and  of 
an  Evil  Spirit,  holding  divided  empire  over 
nature  with  the  other.  Many  of  them  had 
priests,  prophets,  sorcerers,  in  whose  super- 
natural powers  they  put  trust ; and  most,  if 
not  all,  appear  to  have  believed  in  a future 
state.  The  Algonquin  nations  believed  in 
the  existence  of  a Supreme  Creator,  the 
Kacha  Manito,  or  Good  Spirit;  of  Malcha 
Manito,  or  Evil  Spirit ; and  of  inferior  spirits. 
They  sought  to  obtain  the  favor  of  these  by 
certain  ceremonies,  and  sometimes  by  sacri- 
fices and  offerings.  They  had  some  notions 
of  a future  life,  in  which  the  good  should 
spend  their  time  in  hunting  and  mirth,  and 
the  bad  grunt  and  sweat  in  hard  labor. 
They  had  sorcerers  whose  spells  were  highly 
esteemed  for  the  cure  of  diseases  and  for 
luck  in  their  enterprises ; the  medicine-bags 
or  charms  were  carefully  worn  about  the  per- 
son or  hung  up  in  the  lodge.  For  the  cure 
of  diseases,  they  practiced  bleeding,  used  the 
steam  bath,  employed  various  herbs  and 
roots,  and  trusted  much  to  the  efficiency  of 
songs,  dances,  and  other  ceremonies  performed 
under  the  direction  of  the  medicine  men. 

The  aboriginal  population  of  the  territory 
of  the  United  States,  instead  of  merging  into 
the  European  stock  that  settled  among  them, 
have  wasted  away,  and  become  almost  extinct 
east  of  the  Mississippi.  Wars  with  the 
whites,  too  often  provoked  by  the  cupidity 
and  rascality  of  the  latter ; the  gradual  de- 
struction of  the  game  on  which  they  depended 
for  subsistence ; and  the  vices  taught  them 
by  intercourse  with  civilization, — these  causes 
combined  to  lessen  their  numbers,  until  the 
numerous  tribes  that  once  occupied  all  the 
openings  in  the  great  primitive  American 
forest  have  wholly  died  out,  or  have  dwin- 
dled to  a few  miserable  individuals. 

The  region  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  between  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  Hudson’s  Bay,  seems  to  have 
been  divided  among  five  great  nations  or 
families  of  tribes — the  Algonquin,  or  Chip- 
pewa; the  Huron,  or  Wyandot;  the  Flori- 
dian ; the  Sioux,  or  Dahcotah  ; and  the  Paw- 
nee. Each  of  these  families  comprised  many 


IND 


424 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


independent  and  often  hostile  tribes ; which, 
however,  are  proved  to  have  spoken  cognate 
dialects,  and  therefore  to  have  sprung  from  a 
common  stock. 

The  leading  tribes  of  New  York — the  Mo- 
hawks, Senecas,  Cayugas,  Oneidas,  Ononda- 
gas  (all  belonging  to  the  Huron  farnil}’),  to 
whom  were  afterward  added  the  Tusearoras 
from  North  Carolina — were  banded  in  a pow- 
erful confederac}7,  known  as  the  Five  Nations 
or  Iroquois.  [See  Six  Nations.]  The  Mo- 
hawks, the  leaders  of  these  Romans  of  the 
new  world, — as  they  have  been  called  on  ac- 
count of  their  warlike  spirit  and  extensive 
conquests, — removed  to  Canada  in  1776,  and 
were  followed  by  a portion  of  the  Ca}rugas. 
These  once  powerful  nations  have  diminished 
to  an  insignificant  band. 

The  Algonquin  race  once  possessed  all  the 
country  between  the  Tennessee  and  Roanoke, 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  lakes,  and  even 
much  farther . north  ; with  the  exception  of 
the  comparatively  small  enclosed  tract  inhab- 
ited by  the  Huron  nations.  The  Indians  of 
New  England  were  of  this  race,  as  were  the 
Chippewas,  or  Ojibwas,  Ottawas,  Potawata- 
mies,  Sacs  and  Foxes,  Shawnees,  Kickapoos, 
Miamis,  and  Lenni  Lenapes,  or  Delawares. 

The  Sioux,  or  Dahcotahs,  occup)7ing  the 
country  between  the  upper  Missouri  and  the 
upper  Mississippi,  are  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful nations  yet  remaining.  There  are  many 
other  tribes  that  belong  to  this  stock ; as  the 
Winnebagoes,  Osages,  Crows,  Blackfeet,  &c. 
The  Pawnees,  Camanches,  and  other  tribes 
of  the  Pawnee  family  are  well  mounted,  and 
nomadic  in  their  life,  following  the  buffalo  in 
his  annual  migrations  from  north  to  south, 
and  in  his  continual  roamings  in  search  of  new 
pastures.  The  mounted  Apache  hordes  are 
warlike  and  powerful,  and  are  rarely  at  peace. 

An  extensive  tract  of  country,  west  of  Ar- 
kansas, has  been  set  apart  by  the  United 
States  for  the  permanent  residence  of  the 
various  tribes  of  Indians  that  have  been 
removed  from  the  states.  The  principal  of 
these  are  the  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Choctaws, 
Osages,  Chickasaws,  Potawatamies  and  Chip- 
pewas, Pawnees,  Scminolcs,  Sacs  and  Foxes, 
Shawnees  and  Senecas,  and  Delawares.  The 
Cherokees  are  the  most  civilized  ; the  Creeks 
and  Choctaws  come  next.  Under  the  guid- 
ance of  missionaries,  who  have  settled  among 


them,  and  with  the  sanction  and  assistance 
of  the  commissioner  of  Indian  affairs,  they 
have  established  regular  governments,  legis- 
latures, judicial  officers,  churches,  schools, 
newspapers,  &c. ; have  introduced  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements,  cloth,  and 
most  articles  of  ordinary  farm  and  domestic 
use;  cultivate  the  land  with  a considerable 
amount  of  skill;  rear  horses  and  cattle; 
build  houses ; and  export  maize,  cotton, 
hides,  &c.  By  the  treaty  of  removal  and 
settlement,  the  federal  government  furnishes 
them  with  blacksmiths,  wheelwrights,  and 
some  other  mechanics,  and  at  their  first  set- 
tlement gave  them  a stock  of  cattle,  &c. 
Many  of  the  tribes  possess  slaves.  The 
Seminoles  wrere  exceedingly  loath  to  depart 
from  their  old  homes  in  the  glades  of 
Florida,  and  fought  desperately  against  the 
removal. 

The  North  American  Indians  were  distin- 
guished for  a quick  understanding,  a reten- 
tive memory,  and  a stoicism  which  would 
have  excited  the  envy  of  the  philosophers  of 
ancient  Greece.  The  desire  for  revonge  was 
to  an  Indian  one  of  the  most  powerful  in- 
citements to  action.  He  knew7  nothing  of 
the  principle  that  leads  a Christian  to  return 
good  for  evil.  He  rarely  if  ever  forgot  an 
injury.  As  an  exception  to  this,  how7ever, 
the  following  anecdote  appears  worthy  to  be 
related.  An  Indian,  having  wandered  far 
from  his  comrades,  found  himself  near  a 
white  man’s  dwelling,  foot-worn  and  thirsty. 
The  owmer  of  the  house  w^as  standing  at  the 
door.  The  Indian  begged  a morsel  of  food 
and  a cup  of  water,  to  sustain  his  sinking 
frame.  “ Begone  ! dog  of  an  Indian  ! ” was 
the  surly  reply.  Some  years  after  this  the 
Englishman,  on  a hunting  excursion,  lost 
himself  in  the  forest.  At  the  moment  of 
despair,  he  perceived  an  Indian  wigwam,  and 
having  applied  for  shelter,  wTas  welcomed 
with  ready  hospitality.  The  Indian  host 
busied  himself  in  making  every  arrangement 
for  the  comfort  of  his  guest.  His  horse  w7as 
fed  and  cared  for,  a supper  was  provided, 
and  a bed  of  soft  skins  invited  him  to  repose 
his  weary  limbs.  In  the  morning,  w hen  the 
white  man  signified  his  desire  to  depart,  the 
Indian  offered  to  be  his  guide.  Having  con- 
ducted him  to  the  outskirts  of  the  forest,  the 
Indian  pointed  out  his  path.  The  English- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


425 


man  thanked  him,  and  was  about  to  go.  “ Stay 
yet  a moment,”  said  the  Indian  ; “ I see  that 
you  do  not  know  me, — but  I know  you  well. 
Some  ten  years  since,  a poor  Indian  came  to 
your  door,  and  asked  you  to  give  him  a mor- 
sel of  bread  and  a cup  of  water.  You  re- 
fused him.  I am  that  red  man.  I swore  to 
be  revenged.  Am  I not  ? Now  go  your 
ways,  and  forget  not  to  tell  your  white  breth- 
ren that  there  is  at  least  one  Indian  who 
can  practice  what  they  preach.” 

The  Indians  were  noted  for  their  bravery. 
In  war  they  seldom  gave  quarter,  and  pris- 
oners were  generally  tortured,  and  burnt  at 
the  stake.  It  was  the  pride  of  a vanquished 
warrior  or  chieftain  to  endure  these  tortures 
without  a murmur,  and  to  perish  singing 
with  an  unfaltering  voice  his  triumphant 
death-song,  in  which  he  recounted  his  previ- 
ous exploits,  the  number  of  foes  that  had 
fallen  beneath  his  hatchet  and  whose  scalps 
adorned  his  wigwam,  and  rejoiced  at  the 
prospect  of  reaching  those  Elysian  fields  of 
after  life,  where  through  eternity  the  immor- 
tal huntsman  chased  undying  game. 

The  traditions  of  the  Iroquois  abound  with 
touching  tales  of  the  injustice  they  sustained 
from  the  whites,  from  their  first  settling  in 
the  country.  “ We  and  our  tribes,”  they  say, 
“ lived  in  peace  and  harmony  with  each  other 
before  the  white  people  came  into  this 
country ; our  council  house  extended  far 
to  the  north  and  the  south.  In  the  middle 
of  it  we  could  meet  from  all  parts  to  smoke 
the  pipe  of  peace  together.  When  the  white 
men  arrived  in  the  south  we  received  them 
Wis  friends  ; we  did  the  same  when  they  came 
in  the  east.  We  knew  not  but  the  Great 
Spirit  had  sent  “them  to  us  for  some  good 
purpose,  and  therefore  we  thought  they  must 
be  a good  people.  We  were  mistaken.  The 
whites  will  not  rest  contented  until  they  shall 
have  destroyed  the  last  of  us,  and  made  us 
disappear  entirely  from  the  face  of  the  earth.” 
Menandon,  an  Oneida  chief,  who  was  a 
Christian,  lived  to  be  a hundred  and  twenty 
years  old,  long  surviving  the  minister 
through  whose  teachings  he  had  been  con- 
verted. Just  before  he  died,  he  said,  “ I am 
an  aged  hemlock.  The  winds  of  one  hun- 
dred years  have  whistled  through  my 
branches.  I am  dead  at  top  [referring  to  his 
blindness].  Why  I yet  live,  the  Good  Spirit 


only  knows.  Pray  to  Jesus  that  I may  wait 
my  appointed  time  to  die ; and  when  I die, 
lay  me  by  the  side  of  my  minister  and  father, 
that  I may  go  up  with  him  to  the  great  resur- 
rection.” 

The  Indians  have  shown  instances  of  strong 
sentiment.  Schoolcraft  relates  that  a noble- 
minded  girl,  named  Oolaita,  being  attached 
to  a young  chief  of  her  own  tribe,  was  com- 
manded by  her  parents  to  marry  an  old  war- 
rior, renowned  for  his  wisdom  and  influence 
in  the  nation.  She  left  her  father’s  house 
while  the  marriage-feast  was  preparing,  and 
throwing  herself  from  an  awful  precipice, 
was  dashed  to  pieces.  A Sioux  Helen  caused 
a division  ^f  that  nation.  Ozalapaila,  the  wife 
of  one  of  the  chiefs,  having  been  carried  off 
by  another  leading  warrior  of  the  same  tribe, 
and  the  husband  and  brothers  of  the  woman 
having  been  slain  in  the  attempt  to  recover 
her,  the  quarrel  gradually  extended  from  the 
friends  of  the  two  parties  to  the  whole  nation, 
and  ended  in  a fierce  civil  war. 

Drunkenness  has  been  a great  curse  to  the 
race.  An  Indian  who  had  been  brought  up 
in  Minisink,  near  the  Delaware  water-gap,  to 
whom  the  German  inhabitants  of  that  neigh- 
borhood had  given  the  name  of  Cornelius 
Rosenbaum,  told  Mr.  Heckewelder  that  he 
had  once,  when  under  the  influence  of  strong 
liquor,  killed  the  best  Indian  friend  he  had, 
fancying  him  to  be  his  worst  avowed  enemy. 
He  said  that  the  deception  was  complete,  and 
that  the  face  of  his  friend  presented  to  his 
intoxicated  eyes  all  the  features  of  the  man 
with  whom  he  was  in  a state  of  hostility.  It 
is  impossible  to  express  the  horror  with 
which  he  was  struck  when  he  awoke  from 
that  delusion;  he  was  so  shocked,  that  he 
resolved  from  that  moment  never  more  to' 
taste  the  maddening  poison,  of  which  he  was 
convinced  the  devil  was  the  inventor ; for  it 
could  only  be  the  evil  spirit  that  made  him 
see  his  enemy  when  his  friend  was  before 
him,  and  produced  so  strong  a delusion  on 
his  bewildered  senses  that  he  actually  killed 
him.  From  that  time  until  his  death,  which 
happened  thirty  years  afterward,  he  never 
drank  a drop  of  ardent  spirits,  which  he 
always  called  “ the  devil’s  blood,”  and  was 
firmly  persuaded  that  the  devil,  or  some  of 
his  inferior  spirits,  had  a hand  in  prepar- 
ing  it.  * 


IND 


426 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


INGOUR,  a river  rising  in  the  Caucasus, 
and  falling  into  the  Black  Sea.  Omar  Pacha, 
marching  to  the  relief  of  Kars,  crossed  this 
river  with  10,000  men,  Nov.  6th,  1855,  and 
attacked  the  Russians,  12,000  strong,  en- 
camped on  the  left  bank,"  who  after  a struggle 
retreated  with  the  loss  of  400  men.  Kars, 
however,  was  not  saved. 

INKERMANN,  Battle  of.  The  Russians 
sallied  from  Sebastopol,  and  attacked  the 
British  at  Inkermann,  before  daybreak,  Nov. 
5th,  1854.  The  British  fought  desperately, 
but  being  far  outnumbered  by  the  attacking 
force,  were  only  saved  by  the  arrival  of  a 
French  division.  The  contest  was  most 
bloody.  Sir  George  Cathcart  was  among  the 
British  slain. 

INNSPRUCK,  or  Innsbruck,  the  capital  of 
the  Tyrol,  situated  on  the  Inn.  Population, 
13,000.  The  valley  in  which  it  stands  was 
the  scene  of  several  of  the  events  that  took 
place  during  the  heroic  resistance  made  by 
the  Tyrolese  to  the  French  and  Bavarians  in 
1809. 

INQUISITION.  The  Inquisition,  or  Holy 
Office,  as  it  is  called,  was  an  institution  of  the 
Catholic  church,  established  in  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, Italy,  and  other  Romanist  countries,  to 
try  persons  accused  of  holding  opinions  con- 
trary to  those  received  by  the  church.  The 
members  of  this  jurisdiction  were  called  in- 
quisitors, because,  without  any  proof  of  a 
person’s  guilt,  they  seized  him  upon  common 
report,  and  investigated  his  conduct,  they 
themselves  deciding  upon  his  guilt  or  inno- 
cence. 

There  is  some  controversy  about  the  origin 
of  the  Inquisition,  but  it  is  allowed  that  Pope 
Innocent  III.  first  gave  rise  to  the  Holy  Office. 
While  this  man  was  at  the  head  of  the  Cath- 
olic church,  the  Albigenses  of  France,  who 
refused  to  embrace  the  monstrous  doctrines  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church,  were  persecuted 
and  hunted  like  wild  beasts.  It  was  in  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  that  Pope 
Innocent -sent  Pierre  de  Castelman,  Archdea- 
con of  Maguelonne,  and  Rainier,  another 
priest,  to  stir  up  a spirit  of  zeal  and  persecu- 
tion against  the  heretics.  Dominic,  a famous 
Spaniard,  founder  of  the  order  of  Preachers, 
fell  in  with  the  messengers  of  the  pope  in  the 
year  1206,  and  labored,  with  energy,  to  put 
an  end  to  the  heresy,  as  any  opinion  different 


from  the  doctrines  of  the  church  was  called. 
These  priests  inquired  into  the  conduct  of  the 
princes,  and  other  men  in  power,  toward  the 
heretics,  and  from  the  scrutiny  to  which  they 
subjected  suspected  persons  were  called  in- 
quisitors. They  had  no  court  and  no  decisive 
authority,  being  mere  spies  of  the  pope.  St. 
Dominic  is  said  to  have  founded  the  first  reg- 
ular tribunal  at  Toulouse.  Innocent  III.  sig- 
nified his  approbation,  and  authorized  the 
establishment  in  the  year  1 215.  Gregory  IXr 
gave  the  institution  into  the  hands  of  the 
Dominicans. 

So  cruel  were  the  proceedings  of  the  Inqui- 
sition, that  even  Catholics  endeavored  to  pre- 
vent its  establishment  in  different  countries ; 
but  Spain,  a country  famous  for  its  devotion 
to  the  Catholic  religion,  and  for  its  ignorance, 
became  its  chosen  seat.  The  Spanish  Inqui- 
sition is  always  spoken  of  with  horror  and 
indignation.  In  Spain  it  was  first  introduced 
in  1478.  The  first  inquisitor-general  and  the 
first  court  were  constituted  in  1481.  The 
kings  of  Castile,  before  thby  were  crowned, 
took  an  oath  that  they,  as  well  as  their  sub- 
jects, should  be  under  the  power  of  the  Holy 
Office,  as  it  was  impiously  called.  The  in- 
quisitors received  their  power  from  the  pope’s 
mouth,  or  by  means  of  letters,  and  he  alone 
had  power  to  remove  them  from  office. 

Nothing  could  be  more  horrible  than  the 
proceedings  of  the  inquisitors.  Without  be- 
ing permitted  to  know  who  accused  him,  a 
man  was  suddenly  seized ; his  dearest  friends 
abandoned  him  at  once,  none  daring  to  speak 
to  him.  From  the  midst  of  the  luxuries  of 
life,  he  was  hurried  to  a loathsome  dungeon. 
Upon  the  slightest  pretense,  the  torture  was 
applied,  and  many  an  innocent  person,  in  the 
pangs  of  death,  was  forced  to  accuse  himself. 
The  very  advocate  who  plead  for  them  was  in 
terror  of  the  Inquisition  and  completely  in  its 
power ; the  slightest  sentence  he  uttered, 
which  could  possibly  be  turned  against  him, 
was  enough  to  place  him  also  in  danger  of  life. 

There  were  two  classes  of  punishments,  the 
ecclesiastical  or  religious  punishments,  and 
the  civil.  The  ecclesiastical  punishments 
were  excommunication,  loss  of  a Christian 
burial  in  consecrated  ground,  and  loss  of  all 
right  to  hold  offices.  As  civil  punishments, 
the  inquisitors  disinherited  the  children  of  the 
criminal ; that  is,  declared  that  if  their  father 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


427 


died  a "heretic,  they,  although  Catholics, 
should  not  hold  any  of  his  property.  They 
also  pronounced  the  sentence  of  infamy,  which 
deprived  a man  of  all  his  property,  of  all  right 
to  hold  an  office,  and  of  all  power,  even  over 
his  children  and  servants.  Criminals  were 
also  imprisoned.  They  incurred  the  ban,  or 
curse,  by  which  they  lost  all  the  rights  of  a 
human  being,  were  driven  out  of  all  society, 
and  might  be  falsely  accused,  beaten,  and 
robbed,  without  any  hope  of  getting  redress. 
In  fact,  if  any  lawyer  defended  them  against 
an  accusation,  he  was  pronounced  infamous 
and  deprived  of  office. 

The  last  and  most  frightful  punishment 
wras  that  of  being  burned  alive,  sometimes 
with  an  iron  gag  in  the  mouth,  which  pre- 
vented the  agonized  sufferer  from  uttering  an 
intelligible  cry.  Often,  however,  while  burn- 
ing, they  were  left  at  liberty  to  speak,  and 
supplicated  for  mercy  in  a manner  which 
would  have  moved  any  but  the  hardest-hearted 
to  pity ; and  yet  the  pitiless  inquisitors  dared 
to  say  that  their  actions  found  favor  in  the 
eyes  of  Heaven. 

The  tortures  to  which  the  inquisitors  put 
the  accused,  to  make  them  confess  their  guilt, 
were  dreadful.  The  tortures  were  of  five 
kinds.  First,  their  being  threatened  with  the 
torture;  second,  their  being  carried  to  the 
place  of  torture ; third,  their  being  stripped 
and  bound ; fourth,  their  being  hoisted  on  the 
rack;  fifth,  squassation,  in  which  the  limbs 
were  all  disjointed. 

Squassation  was  thus  performed.  The  pris- 
oner’s hands  being  tied  behind  his  back,  heavy 
weights  were  attached  to  his  feet,  and  he  was 
hoisted  up  by  a rope,  until  his  head  touched 
the  pulley.  Hanging  in  this  awful  situation 
for  some  time,  his  limbs  and  joints  became 
stretched  frightfully ; and  when  suddenly  let 
to  fall,  the  fall  being  checked  by  the  rope  be- 
fore he  touched  the  ground,  all  his  limbs  were 
disjointed.  The  horrible  pain  he  now  felt 
was  increased  by  the  immense  weight  hanging 
at  his  feet.  The  Inquisition  inflicted  squassa- 
tion, when  determined  on,  once,  twice,  or  even 
three  times  in  the  space  of  an  hour.  What 
could  the  poor  wretch  enjoy  of  life,  if  he 
gained  his  liberty  at  length? 

When  we  examine  farther  into  the  annals 
of  the  Inquisition,  humanity  shudders.  Lovely 
and  innocent  women  had  their  delicate  frames 


torn  to  pieces  by  the  racks  of  these  monsters, 
because  they  refused  to  acknowledge  that  as 
the  true  religion  which  sanctioned  such  enor- 
mities. Such  were  the  torments  inflicted  upon 
Jane  Bohorques  and  her  attendant,  a young 
Protestant  girl.  They  were  afterward  burnt 
at  the  auto  da  fc , or  act  of  faith. 

These  acts  of  faith,  when  a large  number  of 
the  condemned  were  often  collected  to  suffer 
at  once,  were  always  held  upon  festival  days. 
The  procession  issued  from  the  halls  of  the 
Inquisition,  the  Dominican  friars,  with  the 
standard  of  their  order,  coming  first.  On  one 
side  their  flag  had  the  picture  of  Saint  Domi- 
nic, on  the  other  the  motto,  “Justice  and 
Mercy”  ! After  these  came  the  penitents,  all 
in  sleeveless  black  coats,  with  lighted  wax 
tapers,  and  barefooted.  Those  who  had  nar- 
rowly escaped  burning,  followed  next  in  order, 
with  flames  pointing  downward  painted  on 
their  coats.  The  relapsed  came  next,  with 
habits  covered  with  flames  pointing  upward. 
Lastly  marched  those  who  were  peculiar  ene- 
mies to  the  Romish  doctrines ; their  habits 
were  covered  with  flames,  pointing  upward, 
and  on  their  breasts  they  bore  a likeness  of 
themselves,  in  the  act  of  being  devoured  by 
wild  beasts  and  serpents. 

At  Lisbon,  the  place  where  they  were 
burned  was  the  Ribera,  containing  as  many 
stakes  as  there  were  condemned  criminals, 
surrounded  with  furze.  The  stakes  of  the 
professed,  as  they  were  called,  were  about  four 
yards  high,  with  a seat  for  the  prisoner  upon 
a board,  within  a yard  of  the  top.  The  nega- 
tive and  relapsed  prisoners  were  first  strangled 
and  burned ; the  professed  then  ascended  the 
ladder  with  a Jesuit  upon  each  side,  who  ex- 
horted them  to  confess  their  sins  and  return 
to  the  Romish  church.  If  they  refused,  the 
priests  descended  the  ladder,  and  the  execu- 
tioner chained  them  to  the  stake.  After  an 
interval  the  priests  again  ascended,  and  if  the 
prisoners  proved  still  obstinate,  they  were 
forsaken,  and  the  spectators  called  out,  “Let 
the  dogs’  beards  be  made ! ” The  operation 
alluded  to  was  performed  by  thrusting  poles, 
having  flaming  bunches  of  furze  at  the  end, 
against  the  faces  of  the  criminals.  These  were 
generally  held  against  them  until  their  faces 
were  burnt  to  a coal,  the  whole  proceeding 
eliciting  shouts  of  approbation  and  joy. 

After  this  the  furze  at  the  foot  of  the  stake 


INQ 


428 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


was  fired,  and,  in  general  reached  no  higher 
than  the  knees  of  the  condemned,  so  that  they 
were  literally  roasted  to  death.  In  a calm 
they  might  die  in  half  an  hour;  in  a high 
wind  seldom  under  two  hours. 

In  ancient  times,  the  Spaniards  thought  the 
entertainment  afforded  by  the  horrid  spectacle 
of  an  auto  da  fe,  equal  to  that  derived  from  a 
bull-fight  or  a dance.  In  honor  of  Elizabeth, 
the  new  queen,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of 
France,  a girl  of  thirteen,  one  was  held  in 
1560,  in  which,  not  content  with  burning  some 
human  beings,  they  consumed  a few  effigies. 

Napoleon  abolished  this  terrible  Inquisi- 
tion, and  this  just  exercise  of  power  should  be 
remembered  when  many  of  his  crimes  are 
brought  to  view.  When  Ferdinand  was  re- 
stored, by  the  success  of  Napoleon’s  opponents, 
to  the  Spanish  throne,  he  re-established  it. 
The  Cortes  swept  it  away  in  1820.  There 
never  was  another  institution  of  such  dreadful 
cruelty,  nor  one  in  which  the  laws  of  religion 
and  mercy  were  so  daringly  defied,  under  pre- 
tense, too,  of  vindicating  morality  and  pure 
piety. 

If  the  Inquisition,  in  modern  days,  was  less 
bloody  than  formerly,  we  are  to  attribute  it, 
not  to  the  spirit  of  the  institution,  but  to  the 
increase  of  light,  which  will  finally,  we  trust, 
put  an  end  to  all  abuses. 


ION  [A,  a district  of  Asia  Minor,  peopled  by 
a migration  from  Attica  about  b.c.  1044.  Ionia 
was  divided  into  twelve  small  states,  which 
formed  a celebrated  confederacy  often  spoken 
of  by  the  ancients.  These  states  were  Priene, 
Miletus,  Colophon,  Clazoinence,  Ephesus,  Le- 
bedos,  Teos,  Erythrae,  Phocaea,  Smjnma,  and 
the  capitals  of  Samos  and  Chios.  After  they 
had  enjoyed,  for  some  time,  their  freedom  and 
independence,  they  were  made  tributary  to 
the  power  of  Lydia  by  Croesus.  The  Atheni- 
ans assisted  them  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  the 
Asiatic  monarchs,  but  they  soon  forgot  their 
duty  and  relation  to  their  mother  country, 
and  joined  Xerxes  when  he  invaded  Greece. 
They  were  delivered  from  the  Persian  yoke 
by  Alexander,  and  finally  were  reduced  by 
the  Romans  under  Sylla.  Smyrna,  unchanged 
in  name,  and  prosperous  in  commerce,  alone 
remains,  and  is  the  most  important  city  in 
Asia  Minor. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS,  the  collective  name  of 
a group  west  of  Greece,  comprising  Cephalo- 
nia  (the  ancient  Cephallenia),  Corfu  (Corey  - 
ra),  Santa  Maura  (Leucas),  Zante  (Zakyn- 
thos),  Cerigo  (Cythera),  Ithaca,  and  Paxo. 
They  were  long  a republic  under  English 
“ protection,”  but  were  re-united  to  Greece  on 
the  accession  of  the  present -king,  George  I. 
Population,  227,000.  Corfu  is  their  capital. 


IOWA  has  an  area  of  50,914  square  miles ; 
population  in  1870,  1,191,792.  Her  domain  lies 
in  the  embrace  of  the  two  largest  rivers  of  our 
country,  navigable  far  beyond  her  limits.  The 
interior  is  traversed  by  lesser,  but  noble  and 


10W 


often  navigable  rivers,  the  Des  Moines,  Iowa, 
Red  Cedar,  Boyer,  Nodaway,  Nishnabotna, 
&c.  Heavy  timber  groves  skirt  the  numerous 
streams,  and  frequent  clumps  dot  the  land- 
scape on  every  hand,  like  islands  in  the  prai- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


429 


rie  sea.  The  face  of  the  country  is  a rolling 
prairie,  fertile  and  virgin,  varied  with  the 
luxuriant  river  valleys  and  much  prized  tim- 
ber lands.  Valuable  lead  mines  occur  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Dubuque ; coal  is  largely  dif- 
fused through  the  state;  extensive  beds  of 
gypsum  are  found  in  Webster  county;  and 
iron  and  copper  have  been  discovered  to  some 
extent.  Wheat  and  corn  are  the  staple  pro- 
ductions of  Iowa ; tobacco  ‘is  grown  in  the 
western  section  to  some  extent;  the  soil  is 
well  adapted  for  any  of  the  productions  com- 
mon to  the  temperate  zone,  especially  to  rais- 
ing fruit. 

Until  1832  Iowa  was  a wilderness,  in  the 
hands  of  the  Indians.  The  wave  of  emigra- 
tion broke  across  the  Mississippi,  upon  its 
smiling  valleys  and  prairies;  in  1838  it  was 
organized  as  a territory ; and  in  1846  it  be- 
came a sovereign  state  and  member  of  the 
Union.  By  the  state  constitution,  every 
male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  twenty-one 
years  old  (idiotic,  insane,  or  infamous  persons 
excepted),  who  has  resided  in  the  state  six 
months,  and  in  the  county  twenty  days,  has 
the  right  of  suffrage.  The  sessions  of  the 
general  assembly  are  biennial : the  senators 
are  chosen  for  four  years,  one-half  biennially, 
and  the  representatives  for  two  years.  The 
governor  is  elected  biennially.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a supreme  court,  consisting 
of  a chief-justice  and  two  associates,  chosen 
by  the  general  assembly  for  six  years  ; in 
district  courts,  the  judges  of  which  are  elected 
for  five  years  by  the  people  of  the  respective 
districts ; and  ip  justices  of  the  peace.  Lib- 
eral support  has  been  provided  for  common 
schools  and  academies.  The  Iowa  State  Uni- 
versity is  located  at  Iowa  City ; normal  schools 
have  been  provided ; common  schools  nurture 
the  youth  of  every  hamlet ; and  a deaf-mute 
asylum,  and  an  institution  for  the  blind,  both 
at  Iowa  City,  care  for  those  unfortunate 
classes.  In  this  matter  of  education  the 
Hawkeye  state  is  surpassed  by  none  of  her 
sisters  in  the  great  North-west. 

Des  Moines  (formerly  called  Fort  Des 
Moines)  is  the  capital  of  Iowa.  A frontier 
fort  was  erected  here  at  an  early  day.  The 
town  was  laid  out  in  1846  ; in  1856  it  was 
made  the  capital,  and  had,  in  1870,  12,035 
inhabitants.  Iowa  City,  the  former  seat  of 
government,  was  laid  out  in  1839,  and  in 


1870  had  8,094  inhabitants.  Davenport  is 
built  on  the  broad  bottom  land  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, opposite  Rock  Island;  tasteful  dwell- 
ings extending  up  the  beautiful  bluffs,  and  into 
prairie  beyond ; population  in  1870,  23,452. 
Burlington,  called  the  oldest  town  in  the 
state,  stands  lower  down  the  Mississippi. 
As  an  instance  of  the  rapid  growth  of  Iowa, 
shared  by  all  her  towns  and  hamlets,  we  may 
say  that  in  1850,  Burlington  had  2,000  dwell- 
ers : in  1870  its  population  was  14,930,  and 
thrift  and  wealth  has  gained  proportionally. 
Dubuque,  on  the  Mississippi,  in  the  heart  of 
the  great  lead  region,  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
finest  towns  in  the  state,  standing  on  a natu- 
ral terrace,  bounded  on  the  west  by  a range 
of  high  bluffs,  whose  summits  command  a 
landscape  of  varied  beauty.  Dubuque  had 
its  name  from  M.  Dubuque,  a Frenchman 
who  obtained  a grant  from  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment for  mining  lead  here.  It  was  the 
first  European  settlement  in  Iowa,  dating  to 
1786.  The  population  in  1870  was  18,434. 
Keokuclc,  at  the  mouth  of  the  fertile  valley  of 
the  Des  Moines,  is  another  of  the  progressive 
cities  of  Iowa,  with  a population  in  1870  of 
12,766. 

IPSUS,  Battle  of.  Seleucus  was  con- 
firmed upon  his  throne  by  the  defeat  and 
death  of  Antigonus  in  this  contest,  b.c.  301. 
On  the  one  side  were  Antigonus  and  his  son ; 
on  the  other  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus, 
and  Cassander.  The  former  led  into  the 
field  an  army  of  above  70,000  foot  and  10,000 
horse,  with  75  elephants.  The  latter’s  forces 
consisted  of  64,000  infantry,  besides  10,500 
horse,  400  elephants,  and  120  armed  chariots. 

IRELAND,  the  second  in  size  of  the  Brit- 
ish islands,  has  an  area  of  32,508  square 
miles;  population  in  1861,  5,764,543.  The 
surface  of  Ireland  is  less  rugged  than  that  of 
Scotland,  and  more  varied  and  undulating 
than  that  of  England.  Its  freshness  and  ver- 
dure have  gained  it  the  poetical  name  of  the 
Emerald  Isle.  Its  ancient  name  was  Erin, 
and  by  the  Romans  it  was  known  as  Hiber- 
nia. It  is  divided  into  four  provinces,  Ulster, 
Leinster,  Connaught,  and  Munster,  which 
are  subdivided  into  thirty-two  counties.  The 
executive  government  is  administered  by  a 
viceroy,  whose  official  title  is  lord  lieutenant 
general  and  general  governor  of  Ireland. 
The  judiciary  is  similar  to  that  of  England. 


IRE 


430 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


There  are  two  ecclesiastical  provinces,  whose 
primates  are  the  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and 
the  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  There  are  ten 
suffragan  bishops.  The  Roman  Catholic  dig- 
nitaries are  the  four  archbishops  of  Armagh, 
Dublin,  Cashel,  and  Tuam,  with  twenty-five 
bishops. 

Dublin,  the  metropolis  of  Ireland,  is  situa- 
ted on  both  sides  of  the  Liffey,  as  it  enters 
Dublin  Bay.  It  is  a beautiful  city ; the  pub- 
lic buildings  are  of  stone,  and  few  cities  con- 
tain an  equal  number  of  magnificent  edifices. 
The  University  of  Dublin,  or  Trinity  College, 
founded  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1593,  is  a 
well  endowed  institution.  Population  of  Dub- 
lin in  1861,  .249,783.  Cork,  the  second  city 
of  Ireland,  situated  on  the  Lee,  with  a popu- 
lation in  1851  of  167,450,  is  a large  and 
flourishing  place,  and  was  built  by  the  Danes 
in  the  sixth  century.  After  the  revolution 
of  1688  it  was  occupied  by  James  IT.  ; it  was 
taken  by  Marlborough  in  1690.  The  harbor 
of  Cork  is  one  of  the  noblest  in  the  world. 
Belfast  (population  in  1851,  125,491)  is  the 
chief  town  in  the  province  of  Ulster,  and  the 
principal  place  of  trade  in  Ireland.  Linens, 
damasks,  diapers,  and  cottons  are  actively 
manufactured.  The  town  had  its  origin  in 
the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Limerick,  on  the  Shannon,  had  in  1851, 
53,448  inhabitants.  It  is  a place  of  great 
antiquity,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Regia 
of  Ptolemseus,  and  was  a place  of  some  note 
in  the  fifth  century  when  visited  by  St. 
Patrick. 

There  are  no  serpents  or  other  venomous 
reptiles  in  Ireland ; St.  Patrick  is  said  to 
have  driven  them  all  into  the  sea.  At  the 
lake  of  Killarney,  the  peasants  still  preserve 
the  following  ludicrous  tradition.  When  the 
labors  of  St.  Patrick  were  drawing  to  a close, 
there  was  one  enormous  serpent  who  sturdily 
refused  to  emigrate,  and  baffled  the  attempts 
of  the  good  saint  for  a long  time.  He  haunted 
the  romantic  shores  of  Killarney,  and  was  so 
well  pleased  with  his  place  of  residence,  that 
he  never  contemplated  the  prospect  of  re- 
moving without  a deep  sighi.  At  length  St. 
Patrick,  having  procured  a large  oaken  chest, 
with  nine  strong  bolts  to  secure  its  lid,  took 
it  on  his  shoulder  one  fine  sunshiny  morning, 
and  trudged  over  to  Killarney,  where  he 
found  the  serpent  basking  in  the  sun.  “ Good 


morrow  to  ye!”  said  the  saint.  “Bad  luck 
to  ye ! ” replied  the  serpent.  “ Not  so,  my 
friend,”  replied  the  good  saint;  ' you  speak 
unwisely ; I’m  your  friend.  To  prove  which, 
haven’t  I brought  you  over  this  beautiful 
house  as  a shelter  to  you  ? So  be  aisy,  my 
darlint.”  But  the  serpent,  being  a cunning 
reptile,  understood  what  blarney  meant,  as 
well  as  the  saint  himself.  Still,  not  wishing 
to  affront  his  apparently  friendly  visitor,  he 
said,  by  way  of  excuse,  that  the  chest  was  not 
large  enough  for  him.  St.  Patrick  assured 
him  that  it  would  accommodate  him  very 
well.  “Just  get  into  it,  my  darlint,  and  see 
how  aisy  you’ll  be.”  The  serpent  thought  to 
cheat  the  saint;  he  whipped  into  the  chest, 
but  left  an  inch  or  two  of  his  tail  hanging  out 
over  the  edge.  “I  told  you  so,”  said  he; 
“there’s  not  room  for  the  whole  of  me.” 
“Take  care  of  your  tail,  my  darlint!  ” cried 
the  saint,  as  he  whacked  the  lid  down  on  the 
serpent.  In  an  instant  the  tail  disappeared, 
and  St.  Patrick  proceeded  to  shoot  all  the 
bolts.  He  then  took  the  chest  on  his  shoul- 
ders. “ Let  me  out ! ” cried  the  serpent. 
“Aisy,”  cried  the  saint;  “I’ll  let  you  out  to- 
morrow.” So  saying,  he  threw  the  box  into 
the  waters  of  the  lake,  to  the  bottom  of  which 
it  sank  to  rise  no  more.  But  forever  after- 
ward, the  fishermen  affirmed  that  they  heard 
the  voice  of  the  poor  cozened  reptile  eagerly 
inquiring,  “ Is  to-morrow  come  yet  ? Is  to- 
morrow come  yet  ? ” 

The  early  history  of  Ireland  is  involved  in 
great  obscurity,  and  it  is  impossible  to  distin- 
guish fact  from  fiction  in  the  tales  of  its  early 
historians.  Some  of  them  trace  the  line  of 
ancient  kings  to  antediluvian  time,  and  one 
commences  his  annals  with  the  creation  of 
Adam,  and  has  a chapter  recounting  the  inva- 
sions of  Ireland  before  the  deluge.  Accord- 
ing to  one  legend,  fifty  women  and  three  men 
under  the  lead  of  Banba,  a daughter  of  Cain, 
took  possession  of  Ireland  before  the  flood. 
They  lived  in  the  country  forty  years,  until  a 
plague  came  upon  them  and  destroyed  the 
whole  colony  in  a single  week.  Others  assert 
that  three  Spanish  fishermen,  having  acci- 
dentally discovered  Ireland,  went  home  for 
their  wives,  and  on  their  return  to  the  island 
were  overtaken  by  the  deluge  and  drowned. 
According  to  a third  authority,  Bith,  a son 
of  Noah,  having  been  denied  admission  to  the 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


431 


ark,  forsook  the  God  of  his  father,  and  with 
several  others  had  recourse  to  an  idol.  The 
idol  could  not  tell  them  when  the  deluge 
would  take  place ; but,  following  its  advice, 
they  built  a ship  and  put  to  sea.  After 
having  been  tossed  for  seven  years  and  a 
quarter,  through  adventures  as  various  as 
those  of  Ulysses  or  Eneas,  they  landed  at 
Cork.  The  party  consisted  of  three  men 
and  fifty  women.  The  former  divided  the 
latter  among  them,  and  settled  in  different 
parts  of  the  island.  Two  of  the  men  died, 
and  their  wives  came  to  the  third,  who  fled 
before  them  out  of  Leinster,  leaving  his  favor- 
ite wife  to  die  of  grief.  These  things  hap- 
pened six  da}^s  before  the  deluge.  The 
learned  and  reverend  historian  makes  the 
following  judicious  remarks:  “The  reader 

must  observe  that  I do  not  give  down  these 
invasions  or  occupations  as  true  history.  I 
have  recounted  them  here,  merely  because  I 
found  them  mentioned  in  ancient  books ; and, 
moreover,  I can  not  conceive  how  our  anti- 
quaries could  have  obtained  these  accounts 
of  persons  that  arrived  in  Ireland  before  the 
flood,  if  it  were  not  from  those  aerial  demons 
who  were  their  family  followers  in  pagan 
times,  or  unless  they  had  found  them  en- 
graved upon  some  rocks,  that  remained  after 
the  flood  had  subsided.  I do  not,  however, 
insist  that  there-  might  not  have  existed,  at 
the  time  of  St.  Patrick’s  coming  to  Ireland, 
some  very  old  and  venerable  man,  who  had 
lived  through  piany  centuries  before  that 
time,  and  that  this  man  gave  that  apostle  an 
account  both  of  everything  he  remembered 
himself  and  of  all  the  traditions  he  had  re- 
ceived from  his  ancestors  concerning  the  past- 
ages.  I do  think  that  there  was  some  such 
kind  of  personage  in  those  times,  who  had 
lived  more  than  three  hundred  years,  and 
who  related  many  ancient  traditions  to  St. 
Patrick.” 

The  same  writer  (Dr.  Geoffrey  Keating) 
accounts  for  the  absence  of  serpents  in  Ire- 
land by  a legend  of  high  antiquity,  the  scene 
of  which  is  in  Egypt.  A serpent  chanced  to 
bite  Gaedal  Niul’s  son  while  he  was  swim- 
ming, and  his  life  was  endangered  thereby. 
Niul  followed  the  advice  of  his  household  and 
brought  the  boy  to  Moses  without  delay,  who 
prayed  to  God  and  touched  the  wound  with 


then  affirmed  that  no  venomous  creature 
should  have  power  in  any  country  wherein 
the  posterity  of  that  youth  should  dwell. 
“And  this  prophecy  has  been  fulfilled  in  the 
isle  of  Crete  or  Candia,  where  some  of  his 
posterity  remain,  in  which  island,  as  in  Ire- 
land, no  venomous  serpents  can  exist;  for 
although,  according  to  some  authors,  we  have 
had  some  serpents  in  Ireland  before  St.  Pat- 
rick’s time,  I am  yet  of  opinion  that  they 
were  not  venomous.  I am  likewise  inclined 
to  think  that  infernal  demons  are  meant  by 
those  serpents  spoken  of  in  the  life  of  St. 
Patrick.” 

It  is  supposed  that  the  Phoenicians  reached 
Ireland  in  their  voyagings.  The  Irish  are  of 
Celtic  descent.  The  island  suffered  from  in- 
cursions of  the  Danes.  Brian  Boiroiinhe,  a 
valiant  and  renowned  prince,  defeated  them 
at  Clontarf  in  1039,  and  was  assassinated  in 
his  tent  the  same  night,  while  in  the  act  of 
prayer.  Strongbow  (the  surname  of  the  Earl 
of  Pembroke),  at  the  request  of  Dermot 
McMorrogh,  a dethroned  king  of  Leinster, 
invaded  Ireland  in  1169  ; a great  part  of  the 
island  was  soon  conquered  by  the  English, 
who  by  degrees  became  masters  of  the  whole 
country,  though  rebellions  were  frequent. 
A parliament  was  summoned  at  Dublin,  May 
1st,  1536,  which  declared  Henry  VIII.  the 
supreme  head  on  earth  of  the  church  of  Ire- 
land, and  annulled  the  papal  power.  Every 
person  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  su- 
premacy, was  declared  guilty  of  high  treason. 
But,  to  resist  the  royal  usurpations,  confed- 
eracies wrere  formed,  and  the  reformation  was 
rendered  so  odious  to  the  Irish  that  it  made 
slow  progress  among  them.  Though  the 
liturgy  of  the  church  of  England  was  per- 
formed for  the  first  time  on  Easter  Sunday, 
1551,  the  bulk  of  the  nation  still  adhered 
steadfastly  to  their  ancient  faith,  and  the 
cause  of  the  Romish  religion  became  the 
cause  of  the  nation.  The  attempts  to  force  a. 
people  to  renounce  the  faith  which  they  had 
received  from  St.  Patrick,  and  to  receive  a 
new  system  of  religion  with  an  English  ritual, 
naturally  became  blended  with  the  national 
prejudices  against  English  oppression.  A 
general  system  of  rebellion  to  shake  off  the 
English  yoke  was  organized  in  Ireland  about 


his  rod,  and  it  was  immediately  healed.  He 


IRE 


1596 ; the  most  formidable  of  the  rebel  chiefs 
was  O’Neil,  who,  disdaining  the  title  of  Earl 


432 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  Tyrone,  had  assumed  the  rank  and  appel- 
lation of  King  of  Ulster,  and  received  a sup- 
ply of  arms  and  ammunition  from  Spain. 
This  rebellion  was  finally  terminated  by  the 
submission  of  O’Neil. 

The  conduct  of  James  I.  in  1G01  estranged 
the  affections  of  the  Irish,  and,  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.,  a rebellion  broke  out 
which  deluged  the  country  in  blood.  The 
Catholics  plotted  the  extirpation  of  the  Eng- 
lish. Parliament  sent  Cromwell  into  the 
island,  and  his  unsparing  measures  reduced 
it  to  obedience;  twenty  thousand  Irishmen 
were  sold  as  slaves,  and  forty  thousand  entered 
into  foreign  service  to  escape  from  tyranny  at 
home. 

On  the  death  of  the  great  protector,  Rich- 
ard Cromwell  confirmed  his  brother  Henry 
in  the  government  of  Ireland,  by  the  new 
title  of  lord  lieutenant.  Henry  exerted  him- 
self with  vigor  to  support  the  tottering 
authority  of  his  brother ; but,  after  the  abdi- 
cation of  Richard,  Charles  II.  was  proclaimed 
with  every  manifestation  of  joy  in  all  the 
great  towns  of  Ireland.  On  the  accession  of 
James  II.  to  the  throne  of  England,  the  Duke 
of  Ormond  gave  place  in  the  government  of 
Ireland  to  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  The  cruel 
Earl  of  Tyrconnel  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army,  and  made  independent 
of  the  lord  lieutenant.  This,  and  other  pro- 
ceedings in  favor  of  the  Catholics,  alarmed 
the  Protestant  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  most 
of  the  traders,  and  those  whose  fortunes 
were  transferable,  fled  from  the  country. 
The  distracted  state  of  this  unhappy  king- 
dom, at  the  period  of  the  revolution  in  1688, 
can  hardly  be  described.  The  Protestants  in 
the  north  proclaimed  William  and  Mary. 
James,  who  had  sailed  from  Brest,  with  a 
large  armament,  landed  at  Kinsale,  in  March, 
1689.  He  was  opposed  by  an  English  army 
commanded  by  William  in  person.  A dread- 
ful civil  war  took  place,  but  at  length  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne,  on  the  1st  of  July,  1690, 
decided  the  fate  of  James,  who  fled  to  France. 
The  Irish  subjects  outlawed  for  the  rebellion 
of  1688,  amounted  to  300,978,  and  their  Irish 
possessions  comprised  1,600,000  acres.  In 
1796  the  injured  Irish,  denied  the  enjoyments 
of  their  dearest  rights,  and  condemned  to 
political  disability  on  account  of  professing 


the  Catholic  religion,  once  more  rebelled. 
The  French  favored  them,  but  only  a small 
French  force  ever  landed,  and  they  surren- 
dered to  the  superior  army  of  Cornwallis. 
The  insurgents,  being  excluded  from  all  quar- 
ters, fled,  and  were  pursued  with  great 
slaughter.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1801, 
the  union  of  Great  Britain  with  Ireland  was 
effected.  The  political  disabilities  of  the 
Catholics  were  removed  in  1829,  but  still  the 
condition  of  Ireland  was  unhappy. 

One  cause  of  the  distresses  of  Ireland 
was  absenteeism,  the  absence  in  England  of 
great  landed  proprietors,  whose  estates  were 
underlet  by  rapacious  agents  that  ground  the 
poor  tenants  without  mercy.  In  spite  of 
religious  intolerance  and  civil  disqualifica- 
tions ; of  statutes  which  rendered  commerce 
a crime,  and  laws  which  made  industry  penal ; 
of  abuses  of  power  under  William,  and  of 


thing  like  a counterpoise  was  found  to  balance 
these  political  evils,  in  the  home  residence  of 
the  educated  gentry,  and  in  the  political 
bustle  and  activity  of  an  Irish  parliament. 
As  soon  as  the  positive  calamities  of  war  and 
confiscation  ceased ; as  soon  as  an  approach 
was  made  to  European  habits  and  policy,  and 
industry  was  permitted  to  find  a scope  and  a 
reward  for  its  exertions, — the  nation  made  a 
sudden  and  a rapid  progress  in  civilization 
and  comfort,  simply  through  the  efficiency  of 
its  own  resources,  and  the  demands  of  its 
own  market.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  talis- 
manic  words  1 Irishmen  ’ and  ‘ Papist  ’ were 
employed  to  arm  passion  and  prejudice  against 
the  country ; it  was  in  vain  that  commercial 
jealousy  threw  shackles  round  its  infant  man- 
ufactures. In  spite  of  these  and  many  other 
obstacles,  the  moral  strength  of  a country 
always  distinguished  for  the  natural  endow- 
ments of  its  population,  rose  superior  to  the 
cruel  pressure  of  its  political  inflictions ; and 
the  domestic  activity  and  intellectual  improve- 
ment of  the  people — slow  and  limited  as 
they  appear,  when  compared  with  the  advan- 
ces of  the  sister  kingdom — proceeded  with  a 
rapidity  little  short  of  miraculous,  under  so 
stultifying  a system  of  legislation  and  gov- 
ernment. It  was  then  that  the  light  of 
national  genius  concentrated  its  long  scattered 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


433 


rays  to  a point,  and  shining  steadily  from  its 
proper  focus,  threw  out  those  inextinguisha- 
ble sparks  of  moral  lustre, 

“which  are  wont  to  give 

Light  to  a world,  and  make  a nation  live.” 

It  was  then  that  the  powerful  collision  of 
active,  ardent,  and  energetic  minds  produced 
that  brilliant  burst  of  talent  which,  for  some- 
thing more  than  a century,  flung  over  the 
political  darkness  of  the  land  a splendor  to 
which  her  struggles  and  her  misfortunes 
served  only  to  give  a stronger  relief  and  more 
brilliant  effect.  It  was  then  that,  after  ages 
of  mental  depression,  the  Irish  intellect  broke 
out,  like  the  Irish  rebellion,  “threescore 
thousand  strong,”  when  none  expected  or 
were  prepared  for  the  splendid  irruption. 
The  old  mart  of  learning  was  re-opened  to 
the  erudite  of  Europe,  as  in  those  times  when, 
if  a sage  was  missing,  it  was  said  “ emandatus 
est  ad  disciplinary  in  Hibernia ; ” and  the 
rich  stream  of  native  humor,  which,  like  a 
caverned  river,  had  hitherto  “ kept  the  noise- 
less tenor  of  its  way,”  darkened  by  impending 
shadows,  now  rushed  forth  with  the  rapidity 
of  a torrent,  pure,  sparkling,  and  abundant, 
at  the  first  vent  afforded  to  its  progress. 

The  legislative  union  with  Great  Britain 
has  been  very  unpopular  with  Irish  patriots, 
and  from  1829  to  1847  a great  movement, 
headed  by  Daniel  O’Connell,  agitated  for  its 
repeal.  . In  1 847  and  the  two  successive  years, 
a disease  blighted  the  potato  crop,  and  the 
twin  curses  of  pestilence  and  famine  brooded 
over  the  hapless  island.  Revolution  was  the 
cry  on  the  continent,  and  an  abortive  insur- 
rection was  planned  in  Ireland.  The  leaders, 
Smith  O’Brien,  John  Mitchell,  Thomas  Fran- 
cis Meagher,  Terence  McManus,  and  others, 
were  sentenced  to  death ; a fate  commuted 
by  the  crown  to  transportation,  from  which 
they  have  all  escaped  or  have  been  pardoned. 

By  an  act  of  1849,  a commission  for  the 
sale  of  encumbered  estates  was  appointed, 
whose  operations  have  been  highly  benefi- 
cial, and  promise  much  improvement  in  the 
social  condition  of  the  Irish  people.  Large 
domains  have  been  transferred  from  bankrupt 
proprietors,  who  groaned  under  irredeemable 
mortgages  and  had  no  capital  to  employ  labor, 
to  the  hands  of  competent  and  progressive 
landlords,  of  whom  a large  proportion  are 
skillful  cultivators  from  England  and  Scot- 
28 


land.  The  tendency  will  be  to  lessen  the 
evil  of  absenteeism,  and  thus  do  away  with 
the  middle-men,  who  have  formed  one  stand- 
ing and  regular.  Irish  grievance.  It  was  the 
common  method  in  Ireland  to  extort  the  last 
farthing  which  the  tenant  was  willing  to  give 
for  land  rather  than  quit  it,  and  the  machinery 
by  which  such  a practice  wag  carried  into  effect, 
was  that  of  the  middle-man.  He  gave  high 
prices,  that  he  might  obtain  higher  from  the 
occupant ; more  was  paid  by  the  actual 
occupant  than  was  consistent  with  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  land;  it  was  injured,  ran  out, 
and  the  most  shocking  consequences  ensued 
from  it.  There  was  little  manufacture  in 
Ireland ; the  price  of  labor  was  low ; the 
demand  for  labor  irregular.  If  a poor  man 
was  driven,  by  distress  of  rent,  from  his 
potato  garden,  he  had  no  other  resource ; all 
was  lost ; he  would  do  the  impossible  (as  the 
French  say)  to  retain  it — ^subscribe  any  bond, 
and  promise  any  rent.  The  middle-man  had 
no  character  to  lose ; and  he  knew  when  he 
took  up  the  occupation  that  it  was  one  with 
which  pity  had  nothing  to  do.  On  he  drove, 
and  backward  the  poor  peasant  receded, 
losing  something  at  every  step,  till  he  came 
to  the  very  brink  of  despair ; and  then  he 
recoiled  and  murdered  his  oppressor,  and  was 
a White  Boy,  or  a Right  Boy ; and  the  soldier 
shot  him,  and  the  judge  hanged  him. 

IRENiEUS,  St.,  was  a native  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  a pupil  of  Polycarp.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  come  to  Gaul,  while  a young 
man,  and  died  at  Lyons,  of  whose  church  he 
was  bishop,  about  the  close  of  the  second 
century. 

IRETON,  Henry,  the  son-in-law  of  Crom- 
well, and  a distinguished  parliamentary  gen- 
eral, was  lord  deputy  of  Ireland  during  the 
commonwealth.  He  died  at  Limerick  in  1 65 1 , 
aged  forty-one. 

IRON  MASK.  The  Man  in  the  Iron  Mask 
was  the  most  singular  prisoner  ever  confined 
within  the  walls  of  the  Bastile;  notwith- 
standing all  the  curiosity  and  conjecture  that 
have  been  employed  to  ascertain  his  quality 
and  pedigree,  nothing  authentic  has  trans- 
pired to  the  present  time.  In  1698  he  was 
brought  from  the  island  of  St.  Marguerite  by 
Mons.  de  St.  Mars,  the  newly  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  Bastile ; he  was  attended  with 
the  greatest  respect,  maintained  a sumptuous 


IRO 


434 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


table,  and  had  every  possible  indulgence 
shown  him  until  the  time  of  his  death,  Nov. 
19th,  1703.  This  mysterious  prisoner,  on 
his  removal  to  the  Bastile,  was  carried  in  a 
litter,  accompanied  by  several  men  on  horse- 
back, who  had  orders  to  put  him  to  death, 
if  he  made  the  slightest  attempt  to  show  his 
face  or  otherwise  discover  himself.  His  face 
was  concealed  with  a mask  of  black  velvet, 
with  springs  of  steel  or  whalebone,  which 
were  so  constructed  that  he  could  eat  with- 
out taking  it  off.  A physician  of  the  Bastile, 
who  had  often  attended  him,  said  he  had 
never  seen  his  face,  though  he  had  frequently 
examined  his  tongue  and  other  parts  of  his 
body ; but  added  that  he  was  admirably  well 
made,  that  his  skin  was  brown,  his  voice  in- 
teresting, that  he  was  very  accomplished, 
read  much,  played  on  the  guitar,  and  had  an 
exquisite  taste  for  lace  and  fine  linen. 

The  pains  taken  in  his  concealment  show 
that  he  was  a person  of  considerable  quality 
and  importance,  and  from  thfe  following  cir- 
cumstances it  appears  singular  that  he  wTas 
never  discovered.  Whilst  at  St.  Marguerite, 
he  one  day  wrote  something  with  his  knife 
on  a silver  plate,  which  he  threw  from  the 
window  toward  a boat  lying  near  the  tower. 
A fisherman  took  up  the  plate  and  brought  it 
to  the  governor,  who,  with  great  astonish- 
ment, asked  the  man  if  he  had  read  the  writ- 
ing or  showed  it  to  any  one,  and,  although 
the  fisherman  answered  in  the  negative,  kept 
him  in  confinement  until  he  was  perfectly 
satisfied,  after  which  he  dismissed  him,  say- 
ing, “It  is  lucky  for  you  that  you  can  not 
read.”  The  Abbe  Papon  says : “ In  the  year 
1778  I had  the  curiosity  to  visit  the  apart- 
ment of  this  unfortunate  prisoner : it  looks 
toward  the  sea.  I found  in  the  citadel  an 
officer  in  the  independent  company  there, 
seventy -nine  years  of  age.  He  told  me  that 
his  father  had  often  related  to  him  that  a 
young  lad,  a barber,  having  seen  one  day 
something  white  floating  on  the  water,  took 
it  up ; it  was  a very  fine  shirt,  written  almost 
all  over.  He  carried  it  to  Mons.  de  St.  Mars, 
who,  having  looked  at  some  parts  of  the 
writing,  asked  the  lad,  with  an  appearance 
of  anxiety,  if  he  had  not  had  the  curiosity  to 
read  it  ? He  assured  him  he  had  not ; but 
two  days  afterward  the  boy  was  found  dead 
in  his  bed.” 


Immediately  after  the  prisoner’s  death, 
his  apparel,  linen,  clothes,  mattresses,  and 
everything  that  had  been  used  by  him,  were 
burnt ; the  walls  of  his  room  were  scraped, 
the  floor  was  taken  up,  and  every  precaution 
used  that  no  trace  of  him  might  be  left  be- 
hind. When  he  was  on  the  road  from  St. 
Marguerite  to  his  last  residence,  Mons.  de  St. 
Mars,  was  overheard  to  reply  to  a question 
of  the  prisoner,  relative  to  any  design  against 
his  life : “ No,  prince,  your  life  is  in  safety ; 
you  must  only  allow  yourself  to  be  conduct- 
ed.” A prisoner  told  Ml  la  Grange  Chancel 
that  he  was  lodged,  with  other  prisoners,  in 
the  room  immediately  over  this  celebrated 
captive,  and  found  means  of  speaking  to  him 
by  the  vents  of  the  chimney ; but  he  refused 
to  inform  them  who  he  was,  alleging  that  it 
would  cost  him  his  own  life,  as  well  as  the 
lives  of  those  to  whom  the  secret  might  be 
revealed. 

Various  have  been  the  individuals  supposed 
to  have  been  the  masked  prisoner : the  Due 
de  Beaufort;  the  Count  de  Vermandois, 
natural  son  to  Louis  XIV.  by  the  Duchess 
de  la  Valliere;  the  Duke  of  Monmouth, 
natural  son  of  Charles  II.  of  England ; Gero- 
lami  Alagni,  minister  of  the  Duke  of  Alodena ; 
the  offspring  of  a secret  marriage  between 
Anne  of  Austria  and  Cardinal  Alazarin,  &c., 
&c.  Voltaire  says  that  the  secret  was  known 
to  Monsieur  de  Chamillard,  and  that  the  son- 
in-law  of  that  minister  conjured  him  on  his 
death-bed  to  tell  the  name  of  the  man  with 
the  mask ; but  he  replied  it  was  a state 
secret,  which  he  had  sworn  he  would  never 
divulge. 

The  supposition  now  generally  received  is 
that  this  unfortunate  person  was  the  twin 
brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  born  eight  hours  after 
this  monarch,  and  the  unhappy  victim  of 
Superstition  and  cruelty.  Louis  XIII.,  being 
weak  enough  to  give  credit  to  the  prediction 
of  some  impostors,  that  if  the  queen  should 
be  delivered  of  twins,  the  kingdom  would  be 
involved  in  civil  war,  ordered  the  birth  of 
this  prince  to  be  kept  a profound  secret,  and 
had  him  privately  educated  in  the  country 
as  the  illegitimate  son  of  a nobleman;  but 
on  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  young 
man  gave  indications  of  having  discovered 
his  parentage.  His  brother  being  informed 
of  this,  ordered  him  to  be  imprisoned  for 


IRQ 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


435 


life,  and  to  wear  a mask  in  order  to  prevent 
his  being  recognized. 

ISABELLA  of  Castile  was  born  in  1450. 
Civil  dissensions  made  her  the  heiress  and 
successor  of  her  brother  Henry,  whose 
daughter  Joanna  was  set  aside.  Of  the 
many  suitors  for  her  hand,  the  King  of  Por- 
tugal, the  Due  de  Guienne,  brother  of  Louis 
XI.  of  France,  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  brother 
of  Edward  IV.  of  England,  and  Don  Ferdi- 
nand, the  heir  of  Arragon,  she  chose  the  lat- 
ter, and  was  united  to  him  in  1474.  By  this 
match  nearly  the  whole  Christian  dominions 
of  Spain  were  united  in  one  monarchy.  It 
was  through  the  generous  patronage  of  Isa- 
bella that  Columbus  was  enabled  to  set  sail 
on  that  momentous  voyage  from  which  he 
landed  upon  the  strand  of  a virgin  hemi- 
sphere. Isabella  died  in  1504. 

ISMAIL,  a strongly  fortified  town  in  Rus- 
sia, in  Bessarabia,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Danube,  thirty-three  miles  from  the  Black 
Sea.  It  is  memorable  for  its  siege,  in  1790, 
by  the  Russians  under  Suwarrow.  It  was 
taken  by  a terrible  assault,  on  the  23d  of  De- 
cember. Of  the  Turks  30,000  were  massa- 
cred in  cold  blood;  6,000  women  were 
butchered,  and  the  town  was  fired.  The 
Russians  lost  5,000  men  on  the  day  of  cap- 
ture, and  more  than  twice  that  number  in 
previous  operations. 

ISSUS,  Battle  of,  the  second  great  defeat 
of  Darius  by  Alexander,  333  b.c.  The  queen 
and  family  of  the  Persian  monarch  were 
taken  by  the  Macedonians. 

ITALY.  The  present  kingdom  was  formed 
by  the  adhesion  of  one  part  of  the  country 
after  another  to  the  government  of  Victor 
Emanuel.  This  movement  commenced  even 
before  the  peace  of  Villa  Franca,  which  was 
finally  signed  at  Zurich,  Nov.  10,  1859.  Tus- 
cany, on  the  15th  of  the  previous  August, 
had  declared  for  the  new  kingdom  ; Modena 
on  the  20th,  Parma  Sept.  3d.  The  first 
Italian  parliament  met  at  Turin,  Feb.  18, 
1861,  and  on  the  28th  enacted  the  new  title 
of  King  of  Italy.  The  British  government 
recognized  the  new  Kingdom  in  March.  In 
1864,  Florence  was  made  the  capital  instead 
of  Turin.  Under  the  new  Italian  government 
in  1866,  the  abolishment  of  all  ecclesiastical 
corporations  was  effected,  and  the  property 
owners  by  these  orders  appropriated  by  the 


state  and  used  chiefly  for  educational  pur- 
poses. The  area  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  is 
98,075  sq.  m. ; pop.  in  1862,  21,776,953.  Italy 
has  borne  the  names  of  Saturnia,  AEnotria, 
Hesperia,  Ausonia,  Tyrrhenia.  The  ancient 
inhabitants  called  themselves  Aborigines, 
offspring  of  the  soil,  and  the  country  was 
soon  after  peopled  by  colonies  from  Greece. 
Italy  has  been  the  mother  of  arts  as  well  as 
of  arms,  and  the  immortal  monuments  which 
remain  of  the  eloquence  and  poetical  genius 
of  its  inhabitants,  are  universally  known. 
The.  early  part  of  the  history  of  this  coun- 
fry, is,  however,  involved  in  the  greatest 
obscurity.  The  first  light  thrown  on  this 
land  of  darkness  was  by  the  settlement  of 
Greek  colonies  in  the  south,  where,  eventu- 
ally, a large  tract  of  country  was  called 
Magna  Grsecia.  The  early  history  of  Italy 
is  linked  with  the  annals  of  Rome. 

Italy  continued* subject  to  one  power,  for 
more  than  eight  hundred  years,  until  the 
fifth  century,  when  the  Goths  crossed  the 
barriers  of  the  Alps.  Toward  a.d.  560 
the  Longobards  entered  the  north  of  Italy, 
took  Milan  and  Pavia,  and  founded  a kingdom 
which  continued  during  two  centuries,  until 
overthrown  by  Charlemagne.  After  his 
death  Italy  belonged  to  his  successors  on 
the  imperial  throne,  but  their  tenure  was 
precarious  ; the  great  barons  laboring  to  as- 
sert their  independence,  and  the  popes  to 
extend  their  temporal  dominion.  The  sub- 
sequent history  »is  little  more  than  a succes- 
sion of  military  struggles,  of  little  interest, 
until  960,  when  Otho  I.  repaired,  in  person, 
to  the  north  of  Italy,  granted  municipal 
rights  to  the  cities,  and  improved  the  interior 
government  in  general.  The  whole  was 
united  to  the  German  empire ; but  from  this 
compact  fresh  feuds  and  commotions  fol- 
lowed: the  Italian  nobility  were  jealous  of 
their  privileges;  conspiracies  were  formed, 
detected,  and  suppressed,  and  no  constant 
allegiance  was  exhibited  to  the  German  gov- 
ernment, or  the  magistracy  put  into  authority 
by  it.  A series  of  wars  continued  for  several 
ages.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  Italy  was 
divided  into  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  es- 
tates of  the  Church,  Tuscany,  Parma,  and 
Lombardy,  the  Genoese  and  the  Venetian 
territories,  and  other  petty  states.  For  two 
centuries  the  Venetians  and  Genoese  were 


ITA 


436 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  most  considerable  commercial  people  in 
Europe.  Venice,  in  particular,  possessed 
large  foreign  colonies;  and,  in  1194,  she  took 
Constantinople  and  held  in  sovereignty  por- 
tions of  what  now  constitutes  Turkey  in  Eu- 
rope and  Greece.  The  foundation  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  popes  was  laid  about 
1080,  by  Matilda,  Countess  of  Tuscany,  who 
bequeathed  a large  portion  of  her  dominions 
to  Gregory  VII.  After  that  time  the  popes 
successively  made  great  acquisitions  of  terri- 
tory : but,  in  1798,  Rome  was  taken  by  Ber- 
thier,  and  Bonaparte  annexed  the  papal 
dominions  to  France.  They  were,  however, 
restored  in  1814.  Napoleon  made  many 
changes  in  the  states  of  Italy,  but  after  his 
fall  the  former  condition  was  restored.  [ See 
Naples,  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  &c.] 

ITURBIDE,  Augustus,  was  born  in  1784. 
When  Mexico  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke, 
he  was  the  commander  of  the  royal  army  in 


the  north.  He  declared  for  the  independence 
of  the  Mexican  people,  and  the  Spaniards 
being  driven  forth,  succeeded  in  making 
himself  emperor  in  1822.  Anarchy  made  his 
rule  not  quite  imperial;  he  abdicated  in 
March,  1823,  his  divorced  empire  promising 
him  an  affluent  alimony,  and  he  agreeing  to 
dwell  in  Italy.  Unsatisfied  ambition  led  him 
back  to  Mexico  in  1824;  the  congress  de- 
clared him  an  outlaw,  and  he  was  shot  a few 
days  after  his  arrival. 

IVRY,  or  Yvres,  Battle  of,  between 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  aided  by  his  chief 
nobility,  and  the  generals  of  the  Catholic 
league,  over  whom  the  king  gained  a signal 
victory.  This  success  enabled  Henry  to 
blockade  Paris,  and  reduce  that  capital  to 
the  last  extremity  by  famine  ; but  the  Duke 
of  Parma,  by  orders  of  Philip  of  Spain, 
marched  to  the  relief  of  the  league,  and 
obliged  the  king  to  raise  the  blockade. 


JACKSON,  Andrew,  was  the  seventh 
president  of  the  United  States.  His  ances- 
tors were  of  the  Presbyterian  faith,  and 
among  the  Scotch  emigrants  to  the  province 
of  Ulster  in  Ireland,  under  the  policy  of  James 
I.,  who  stocked  the  confiscated  estates  of  the 
Irish  with  colonists  from  England  and  Scot- 
land. Hugh  Jackson,  the  grandfather  of 
Andrew,  was  a linen-draper  near  Carrickfer- 
gus  ; his  four  sons  were  reputable  farmers, 
and  the  youngest  of  them,  Andrew,  married 
Elizabeth  Hutchinson,  by  whom  he  had  in 
Ireland  two  sons,  Hugh  and  Robert.  To  im- 
prove his  condition,  he  emigrated  to  America, 
in  company  with  several  of  his  neighbors,  in 
1765,  and  settled  on  Waxhaw  Creek,  just 
within  the  limits  of  North  Carolina,  where 
others  of  his  countrymen  had  formed  a set- 
tlement and  reared  a meeting-house.  At  a 
later  period,  Samuel,  a son  of  another  of  the 
brothers,  came  over,  and  became  a citizen  of 
Philadelphia. 

On  this  plantation,  in  Mecklenburg  county, 
N.  C.,  Andrew  Jackson  saw  the  light,  March 

JA 


15th,  1767,  only  five  days  before  the  eyes  of 
his  father  were  closed  in  death.  A few  weeks 
after,  the  widow,  with  her  orphan  boys  and 
new-born  babe,  removed  into  South  Carolina 
and  made  her  home  at  another  point  on  the 
Waxhaw.  There  was  spent  the  infancy  and 
early  youth  of  the  future  hero.  The  lone 
mother’s  means  were  slender,  but  she  longed 
to  see  her  youngest  son  a minister  of  the 
gospel,  and  he  was  early  placed  in  a neigh- 
boring academy.  He  was  making  fair  prog- 
ress in  his  studies,  when  the  Revolution 
broke  out,  and  South  Carolina  soon  became 
a theatre  of  war.  His  elder  brother,  Hugh, 
lost  his  life  in  the  fatigues  of  service  against 
the  foe.  A battle  was  fought  at  Waxhaw 
settlement  in  May,  1780,  in  which  113  Ameri- 
icans  were  killed  and  150  wounded.  Wax- 
haw meeting-house  was  converted  into  a tem- 
porary hospital,  and  there  the  wounded  were 
borne.  The  mangled  corpses  of  slaughtered 
patriots  recalled  to  the  youth  that  looked 
upon  them,  the  tales  of  British  cruelty  and 
wrong  he  had  so  often  heard  from  his  mother, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


437 


JACKSON  AT  THE  HERMITAGE. 


as  she  related  scenes  of  tyranny  in  Ireland, 
from  which  his  father  had  fled  to  find  an 
asylum  in  the  Carolinas. 

In  the  summer  of  1780,  then  a boy  of  little 
more  than  thirteen,  he  shouldered  a musket, 
and  with  his  brother  Robert  joined  a corps 
of  volunteers  attached  to  Gen.  Sumter’s 
brigade.  An  action  took  place  August  6th, 
1780,  at  a place  called  Hanging  Rock,  be- 
tween the  Americans  and  British  soldiers 
aided  by  Tories.  Davie’s  corps,  in  which  the 
young  Jacksons  fought,  distinguished  itself 
and  suffered  heavy  loss ; but  the  brothers 
were  unhurt. 

For  several  months  the  region  between  the 
Great  Pedee  and  Saluda  rivers  was  the  stage 
of  hot  warfare.  Andrew  and  Robert  were 
too  young  to  mingle  in  all  the  dangers  and 
hardships  of  partisan  life.  The  settlers  about 
the  Waxhaw  were  firm  republicans  by  birth 
and  spirit,  and  were  special  marks  for  British 
hate.  Mrs.  Jackson  retired  with  her  sons 


into  North  Carolina  for  some  time.  In  1781 
both  of  the  boys  were  captured  by  a party 
of  dragoons.  Andrew  was  ordered  by  a Tory 
officer  to  clean  his  muddy  boots ; the  boy-sol- 
dier proudly  refused,  and  parried  with  his 
left  arm  a sword-stroke  murderously  aimed 
at  his  head.  His  hand  was  wounded,  and  he 
bore  the  scar  for  life.  Robert  was  ordered  to 
perform  the  same  menial  office,  and  upon  a 
refusal  as  prompt  as  his  brother’s,  the  brutal 
major  gave  him  a sword-cut  upon  the  head, 
from  the  effect  of  which  he  never  recovered. 
With  other  prisoners,  the  youths  were  con- 
fined some  time  in  Camden,  where  they  suf- 
fered severely,  from  their  undressed  wounds, 
from  ill  treatment,  and  from  the  small  pox, 
which  raged  among  the  prisoners.  Their 
mother  hurried  to  Camden ; by  an  exchange 
of  prisoners,  her  sons  were  yielded  to  her, 
hardly  more  than  mere  wrecks  of  their  former 
selves.  With  five  released  neighbors,  the 
i widow  and  her  boys  started  for  their  home 


JAC 


438 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


on  the  Waxhaw.  For  the  company  there 
were  but  two  horses.  Mrs.  Jackson  rode  one, 
without  saddle  or  bridle,  and  on  the  other 
the  weak  and  wounded  Robert  was  borne. 
Andrew,  not  yet  recovered  from  the  small- 
pox, barefooted  and  half-naked,  trudged  on 
foot  the  weary  way  of  forty  miles.  Two 
hours  before  reaching  home,  a heavy  rain 
drenched  the  party,  and  the  disease  left  the 
skin  of  the  boys  to  pervade  their  systems. 
Robert  lived  but  two  days ; for  a fortnight 
Andrew  was  delirious  with  a raging  fever, 
and  lingered  upon  the  brink  of  death.  Not 
long  after  his  recovery,  his  noble  mother 
died  from  a fever  contracted  on  the  prison- 
ships  at  Charleston,  whither  she  had  gone  to 
nurse  and  tend  the  victims  who  were  there 
suffering  and  dying. 

Andrew  Jackson  was  thus  left  alone  on 
the  earth.  For  some  time  he  was  wayward 
and  dissolute  in  his  habits,  till  suddenly 
changing  his  course  of  life,  he  commenced 
ihe  study  of  law,  at  Salisbury,  N.  C.  This 
was  in  the  winter  of  1784,  in  his  eighteenth 
year ; in  little  more  than  two  years  he  was 
licensed  to  practice.  Without  asking,  he 
received  from  the  governor  the  appointment 
of  solicitor  for  the  western  district,  embracing 
the  present  state  of  Tennessee.  In  the  spring 
of  1788,  then  just  of  man’s  age,  he  crossed 
the  mountains  to  take  up  his  abode.  The 
country  was  wild  and  sparsely  settled,  the 
white  man  having  to  struggle  boldly  and 
bloodily  with  the  fierce  savage.  Jackson 
was  engaged  in  several  expeditions  against 
the  Indians ; his  bravery  attracted  their  notice, 
and  they  gave  him  the  names  of  Sharp  Knife 
and  Pointed  Arrow. 

After  dwelling  awhile  at  Jonesborough,  he 
determined  to  make  Nashville  his  home,  and 
there  boarded  in  the  pleasant  family  of  Mrs. 
Donelson,  the  widow  of  Col.  Donelson,  an 
emigrant  from  Virginia.  Rachel,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Mrs.  Donelson,  was  celebrated  for  her 
beauty  and  affability.  She  was  then  in  the 
bloom  of  early  womanhood.  She  had  been 
wedded  to  Captain  Robards,  a dissolute  and 
brutal  man,  and  had  sought  sanctuary  from 
his  cruel  treatment  under  her  mother’s  roof. 
Alarmed  by  a rumor  that  he  was  coming  to 
Nashville,  she  left  there  in  the  spring  of 
1791,  with  the  family  of  a friend,  and  went 
down  the  river  to  Natchez.  Jackson  accom- 


panied the  party  as  a protector  against  the 
dangers  of  the  journey.  When  he  returned 
to  Nashville  he  learned  that  Capt.  Robards 
had  applied  to  the  legislature  of  Virginia 
for  a divorce,  and  was  credibly  informed 
that  the  prayer  had  been  granted.  He  at 
once  hastened  to  Natchez  with  the  welcome 
tidings.  He  had  admired  Rachel  Donelson 
before ; and  now  that  she  was  free  to  marry, 
and  love  for  her  was  not  illicit,  his  regard  at 
once  warmed  into  ardent  affection.  His  suit 
was  accepted;  in  the  autumn  they  were 
married.  In  December,  1793,  Jackson  was 
startled  to  learn  that  the  Virginia  legislature 
did  not  grant  a divorce,  but  only  authorized 
a suit  to  be  brought  in  a Kentucky  court. 
That  suit  had  just  terminated  and  the  divorce 
had  been  granted.  In  January,  1794,  Jackson 
was  again  regularly  married.  His  conduct 
was  ever  singularly  delicate  and  chivalrous 
toward  woman,  and  when  partisan  rancor 
tried  to  asperse  him,  those  who  were  familiar 
with  the  circumstances  of  this  case,  vindi- 
cated his  conduct  as  perfectly  honorable  and 
virtuous. 

Fie  now  applied  himself  assiduously  to  his 
profession.  The  prodigal  debtors,  with  whom 
he  came  in  contact  in  the  collection  of  debts, 
clubbed  together  to  drive  him  from  the  coun- 
try.  He  flinched  not,  and  their  animosity 
brought  upon  him  several  personal  encoun- 
ters, in  which  he  was  uniformly  victorious. 
His  nerve,  strength,  and  agility  were  qualities 
to  win  him  the  liking  of  the  hardy  frontiers- 
men of  Tennessee,  and  after  assisting  in  1796 
to  form  a state  constitution,  he  was  chosen 
the  first  representative  of  the  new  common- 
wealth in  Congress.  He  served  one  session, 
and  then,  having  been  chosen  senator  by 
the  legislature,  took  that  seat  Nov.  22d, 
1797.  Unambitious  of  political  distinction, 
he  resigned  his  seat  in  the  senate  after  one 
session,  went  back  to  Tennessee,  and  was 
made  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state, 
a post  which  he  held  some  six  years. 

For  some  years,  he  tasted  the  retirement 
which  he  had  so  long  desired,  devoting 
his  time  to  the  pursuits  of  agriculture.  In 
1802  he  had  been  appointed  major-general  of 
the  militia  of  Tennessee.  When  the  war 
with  Great  Britain  came  in  1812,  he  was 
called  into  the  field.  The  expedition  against 
the  Creeks,  who  had  been  stirred  to  hostility 


JAC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


439 


by  emissaries  in  the  interest  of  England,  was 
conducted  by  him  with  eminent  success.  In 
May,  1814,  he  received  a commission  as  major- 
general  in  the  regular  army.  The  threatened 
descent  of  the  British  upon  Louisiana  soon 
drew  his  attention  to  that  quarter ; the  meas- 
ures which  through  his  energy  were  adopted 
for  resistance  and  defense,  were  crowned  with 
victory  upon  the  field  of  Chalmette,  Jan.  8th, 
1815,  when  backwoods  marksmen  and  tough 
cotton-bales  proved  more  than  a match  for 
veterans  who  had  been  victorious  in  the 
Peninsula  and  the  great  fight  of  Waterloo. 

Gen.  Jackson  took  his  seat  in  the  senate  of 
the  United  States,  as  senator  from  Tennessee, 
in  December,  1823.  He  was  a prominent  can- 
didate for  the  presidency  in  1824,  and  in 
1828  and  1832  was  elected  to  that  high  office. 
His  administration  was  marked  by  a fierce 
contest  with  the  United  States  bank.  At  the 
close  of  his  second  term,  he  retired  to  his 
favorite  residence,  at  the  Hermitage  in  Ten- 
nessee, where  he  passed  the  remnant  of  his 
days.  He  died  on  the  8th  of  June,  1845. 
His  countrymen,  throughout  the  land,  joined 
in  testimonials  of  respect  to  his  memory. 

JAOKSON,  James,  an  officer  in  our  Revo- 
lutionary army,  was  born  in  England  in  1757, 
and  settled  in  Georgia  in  1772.  He  was 
engaged  in  the  attack  on  Savannah,  when  but 
nineteen  years  old,  and  a few  years  afterward 
was  chosen  brigade-major  in  the  Georgia 
militia.  After  the  close  of  the  war,  through- 
out which  he  displayed  great  gallantry  and 
prudence,  he  commenced  the  practice  of  law, 
and  in  1783  he  became  a member  of  the  legis- 
lature. In  1788  he  was  chosen  governor  of 
Georgia,  but  modestly  declined  the  honor  on 
account  of  his  youth  and  inexperience.  He 
held  the  post,  however,  from  1798  to  1801. 
He  was  afterward  chosen  United  States  sena- 
tor, and  died  in  Washington,  March  19th, 
1806. 

JACOBINS.  The  Jacobin  club  originated 
in  1789,  from  a secret  association  of  about 
forty  gentlemen  and  men  of  letters,  who  had 
united  to  discuss  and  disseminate  political 
and  other  opinions ; they  were  called  Jaco- 
bins because  they  met  in  the  hall  of  the 
Jacobin  friars  at  Paris.  The  club  became 
numerous  and  popular ; fraternal  societies 
were  founded  in  all  the  principal  towns  of  the 
kingdom ; and  the  share  of  the  Jacobins  in 


the  ensuing  revolution  need  not  be  told  here. 
The  club  law  of  Oct.  16th,  1794,  gave  the 
death-blow  to  the  Jacobin  club. 

JACQUARD,  Marie  Joseph,  the  inventor 
of  the  celebrated  loom,  was  born  at  Lyons 
in  1752,  and  died  in  1834. 

JAFFA,  anciently  Joppa,  a seaport  of 
Syria,  twelve  leagues  north-west  of  Jerusa- 
lem ; population  4,000.  It  was  taken  by 
Bonaparte  in  1799.  His  soldiers  suffered 
terribly  here  from  the  plague. 

JAMAICA  is  the  largest  and  most  import- 
ant of  the  West  India  islands  belonging  to 
Great  Britain.  It  is  about  150  miles  long, 
and  40  broad.  It  is  less  fertile  than  some 
others  of  the  West  Indies,  but  is  a rich  and 
valuable  country.  It  is  subject  to  earth- 
quakes. Sugar,  rum,  molasses,  indigo,  coffee, 
pimento,  and  ginger  are  the  most  valuable 
articles  of  export.  The  present  population 
is  about  380,000,  of  whom  15,000  are  whites. 
The  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  May 
3d,  1494.  In  1655  it  was  taken  from  the 
Spanish  by  the  English  under  the  command 
of  Admiral  Penn  and  General  Venables. 
In  1795  a war  commenced  between  the 
Maroons,  the  runaway  slaves  of  the  Spanish 
settlers,  and  the  white  inhabitants ; the  bar- 
barous expedient  of  using  bloodhounds  being 
resorted  to,  for  the  purpose  of  tracing  the 
mountain  haunts  of  the  negroes,  they  were 
at  last  compelled  to  surrender  at  discretion. 

Spanish  Town,  or  Santiago  de  la  Vega,  is 
the  seat  of  the  colonial  legislature.  Kings- 
ton is  the  largest  town  in  the  island  ; popula- 
tion over  35,000.  Port  Royal,  once  the 
capital,  has  been  often  and  severely  smitten 
by  earthquakes,  hurricanes,  and  flames. 

JAMES  L,  King  of  Scotland,  was  born  in 
1394.  At  the  age  of  eleven  years,  he  was 
sent  to  France,  that  he  might  escape  the 
danger  to  which  he  was  exposed  from  the 
ambition  of  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Albany ; 
but,  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  he 
and  his  retinue  were  confined  in  England, 
where,  however,  the  young  prince  received  an 
excellent  education.  His  talents  were  of  a 
high  order.  Washington  Irving  has  given  an 
interesting  account  of  him  in  the  Sketch 
Book,  which  we  condense. 

I visited  the  ancient  keep  of  the  castle 
[at  Windsor],  where  James  I.  of  Scotland,  the 
pride  and  theme  of  Scottish  poets  and  histo- 


JAM 


440 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


rians,  was  for  many  years  of  his  youth 
detained  a prisoner  of  state.  It  is  a large 
gray  tower,  that  has  stood  the  brunt  of  ages, 
and  is  still  in  good  preservation.  It  stands  on 
a mound  which  elevates  it  above  other  parts 
of  the  castle,  and  a great  flight  of  steps  lead 
into  the  interior.  In  the  armory,  which  is  a 
Gothic  hall,  furnished  with  weapons  of  vari- 
ous kinds  and  ages,  I was  shown  a coat  of 
armor  hanging  against  the  wall,  which  I was 
told  had  once  belonged  to  James.  From 
hence  I was  conducted  up  a staircase  to  a 
suite  of  apartments  of  faded  magnificence, 
hung  with  storied  tapestry,  which  formed 
his  prison,  and  the  scene  of  that  passionate 
and  fanciful  amour,  which  has  woven  into  the 
web  of  his  story  the  magical  hues  of  poetry 
and  fiction. 

The  whole  history  of  this  amiable  but 
unfortunate  prince  is  highly  romantic.  The 
intelligence  of  his  capture,  coming  in  the 
train  of  many  sorrows  and  disasters,  proved 
fatal  to  his  unhappy  father.  The  news,  we 
are  told,  was  brought  to  him  while  at  supper, 
and  did  so  overwhelm  him  with  grief,  that  he 
was  almost  ready  to  give  up  the  ghost  into 
the  hands  of  the  servants  that  attended  him. 
But  being  carried  into  his  bed-chamber,  he 
abstained  from  all  food,  and  in  three  days 
died  of  hunger  and  grief  at  Rothesay. 

James  was  detained  in  captivity  above 
eighteen  years  ; but,  though  deprived  of  per- 
sonal liberty,  he  was  treated  with  the  respect 
due  to  his  rank.  He  was  well  taught,  we  are 
told,  to  fight  with  the  sword,  to  joust,  to* 
tourney,  to  wrestle,  to  sing  and  dance ; he 
was  an  expert  mediciner,  right  crafty  in 
playing  both  of  lute  and  harp,  and  sundry 
other  instruments  of  music,  and  was  expert 
in  grammar,  oratory,  and  poetry. 

In  prison  he  wrote  “The  King’s  Quhair” 
(Book).  The  subject  of  the  poem  is  his  love 
for  the  Lady  Jane  Beaufort,  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Somerset,  and  a princess  of  the  blood 
royal  of  England,  of  whom  he  became  enam- 
ored in  the  course  of  his  captivity.  His 
passion  for  the  Lady  Jane,  as  it  was  the  solace 
of  his  captivity,  so  it  facilitated  his  release, 
it  being  imagined  by  the  court  that  a con- 
nection with  the  blood  royal  of  England 
would  attach  him  to  its  own  interests.  He 
was  ultimately  restored  to  his  liberty  and 
crown,  having  previously  espoused  the  Lady 


Jane,  who  accompanied  him  to  Scotland,  and 
made  him  a most  tender  and  devoted  wife. 

He  found  his  kingdom  in  great  confusion, 
the  feudal  chieftains  having  taken  advantage 
of  the  troubles  and  irregularities  of  a long 
interregnum,  to  strengthen  themselves  in 
their  possessions,  and  place  themselves  above 
the  power  of  the  laws.  James  sought  to 
found  the  basis  of  his  power  in  the  atfections 
of  his  people.  He  attached  the  lower  orders 
to  him  by  the  reformation  of  abuses,  the 
temperate  and  equable  administration  of  jus- 
tice, the  encouragement  of  the  arts  of  peace, 
and  the  promotion  of  everything  that  could 
diffuse  comfort,  competency,  and  innocent 
enjoyment  through  the  humblest  ranks  of 
society.  He  mingled  occasionally  among  the 
common  people  in  disguise ; visited  their 
firesides ; entered  into  their  cares,  their  pur- 
suits, and  their  amusements ; informed  himself 
of  the  mechanical  arts,  and  how  they  could 
be  best  patronized  and  improved ; and  was 
thus  an  all-pervading  spirit,  watching  with  a 
benevolent  eye  over  the  meanest  of  his  sub- 
jects. Having  in  this  generous  manner  made 
himself  strong  in  the  hearts  of  the  common 
people,  he  turned  himself  to  curb  the  power 
of  the  factious  nobility ; to  strip  them  of 
those  dangerous  immunities  which  they  had 
usurped  ; to  punish  such  as  had  been  guilty 
of  flagrant  offenses  ; and  to  bring  the  whole 
into  proper  obedience  to  the  crown.  For 
some  time  they  bore  this  with  outward  sub- 
mission, but  with  secret  impatience  and 
brooding  resentment.  A conspiracy  was  at 
length  formed  against  his  life,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  his  own  uncle,  Robert  Stewart, 
Earl  of  Athol,  who,  being  too  old  himself  for 
the  perpetration  of  the  deed  of  blood,  insti- 
gated his  grandson,  Sir  Robert  Stewart, 
together  with  Sir  Robert  Graham,  and  others 
of  less  note,  to  commit  the  deed.  They  broke 
into  his  bed-chamber  at  the  Dominican  con- 
vent near  Perth,  where  he  was  residing,  and 
barbarously  murdered  him  by  oft-repeated 
wounds.  His  faithful  queen,  rushing  to 
throw  her  tender  body  between  him  and  the 
sword,  was  twice  wounded  in  the  ineffectual 
attempts  to  shield  him  from  the  assassin ; 
and  it  was  not  until  she  had  been  forcibly 
torn  from  his  person,  that  the  murder  was 
accomplished. 

This  tragedy  was  acted  Feb.  20th,  1437. 


JAM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


441 


When  the  footsteps  of  the  ruthless  assassins 
were  heard  approaching  the  door  of  the  royal 
apartment,  Catharine  Douglas,  one  of  the 
queen’s  ladies,  secured  it  for  a moment,  by 
thrusting  her  arm  through  the  staple,  and 
sustaining,  with  unwavering  fortitude,  the 
shocks  of  the  assailants,  till  her  arm  was 
broken  and  the  door  forced. 

The  sentiments  with  which  Mr.  Irving  con- 
cludes his  sketch  of  James,  are  best  conveyed 
in  his  own  beautiful  language.  “ Others  may 
dwell  on  the  illustrious  deeds  of  James  as  a 
warrior  and  a legislator ; but  I have  delight- 
ed to  view  him  merely  as  the  companion  of 
his  fellow-men,  the  benefactor  of  the  human 
race,  stooping  from  his  high  estate  to  sow  the 
sweet  flowers  of  poetry  and  song  in  the  paths 
of  common  life.  He  was  the  first  to  cultivate 
the  vigorous  and  hardy  plant  of  Scottish 
genius,  which  has  since  been  so  prolific  of  the 
most  wholesome  and  highly  flavored  fruit. 
He  carried  with  him  into  the  sterner  regions 
of  the  north,  all  the  fertilizing  arts  of  south- 
ern refinement.  He  did  everything  in  his 
power  to  win  his  countrymen  to  the  gay,  the 
elegant,  and  gentle  arts,  which  soften  and 
refine  the  character  of  a people,  and  wreathe 
a grace  round  the  loftiness  of  a proud  and 
warlike  spirit.  He  wrote  many  poems,  which, 
unfortunately  for  the  fullness  of  his  fame,  are 
now  lost  to  the  world ; one  which  is  still  pre- 
served, called  ‘Christ’s  Kirk  of  the  Green,’ 
shows  how  diligently  he  had  made  himself 
acquainted  with  the  rustic  sports  and  pas- 
times which  constitute  such  a source  of  kind 
and  social  feeling  among  the  Scottish  peas- 
antry, and  with  what  simple  and  happy  humor 
he  could  enter  into  their  enjoyments.  He 
contributed  greatly  to  improve  the  national 
music ; and  traces  of  his  tender  sentiment  and 
elegant  taste  are  said  to  exist  in  those  witch- 
ing airs  still  piped  among  the  wild  mountains 
and  lonely  glens  of  Scotland.  He  has  thus 
connected  his  image  with  whatever  is  most 
gracious  and  endearing  in  the  national  char- 
acter ; he  has  embalmed  his  memory  in  song, 
and  floated  his  name  down  to  after  ages  in  the 
rich  stream  of  Scottish  melody.  The  recol- 
lection of  these  things  was  kindling  at  my 
heart,  as  I paced  the  silent  scene  of  his  im- 
prisonment. I have  visited  Yaucluse  with  as 
much  enthusiasm  as  a pilgrim  would  visit  the 
shrine  at  Loretto ; but  I have  never  felt  more 


poetical  devotion  than  when  contemplating 
the  old  tower  and  the  little  garden  at  Wind- 
sor, and  musing  over  the  romantic  loves  of 
the  Lady  Jane  and  the  royal  poet  of  Scot- 
land.” 

JAMES  YI.  of  Scotland  and  I.  of  England. 

[See  Stuart,  House  of.J 

JAMES  II.  of  England.  [See  Stuart.] 

JANE,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
born  in  1482,  became  mother  of  the  emperors 
Charles  Y.  and  Ferdinand  I.  The  death  of 
her  husband,  Philip,  Archduke  of  Austria, 
affected  her  reason;  she  became  insane  in 
1506,  and  remained  so  to  her  death,  1555, 
forty-nine  years. 

JANIZARIES.  These  formidable  foot- 
soldiers,  at  first  the  guards  of  the  Ottoman 
monarchs,  and  for  a long  time  the  arbiters  of 
their  fate,  were  finally  broken  up  in  1826,  the 
date  of  their  last  rebellion,  when  three  thou- 
sand of  them  were  slain.  They  were  estab- 
lished by  Amurath  I.,  and  originally  consisted 
of  the  finest  Christian  slaves,  educated  in  the 
Mohammedan  religion  and  arms.  When  first 
formed,  this  new  militia  was  consecrated  in 
the  presence  of  the  sultan,  by  a dervish,  who, 
standing  in  the  front  of  their  ranks,  stretched 
the  sleeve  of  his  gown  over  the  head  of  the 
foremost  soldier,  and  delivered  his  blessing 
in  these  words : “ Let  them  be  called  Janiza- 
ries [yingi  cheri , or  new  soldiers] ; may  their 
countenances  be  ever  bright,  their  hand  vic- 
torious, their  swords  keen ; may  their  spear 
always  hang  over  the  heads  of  their  enemies ; 
and,  wheresoever  they  go,  may  they  return 
with  a white  face.”  White  and  hlach  face 
are  common  and  proverbial  expressions  of 
praise  and  reproach  in  the  Turkish  language. 

JANUS,  a deity  believed  by  the  Romans 
to  have  the  double  office  of  opening  and  shut-  ^ 
ting  the  gate  of  heaven.  He  was  represented 
with  two  faces.  His  temple  at  Rome  was  built 
in  the  form  of  a square,  and  was  opened  in 
time  of  war,  and  shut  in  time  of  peace.  It 
was  shut  only  twice  in  seven  centuries;  in 
the  reigns  of  Numa  and  Augustus. 

JAPAN,  an  empire  to  the  east  of  China, 
composed  of  a great  number  of  islands. 
The  principal  are  Niphon,  Kioosioo,  and  Sit- 
kokf.  The  Japanese  have  nominally  two 
emperors;  one  is  the  supreme  pontiff,  and 
oracle  of  religion,  and  the  other  a secular 
emperor,  who  is  invested  with  absolute  au- 


JAP 


442 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


thority.  The  latter’s  residence  is  at  Jeddo,  a 
large  city,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  in  the 
island  of  Niphon.  The  Japanese  are  enter- 
prising, hardy,  and  enlightened.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  and  agriculture  has  attained  great,  per- 
fection. The  silks,  cottons,  porcelain,  lack- 
ered wares,  &c.,  are  in  high  repute.  The  area 
of  the  Japanese  empire  is  estimated  by  some 
at  160,000,  and  by  others  at  260,000  square 
miles.  Of  its  population  there  is  no  more 
certain  knowledge,  some  calling  it  25,000,000, 
and  others  carrying  it  to  double  that  amount. 

The  jealous  restrictions  upon  intercourse 
with  foreigners  have  preserved  this  insular 
empire  as  a terra  incognita.  The  Dutch 
have  long  been  allowed  to  trade  at  the  port 
of  Nagasaki.  In  1619  ambassadors  are  said 
to  have  come  from  Japan  to  do  homage  to 
Pope  Paul  as  the  head  of  the  church,  for  their 
master  had  been  won  to  the  Christian  faith 
by  the  preaching  of  Jesuit  missionaries.  The 
ambition  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  intrigues  of 
the  jealous  Dutch,  caused  the  expulsion  of 
the  former  in  1622.  Commodore  Perry,  with 
an  American  squadron  dispatched  for  the 
purpose,  visited  Japan  in  1853  and  1854,  and 
concluded  a commercial  treaty,  by  which  a 
few  ports  are  partially  opened  to  American 
ships.  The  British  obtained  similar  conces- 
sions in  October,  1854. 

JASPER,  William,  was ' distinguished  for 
gallantry  in  the  Revolutionary  war.  June 
28th,  1776,  in  the  celebrated  attack  of  Sir 
Peter  Parker  on  Fort  Moultrie,  he  replaced, 
in  the  midst  of  an  iron  rain,  the  American 
flag  after  it  was  shot  away  by  a cannon-ball. 
He,  with  the  aid  of  Sergeant  Newton,  way- 
laid, surprised,  and  captured  a British  guard 
of  eight  men,  releasing  an  American  of  the 
name  of  Jones,  whom  they  were  conducting 
to  certain  death  at  Savannah.  This  extraor- 
dinary exploit  was  performed  within  about 
two  miles  from  the  British  lines.  Brave  Ser- 
geant Jasper  was  killed  in  the  attack  on 
Savannah,  Oct.  9th,  1779. 

JAVA,  a large  island  in  the  eastern  seas, 
642  miles  long,  and  128  broad.  In  1849  the 
population  amounted  to  9,560,000,  of  whom 
not  more  than  20,000  were  of  European  de- 
scent. Java  was  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1510.  But  the  Dutch  obtained  their 
possessions,  and  the  island  was  divided  be- 
tween them  and  the  native  princes.  There 


are  many  volcanic  peaks.  The  island  is  ex- 
ceedingly fertile,  producing  rice,  cotton,  coffee’ 
pepper,  sugar,  drugs  of  all  kinds,  and  various 
fruits.  The  coffee  of  this  island  is  renowned. 
There  are  also  mines  of  gold,  rubies,  diamonds, 
and  emeralds.  In  1811  the  island  was  taken 
by  the  British,  but  it  was  restored  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris  in  1814.  The  natives  are 
much  oppressed,  and  have  several  times  re- 
volted. The  Dutch  now  have  the  sovereignty 
of  all  the  island.  Batavia,  a city  and  seaport 
on  the  north  coast  near  the  western  end,  is 
the  capital  of  all  the  Dutch  East  Indies : Ion. 
106°  54'  E. ; lat.  .6°  12'  S.  Population 
118,000.  The  Dutch  founded  the  city  in 
1619,  and  after  being  taken  by  the  British  in 
1811,  it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch  in  1816. 
The  bay  would  be  good  if  it  were  easily  ac- 
cessible. The  old  town  is  built  on  a low 
marshy  foundation,  at  the  junction  of  small 
rivers,  and  some  of  the  canals  in  the  streets 
contain  stagnant  water.  Hence  originates  the 
intermittent  fever,  so  frequently  fatal  to  stran- 
gers. A new  town  has  arisen  on  the  eleva- 
ted ground  farther  inland:  Batavia  once  had 
an  immense  trade,  and  the  name  of  Queen  of 
the  East,  but  the  British  have  outrivaled  the 
Dutch  in  the  traffic  of  the  Indies,  and  Bata- 
via has  declined  accordingly.  The  quarter 
of  the  native  population  is  exceedingly  mean, 
while  the  European  houses  are  neat  rather 
than  elegant. 

JAY,  John,  an  American  statesman  and 
jurist,  was  born  of  Huguenot  ancestry,  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  Dec.  1st,  1745,  o.s.,  and 
was  educated  at  King’s  (now  Columbia)  Col- 
lege. In  1768  he  was  admitted  to  practice 
law,  and  in  1774  was  chosen  a delegate  to 
the  first  provincial  congress  which  met  at 
Philadelphia.  Two  years  afterward  he  was 
chosen  president  of  Congress.  In  1778  he 
was  chosen  chief-justice  of  New  York,  the 
constitution  of  which  he  had  been  instru- 
mental in  framing.  The  next  year  he  was 
sent  on  a mission  to  Spain,  to  procure  aid  and 
a recognition  of  our  independence.  In  1782 
he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to 
negotiate  a treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain. 
On  his  return,  Mr.  Jay  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  department  for  foreign  affairs,  in 
which  office  he  continued  until  appointed 
chief-justice  of  the  United  States.  In  1794 
he  was  sent  as  envoy  extraordinary  to  Great 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


443 


MONTICELLO. 


Britain,  and  on  his  return  the  next  year  en- 
tered on  the  duties  of  office  of  governor  of 
the  state  of  New  York,  to  which  he  had  been 
elected  during  his  absence.  From  this  station 
he  retired  to  private  life  in  1801.  He  died 
May  17th,  1829.  Our  country  has  no  purer 
patriot  than  John  Jay  in  her  list  of  worthies. 

JEFFERSON,  Thomas.  The  family  of 
Jefferson  were  among  the  early  emigrants 
from  Great  Britain.  Thomas,  the  third  pres- 
ident of  the  United  States  of  America,  was 
born  at  Shadwell,  Virginia,  April  2d,  1743, 
o.s.  His  father,  Peter  Jefferson,  a man  of 
some  distinction  in  the  colony,  died  in  1757, 
leaving  a widow  (who  lived  until  1776)  with 
two  sons  and  six  daughters.  Of  the  hand- 
some paternal  estate,  Thomas,  the  eldest 
child,  received  the  lands  he  called  Monticello, 
on  which  he  resided  when  not  in  public  life. 
He  spent  two  years  at  William  and  Mary’s 
College,  and  then  commenced  the  study  of 
the  law,  which  he  was  admitted  to  practice  in 
1767. 

By  birth  Mr.  Jefferson  belonged  to  the 
aristocracy  of  Virginia ; by  nature  he  was  a 
republican;  and  he  espoused  with  all  his 
might  the  popular  cause  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  Britain.  In  1769  he  took  his  seat 
in  the  general  assembly  of  Virginia,  which 


the  governor  of  Virginia  dissolved.  Mr. 
Jefferson,  before  that  event,  had  made  an 
effort  for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  of 
Virginia.  He  was  then  elected  to  fill  the 
place  of  Peyton  Randolph  in  Congress,  and 
assumed  his  seat  in  that  body,  June  21st,  1775. 
He  was  one  of  the  committee  appointed  to 
draw  up  a declaration  of  independence,  and 
that  document,  with  few  alterations,  was  his 
own  composition.  His  seat  in  Congress  he 
resigned,  because  he  felt  that  he  could  be 
more  useful  in  organizing  the  republican 
government  of  Virginia.  Among  the  laws 
proposed  by  him,  and  adopted  by  the  com- 
monwealth, were  those  prohibiting  the  future 
importation  of  slaves ; for  abolishing  primo- 
geniture, and  providing  for  the  equal  parti- 
tion of  inheritances ; for  establishing  religious 
freedom ; and  for  a system  of  general  educa- 
tion ; which  last,  however,  was  never  carried 
into  practice  in  the  state.  June  1st,  1779, 
he  was  chosen  governor  of  Virginia,  but  after 
two  years  he  resigned,  being  of  opinion  that 
a military  man  would  be  better  suited  for  the 
emergencies  of  the  times. 

Mr.  Jefferson  was  the  author  of  our  pres- 
ent system  of  coins  and  decimals,  proposing 
it  in  1784;  another  scheme  was  favored  by 
Robert  Morris.  On  the  5th  of  July,  1784, 


JEF 


444 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


Mr.  Jefferson  sailed  for  Paris,  having  been 
appointed  by  Congress  a third  commissioner 
to  negotiate  treaties  of  commerce  with  other 
nations,  Mr.  Adams  and  Dr.  Franklin  being 
the  other  two.  He  was  actively  engaged  un- 
til 1789,  when  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state. 
Dec.  1st,  1790,  he  resigned  this  office,  and 
lived  in  retirement  until  1797,  when  he  was 
chosen  vice-president  of  the  United  States. 
In  1801  he  was  chosen  president.  He  filled 
the  office  of  chief  magistrate  for  eight  years, 
when  he  retired  to  his  seat  at  Monticello, 
where  he  died  on  the  4th  of  July,  1826,  the 
same  day  on  which  Mr.  Adams  expired. 

Mr.  Jefferson  made  himself  known  as  an 
author  in  1781,  by  his  “Notes  on  Virginia.” 
In  private  life  he  was  hospitable,  and  pleasing 
in  his  manners;  in  public,  the  unyielding, 
sagacious  and  talented  leader  of  the  Repub- 
lican  party.  A monument  of  his  regard  for 
education  remains  in  the  university  estab- 
lished at  Charlottesville,  in  which  he  filled 
the  office  of  rector  for  some  years.  In  a pri- 
vate memorandum,  he  desired  that  a small 
granite  obelisk  might  be  raised  above  his 
ashes,  with  this  inscription : 

Here  was  buried 
Thomas  Jefferson, 

Author  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 

Of  the  Statute  of  Virginia  for  Religious  Freedom, 
and 

Father  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 

In  January,  1772,  he  married  Mrs.  Martha 
Skelton,  a young  widow,  the  daughter  of  Mr. 
John  Wayles.  She  died  in  1782,  leaving 
three  daughters,  one  of  whom  died  young; 
one  married  John  W.  Eppes,  and  the  other 
Gov.  Thos.  M.  Randolph,  both  of  Virginia. 
Mrs.  Randolph  survived  her  father. 

The  following  sketch  of  Mr.  Jefferson’s  per- 
sonal appearance  and  habits  is  condensed 
from  Randall’s  painstaking  biography.  His 
appearance  was  engaging.  His  face,  though 
angular,  and  far  from  beautiful,  beamed  with 
intelligence,  with  benevolence,  and  with  the 
cheerful  vivacity  of  a happy,  hopeful  spirit. 
His  complexion  was  ruddy,  and  delicately 
fair ; his  reddish  chestnut  hair  luxuriant  and 
silken.  His  full,  deep-set  eyes,  the  prevail- 
ing color  of  which  was  a light  hazel,  were 
peculiarly  expressive.  He  stood  six  feet  two 
and  a half  inches  in  height,  and  though  very 


slim  at  this  period,  his  form  was  erect  and 
sinewy,  and  his  movements  displayed  elasti- 
city and  vigor.  He  was  an  expert  musician, 
a fine  dancer,  a dashing  rider,  and  there  was 
no  manly  exercise  in  which  he  could  not  play 
well  his  part.  His  manners  were  unusually 
graceful,  but  simple  and  cordial.  His  con- 
versation already  possessed  no  inconsiderable 
share  of  that  charm  which,  in  after  years, 
was  so  much  extolled  by  friends,  and  to  which 
enemies  attributed  so  seductive  an  influence 
in  moulding  the  young  and  the  wavering  to 
his  political  views.  There  were  a frankness, 
earnestness,  and  cordiality  in  its  tone ; a deep 
sympathy  with  humanity ; a confidence  in 
man,  and  a sanguine  hopefulness  in  his  des- 
tiny,— winning  irresistibly  upon  the  feelings, 
not  only  of  the  ordinary  hearer,  but  of  those 
grave  men  whose  commerce  with  the  world 
had  perhaps  led  them  to  form  less  glowing 
estimates  of  it.  Mr.  Jefferson’s  temper  was 
gentle,  kindly,  and  forgiving.  If  it  naturally 
had  anything  of  that  warmth  which  is  the 
usual  concomitant  of  affections  and  sympa- 
thies so  ardent, — and  it  no  doubt  had, — it  had 
been  subjugated  by  habitual  control.  Yet, 
under  its  even  placidity,  there  were  not  want- 
ing those  indications  of  calm  self-reliance  and 
courage  which  all  instinctively  recognize  and 
respect.  There  is  not  an  instance  on  record 
of  his  having  been  engaged  in  a personal 
rencontre,  or  his  having  suffered  a personal 
indignity.  Possessing  the  accomplishments, 
he  avoided  the  vices,  of  the  young  Virginia 
gentry  of  the  day,  and  a class  of  habits  which, 
if  not  vices  themselves,  were  too  often  made 
the  preludes  to  them.  He  never  gambled. 
To  avoid  importunities  to  games  which  were 
generally  accompanied  with  betting,  he  never 
learned  to  distinguish  one  card  from  another ; 
he  was  moderate  in  the  enjoyments  of  the 
table;  to  strong  drinks  he  had  an  aversion 
which  rarely  yielded  to  any  circumstances ; 
his  mouth  was  unpolluted  by  oaths  or  tobac- 
co! Though  he  speaks  of  enjoying  “the 
victory  of  a favorite  horse,”  and  the  “death 
of  the  fox,”  he  never  put  but  one  horse  in 
training  to  run  ; never  ran  but  a single  race ; 
and  he  very  rarely  joined  in  the  pleasant 
excitement  of  the  chase : he  knew  it  to  be 
too  pleasant  for  the  aspiring  student.  With 
such  qualities  of  mind  and  character,  with  the 
favor  of  powerful  friends  and  relatives,  and 


JEF 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


445 


even  of  viceroyalty  to  urge  him  onward,  Mr. 
Jefferson  was  not  a young  man  to  be  lightly 
regarded  by  the  young  or  old  of  either  sex. 

Of  his  singular  precision,  down  to  minute 
details,  and  his  habit  of  careful  observation, 
Randall  gives  many  instances.  Never  was 
there  a more  methodical  man,  from  great 
matters  down  to  the  merest  seeming  trifles ; 
never  so  diligent  a recorder  of  them ! In  his 
garden  book,  for  example,  the  times  of  plant- 
ing, sprouting,  coming  to  the  table,  or  ripen- 
ing of  his  multitude  of  esculents  are  severally 
noted ; the  plots  of  ground  containing  them, 
the  rows  of  plants,  and  sometimes  the  sepa- 
rate plants  in  each  row,  are  numbered ; dia- 
grams, as  neatly  drawn  as  engravings,  present 
the  different  plots  or  beds  collectively  to  the 
eye,  and  display  their  annual  rotations.  Mete- 
orological observations,  recorded  punctually 
at  three  different  periods  of  the  day,  extend 
through  a long  course  of  years,  and  through 
some  of  the  busiest  ones  of  his  life.  The 
pocket  account-books  include  the  minutest 
items  of  his  daily  expenditure,  down  to  two 
or  three  pennies  paid  for  a shoestring,  or 
tossed  into  a beggar’s  hat  in  Paris ; and  we 
think  we  remember  one  or  two  entries  of  a 
single  penny,  to  make  the  inexorable  cash- 
book balance  exactly ! The  object  of  the 
disbursement  is  generally  specified.  Account- 
books  kept  thus  present  a curious  history  of 
a man’s  life ; and  Mr.  Jefferson’s  tell  where 
he  went,  and  what  he  bought,  every  day  for 
thirty  years.  When  he  is  away  from  home, 
his  monthly  expenses  are  often  tabularized, 
so  as  to  separately  exhibit  the  aggregate 
expenditure  for  each  principal  article ; as  for 
meat,  bread,  wine,  &c. ; and  this  is  habitually 
done  where  official  position  required  him  to 
keep  an  extensive  establishment.  He  makes 
memorahda  of  minute  economical  facts  of 
every  description.  Those  in  regard  to  farm- 
ing and  gardening  are  innumerable.  Even 
household  details  do  not  escape  his  attention. 
We  often  find  how  much  of  this  or  that  it  will 
take  to  supply  the  wants  of  a person  or  fam- 
ily ; how  much  oil  will  supply  a lamp  for  a 
certain  number  of  hours;  comparative  cost 
of  lamps  and  candles,  &c.,  &c. 

In  everything  pertaining  to  natural  history, 
we  have  a series  of  almost  microscopic  obser- 
vations. We  will  name  one,  which,  in  what 
may  be  termed  the  department  of  economico- 


natural  history  (a  department  in  which  he 
seems  to  have  specially  delighted),  exhibits 
something  which  it  is  hard,  at  the  first  blush, 
to  define.  This  is  a table  beautifully  drawn  up, 
giving  the  average  earliest  and  latest  appear- 
ance of  thirty-seven  varieties  of  vegetables  in 
the  Washington  market  during  the  whole 
eight  years  of  his  presidency  ! To  think  of 
a leader  of  a great  civil  revolution,  the 
founder  of  a new  party  and  creed,  the 
statesman  engaged  in  the  pressing  cares  of  a 
nation,  watching  with  a green-grocer’s  assi- 
duity, and  recording  with  more  than  a green- 
grocer’s precision,  the  first  and  last  appear- 
ance of  radishes,  squashes,  cabbages,  and 
cauliflowers  in  the  market,  suggests  a curious 
train  of  reflection. 

He  observed  the  rule  of  entering  informa- 
tion under  appropriate  heads,  in  regard  to  all 
facts  thought  worthy  of  record.  Thus  his 
agricultural  observations  are  ultimately  ar- 
ranged under  seventeen  general  heads,  and 
these  divided  into  upward  of  fifty  subdivisions. 
Everything,  even  to  his  expense.accounts,  has 
a paged  index,  made  by  himself.  We  look  m 
vain  for  an  illegibly  scrawled  word  or  figure ; 
though  we  find  him  on  one  occasion  making 
all  his  entries,  for  two  or  three  months,  with 
his  left  hand,  owing  to  a broken  wrist. 

JEFFREY,  Francis.  This  brilliant  re- 
viewer was  the  son  of  a respectable  Scottish 
attorney,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1772,  and 
educated  at  Glasgow  and  Oxford.  He  was 
called  to  the  Edinburgh  bar  in  1794,  and 
remained  several  }Tears  an  advocate  with  little 
practice.  He  was  one  of  the  band  of  youth 
who  sat  at  the  feet  of  Dugald  Stewart,  and 
whose  first  incentives  to  distinction  in  the 
more  difficult  paths  of  knowledge,  as  well  as 
their  almost  universal  adoption  of  the  liberal 
school  of  politics,  were  in  some  degree  attrib- 
utable to  the  teachings  of  that  distinguished 
man.  Among  them  were  Brougham  and 
Horner.  One  day  early  in  1802,  in  the  eighth 
or  ninth  story,  or  flat,  then  the  elevated  resi- 
dence of  Jeffrey,  he  was  visited  by  Horner 
and  Sydney  Smith,  the  latter  a young  curate 
temporarily  resident  in  Edinburgh,  preach- 
ing, teaching,  and  joking  with  a flow  of  wit, 
humanity,  and  sense,  that  fascinated  every- 
body. Smith  started  the  notion  of  the  “ Ed- 
inburgh Review,”  and  was  immediately  voted 
its  editor  by  the  two  Scotchmen.  The  pro- 


JEF 


446 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ject  was  communicated  to  others  of  the 
literary  knot,  among  others  Henry  Brougham, 
, then  as  brilliant  and  erratic  as  his  subsequent 
life  has  shown  him.  The  project  hung  fire 
at  first ; those  who  promised  to  contribute 
were  slow  at  fulfilling:  Jeffrey  had  nearly 
finished  four  articles;  Horner  had  partly  writ- 
ten four* and  more  than  half  the  number  was 
printed;  and  yet  well  nigh  the  other  half 
had  still  to  be  written.  The  memorable 
‘blue  and  jmllow’  at  last  appeared  in  No- 
vember, after  a somewhat  tedious  gestation 
of  ten  months.  Sydney  Smith  was  the  only 
one  who  had  promptly  done  his  task:  as 
early  as  April  he  had  completed  more  than 
half  of  what  he  contributed,  while  nobody 
else  had  put  pen  to  paper ; and  shortly  after 
the  number  appeared,  he  was  probably  not 
sorry  to  be  summoned,  with  his  easy  pen  and 
cheerful  wit,  to  London,  abandoning  the 
cares  of  editorship  to  Jeffrey.  To  this  place 
of  honor  Jeffrey’s  articles  in  the  first  number 
proved  his  right.  Under  his  management 
the  “Edinburgh  Review”  at  once  became  a 
new  power  in  literature.  The  freshness, 
originality,  boldness,  and  independence  of  its 
criticisms,  on  literature,  science,  and  govern- 
ment, and  the  beauty,  brilliancy,  and  strength 
which  characterized  its  contents,  gave  it  a 
splendid  success.  Nothing  of  the  kind  had 
ever  been : it  opened  a new  era  in  criticism. 
It  was  also  famous  as  a political  journal,  and 
did  powerful  battle  for  the  liberal  school  of 
English  politics,  for  the  Whigs  against  Tory- 
ism. So  much  was  its  power  feared  that 
in  1809  the  “ Quarterly  Review  ” was  started 
in  London  by  the  Tories  as  a necessity 
against  it. 

Of  course  mistakes  were  made.  Jeffrey’s 
memorable  criticism  upon  Wordsworth,  com- 
mencing “ This  will  never  do,”  was  contra- 
dicted by  time.  The  Edinburgh  reviewers  at 
the  outset  were  young  men,  and  their  sallies 
could  not  but  be  blemished  with  some  indis- 
cretions. The  influence  of  the  review  upon 
the  literature  of  England  wras  sound  and 
healthy.  As  a biographer  of  Jeffrey  has 
said:  “Nothing  could  be  conceived  more 
charming  than  the  earnest,  playful,  delight- 
ful way  in  which  his  comments  adorned  and 
enriched  the  poets  he  admired.  Hogarth 
is  not  happier  in  Charles  Lamb’s  company, 
than  is  the  homely  vigor  and  genius  of  Crabbe 


under  Jeffrey’s  friendly  leaning ; he  returned 
fancy  for  fancy  to  Moore’s  exuberance,  and 
sparkled  with  a wit  as  keen  ; he  ‘ tamed  his 
wild  heart’  to  the  loving  thoughtfulness  of 
Rogers,  his  scholarly  enthusiasm,  his  pure 
and  vivid  pictures ; with  the  fiery  energy  and 
passionate  exuberance  of  Byron,  his  bright, 
courageous  spirit  broke  into  earnest  sympa- 
thy ; for  the  clear  and  stirring  strains  of 
Campbell  he  had  an  ever  lively  and  liberal 
response ; and  Scott,  in  the  midst  of  many 
temptations  to  an  exercise  of  severity,  never 
ceased  to  awaken  the  romance  and  generosity 
of  his  nature.”  Mr.  Jeffrey  was  both  editor 
and  contributor  to  the  review,  poetry  and 
elegant  literature  being  his  chosen  field. 

Not  only  did  he  distinguish  himself  in  let- 
ters ; he  acquired  a brilliant  reputation  in 
his  profession.  In  1821  and  1822  he  wTas 
chosen  lord  rector  of  the  university  of  Glas- 
gow; and  in  1829,  being  elected  dean  of  the 
faculty  of  advocates,  he  resigned  his  editor- 
ship, deeming  that  position  properly  incom- 
patible with  his  new  one  as  the  head  of  a 
great  law  corporation.  The  Whigs  coming 
into  power  the  following  }rear,  he  was  made 
lord  advocate,  the  first  office  under  the  crown 
in  Scotland,  and  sat  for  a time  in  parliament. 
Although  in  this  new  sphere  he  was  both 
useful  and  able,  it  was  not  his  natural 
element,  and  he  gladly  accepted  in  1834  a 
promotion  to  the  Scottish  bench,  as  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  court  of  .sessions.  This 
was  in  his  sixty-second  year,  and  for  nearl}1, 
sixteen  years  he  continued  the  chief  orna- 
ment of  the  court  in  which  he  sat.  From 
this  appointment  he  gained  the  title  of  lord, 
by  which  he  was  thereafter  commonly  known. 
He  died  in  January,  1850,  after  a short  ill- 
ness, a genial,  kindly  man  to  the  last,  and 
was  universally  regretted.  His  was  a youth 
of  enterprise,  a manhood  of  brilliant  success, 
and  ‘ honor,  love,  obedience,  troops  of  friends  ’ 
encircled  his  later  years. 

Lord  Jeffrey  was  twice  married.  His 
second  wife,  a grand-niece  of  the  noted  John 
Wilkes,  was  born  in  America,  and  he  crossed 
the  Atlantic  in  1813  to  be  wedded  to  her. 
She  survived  him  not  quite  four  months. 

JEFFREYS,  George,  Baron  Wem,  was 
born  at  Acton  in  Denbighshire,  in  1648.  He 
was  not  regularly  admitted  to  the  bar,  but 
being  at  Kingston  assizes  in  the  year  of  the 


JEF 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


447 


plague,  1666,  when  there  were  scarcely  any 
barristers  present,  he  was  permitted  to  plead, 
and  from  that  time  continued  to  do  so,  with- 
out having  his  title  questioned.  In  1683  he 
was  made  chief-justice  of  the  king’s  bench. 
At  the  accession  of  James  II.,  he  was  created 
Baron  Jeffreys  of  Wem,  in  the  county  of 
Salop.  On  the  suppression  of  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth's  rebellion,  he  was  sent  to  try  the 
prisoners  in  the  west,  where  he  committed 
the  most  shocking  cruelties,  for  which,  at  his 
return,  he  was  constituted  lord  chancellor  of 
England.  Macaulay  has  thus  searchingly 
sketched  the  character  of  this  notorious 
judge. 

He  was  a man  of  quick  and  vigorous  parts, 
but  constitutionally  prone  to  insolence  and 
to  the  angry  passions.  When  just  emerging 
from  boyhood,  he  had  risen  into  practice  at 
the  Old  Bailey  bar,  a bar  where  advocates 
have  always  used  a license  of  tongue  un- 
known in  Westminster  Hall.  Here,  during 
many  years,  his  chief  business  was  to  exam- 
ine and  cross-examine  the  most  hardened 
miscreants  of  a great  capital.  Daily  con- 
flicts with  prostitutes  and  thieves  called  out 
and  exercised  his  powers  so  effectually  that 
he  became  the  most  consummate  bully  ever 
known  in  his  profession.  All  tenderness  for 
the  feelings  of  others,  all  self-respect,  all 
sense  of  the  becoming,  were  obliterated  from 
his  mind.  He  acquired  a boundless  com- 
mand of  the  rhetoric  in  which  the  vulgar 
express  hatred  and  contempt.  The  profusion 
of  maledictions  and  vituperative  epithets 
which  composed  his  vocabulary  could  hardly 
have  been  rivaled  in  the  fish-market  or  the 
bear-garden.  His  countenance  and  his  voice 
must  always  have  been  unamiable ; but  these 
natural  advantages — for  such  he  seems  to 
have  thought  them — he  had  improved  to  such 
a degree  that  there  were  few  who,  in  his 
paroxysms  of  rage,  could  see  or  hear  him 
without  emotion.  Impudence  and  ferocity 
sat  upon  his  brow.  The  glare  of  his  eyes 
had  a fascination  for  the  unhappy  victim  on 
whom  they  were  fixed;  yet  his  brow  and 
eye  were  said  to  be  less  terrible  than  the 
savage  lines  of  his  mouth.  His  yell  of  fury, 
as  was  said  by  one  who  had  often  heard  it, 
sounded  like  the  thunder  of  the  judgment 
day.  These  qualifications  he  carried,  while 
still  a young  man,  from  the  bar  to  the  bench. 


He  early  became  common  sergeant,  and  then 
recorder  of  London.  As  judge  at  the  city 
sessions  he  exhibited  the  same  propensities 
which  afterward,  in  a higher  post,  gained  for 
him  an  unenviable  immortality.  Already 
might  be  remarked  in  him  the  most  odious 
vice  which  is  incident  to  human  nature,  a 
delight  in  misery  merely  as  misery.#  There 
was  a fiendish  exultation  in  the  way  in  which 
he  pronounced  sentence  on  offenders.  Their 
weeping  and  imploring  seemed  to  titillate 
him  voluptuously ; and  he  loved  to  scare 
them  into  fits  by  dilating  with  luxuriant  am- 
plification on  all  the  details  of  what  they 
were  to  suffer.  Thus,  when  he  had  an  op- 
portunity of  ordering  an  unlucky  adventu- 
ress to  be  whipped  at  the  cart's  tail,  “ Hang- 
man,” he  would  exclaim,  “ I charge  you  to  pay 
particular  attention  to  this  lady ! Scourge 
her  soundly,  man ! Scourge  her  till  the 
blood  runs  down ! It  is  Christmas ; a cold 
time  for  madam  to  strip  in ! See  that  you 
warm  her  shoulders  thoroughly  ! ” He  was 
hardly  less  facetious  when  he  passed  judg- 
ment on  Ludowick  Muggleton,  the  drunken 
tailor  who  fancied  himself  a prophet.  “ Im- 
pudent rogue!”  roared  Jeffreys,  “thou  shalt 
have  an  easy,  easy,  easy  punishment ! ” One 
part  of  this  easy  punishment  was  the  pillory, 
in  which  the  wretched  fanatic  was  almost 
killed  with  brickbats. 

The  nature  of  Jeffreys  had  been  hardened 
to  that  temper  which  tyrants  require  in  their 
worst  implements.  He  had  hitherto  looked 
for  professional  advancement  to  the  corpora- 
tion of  London.  He  had  therefore  professed 
himself  a Roundhead,  and  had  always  ap- 
peared to  be  in  a higher  state  of  exhilaration 
when  he  explained  to  popish  priests  that 
they  were  to  be  cut  down  alive,  and  were  .to 
see  their  own  bodies  burned,  than  when  he 
passed  ordinary  sentences  of  death.  But,  as 
soon  as  he  had  got  all  that  the  city  could 
give,  he  made  haste  to  sell  his  forehead  of 
brass  and  his  tongue  of  venom  to  the  court. 
The  renegade  soon  found  a patron  in  the  ob- 
durate and  revengeful  James,  but  was  always 
regarded  with  scorn  and  disgust  by  Charles, 
whose  faults,  great  as  they  were,  had  no 
affinity  with  insolence  and  cruelty.  “ That 
man,”  said  the  king,  “has  no  learning,  no 
sense,  no  manners,  and  more  impudence  than 
ten  carted  street-walkers.”  Work  was  to  be 


JEF 


448 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


done,  however,  which  could  be  trusted  to  no 
man  who  reverenced  law  or  was  sensible  of 
shame';  and  thus  Jeffreys,  at  an  age  at  which 
a barrister  thinks  himself  fortunate  if  he  is 
employed  to  lead  an  important  cause,  was 
made  chief-justice  of  the  king’s  bench. 

His  enemies  could  not  deny  that  he  pos- 
sessed sime  of  the  qualities  of  a great  judge. 
His  legal  knowledge,  indeed,  was  merely  such 
as  he  had  picked  up  in  practice  of  no  very 
high  kind ; but  he  had  one  of  those  happily 
constituted  intellects  which,  across  labyrinths 
of  sophistry  and  through  masses  of  immate- 
rial facts,  go  straight  to  the  true  point.  Of 
his  intellect,  however,  he  seldom  had  the  full 
use.  Even  in  civil  causes  his  malevolent  and 
despotic  temper  perpetually  disordered  his 
judgment.  To  enter  his  court  was  to  enter 
the  den  of  a wild  beast,  which  none  could 
tame,  and  which  was  as  likely  to  be  roused 
to  rage  by  caresses  as  by  attacks.  He  fre- 
quently poured  forth  on  plaintiffs  and  defen- 
dants, barristers  and  attorneys,  witnesses 
and  jurymen,  torrents  of  frantic  abuse, 
intermixed  with  oaths  and  curses.  His  looks 
and  tones  had  inspired  terror  when  he  was 
merely  a young  advocate  struggling  into 
practice.  Now  that  he  was  at  the  head  of 
the  most  formidable  tribunal  in  the  realm, 
there  were  few  indeed  who  did  not  tremble 
before  him.  Even  when  he  was  sober,  his 
violence  was  sufficiently  frightful ; but,  in 
general,  his  reason  was  overclouded,  and  his 
evil  passions  stimulated  by  the  fumes  of  in- 
toxication. His  evenings  were  ordinarily 
given  to  revelry.  People  who  saw  him  only 
over  his  bottle  would  have  supposed  him  to 
be  a man  gross  indeed,  sottish,  and  addicted 
to  low  company  and  low  merriment,  but 
social  and  good-humored.  He  was  constantly 
surrounded  on  such  occasions  by  buffoons, 
selected  for  the  most  part  from  among  the 
vilest  pettifoggers  who  practiced  before  him. 
These  men  bantered  and  abused  each  other 
for  his  entertainment.  He  joined  in  their 
ribald  talk,  sang  catches  with  them,  and, 
when  his  head  grew  hot,  hugged  and  kissed 
them  in  an  ecstasy  of  drunken  fondness. 
But,  though  wine  at  first  seemed  to  soften 
his  heart,  the  effect  a few  hours  later  was 
very  different.  He  often  came  to  the  judg- 
ment seat,  having  kept  the  court  waiting 
long,  and  yet  having  but  half  slept  off  his 


debauch,  his  cheeks  on  fire,  his  eyes  staring 
like  those  of  a maniac.  When  he  was  in 
this  state,  his  boon  companions  of  the  pre- 
ceding night,  if  they  were  wise,  kept  out  of 
his  way,  for  the  recollection  of  the  familiarity 
to  which  he  had  admitted  them  inflamed  his 
malignity,  and  he  was  sure  to  take  every 
opportunity  of  overwhelming  them  with  exe- 
cration and  invective.  Not  the  least  odious 
of  his  many  odious  peculiarities  was  the 
pleasure  which  he  took  in  publicly  brow- 
beating and  mortifying  those  whom,  in  his  fits 
of  maudlin  tenderness,  he  had  encouraged  to 
presume  on  his  favor. 

When  the  Prince  of  Orange  arrived,  and 
James  had  abandoned  his  kingdom,  Jeffreys, 
knowing  his  unpopularity,  endeavored  to 
escape  in  disguise.  There  was  true  retribu- 
tion in  his  detection.  A scrivener  at  Wap - 
ping,  whose  trade  was  to  furnish  the  sea- 
faring men  there  with  money  at  high  interest, 
had  some  time  before  lent  a sum  on  bottomry. 
The  debtor  applied  to  equity  for  relief  against 
his  own  bond,  and  the  case  came  before 
Jeffreys.  The  counsel  for  the  borrower, 
having  little  else  to  say,  said  that  the  lender 
was  a Trimmer.  The  chancellor  instantly 
fired.  “ A Trimmer ! where  is  he  ? Let  me 
see  him.  I have  heard  of  that  kind  of  mon- 
ster. What  is  it  made  like  ? ” The  unfor- 
tunate creditor  was  forced  to  stand  forth. 
The  chancellor  glared  fiercely  on  him,  stormed 
at  him,  and  sent  him  away  half  dead  with 
fright.  “ While  I live,”  the  poor  man  said, 
as  he  tottered  out  of  the  court,  “ I shall  never 
forget  that  terrible  countenance.”  And  now 
the  day  of  retribution  had  arrived.  The 
Trimmer  was  walking  through  Wapping, 
when  he  saw  a face  aJt  the  window  of  an  ale- 
house. The  eye-brows  had  been  shaved 
away  ; the  dress  was  that  of  a common  sailor 
from  Newcastle,  and  was  black  with  coal 
dust ; but  there  was  no  mistaking  the  savage 
mouth  and  eye  of  Jeffreys.  The  alarm  was 
given.  In  a moment  the  house  was  sur- 
rounded by  hundreds  of  people  shaking 
bludgeons  and  bellowing  curses.  The  fugi- 
tive’s life  was  saved  by  a company  of  the 
train-bands,  and  he  was  carried  before  the 
lord  mayor. 

The  mayor  was  a simple  man  who  had 
passed  his  whole  life  in  obscurity,  and  was 
bewildered  by  finding  himself  an  important 


JEF 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


449 


actor  in  a mighty  revolution.  The  events  of 
the  last  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  perilous 
state  of  the  city  which  was  under  his  charge, 
had  disordered  his  mind  and  his  body.  When 
the  great  man,  at  whose  frown,  a few  days 
before,  the  whole  kingdom  had  trembled,  was 
dragged  into  the  justice  room  begrimed  with 
ashes,  half  dead  with  fright,  and  followed  by 
a raging  multitude,  the  agitation  of  the  un- 
fortunate mayor  rose  to  the  height.  He  fell 
into  fits,  and  was  carried  to  his  bed,  whence 
he  never  rose.  Meanwhile  the  throng  without 
was  constantly  becoming  more  numerous  and 
more  savage.  Jeffreys  begged  to  be  sent  to 
prison.  An  order  to  that  effect  was  procured 
from  the  Lords,  who  were  sitting  at  White- 
hall, and  he  was  conveyed  in  a carriage  to  the 
Tower.  Two  regiments  of  militia  were  drawn 
out  to  escort  him,  and  found  the  duty  a diffi- 
cult one.  It  was  repeatedly  necessary  for  them 
to  form,  as  if  for  the  purpose  of  repelling  a 
charge  of  cavalry,  and  to  present  a forest  of 
pikes  to  the  mob.  The  thousands  who  were 
disappointed  of  their  revenge  pursued  the 
coach,  with  howls  of  rage,  to  the  gate  of  the 
Tower,  brandishing  cudgels,  and  holding  up 
halters  full  in  the  prisoner’s  view.  The 
wretched  man,  meahtime,  was  in  convulsions 
of  terror.  He  wrung  his  hands ; he  looked 
wildly  out,  sometimes  at  one  window,  some- 
times at  the  other,  and  was  heard  even  above 
the  tumult  crying,  “ Keep  them  off,  gentle- 
men! for  God’s  sake,  keep  them  off!”  At 
length,  having  suffered  far  more  than  the  bit- 
terness of  death,  he  was  safely  lodged  in  the 
fortress,  where  some  of  his  most  illustrious 
victims  had  passed  their  last  days,  and  where 
his  own  life  was  destined  to  close  in  unspeak- 
able ignominy  and  horror,  April  18th,  1789. 

JEMMAPPES,  Battle  of,  in  Flanders.  In 
this  obstinate  contest,  Nov.  5th,  1792,  Gen. 
Dumouriez,  with  40,000  French,  defeated 
28,000  Austrians  strongly  intrenched. 

JENA,  a town  of  Saxe-Weimar,  containing 
a famous  university,  and  6,500  inhabitants, 
and  memorable  for  the  hard-fought  battle  be- 
tween the  French  and  Prussians,  on  the  14th 
of  October,  1806.  Napoleon  headed  the 
French  troops,  and  the  Duke  of  Brunswick 
the  Prussians.  The  battle  was  sanguinary  in 
the  extreme;  250,000  or  300,000  men,  of 
which  the  two  armies  were  composed,  with 
700  or  800  pieces  of  artillery,  scattered  death 

29 


in  every  direction,  and  exhibited  one  of  the 
most  awful  scenes  recorded  in  history.  The 
result  was  decisive  in  favor  of  the  French. 
The  Duke  of  Brunswick  was  mortally  wound- 
ed. The  power  of  Prussia  was  crushed,  and 
Napoleon  entered  Berlin. 

JENNER,  Edward,  the  discoverer  of  vac- 
cination, was  born  at  Berkeley  in  Gloucester- 
shire, May  17th,  1749,  and  bred  to  the  profes- 
sion of  medicine.  His  celebrated  discovery 
was  made  in  1798,  but  was  incredulously  re- 
ceived. Parliament  at  last  voted  him  £10,000. 
Jenner  died  Jan.  26th,  1823.  Napoleon  val- 
ued Dr.  Jenner  s discovery  so  highly  that  he 
released  a large  number  of  English  prisoners 
at  his  request. 

JEROME,  or  Hieronymus,  was  born  of 
Christian  parents,  in  Dalmatia.  He  was 
deeply  immersed  in  the  theological  controver- 
sies of  the  day,  and  his  works  were  volumin- 
ous. He  excelled  all  his  contemporaries  in 
erudition.  His  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
into  Latin  is  known  as  the  Vulgate.  Jerome 
died  in  420,  at  the  age  of  ninety. 

JEROME  of  Prague,  a Bohemian  reformer, 
was  the  scholar  of  WicklifFe  and  John  Huss, 
and  began  to  publish  their  doctrines.  In  1415 
he  was  examined  before  the  council  of  Con- 
stance, when  Huss  was  in  prison.  He  con- 
trived, however,  to  escape,  but  was  taken, 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  a magistrate,  and 
burned,  May  30th,  1416. 

JERUSALEM,  a celebrated  city  of  Pales- 
tine. Its  environs  are  barren  and  mountain- 
ous, and  the  town  is  irregularly  built.  The 
number  of  inhabitants  is  25,000,  about  one- 
half  being  Mohammedans,  and  a sixth  Jews. 
There  are  many  Roman  and  Greek  convents 
in  the  city.  The  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre has  been  an  object  of  veneration  and 
curiosity  for  fifteen  centuries.  The  Mosque 
of  Omar,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Temple,  is 
splendid  edifice. 

Melchisedek  .is  called  the  founder  of  Jerusa- 
lem. It  was  a long  time  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jebusites,  from  whom  King  David  took  it. 
Solomon  built  the  temple  on  Mount  Moriah. 
After  his  death  Sesostris,  King  of  Egypt,  took 
the  city,  and  plundered  it,  during  Rehoboam’s 
reign.  In  short,  it  was  five  times  taken.  Its 
most  memorable  siege  was  that  by  Titus,  a.d. 
70,  when  the  city  and  the  temple  were  entirely 
destroyed ; 1,110,000  persons  are  said  to  have 


JER 


450 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


perished,  and  97,000  to  have  been  made  pris- 
oners, and  afterward  either  sold  as  slaves,  or 
wantonly  exposed,  for  the  sport  of  their  cruel 
victors,  to  the  fury  of  wild  beasts. 

Milman,  the  historian  of  the  Jews,  elo- 
quently describes  the  destruction  of  the  tem- 
ple. An  appalling  spectacle  to  the  Roman, 
what  was  it  to  the  Jew  ? The  whole  summit 
of  the  hill  which  commanded  the  city  blazed 
like  a volcano.  One  after  another  the  build- 
ings fell  in,  with  a tremendous  crash,  and 
were  swallowed  up  in  the  fiery  abyss.  The 
roofs  of  cedar  were  like  sheets  of  flame ; the 
gilded  pinnacles  shone  like  spikes  of  red  light ; 
the  gate  towers  sent  up  tall  columns  of  flame 
and  smoke.  The  neighboring  hills  were 
lighted  up ; and  dark  groups  of  people  were 
seen  watching  in  horrible  anxiety  the  progress 
of  the  destruction : the  walls  and  heights  of 
the  upper  city  were  crowded  with  faces,  some 
pale  with  the  agony  of  despair,  others  scowling 
unavailing  vengeance.  The  shouts  of  the  Ro- 
man soldiery,  as  they  ran  to  and  fro,  and  the 
howlings  of  the  insurgents  who  were  perishing 
in  the  flames,  mingled  with  the  roaring  of  the 
conflagration  and  the  thundering  sound  of 
falling  timbers.  The  echoes  of  the  mountains 
replied,  or  brought  back  the  shrieks  of  the 
people  on  the  heights : all  along  the  walls  re- 
sounded screams  and  wailings ; men  who  wrere 
expiring  with  famine,  rallied  their  remaining 
strength  to  utter  a cry  of  anguish  and  desola- 
tion. The  slaughter  within  was  even  more 
dreadful  than  the  spectacle  from  without. 
Men  and  women,  old  and  young,  insurgents 
and  priests,  those  who  fought  and  those  who 
entreated  mercy,  were  hewn  down  in  indis- 
criminate carnage.  The  number  of  the  slain 
exceeded  that  of  the  slayers.  The  legionaries 
had  to  clamber  over  heaps  of  dead,  to  carry 
on  the  work  of  extermination.  John,  at  the 
head  of  some  of  his  troops,  cut  his  way 
through,  first  into  the  outer  court  of  the  tem- 
ple, afterward  into  the  upper  city.  Some  of 
the  priests  upon  the  roof  wrenched  off  the 
gilded  spikes  with  their  sockets  of  lead,  and 
used  them  as  missiles  against  the  Romans 
below.  Afterward  they  fled  to  a part  of  the 
wall  about  fourteen  feet  wide ; they  were  soon 
summoned  to  surrender;  but  two  of  them, 
Mair,  son  of  Belgo,  and  Joseph,  son  of  Delia, 
plunged  headlong  into  the  flames ! 

The  Emperor  Adrian  began  to  rebuild  the 


city,  sixty  years  after  its  destruction.  During 
the  decay  of  the  Byzantine  empire  the  city 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans.  In 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  the  Crusad- 
ers contended  fiercely  for  the  possession  of 
Jerusalem,  and  it  was  taken  by  the  host  w hich 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon  headed,  the  15th  of  July, 
1099.  The  Christians  founded  a kingdom 
there,  which  was  ended  by  the  Turks  in  1187. 
[See  Crusades.]  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the 
French  under  Bonaparte,  in  February,  1799. 

JESUITS.  The  religious  order  of  the  Jes- 
uits was  founded  by  a military  gentleman  of 
Biscay  named  Ignatius  Loyola.  The  order 
at  first  was  sometimes  called  Loyolists,  and 
sometimes  Inighists,  from  the  founder’s  Span- 
ish name,  Inigo  de  Cyuipuscoa.  Ignatius 
assembled  at  Rome  ten  of  his  companions, 
chosen,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  university 
of  Paris,  in  the  year  1538.  He  submitted  the 
plan  of  his  institution,  which  h&  said  wTas 
inspired  by  divinity,  to  Pope  Paul  III.  A 
committee  appointed  by  that  pontiff  to  exam- 
ine the  character  of  the  institution,  declared 
it  inimical  to  the  interests  of  the  church,  as 
well  as  unnecessary.  The  opposition  to  the 
establishment  of  the  order  was  overcome  by 
a promise,  in  addition  to  the  three  vows  of 
poverty,  celibacy,  and  monastic  obedience,  to 
take  an  oath  of  implicit  submission  to  the 
pope,  agreeing  to  go  whithersoever  he  should 
direct,  and  to  claim  nothing  for  support  from 
the  holy  see.  In  the  very  charter,  however, 
by  which  the  followers  of  Ignatius  bound 
themselves  to  the  interests  of  the  pope,  they 
agreed  blindly  to  obey  their  general.  The 
pope  finally  confirmed  the  institution  by  a 
bull,  or  decree,  in  the  year  1540.  The  founder 
of  the  order  of  Jesuits  being  originally  a rude 
soldier,  it  has  been  supposed  he  was  a mere 
tool  in  the  hands  of  artful  men,  and  that  he 
was  not  in  reality  the  author  of  the  writings 
which  bear  his  name.  The  order  was  con- 
firmed under  the  title  of  the  “ Company  of 
Jesus.”  It  is  said  that  when  the  little  band 
who  formed  the  germ  of  this  great  order, 
wrere  deliberating  wThat  answer  they  should 
return  to  those  who  were  continually  ques- 
tioning them  as  to  their  calling  and  institute, 
Ignatius,  ever  full  of  military  ideas,  said : “As 
our  general  is  no  other  than  Jesus  Christ;  as 
his  cross  is  our  standard ; his  law,  even  in 
its  counsels,  our  rule;  his  name  our  chief 


JES 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  451 


consolation  and  our  only  hope;  let  us  tell 
men  the  simple  truth,  that  we  are  the  little 
battalion  of  Jesus  Christ.”  Such  is  the  origin 
of  the  title  ‘Society  of  Jesus,’  which  has 
been  shortened  into  the  name  of  Jesuits. 

At  first  the  number  of  members  was  lim- 
ited to  sixty,  but  this  restriction  was  removed, 
and  the  Jesuits  multiplied  rapidly.  In  the 
year  1710,  the  order  had  24  professed  houses ; 
59  houses  of  probation  ; 340  residences  ; 612 
colleges;  200  missions;  150  seminaries  and 
boarding  schools;  and  consisted  of  19,998 
Jesuits.  The  code  of  laws  by  which  the 
Jesuits  were  governed  was  perfected  by  Lay- 
ner  and  Aquaviva,  who  succeeded  Loyola  as 
general  of  the  order,  and  were  possessed  of 
even  more  talent  than  their  predecessor. 

Many  causes  contributed  to  insure  the  suc- 
cess of  the  institution.  The  Jesuits  were 
required  to  be  more  active  than  other  monks, 
having  little  to  do  with  the  usual  monastic 
functions.  They  were  soldiers  devoted  to  the 
service  of  God  and  the  pope.  They  cultivated 
the  acquaintance  of  the  great,  and  were  deeply 
imbued  with  the  spirit  of  intrigue.  Loyola 
made  the  government  of  the  institution 
purely  monarchical.  The  general  was  chosen 
for  life  by  deputies  from  the  different  prov- 
inces. His  power  was  absolute,  and  no  case 
and  no  individual  were  exempt  from  it.  The 
general  had  a despotic  power  over  the  mem- 
bers of  the  institution  ; a much  greater  power 
than  the  head  of  any  monastic  order  had  ever 
before  exercised.  The  Jesuits  were  not  only 
obliged  to  obey  their  general  in  outward 
observances,  but  to  him  they  submitted  the 
direction  of  their  minds.  Each  novice  was 
obliged,  every  six  months,  to  manifest  his 
conscience  to  his  superior  or  to  some  one 
appointed  by  him ; and  these  novices  were 
closely  watched  by  others  of  the  order,  who 
were  directed  to  give  notice  to  the  general  of 
anything  important.  The  heads  of  the  sev- 
eral houses  were  obliged  to  transmit  frequent 
reports  of  the  character  and  conduct  of  the 
departments  over  which  they  presided,  to  the 
superior,  and  these  reports  were  carefully 
kept  and  arranged,  that  the  general  might 
refer  at  once  to  the  account  of  particular 
houses  at  any  period.  The  provincials  and 
heads  of  departments  of  the  order  transmitted 
full  and  minute  accounts  of  the  civil  state 


of  the  respective  countries  in  which  they 
resided. 

The  education  of  youth  was  an  object  which 
the  Jesuits  were  particularly  anxious  to  pro- 
mote and  direct,  and  the  business  of  educa- 
tion was  soon  almost  entirely  conducted  by 
them.  In  spite  of  their  vow  of  poverty,  they 
contrived  to  amass  vast  possessions,  and  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies  carried  on  a very 
lucrative  commerce.  They  were  the  con- 
fessors to  monarchs  and  men  of  rank,  and 
the  influence  they  acquired  was  very  great. 
They  sought  to  acquire  and  enlarge  property, 
and  in  South  America,  being  possessed  of 
wealthy  dominions,  they  ruled  over  some 
hundred  thousand  subjects,  as  monarchs. 
They  favored  the  passions  of  mankind  by 
sanctioning  unbridled  license  of  manners, 
through  the  moral  code  they  taught.  Regu- 
lar and  severe  in  their  own  habits,  they  were 
enabled  to  make  a selfish  use  of  the  irregu- 
larities they  countenanced. 

They  were  not  unacquainted  with  the  per- 
suasive power  of  the  tortures  of  the  inquisi- 
tion, in  making  proselytes.  One  of  their 
most  noted  missionaries  was  Francis  Xavier, 
called  the  apostle  of  India.  He  sailed  for  the 
Portuguese  settlements  in  India,  in  1542,  and 
soon  spread  the  doctrines  of  the  Romish 
church  over  the  continent  and  surrounding 
islands.  It  is  not  our  intention  to  detail  the 
proceeding  of  the  J esuits  in  the  process  of  mak- 
ing foreign  proselytes,  nor  the  controversies 
to  which  it  gave  rise.  They  were  accused  of 
making  compromises  with  some  sects,  permit- 
ting them  to  retain  profane  customs  and  im- 
proper rites,  in  consideration  of  their  publicly 
embracing  the  doctrines  of  the  Romish  church. 
As  we  have  before  hinted,  it  is  quite  prob- 
able that  as  many  converts  were  made  by 
terror  as  by  mildness,  since  the  Jesuits  were 
willing  to  do  anything  to  maintain  a show  of 
success. 

They  took  possession  of  the  fertile  South 
American  province  of  Paraguay,  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  and  labored  to  disseminate 
military  arts  and  improvements  among  the 
Indians.  They  introduced  the  comforts  of 
civilization  among  the  inhabitants,  and  thus 
in  the  first  place  gained  their  affection  and 
esteem.  Proceeding  in  this  manner,  they 
gradually  strengthened  their  influence  so 


JES 


452 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


that  a few  priests  readily  ruled  some  hundred 
thousand  Indians.  But  these  priests  did  not 
maintain  the  purity  of  conduct  which  they 
had  given  reason  at  first  to  suppose  would  be 
their  constant  guide  in  all  their  actions. 
They  soon  manifested  schemes  of  the  most 
daring  ambition  and  most  insatiable  avarice. 
They  yearly  sent  home  to  the  European  Jes- 
uits, immense  quantities  of  gold,  which  they 
procured  principally  from  Paraguay.  They 
armed  the  Indians,  and  excited  them  to  hatred 
against  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  evi- 
dently showing  their  intentions  of  making  a 
separate  sovereignty  of  Paraguay.  In  1750 
the  courts  of  Madrid  and  Lisbon  entered  into 
a treaty  for  fixing  the  boundaries  of  their 
respective  possessions  in  South  America. 
When  this  treaty  came  to  be  executed  in  the 
year  1752,  the  Jesuits  opposed  it,  and  animated 
the  Indians  strenuously  to  resist  the  Portu- 
guese and  Spaniards,  in  the  war  which  fol- 
lowed. The  disgrace  of  the  Jesuits  at  the 
Portuguese  court  originated  in  their  conduct 
on  this  occasion. 

In  France  the  intrigues  and  the  seditious 
writings  of  the  Jesuits  caused  them  to  be  ex- 
pelled by  several  parliaments,  and  denounced 
as  corrupters  of  youth  and  enemies  of  govern- 
ment. The  Sorbonne  issued  a decree  in  1554, 
by  which  they  condemned  the  institution,  as 
being  calculated  rather  for  the  ruin  than  the 
edification  of  the  faithful.  Louis  XIII.  again 
countenanced  them,  and  Cardinal  Richelieu 
and  Louis  XIY.  showed  them  favor.  In  the 
reign  of  the  latter  monarch,  they  obtained  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  favor  of 
the  Protestants.  They  had  gained  an  almost 
complete  triumph  over  their  enemies,  the 
Jansenists,  when,  among  other  things,  their 
refusal  to  administer  the  sacrament  to  the 
Jansenists,  created  a turn  of  the  tide  against 
them  which  ended  in  their  dissolution. 

The  Jesuits  were  tried  before  the  grand 
chamber  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  lost 
their  case,  which  grew  out  of  a desire  to 
compound  their  debts,  when,  having  carried 
on  great  commerce  in  Martinico,  they  had 
sustained  heavy  losses  by  war.  An  examin- 
ation into  their  own  books  only  proved  the 
charges  against  them.  Professing  poverty, 
they  were  found  to  possess  riches ; pretend- 
ing to  moderation  and  justice,  they  were 
convicted  of  inculcating  principles  which 


endangered  the  well  being  of  the  king  and 
realm. 

The  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  England 
in  1604 ; from  Portugal  in  1759  ; from  France 
in  1764;  from  Spain  in  1767;  and  their 
society  was  abolished  by  Pope  Clement  XIY., 
in  1773.  Had  they  adhered  to  the  principles 
they  professed,  in  the  outset,  and  merely 
aimed  at  civilizing  and  converting  savages, 
and  increasing  knowledge  at  home,  the  insti- 
tution would  have  been  as  justly  celebrated, 
as  it  is  now  denounced  for  ambition,  avarice, 
cruelty,  and  corruption. 

The  order  was  restored  by  Pius  YIT.  in 
1814,  and  has  since  been  tolerated  in  various 
countries.  It  has  a secret  and  extensive 
existence. 

Macaulay  has  glowingly  sketched  the  char- 
acter of  this  wonderful  religious  corps.  In 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  pontificate,  exposed 
to  new  dangers  more  formidable  than  had  ever 
before  threatened  it,  was  saved  by  a new  relig- 
ious order,  which  was  animated  by  intense 
enthusiasm  and  organized  with  exquisite  skill. 
When  the  Jesuits  came  to  the  rescue  of  the 
papacy,  they  found  it  in  extreme  peril ; but 
from  that  moment  the  tide  of  battle  turned. 
Protestantism,  which  had,  during  the  whole 
generation,  carried  all  before  it,  was  stopped 
in  its  progress,  and  rapidly  beaten  back  from 
the  foot  of  the  Alps  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic. 
Before  the  order  had  existed  a hundred  years, 
it  had  filled  the  whole  world  with  memorials 
of  great  things  done  and  suffered  for  the  faith. 
No  religious  community  could  produce  a list 
of  men  so  variously  distinguished ; none  had 
extended  its  operations  over  so  vast  a space ; 
yet  in  none  had  there  ever  been  such  perfect 
unity  of  feeling  and  action.  There  was  no 
region  of  the  globe,  no  walk  of  speculative  or 
of  active  life,  in  which  Jesuits  were  not  to  be 
found.  They  guided  the  counsels  of  kings. 
They  deciphered  Latin  inscriptions.  They 
observed  the  motions  of  Jupiter’s  satellites. 
They  published  whole  libraries,  controversy, 
casuistry,  history,  treatises  on  optics,  Alcaic 
odes,  editions  of  the  fathers,  madrigals,  cate- 
chisms, and  lampoons.  The  liberal  education 
of  youth  passed  almost  entirely  into  their 
hands,  and  was  conducted  by  them  with  con- 
spicuous ability.  They  appear  to  have  dis- 
covered the  precise  point  to  which  intellectual 
culture  can  be  carried  without  risk  of  intel- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


453 


lectual  emancipation.  Enmity  itself  was  com- 
pelled to  own  that,  in  the  art  of  managing  and 
forming  the  tender  mind,  they  had  no  equals. 
Meanwhile  they  assiduously  and  successfully 
cultivated  the  eloquence  of  the  pulpit.  With 
still  greater  assiduity  and  still  greater  success 
they  applied  themselves  to  the  ministry  of  the 
confessional.  Throughout  Catholic  Europe 
the  secrets  of  every  government  and  of  almost 
every  family  of  note  were  in  their  keeping. 
They  glided  from  one  Protestant  country  to 
another  under  innumerable  disguises,  as  gay 
cavaliers,  as  simple  rustics,  as  Puritan 
preachers.  They  wandered  to  countries  which 
neither  mercantile  avidity  nor  liberal  curiosity 
had  ever  impelled  any  stranger  to  explore. 
They  were  to  be  found  in  the  garb  of  manda- 
rins, superintending  the  observatory  at  Pekin. 
They  were  to  be  found,  spade  in  hand,  teach- 
ing the  rudiments  of  agriculture  to  the  sav- 
ages of  Paraguay.  Yet,  whatever  might  be 
their  residence,  whatever  might  be  their  em- 
ployment, their  spirit  was  the  same,  entire 
devotion  to  the  common  cause,  implicit  obe- 
dience to  the  central  authority.  None  of  them 
had  chosen  his  dwelling-place  or  his  avocation 
for  himself.  Whether  the  Jesuit  should  live 
under  the  arctic  circle  or.  the  equator ; wheth- 
er he  should  pass  his  life  in  arranging  gems 
and  collating  manuscripts  at  the  Vatican,  or 
in  persuading  naked  barbarians  in  the  south- 
ern hemisphere  not  to  eat  each  other, — were 
matters  which  he  left  with  profound  submis- 
sion to  the  decision  of  others.  If  he  was 
wanted  at  Lima,  he  was  on  the  Atlantic  in 
the  next  fleet.  If  he  was  wanted  at  Bagdad, 
he  was  toiling  through  the  desert  with  the 
next  caravan.  If  his  ministry  was  needed  in 
some  country  where  his  life  was  more  insecure 
than  that  of  a wolf ; where  it  was  a crime  to 
harbor  him ; where  the  heads  and  quarters  of 
his  brethren,  fixed  in  the  public  places,  showed 
Jiim  what  he  had  to  expect, — he  went  without 
remonstrance  or  hesitation  to  his  doom.  Nor 
is  this  heroic  spirit  yet  extinct.  When,  in 
our  own  time,  a new  and  terrible  pestilence 
passed  round  the  globe ; when,  in  some  great 
cities,  fear  had  dissolved  all  the  ties  which 
hold  society  together ; when  the  secular  clergy 
had  deserted  their  flocks ; when  medical  suc- 
cor was  not  to  be  purchased  by  gold ; when 
the  strongest  natural  affections  had  yielded  to 
love  of  life, — even  then  the  Jesuit  was  found 


by  the  pallet  which  bishop  and  curate,  physi- 
cian and  nurse,  father  and  mother,  had  de- 
serted, bending  over  infected  lips  to  catch  the 
faint  accents  of  confession,  and  holding  up  to 
the  last,  before  the  expiring  penitent,  the  im- 
age of  the  expiring  Redeemer. 

But  with  the  admirable  energy,  disinterest- 
edness, and  self-devotion  which  were  charac- 
teristic of  the  society,  great  vices  were  min- 
gled. It  was  alleged,  and  not  without  found- 
ation, that  the  ardent  public  spirit  which  made 
the  Jesuit  regardless  of  his  ease,  of  his  liberty, 
and  of  his  life,  made  him  also  regardless  of 
truth  and  of  mercy ; that  no  means  which 
could  promote  the  interest  of  his  religion 
seemed  to  him  unlawful,  and  that  by  the  in- 
terest of  his  religion  he  too  often  meant  the 
interest  of  his  society.  It  was  alleged  that, 
in  the  most  atrocious  plots  recorded  in  history, 
his  agency  could  be  distinctly  traced ; that, 
constant  only  in  attachment  to  the  fraternity 
to  which  he  belonged,  he  was  in  some  coun- 
tries the  most  dangerous  enemy  of  freedom, 
and  in  others  the  most  dangerous  enemy  of 
order.  The  mighty  victories  which  he  boasted 
that  he  had  achieved  in  the  cause  of  the 
church  were,  in  the  judgment  of  many  illus- 
trious members  of  that  church,  rather  appar- 
ent than  real.  He  had,  indeed,  labored  with 
a wonderful  show  of  success  to  reduce  the 
world  under  her  laws,  but  he  had  done  so  by 
relaxing  her  laws  to  suit  the  temper  of  the 
world.  Instead  of  toiling  to  elevate  human 
nature  to  the  noble  standard  fixed  by  divine 
precept  and  example,  he  had  lowered  the 
standard  till  it  was  beneath  the  average  level 
of  human  nature.  He  gloried  in  multitudes 
of  converts  who  had  been  baptized  in  the  re- 
mote regions  of  the  east ; but  it  was  reported 
that  from  some  of  these  converts  the  facts  on 
which  the  whole  theology  of  the  gospel  de- 
pends had  been  cunningly  concealed,  and  that 
others  were  permitted  to  avoid  persecution  by 
bowing  down  before  the  images  of  false  gods, 
while  internally  repeating  Paters  and  Aves. 
Nor  was  it  only  in  heathen  countries  that  such 
arts  were  said  to  be  practiced.  It  was  not 
strange  that  people  of  all  ranks,  and  especially 
of  the  highest  ranks,  crowded  to  the  confes- 
sionals in  the  Jesuit  temples,  for  from  those 
confessionals  none  went  discontented  away. 
There  the  priest  was  all  things  to  all  men. 
If  he  had  to  deal  with  a mind  truly  devout, 


454 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


he  spoke  in  the  saintly  tone  of  the  primitive 
fathers ; but  with  that  very  large  part  of  man- 
kind who  have  religion  enough  to  make  them 
uneasy  when  they  do  wrong,  and  not  religion 
enough  to  keep  them  from  doing  wrong,  he 
followed  a very  different  system.  Since  he 
could  not  reclaim  them  from  guilt,  it  was  his 
business  to  save  them  from  remorse.  He  had 
at  his  command  an  immense  dispensary  of 
anodjmes  for  wounded  consciences.  In  the 
books  of  casuistry  which  had  been  written  by 
his  brethren,  and  printed  with  the  approbation 
of  his  superiors,  were  to  be  found  doctrines 
consolatory  to  transgressors  of  every  class. 
There  the  bankrupt  was  taught  how  he  might, 
without  sin,  secrete  his  goods  from  his  credit- 
ors. The  servant  was  taught  how  he  might, 
without  sin,  run  off  with  his  master’s  plate. 
The  pander  was  assured  that  a Christian  man 
might  innocently  earn  his  living  by  carrying 
letters  and  messages  between  married  women 
and  their  gallants.  The  high-spirited  and 
punctilious  gentlemen  of  France  were  gratified 
by  a decision  in  favor  of  dueling.  The  Ital- 
ians, accustomed  to  darker  and  baser  modes 
of  vengeance,  were  glad  to  learn  that  they 
might,  without  any  crime,  shoot  at  their  ene- 
mies from  behind  hedges.  To  deceit  was 
given  a license  sufficient  to  destroy  the  whole 
value  of  human  contracts  and  of  human  testi- 
mony. Jn  truth,  if  society  continued  to  hold 
together,  if  life  and  property  enjoyed  any  se- 
curity, it  was  because  common  sense  and  com- 
mon humanity  restrained  men  from  doing 
what  the  society  of  Jesus  assured  them  they 
might  with  a safe  conscience  do. 

So  strangely  were  good  and  evil  intermixed 
in  the  character  of  these  celebrated  brethren ; 
and  the  intermixture  was  the  secret  of  their 
giganti  c power.  That  power  could  never  have 
belonged  to  mere  hypocrites.  It  could  never 
have  belonged  to  rigid  moralists.  It  was  to 
be  attained  only  by  men  sincerely  enthusiastic 
in  the  pursuit  of  a great  end,  and  at  the  same 
time  unscrupulous  as  to  the  choice  of  means. 

JEWS.  Abraham  received  the  name  of 
Hebrew  from  the  Canaanites  among  whom  he 
dwelt.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is  uncer- 
tain. Its  signification  before  the  time  of 
Jacob,  or  Israel,  is  unknown,  but  it  appears 
to  have  been  applied  afterward  exclusively 
to  the  posterity  of  Jacob,  and  to  have  been 
synonymous  with  Israelites.  After  the  Bab- 


ylonish captivity  the  appellation  was  changed 
to  Jews.  Their  history  begins,  of  course, 
with  Abraham. 

After  the  call  of  Abraham,  he  went  at  first 
to  Canaan,  which  God  had  promised  to  his 
posterity,  taking  with  him  Sarah  his  wife,  and 
Lot,  the  son  of  his  brother,  and  here  led  a 
wandering  life,  removing  in  search  of  pasture 
with  his  flocks,  from  place  to  place,  and  dwell- 
ing with  his  family  in  tents.  By  the  bounty 
of  the  Lord,  his  wealth  increased,  and  he  be- 
came rich  in  flocks,  in  gold,  and  in  silver. 
Under  Isaac  and  Jacob,  the  Hebrews  still 
formed  a great  nomadic  family,  without  chang- 
ing their  habits  and  manners.  Jacob  had 
twelve  sons,  from  whom  sprang  the  twelve 
tribes  of  the  Hebrew  people.  These  were 
Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  Dan,  Judah,  Naphtali, 
Gad,  Asher,  Issachar,  Zebulun,  Joseph,  and 
Benjamin.  Joseph,  having  been  sold  to  some 
wandering  merchants  by  his  jealous  brethren, 
was  taken  to  Egypt,  and  rose  to  a high  rank 
at  the  court  of  Pharaoh.  This  led  to  the  em- 
igration of  his  father’s  family  to  Egypt,  about 
1700  b.c.  During  the  lifetime  of  Joseph,  the 
Hebrews  were  well  treated,  but  after  his  death 
a tyrannical  king  filled  the  throne,  and  the 
persecutions  they  endured  threatened  to  an- 
nihilate the  nation.  God  raised  up  a deliverer 
in  the  person  of  Moses,  and  the  children  of 
Israel,  having  left  the  land  of  Egypt,  were 
conducted  over  the  bed  of  the  Red  Sea,  and 
afterward  providentially  preserved  in  the  des- 
ert. At  Sinai,  the  Lord  promulgated  his  laws 
from  the  summit  of  that  awful  mountain.  Not- 
withstanding the  blessings  which  had  been 
heaped  upon  them,  the  Hebrews  murmured, 
and  became  idolatrous,  and  were  in  conse- 
quence punished  for  their  sins.  The  various 
nations  inimical  to  the  Hebrews  were  repulsed 
with  loss.  Moses  having  died  on  Mount  Nebo, 
before  the  entrance  into  the  promised  land, 
his  place  was  filled  by  the  warlike  Joshua. 
The  waters  retired  before  the  bearers  of  the 
ark,  and  the  people  crossed  the  Jordan  in 
safety.  The  walls  of  the  city  of  Jericho  were 
destroyed  by  the  Lord,  and  the  inhabitants 
slain  by  the  Israelites.  The  period  of  the 
judges  abounded  in  heroic  exploits  of  individ- 
ual valor,  among  which  those  of  Samson  are 
the  most  celebrated.  At  length,  about  1095 
b.c.,  the  monarchy  was  established,  Saul  being 
the  first  king.  Saul  achieved  some  brilliant 


JEW 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


455 


victories,  but  as  he  became  disregardful  or  the 
counsels  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  the  latter  pri- 
vately anointed  David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  a val- 
orous youth,  whose  fame  eclipsed  that  of  Saul. 
The  reign  of  David  extended  from  1055  to  1015. 
It  was  rendered  brilliant  by  victories  over  the 
Jebusites,  Philistines,  Amalekites,  Idumceans, 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Zeba,  but  unhappy 
by  the  domestic  misfortunes  and  crimes  which 
'•embittered  the  heart  of  King  David.  Under 
Solomon,  his  son,  whose  reign  extended  from 
1015  to  975,  the  nation  attained  a high  degree 
of  splendor  and  consequence,  while  his  stern 
strength  and  pure  integrity  sank  under  the 
corrupting  influence  of  wealth  and  luxury. 
Toward  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  Solomon, 
enervated  by  the  pleasures  of  his  seraglio,  and 
enthralled  by  female  favorites,  permitted  the 
worship  of  false  gods,  and  forsook  Him  to 
whom  he  owed  his  glory.  The  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes  under  Jeroboam  took  place,  while 
Rehoboam  succeeded  to  the  government  of 
Judah  and  Benjamin.  The  ten  tribes  formed 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  the  latter  that  of  Judah. 
Sichem  at  first,  and  afterward  Samaria,  was 
the  capital  of  Israel,  and  Jerusalem  that  of 
Judah.  The  contest  between  the  two  states 
was  furious,  and  not  unequal.  In  general  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  preserved  the  worship  of 
the  true  God,  while  that  of  Israel  was  idola- 
trous. The  kingdom  of  Israel  existed  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  years  after  the  separa- 
tion, under  nineteen  kings,  whose  authority 
was  gained  and  lost  by  violent  revolutions. 
Shalmaneser,  King  of  Assyria,  ended  the  king- 
dom, and  carried  the  people  captive  into  Asia, 
b.c.  721. 

The  kingdom  of  Judah  existed  under 
twenty  kings  of  the  house  of  David,  until 
587  b.c.,  when  Nebuchadnezzar  took  Jerusa- 
lem, and  carried  away  the  inhabitants  cap- 
tive. During  the  captivity  flourished  Daniel, 
Jeremiah,  and  other  prophets,  who  were 
commissioned  by  God  to  inform  the  Hebrew 
people  of  the  fate  which  awaited  them.  From 
the  time  of  the  captivity  they  are  more  often 
known  under  the  name  of  Jews.  Their  cap- 
tivity was  terminated  by  Cyrus,  King  of 
Persia,  who  published  an  edict  permitting  all 
the  Jews  to  return  to  their  country,  and  to 
rebuild  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  536  b.c. 
They  placed  the  foundations  of  the  temple ; 


but  the  Samaritans,  inveterate  enemies  of  the 
Jews,  procured  a suspension  of  their  opera- 
tions. Nevertheless,  Darius,  informed  of  the 
edict  of  Cyrus,  permitted  the  completion  of 
the  temple.  The  Jews  labored  with  such 
spirit,  that,  four  years  after,  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  were  rebuilt,  and  their  worship 
re-established.  Nehemiah,  being  chosen  gov- 
ernor of  Judea,  neglected  no  exertions  to 
maintain  the  public  observance  of  the  laws 
of  God.  Esther,  a Jewish  maiden,  having 
found  favor  in  the  eyes  of  Ahasuerus,  King 
of  Persia,  this  monarch  confirmed  the  immu- 
nities of  the  Jews,  preserved  them  from 
massacre,  and  severely  punished  their  im- 
placable enemies. 

In  the  time  of  the  high-priest  Onias,  Seleu- 
cus,  King  of  Syria,  sent  Heliodorus  to  seize 
all  the  gold  of  the  temple.  He  came  to  Jeru- 
salem and  entered  the  temple,  intending  to 
obey  the  royal  command.  It  was  in  vain 
that  the  high-priest  represented  to  him  that 
the  treasures  were  deposites,  destined  for  the 
support  of  the  fatherless  and  widows.  The 
legend  runs  that  Heliodorus  turned  a deaf 
ear  to  his  remonstrances,  and  was  already  on 
the  threshold  of  the  treasury,  when  he  be- 
held a white  horse,  richly  caparisoned,  whose 
rider  wore  a terrible  aspect,  with  armor  of 
gold.  At  the  same  time  Heliodorus  was  at- 
tacked by  two  young  men  of  surpassing 
beauty,  and  would  have  been  slain,  but  for 
the  interposition  of  Onias,  who  implored  the 
pardon  of  the  Almighty,  and  offered  up  a 
sacrifice  to  appease  his  wrath. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,  or  the  Illustrious, 
the  successor  of  Seleucus,  an  impious  prince, 
deprived  Onias  of  the  sacerdotal  office,  and 
sold  it  to  the  highest  bidder.  He  entered 
Jerusalem  with  a powerful  army,  and  killed 
or  enslaved  80,000  men.  Fie  had  the  bold- 
ness to  enter  the  temple,  and  to  bear  away 
the  altar  and  golden  table,  the  golden  candle- 
stick, the  precious  vessels,  and  all  the  money 
that  the  treasury  contained,  and  even  under- 
took to  abolish  the  religion  of  the  Jews,  for- 
bidding them,  on  pain  of  death,  to  maintain 
their  worship,  and  erecting  the  statute  of 
Jupiter  Olympius  on  the  altar  of  the  temple. 
The  Jews  were  forced  to  attend  the  profane 
sacrifices,  and  compelled  to  eat  the  flesh  of 
animals  prohibited  by  their  law.  Under  this 


JEW 


456 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


persecution  many  of  the  Jews  yielded,  but 
there  were  some  who  remained  firm,  in  the 
midst  of  martyrdom. 

Judas  Maccabaeus  raised  the  standard  of 
revolt,  and  rendered  his  name  formidable  to 
the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  for,  having  collected 
an  army  of  six  thousand  men,  he  performed 
prodigies  of  valor  in  defense  of  the  religion 
and  liberties  of  their  fathers.  He  conquered 
and  killed  Apollonius,  governor  of  Samaria, 
and  the  general  of  the  Syrian  army.  Every- 
where victory  crowned  his  efforts,  till  the 
valiant  leader  fell  in  battle,  after  slaying 
many  of  his  enemies.  Jonathan  and  Simon, 
his  brothers,  emulated  his  glory.  Afterward 
the  Jews  came  under  the  rule  of  Rome.  The 
Jews  refused  to  recognize  Jesus  Christ,  who 
was  born  in  the  reign  of  Herod,  King  of  the 
Jews,  as  the  Messiah.  Christ  foretold  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  which  was  taken 
by  Titus,  a.d.  70,  after  a siege  of  unparalleled 
horrof.  This  was  the  signal  of  the  complete 
dispersion  of  the  Jews,  in  fulfillment  of  the 
divine  warning. 

Their  history  in  the  middle  ages  is  a tale 
of  suffering.  They  were  early  dealers  in 
money,  and  from  kings  and  nobles  they  en- 
dured exactions  that  it  must  have  required 
heavy  usury  to  repay.  To  enumerate  the 
cruelties  put  upon  them,  or  barely  mention 
the  many  massacres  in  which  they  perished, 
would  exhaust  a goodly  volume.  They  were 
banished  from  England  in  1290  by  Edward 
I.,  and  were  shut  out  thenceforth  till  the  time 
of  Cromwell.  From  France  they  were  several 
times  driven,  and  as  often  recalled  to  be  plun- 
dered again ; they  were  finally  expelled  by 
Charles  YI.  In  Spain  their  sufferings  were 
greater  even  than  elsewhere.  For  them  the 
hungry  fires  of  the  inquisition  were  lit,  and 
in  1492  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  ordered  them 
to  depart  from  Spain  within  four  months. 
Eight  hundred  thousand  men,  women,  and 
children  were  thus  driven  forth  from  home. 
Multitudes  perished.  Portugal  was  the  re- 
fuge of  many,  who  had  gold  to  purchase  the 
liberty  of  tarrying  there.  The  Portuguese 
monarch  had  cruel  compassion  upon  them ; 
his  treaty  with  Spain  forbade  him  to  allow 
the  Jews  a permanent  residence  in  his  realm, 
and  he  thought  to  save  some  by  making  them 
Christians.  With  a promise  of  ships  to  bear 


Lisbon.  There  the  orders  were  that  the 
children  should  be  torn  from  their  parents, 
that  they  might  be  nurtured  in  the  bosom 
of  the  true  church.  A scene  of  anguish  fol- 
lowed. Many  a father  slew  his  son,  rather 
than  abandon  him ; and  many  a mother,  pre- 
tending Christianity  that  she  might  not  be 
exiled  from  a daughter,  soon  betrayed  her 
insincerity,  and  was  murdered  by  the  tor- 
tures of  the  inquisition.  Throughout  Europe* 
it  was  believed  that  in  their  rites  the  Jews 
crucified  children,  and  whenever  a distemper 
raged,  the  cry  was  that  they  had  poisoned 
the  wells  and  streams.  Any  such  rumor 
was  the  watchword  for  their  butchery,  the 
plucking  of  their  eyes  or  teeth,  the  extirpa- 
tion of  their  homes,  and  the  seizure  of  their 
estates.  In  modern  times,  these  atrocities 
have  ceased,  but  yet  the  Jew  is  too  often  the 
object  of  an  unjust  loathing,  if  not  hatred. 

JOAN  OF  ARC  (Jeanne  d’Akc),  called 
the  Maid  of  Orleans,  was  born  of  low  parent- 
age at  Domremy,  a village  on  the  borders 
of  Lorraine.  When  the  affairs  of  France 
were  in  a deplorable  state,  and  the  city  of 
Orleans  was  so  closely  besieged  by  the  Duke 
of  Bedford  that  its  fall  appeared  inevitable, 
Joan  claimed  to  have  received  a divine  com- 
mission to  expel  the  invaders.  At  this  time, 
a belief  in  supernatural  endowments  was  by 
no  means  uncommon,  and,  far  from  being 
confined  to  the  lower  classes,  pervaded  the 
minds  of  the  loftiest  and  most  pretending. 
Joan,  on  being  introduced  to  Charles  VII., 
offered  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and  con- 
duct her  prince  to  Rheims,  there  to  be 
crowned  with  the  usual  solemnities;  at  the 
same  time  demanding  for  herself  a conse- 
crated sword  which  had  long  hung  suspended 
in  the  church  of  St.  Catharine.  Her  request 
was  granted,  and  she  fulfilled  her  promises, 
entered  Orleans  with  supplies  in  triumph, 
and  appeared,  clad  in  a splendid  suit  of  ar- 
mor, at  the  coronation  of  Charles,  which 
took  place  in  the  cathedral  of  Rheims.  The 
gallant  maid,  her  mission  done,  now  sought 
j retire  into  private  life,  but  she  was  urged 
to  stay.  She  yielded  to  the  general  wish 
with  fatal  facility;  fatal,  because,  having 
been  taken  with  the  garrison  of  Compiegne, 
she  was,  to  the  disgrace  of  Bedford  and  the 
English,  condemned  to  death  as  a witch,  and 
burned  at  the  stake,  in  the  market-place  of 


them  away,  he  beguiled  them  to  gather  at 

JOA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


45? 


Rouen,  May  30th,  1431.  She  was  never  a 
servant,  as  English  writers  have  represented, 
and  was  a lovely  girl  of  eighteen  when  she 
first  sought  an  audience  of  Charles.  An 
authentic  portrait,  yet  extant,  shows  that 
she  possessed  a face  and  figure  of  exquisite 
loveliness  ; a countenance  to  which  a beam- 
ing eye,  and  a tender  expression  of  melan- 
choly, imparted  an  interest  which  rendered 
her  fascination  irresistible.  She  led  the 
French  to  victory,  but  never  stained  her 
hand  with  bloodshed. 

JOHN,  King  of  England.  [ See  Planta- 
genet.] 

JOHNSON,  Samuel,  LL.  D.,  one  of  the 
most  eminent  literary  men  of  the  eighteenth 
century  in  England,  was  born  at  Lichfield, 
in  Staffordshire,  in  1709,  and  was  the  son 
of  a bookseller.  He  entered  Pembroke  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  but  his 
father’s  losses  compelled  him  to  leave  without 
taking  a degree.  For  some  years  after  leav- 
ing college,  he  was  unsettled  in  his  views, 
which,  however,  chiefly  turned  to  literature. 
In  1735  he  married  Mrs.  Porter,  a mercer’s 
widow  of  twice  his  own  age ; he  describes 
the  affair  as  a “love  match  on  both  sides.” 
In  1737  he  came  to  London  in  company  with 
David  Garrick,  who  had  been  one  of  his  pu- 
pils, to  seek  his  fortune.  Here  he  supported 
himself  by  his  pen,  his  first  publication  in 
London  being  a poem  in  imitation  of  one 
of  Juvenal’s  satires.  He  was  for  many 
years  a contributor  to  the  Gentleman's 
Magazine.  In  1747  he  issued  his  plans  for 
an  English  dictionary,  a work  which,  when 
published,  fully  equaled  the  high  expectations 
which  had  been  formed  of  it.  His  periodical 
papers,  “The  Rambler”  and  “The  Idler,” 
displayed  the  talents  of  the  author  in  a favor- 
able light.  The  moderate  success  of  the 
tragedy  of  “Irene”  convinced  Dr.  John- 
son that  he  was  incapable  of  producing 
dramas  which  would  reflect  honor  on  his 
pen.  His  fine  romance  of  “Rasselas”  was 
written  in  the  evenings  of  one  week  to  de- 
fray his  mother’s  funeral  expenses.  In  1762 
he  received  a government  pension  of  £300  a 
year.  He  published  some  political  pamph- 
lets against  the  revolted  colonists  of  America, 
which,  however,  do  not  display  very  great 
argumentative  powers.  His  last  undertak- 
ing, “ Lives  of  the  Poets,”  was  completed  in 


1781.  He  died  December  13th,  1784,  and 
was  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where 
a statute  is  erected  to  his  memory. 

His  biography,  by  his  intimate  friend  Bos- 
well, is  one  of  the  best  works  of  the  kind 
ever  written,  and  still  continues  to  enjoy 
high  popularity.  Boswell  said  to  Madame 
d’Arblay : “Yes,  madam  ; you  must  give  me 
some  of  your  choice  little  notes  of  the  doc 
tor’s ; we  have  seen  him  long  enough  upon 
stilts ; I want  to  show  him  in  a new  light. 
Grave  Sam,  and  great  Sam,  and  solemn  Sam, 
and  learned  Sam — all  these  he  has  appeared 
over  and  over.  Now  I want  to  entwine  a 
wreath  of  the  graces  across  his  brow ; I want 
to  show  him  as  gay  Sam,  agreeable  Sam, 
pleasant  Sam;  so  you  must  help  me  with 
some  of  his  beautiful  billets  to  yourself.” 

JONES,  Jacob,  born  in  Delaware,  1770, 
entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine. 
He  commanded  the  Wasp  at  the  capture  of 
the  British  brig  Frolic,  Oct.  18th,  1812.  The 
next  day  the  Wasp  and  her  prize  were  taken 
by  the  Poictiers,  a British  seventy-four,  and 
carried  into  Bermuda.  Commodore  Jones 
died  at  Philadelphia,  August  3d,  1850. 

JONES,  John  Paul,  was  a younger  son 
of  a gardener  who  dwelt  at  Arbigland,  on 
Solway  Frith,  in  Scotland.  He  was  born 
July  6th,  1747,  and  when  but  a boy  of  twelve 
was  apprenticed  to  a shipping  merchant  of 
White  Haven,  the  principal  port  of  the  Sol- 
way. He  made  several  voyages  to  Virginia ; 
then  his  master  was  unfortunate  in  business  ; 
and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  left  to  con- 
trol himself.  Several  White  Haven  vessels 
were  engaged  in  the  slave-trade ; young  Paul 
got  the  berth  of  third  mate  in  one  of  them ; 
at  nineteen  he  had  advanced  to  be  first  mate 
of  the  Two  Friends,  one  of  the  largest  White 
Haven  vessels  in  the  traffic.  Then  he  was 
engaged  for  a time  in  the  West  India  trade; 
finally  he  left  Scotland  forever,  and  abandoned 
sea  for  shore.  When  the  Revolution  broke 
out  he  was  living  in  poverty  near  Fredericks- 
burg, Va.  He  at  once  offered  Congress  his 
services  in  the  navy  then  to  be  formed ; and 
about  this  time,  from  reasons  ever  unknown, 
he  added  ‘Jones’  to  his  patronymic.  He 
was  commissioned  as  lieutenant,  first  on  the 
list,  in  December,  1775,  and  was  appointed  to 
the  Alfred,  a clumsy  merchantman  that  had 
been  altered  into  a frigate  of  thirty  guns.  It 


458 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


was  the  flagship  of  the  small  fleet  of  Com- 
modore Hopkins ; and  on  a bright  morning, 
early  in  February,  1776,  as  the  commodore 
came  on  board,  Lieut.  Jones  with  his  own 
hands  hoisted  the  first  American  ensign  ever 
displayed  on  a man-of-war.  It  was  of  yellow 
silk,  bearing  the  figure  of  a pine-tree,  and 
the  significant  device  of  a rattlesnake,  with 
the  ominous  words,  “ Don’t  tread  on  me ! ” 
The  gallantry,  fearlessness,  and  value  of 
Jones  soon  became  proverbial,  and  early  in 
August  he  was  rewarded  with  a captain’s 
-commission.  In  1777  he  was  put  in  com- 
mand of  the  Ranger  (a  ship  of  eighteen  guns 
just  built  for  the  service  at  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.),  hoisted  the  new  flag  of  the  stars  and 
stripes,  and  sailed  for  France.  The  next 
spring  he  took  the  first  of  his  famous  cruises 
along  the  British  coast,  and  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  burn  the  town  of  White 
Haven ; for  this  his  excuse  was  a desire  to 
avenge  some  of  the  wanton  burnings  in  Amer- 
ica, and  to  teach  the  British  “that  not  all 
their  boasted  navy  could  protect  their  own 
coasts ; ” but  the  attempt  can  not  be  justified. 
He  visited  the  scenes  of  his  boyhood,  boldly 
anchored  in  the  Solway  at  noon,  and  landed 
with  a small  party,  intending  to  make  a pris- 
oner of  the  Earl  of  Selkirk,  the  benefactor  of 
his  father.  But  he  was  foiled  by  the  noble- 
man’s absence.  Against  his  earnest  remon- 
strances, the  men  insisted  upon  plundering 
the  mansion  of  its  plate.  When  the  prizes 
were  sold  at  Brest,  Jones  bought  the  silver 
and  restored  it,  accompanied  by  an  extrava- 
gant letter,  to  Lady  Selkirk.  His  return  to 
France  was  marked  by  a hot  contest  with  the 
English  sloop  Drake  off  Carrickfergus,  in 
which  the  Ranger  was  victorious.  In  expec- 
tation of  the  command  of  a larger  vessel, 
Jones  relinquished  the  Ranger.  After  gall- 
ing delay,  the  Due  de  Duras,  an  old  and 
unseaworthy  ship  of  forty  guns,  was  fitted 
out  for  him ; in  compliment  to  Dr.  Franklin 
he  named  her  Bon  Homme  Richard.  More 
delay  intervened,  but  at  last,  the  14th  of 
August,  1779,  he  left  L’Orient  with  a squad- 
ron of  seven  sail,  for  another  cruise  off*  the 
British  coast.  A heavy  storm  scattered  the 
little  fleet,  but  the  Bon  Homme  Richard  and 
the  frigate  Alliance,  with  two  smaller  vessels, 
after  taking  some  prizes  off  the  English  and 
Irish  shores,  came  together  at  Cape  Wrath, 


a northern  point  of  Scotland.  They  spread 
terror  along  the  eastern  coast,  and  late  in  the 
afternoon  of  the  16th  of  September,  the  four 
vessels  lay  in  the  Frith  of  Forth,  within  sight 
of  Edinburgh  castle.  Jones’s  intention  was 
to  seize  the  shipping  at  Leith,  to  menace  the 
town  with  the  torch,  and  obtain  a heavy 
ransom  “toward  the  reimbursement  which 
Britain  owed  to  the  much  injured  citizens  of 
the  United  States.”  Wild  alarm  spread  along 
the  threatened  coast.  Early  the  next  morn- 
ing the  Bon  Homme  Richard  was  seen  stand- 
ing toward  Kirkcaldy,  on  the  northern  shore. 
In  an  agony  of  fear  the  people  gazed  at  her,  and 
the  odd  minister  of  the  place,  kneeling  on  the 
beach,  thus  wrestled  with  the  Lord : “ Now, 
dear  Laird,  dinna  ye  think  it  a shame  for  ye 
to  send  this  vile  piret  to  rob  our  folk  o’  Kirk- 
caldy, for  ye  ken  they’re  poor  enow  already, 
and  hae  naething  to  spare.  The  wa’  the 
ween  blaws,  he’ll  be  here  in  a jiffie,  and  wha 
kens  what  he  may  do  ? He’s  nae  too  good  for 
ony  thing.  Mickle’s  the  mischief  he’s  dune 
already.  He’ll  burn  their  hooses,  tak’  their 
very  claes,  and  tirl  them  to  the  sark ; and, 
waes  me ! wha  kens  but  the  bluidy  villain 
may  tak’  their  lives ! The  puir  weemen  are 
maist  frightened  out  o’  their  wits,  and  the 
bairns  skirling  after  them.  I canna  thol’t 
it ! I hae  been  lang  a faithfu’  servant  to  ye, 
Laird  ; but  gin  ye  dinna  turn  the  ween  aboot, 
and  blaw  the  scoundrel  out  o’  our  gate,  I’ll  na 
staur  a fit,  but  wull  just  sit  here  till  the  tide 
comes.  Sae,  tak’  yere  wull  o’t.” 

The  wind  veered,  and  Jones  was  forced  to 
put  to  sea.  A week  later  he  fell  in  with  a 
fleet  of  Baltic  merchantmen,  convoyed  by 
the  new  ship  Serapis,  forty-four  guns,  and 
the  Countess  of  Scarborough,  twenty  guns. 
Landais,  the  treacherous  captain  of  the  Alli- 
ance, who  had  caused  Jones  much  trouble 
during  the  cruise,  disobeyed  all  signals,  and 
held  his  ship  aloof.  The  Vengeance  followed 
this  cowardly  example  ; while  the  Pallas,  the 
other  small  vessel,  engaged  the  Countess  of 
Scarborough.  The  Bon  Homme  Richard  and 
the  Serapis  battled  together.  Such  another 
sea-fight  as  this  of  the  23d  of  September,  1779, 
off  Flamborough  Head,  has  never  been  seen. 
The  breeze  almost  died  away ; and  at  twilight 
the  ships  were  not  within  reach  of  each  other’s 
guns.  They  were  so  close  to  the  shore  that 
crowds  of  eager  watchers  gathered  to  witness 


JON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


459 


the  spectacle.  For  a little  while  the  curtain 
of  night  mantled  them  ; then  a full,  bright 
moon  came  up,  and  the  terrible  struggle 
began.  The  fire  of  the  Serapis  made  large 
havoc  in  the  rotten  timbers  of  the  Richard, 
but  in  a few  minutes  the  latter  ran  into  her 
antagonist,  the  spars  and  rigging  of  both  were 
entangled,  and  the  great  guns  were  almost 
useless.  Jones  was  repulsed  in  a trial  to 
board.  His  flag  was  hidden  by  the  smoke. 
Pearson,  captain  of  the  Serapis,  cried  out, 
“ Has  your  ship  struck?”  “I  have  not  yet 
begun  to  fight,”  was  the  answer. 

• The  ships  yawned  apart  for  a moment,  and 
then  lay  broadside  to  broadside,  the  muzzles  of 
the  guns  touching.  Jones  lashed  his  ship  to 
the  Serapis,  and  in  this  fierce  embrace  the 
awful  cannonade  went  on.  The  fight  raged 
with  fiendish  fury ; the  crew  of  the  Richard 
suffered  terrible  loss,  and  their  ship  leaked 
badly.  To  add  to  their  danger,  the  treach- 
erous Alliance  now  came  up  and  poured 
broadside  after  broadside  into  them.  There 
could  be  no  mistake  or  excuse  for  this  dread- 
ful villainy ; the  moonlight  was  bright,  the 
position  of  the  combatants  clear.  The  cour- 
age of  Jones  did  not  falter,  although  his 
position  was  so  critical,  and  his  ship  was 
slowly  sinking.  The  hand-grenades  of  his 
marines  set  the  Serapis  on  fire.  Capt.  Pear- 
son had  not  the  obstinacy  of  his  foe,  though 
he  had  fought  with  great  bravery,  and  at  last 
he  surrendered  to  his  really  weaker  enemy. 
“It  is  painful,”  he  said  to  Jones,  in  a surly 
manner,  “ to  deliver  up  my  sword  to  a man 
who  has  fought  with  a halter  around  his 
neck.”  Jones  preserved  his  temper,  and 
courteously  replied,  as  he  returned  the  wea- 
pon, “ Sir,  you  have  fought  like  a hero  ; and 
I make  no  doubt  but  your  sovereign  will 
reward  you  in  the  most  ample  manner.”  He 
said  rightly  ; George  III.  knighted  Pearson 
for  the  bravery  h^here  displayed.  When 
Jones  heard  of  this,  he  remarked,  “Well,  he 
deserves  it ; and  it  I fall  in  with  him  again, 
I will  make  a lord  of  him  ! ” 

The  battle  had  raged  three  hours.  Flames 
were  now  rapidly  devouring  both  vessels. 
The  Bon  Homme  Richard  was  damaged  past 
recovery.  The  flames  were  extinguished  on 
the  Serapis,  prisoners  and  men  were  all 
transferred  to  her,  and  the  shattered  wreck  of 
the  Richard  went  down  beneath  the  billows. 


The  merchantmen  under  convoy  had  escaped, 
through  the  criminal  conduct  of  the  com- 
manders of  the  Alliance  and  the  Vengeance; 
but  the  Countess  of  Scarborough  had  yielded 
to  the  Pallas  after  an  hour’s  fight,  notwith- 
standing the  nefarious  Landais  had  fired  into 
the  latter,  as  he  did  into  the  Richard.  After 
tossing  about  on  the  North  Sea  for  ten  days, 
Jones  ran  into  the  Texel  with  his  little  squad- 
ron and  prizes,  only  a few  hours  before  eleven 
British  ships  of  war  that  had  been  sent  after 
him  appeared  in  the  offing.  His  brilliant 
exploit  excited  great  admiration  at  Amster- 
dam, and  afterward  at  Paris.  The  French 
king  gave  him  a sword  of  honor  and  a cross 
of  the  military  order  of  merit.  The  Amer- 
ican congress,  eight  years  later,  voted  him  a 
gold  medal. 

After  the  conclusion  of  peace,  Jones,  rest- 
less, and  longing  for  action  and  adventure, 
accepted  the  post  of  rear-admiral  in  the  Rus- 
sian navy  in  1788,  and  was  employed  against 
the  Turks  on  the  Black  Sea.  He  soon,  how- 
ever, fell  into  disfavor  with  Potemkin,  the 
favorite  of  Catharine,  was  granted  leave  of 
absence,  and  never  recalled  into  service.  He 
died  of  dropsy  in  the  chest,  July  18th,  1792, 
at  Paris,  aged  only  forty-five.  His  grave  is 
unknown.  He  was  a man  of  dauntless 
courage,  and  of  great  service  to  his  adopted 
country.  Among  his  most  marked  traits,  an 
overweening  vanity  was  conspicuous. 

JONES,  Sir  William,  a poet,  statesman, 
and  oriental  scholar,  born  in  London,  1746, 
died  in  Hindostan,  April  27th,  1794,  aged 
forty-seven.  His  attainments  in  law  and 
general  science  were  profound  and  varied. 
As*  a linguist  he  has  never  been  surpassed : he 
was  the  master  of  twenty-eight  languages, 
and  his  knowledge  extended  over  the  litera- 
ture and  antiquities  of  which  they  were  the 
key. 

JONSON,  Ben,  was  the  posthumous  son 
of  a clergyman  in  Westminster,  where  he 
was  born  in  1574,  about  a month  after  his 
father’s  decease.  His  family  was  originally 
from  Scotland,  whence  his  grandfather  re- 
moved to  Carlisle,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
Benjamin  received  his  education  under  the 
learned  Camden,  at  Westminster  school ; and 
had  made  extrordinary  progress  in  his  stud- 
ies, when  his  mother,  who  had  married  a 
bricklayer  for  her  second  husband,  took  him 


JON 


460 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


away  to  work  under  his  step-father.  From 
this  humble  employment  he  escaped,  by  en- 
listing as  a soldier  in  the  army,  then  serving 
in  the  Netherlands  against  the  Spaniards. 
An  exploit  which  he  here  performed,  of  kill- 
ing an  enemy  in  a single  combat,  gave  him 
room  to  boast  ever  after  of  a degree  of  cour- 
age which  has  not  often  been  found  in  alli- 
ance with  poetical  distinction. 

On  his  return,  Jonson  entered  himself  at 
St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge,  which  he  was 
shortly  obliged  to  quit,  from  the  scanty  state 
* of  his  finances.  He  turned  his  thoughts  to 
the  stage,  and  applied  for  employment  at  the 
theatres ; but  his  talents  as  an  actor  could 
only  procure  for  him  admission  at  an  obscure 
playhouse  in  the  suburbs.  Here  he  had  the 
misfortune  to  kill  a fellow-actor  in  a duel,  for 
which  he  was  thrown  into  prison.  The  state 
of  mind  to  which  he  was  here  brought,  gave 
the  advantage  to  a Popish  priest  in  convert- 
ing him  to  the  Catholic  faith,  under  which 
religion  he  continued  for  twelve  years. 

After  his  liberation  from  prison,  he  mar- 
ried, and  applied  in  earnest  to  writing  for  the 
stage,  in  which  he  appears  to  have  already 
made  several  attempts.  His  comedy  of 
“ Every  Man  in  his  Humor,”  the  first  of  his 
acknowledged  pieces,  was  performed  with 
applause  in  1596 ; after  which  he  continued 
to  furnish  a play  yearly,  till  his  time  was 
occupied  by  the  composition  of  the  masques 
and  other  entertainments  by  which  the  ac- 
cession of  James  was  celebrated.  Dryden, 
in  his  “Essay  on  Dramatic  Poetry,”  speaks 
of  him  as  the  “ most  learned  and  judicious 
writer  which  any  theatre  ever  had.” 

In  1616  he  published  a folio  volume  of  his 
works,  which  procured  for  him  a grant  from 
his  majesty  of  the  salary  of  poet-laureate  for 
life,  though  he  did  not  take  possession  of  the 
post  till  three  years  after.  Jonson  was  re- 
duced to  necessitous  circumstances  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life,  though  he  obtained 
from  Charles  I.  an  advance  of  his  salary  as 
laureate.  He  died  in  1637  at  the  age  of 
sixty-three,  being  at  that  time  considered  as 
at  the  head  of  English  poetry.  He  was  in- 
terred in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  an 
inscription  was  placed  over  his  grave,  famili- 
arly expressive  of  the  reputation  he  had  ac- 
quired among  his  countrymen : “ 0 rare  Ben 
Jonson.”  Six  months  after  his  death,  a col- 


lection of  poems  to  his  honor,  by  a number 
of  the  most  eminent  writers  and  scholars  in 
the  nation,  was  published,  with  the  title  of 
“ Jonsonius  Virbius;  or  the  Memory  of  Ben 
Jonson,  revived  by  the  Friends  of  the 
Muses.” 

We  subjoin  his  beautiful  epitaph  on  the 
Countess  of  Pembroke,  sister  to  Sir  Philip 
Sidney. 

“ Underneath  this  marble  herse 
Lies  the  subject  of  all  verse, 

Sidney’s  sister,  Pembroke’s  mother ; 
Death,  ere  thou  hast  slain  another 
Learn’d,  and  fair,  and  good  as  she, 

Time  shall  throw  his  dart  at  thee.”  . 

JOSEPH  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  son 
of  Francis  I.  and  Maria  Theresa,  and  brother 
of  Marie  Antoinette,  was  born  in  1741.  His 
father  died  in  1765,  but  he  did  not  really 
reign  till  the  death  of  his  mother  in  1780, 
when  he  became  King  of  Hungary  and  Bo- 
hemia. Joseph  made  his  reign  conspicuous 
by  his  designs  for  the  good  of  his  subjects. 
He  aimed  at  the  most  extensive  and  import- 
ant reformations,  but  was  not  aware  of  the 
strength  of  those  prejudices  and  evils  which 
presented  themselves  in  his  path  at  the  very 
outset,  and  continued  to  obstruct  it  through- 
out the  whole  of  his  career.  The  education 
of  Joseph  had  been  carefully  attended  to,  and 
at  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  married  to 
Isabella,  infanta  of  Parma.  In  1764  he  was 
crowned  King  of  the  Romans.  The  death 
of  his  first  wife,  whom  he  loved  with  more 
than  usual  fondness,  was  a severe  blow  to 
him,  but  in  1765  he  married  the  sister  of  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria.  It  was  in  this  year  that 
he  ascended  the  throne,  without  encountering 
the  slightest  opposition.  Having  always 
displayed  a military  ambition,  he  was  now 
happy  in  remodeling  his  armies  and  perfect- 
ing their  discipline,  not  restricting  his  refor- 
mation to  the  army,  but  making  it  felt  in  all 
the  departments  of  government.  After  hav- 
ing returned  from  a tour  through  his  own 
dominions,  and  through  Prussia,  Italy,  France, 
and  Russia,  he  set  apart  one  day  in  each 
week  for  hearing  the  complaints  and  petitions 
of  all,  even  the  meanest  of  his  subjects.  “It 
behooves  me,”  said  he,  “to  do  justice;  and 
it  is  my  invariable  intention  to  render  it  to 
all  the  world,  without  respect  of  persons.” 
It  is  a pity  that  he  forgot  this  maxim  when 
he  accepted  the  invitation  of  the  royal  anat- 


JOS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


461 


omists,  and  assisted  in  the  dismemberment 
of  Poland,  in  1772.  Joseph  encouraged  the 
liberty  of  the  press,  and  even  permitted 
strictures  to  be  made  on  his  own  conduct  and 
measures,  provided  they  were  not  couched 
in  the  language  of  coarse  pasquinade.  “If,” 
said  he,  “they  be  founded  in  justice,  we 
shall  profit  by  them ; if  not,  we  shall  disre- 
gard them.” 

Many  curious  adventures  are  said  to  have 
occurred  to  the  emperor,  when,  as  was  his 
custom,  he  drove  about  in  the  garb  of  a pri- 
vate citizen.  One  day,  as  he  was  riding  thus 
alone,  he  was  accosted  familiarly  by  a soldier, 
who  mistook  him  for  a man  of  the  middle  class, 
and  asked  the  emperor  to  give  him  a ride. 
“Willingly,”  exclaimed  Joseph;  “jump  in, 
comrade,  for  I am  in  something  of  a hurry.” 
The  soldier  sprang  into  the  cabriolet,  and 
sovereign  and  subject  sat  side  by  side  on  the 
same  seat.  The  soldier  was  loquacious. 
“ Come,  comrade ! ” said  he,  slapping  the 
emperor  famil.arly  on  the  back ; “ are  you 
good  at  guessing?”  “Perhaps  I am,”  re- 
plied Joseph;  “try  me.”  “Well,  then,  my 
boy,  conjure  up  your  wits,  and  guess  what  I 
had  for  breakfast  this  morning.”  “ Sour 
krout.”  “ Come,  none  of  that ! try  again, 
comrade.”  “ Perhaps  a Westphalia  ham,” 
said  the  emperor,  willing  to  humor  - his  com- 
panion. “Better  than  that!”  exclaimed  the 
soldier.  “ Sausages  from  Bologna,  and  Hock- 
heimer  from  the  Rhine?”  “Better  than 
that!  d’ye  give  it  up?”  “I  do.”  “Open 
your  eyes  and  ears  then,”  said  the  soldier 
bluntly;  “I  had  a pheasant,  by  Jove!  shot 
in  the  Emperor  Joe’s  park,  ha ! ha ! ” Wrhen 
the  exultation  of  the  soldier  had  subsided, 
Joseph  said  quietly:  “I  want  to  try  your 
skill  in  guessing,  comrade.  See  if  you  can 
name  the  rank  I hold.”  “You’re  a — no — 
hang  it ! you’re  not  smart  enough  for  a cor- 
net.” “Better  than  that,”  said  the  emperor. 
“ A lieutenant ? ” “ Better  than  that.”  “A 

captain?”  “Better  than  that.”  “A  ma- 
jor?” “Better  than  that.”  “General?” 
“Better  than  that.”  The  soldier  was  now 
fearfully  agitated ; he  had  doffed  his  hat,  and 
sat  bareheaded ; he  could  hardly  articulate. 
“ Pardon  me,  your  excellency ; you  are  field- 
marshal.”  “Better  than  that,”  replied  Jo- 
seph. “ Lord  help  me ! ” cried  the  soldier, 
“you’re  the  emperor!”  He  threw  himself 


out  of  the  cabriolet,  and  kneeled  for  pardon 
in  the  mud.  The  emperor  often  laughed 
over  it  heartily,  and  the  soldier  received  a 
mark  of  favor  which  he  could  not  forget. 

On  another  occasion,  Joseph,  turning  a 
corner  shortly,  ran  the  wheel  of  his  vehicle 
against  an  old  woman’s  fruit-stall,  and  upset 
it,  scattering  the  good  things  in  every  direc- 
tion. The  ragged  urchins  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  fell  upon  the  tempting  fruit,  and  has- 
tily gathering  it,  ate  it,  mud-  and  all.  As 
soon  as  the  old  woman  gained  her  feet,  she 
gave  utterance  to  a volley  of  abuse,  and  the 
emperor  was  glad  to  escape  and  permit  the 
predatory  youths  of  the  suburbs  to  take 
their  share  of  the  vituperative  epithets  of 
the  enraged  fruit-seller.  As  soon  as  he  had 
reached  his  palace,  Joseph  dispatched  some 
of  his  officers  to  make  reparation  to  the  old 
woman.  Surrounded  by  a group  of  men  in 
splendid  uniforms,  the  old  lady  was  terrified 
when  they  informed  her  that  the  driver  of 
the  cabriolet  wras  her  emperor.  Indistinct 
ideas  of  halters  and  executioners  were  flitting 
across  her  mind,  when  she  was  awakened  to 
the  reality  by  the  sight  of  a purse  full  of 
gold  pieces,  which  the  officers  threw  upon  her 
table.  She  opened  her  lips  to  bless  the  em- 
peror, but  his  messengers  had  put  spurs  to 
their  horses,  and  were  seen  galloping  off  in 
the  distance.  “I  think,”  said  the  emperor, 
“ she  has  no  reason  to  complain ; for  she  has 
been  amply  paid,  and  has  had  the  pleasure 
of  abusing  me  unmercifully,  while  I heard 
her  with  the  patience  of  a saint.” 

Various  events  occurred  to  disturb  the 
tranquillity  of  Joseph  during  his  reign,  and 
he  died  on  the  20th  of  February,  1790. 

JOSEPHINE  (Rose  Tascher  de  la  Page- 
rie)  was  born  in  Martinique,  June  24th, 
1763,  and  married  at  an  early  age  to  Viscount 
Beauharnais,  who  was  executed  in  the  reign 
of  terror.  Josephine  married  Bonaparte  in 
1796.  She  lived  to  see  Napoleon  raised  to 
the  zenith  of  his  power,  and  then  hurled 
from  the  summit  he  had  gained.  But  at  that 
hour  of  affliction  the  affectionate  Josephine 
had  no  longer  a right  to  be  near  the  man  she 
adored,  for  he  had  divorced  her  to  marry 
Maria  Louisa,  from  motives  of  policy  and  in 
hope  of  an  heir.  Josephine  retired  to  her 
beautiful  seat  of  Malmaison  with  the  title 
of  empress-queen-dowager.  She  was  called 


JOS 


462 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  star  of  Napoleon ; and  his  better  destiny 
forsook  him  when  he  cast  off*  his  amiable  and 
lovely  wife.  She  died  May  29th,  1814,  her 
last  words  being,  “ Lite  de  Elbe — Napo- 
leon / ” The  poor  mourned  in  her  a faithful 
friend,  the  artists  of  the  capital  a kind  and 
munificent  patron,  and  the  lovers  of  Napoleon 
the  peerless  woman  who  had  graced  his 
throne  in  the  brightest  moments  of  his 
career.  Truly  did  the  emperor  say,  “If  1 
win  battles,  Josephine  wins  hearts.” 

JOSEPHUS,  Flavius,  a Jewish  historian, 
born  a.d.  37.  He  signalized  himself  by  sup- 
porting a siege  of  forty- seven  days  against 
Vespaskm  and  Titus  in  a town  of  Judea. 
The  city  was  finally  taken  by  treachery,  and 
thousands  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain,  the 
number  of  captives  being  only  1,200.  Jose- 
phus saved  his  life  by  flying  into  a cave,  and 
finally  surrendered  to  Vespasian,  who  gave 
him  his  liberty,  and  treated  him  with  great 
favor.  Josephus  was  present  at  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem.  He  died  a.d.  93,  in  the  fifty- 
sixth  year  of  his  age. 

JOURDAN,  Jean  Baptiste,  born  in  1762, 
was  a general  of  the  French  revolution,  and 
became  a marshal  of  the  empire.  He  won 
the  day  at  Fleurus,  but  he  lost  the  battle  of 
Vittoria.  Fie  died  in  1833. 

JUBA,  the  second  of  that  name,  was  the 
son  of  Juba  I.  of  Numidia,  and  was  among 
the  captives  led  to  Rome  to  grace  the  triumph 
of  the  victorious  Caesar.  He  gained  the 
hearts  of  the  Romans  by  the  courteousness 
of  his  manners,  and  Augustus  rewarded  his 
fidelity  by  giving  him  in  marriage  Cleopatra, 
the  daughter  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  and 
conferring  upon  him  the  title  of  King  of 
Mauritania  and  making  him  master  of  all  the 
territories  which  his  father  once  possessed. 
His  popularity  was  so  great  that  the  Athe- 
nians raised  a statue  to  him,  and  the  Ethio- 
pians worshiped  him  as  a divinity.  He  died 
a.d.  23. 

JUGGERNAUT  (lord  of  the  world),  a 
celebrated  temple  in  Hindostan,  on  the  coast 
of  Orissa.  The  idol  is  a shapeless  stone, 
with  a hideous  black  face,  diamonds  for  eyes, 
and  crimson  jaws  yawning  open.  This  is 
the  representative  of  Vishnu,  the  preserver 
of  the  world.  On  days  of  festival,  the  idol 
is  placed  on  a tower,  sixty  feet  high,  moving 
on  wheels,  beneath  which  the  blinded  Hin- 


doos throw  themselves  on  the  ground  and 
are  crushed  by  the  progress  of  the  car. 
More  than  a million  devotees  seek  this  shrine 
annually,  many  of  whom  leave  their  bones 
whitening  on  the  adjoining  ways. 

JUGURTHA,  son  of  Mastanabal,  murdered 
Hiempsal,  the  son  of  his  uncle  Micipsa,  and 
exiled  Adherbal,  the  brother  of  Hiempsal,  to 
seat  himself  on  the  throne  of  Numidia. 
Adherbal  supplicated  the  aid  of  the  Romans, 
but  the  gold  of  Jugurtha  procured  a decision 
in  his  favor.  Adherbal,  who  surrendered  to 
the  usurper,  was  inhumanly  murdered,  and 
the  Roman  people  breathing  vengeance 
against  the  murderer,  the  senate  were  con- 
strained to  declare  war  upon  him.  The 
Jugurthine  war  required  an  immense  expen- 
diture of  blood  and  treasure,  but  Jugurtha 
was  finally  defeated  by  Marius,  and  starved 
to  death  in  a Roman  prison,  106  b.c.  Then 
Numidia  became  a Roman  province. 

JULIAN  the  Apostate  (Flavius  Claudia- 
nus),  son  of  Julius  Constans,  the  brother  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  was  born  at  Constan- 
tinople. The  massacre  which  attended  the 
elevation  to  the  throne  of  Constans,  son  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  nearly  proved  fatal  to 
Julian  and  his  brother  Gallus.  The  two 
brothers  were  privately  educated  together, 
and  taught  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
religion.  Gallus  received  the  instructions  of 
his  teachers  with  deference  and  submission ; 
but  Julian  fed  his  dislike  for  Christianity 
by  secretly  cherishing  a desire  to  become  one 
of  the  votaries  of  paganism.  He  was  banished 
to  rule  over  Gaul,  with  the  title  of  Caesar,  by 
Constans,  and  there  he  showed  himself  worthy 
of  the  imperial  dignity  by  his  prudence,  valor, 
and  the  numerous  victories  he  obtained  over 
the  enemies  of  Rome  in  Gaul  and  Germany. 
His  mildness,  as  well  as  his  condescension, 
gained  him  the  hearts  of  his  soldiers;  and 
when  Constans,  to  whom  Julian  became  an 
object  of  suspicion,  ordered  him  to  send  part 
of  his  forces  to  the  east,  the  army  immediately 
mutinied,  and  promised  eternal  fidelity  to 
their  leader,  refusing  to  obey  the  order  of  Con- 
stans. They  even  compelled  J ulian,  by 
threats  and  entreaties,  to  accept  the  title  of 
emperor,  and  the  death  of  Constans,  which 
soon  after  happened,  left  him  sole  master  of 
the  Roman  empire,  a.d.  361. 

His  immediate  disavowal  of  the  doctrines  of 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


463 


TEMPLE  OF  JUPITER  OLYMPIUS  AT  ATHENS. 


Christianity  procured  Julian  the  title  of  the 
Apostate.  His  change  of  religious  opinion 
was  attributed  to  the  austerity  with  which  he 
had  been  taught  the  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
or,  according  to  others,  to  the  literary  conver- 
sation and  persuasive  eloquence  of  some  of  the 
Athenian  philosophers.  After  he  had  made 
his  public  entry  into  Constantinople,  he  de- 
termined to  continue  the  Persian  war,  and 
check  those  barbarians,  who  had  for  sixty 
years  derided  the  indolence  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors. Having  crossed  the  Tigris,  he  burned 
his  fleet  and  boldly  advanced  into  the  enemy’s 
country.  He  defeated  the  Persian  forces,  but 
died  of  a wound  received  in  battle,  a.d.  363, 
aged  thirty-three  years. 

JUNIUS.  From  1769  to  1772  a series  of 
political  letters  appeared  in  Woodfall’s  Public 
Advertiser,  at  London,  that  by  their  force  of 
invective,  their  keenness  of  sarcasm,  and  the 
clear,  brilliant  style  in  which  they  were 
couched,  produced  a powerful  impression,  and 


they  have  since  taken  a place  among  the  stan- 
dard works  in  our  language.  Every  effort 
that  could  be  devised  by  the  government,  or 
prompted  by  private  indignation,  was  made  to 
discover  their  writer,  but  the  authorship  re- 
mains an  unsolved  mystery  to  this  day.  Per- 
haps they  have  been  most  generally  ascribed 
to  Sir  Philip  Francis ; but  they  have  also  been 
plausibly  assigned  to  Lord  George  Sackville, 
Edmund  Burke,  John  Wilkes,  William  Gerard 
Hamilton  (commonly  called  Single-speech 
Hamilton),  Mr.  Dunning  (afterward  Lord  Ash- 
burton), Gen.  Charles  Lee,  the  Duke  of  Port- 
land, Mr.  Adair,  Rev.  J.  Rosenhagen,  John 
Roberts,  Charles  Lloyd,  Samuel  Dyer,  Hugh 
Boyd,  Horne  Took  e,  Lord  Chatham,  Dr.  Fran- 
cis Glover,  John  Lewis  De  Solme,  Rev.  James 
Wilmot,  Gibbon  the  historian,  Suett  the  com- 
edian, the  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  Daniel  Wray, 
Earl  Temple,  Sir  Robert  Rich,  Gov.  Pownall, 
&c.  “I  am  the  depositary  of  my  own  secret, 
and  it  shall  perish  with  me,”  said  Junius. 


JUN 


464 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


JUPITER,  in  mythology,  the  son  of  Rhea 
and  Saturn,  was  concealed  from  his  father, 
who  devoured  his  offspring,  and  brought  up 
in  Crete,  where  he  was  nursed  by  the  nymph 
Amalthea.  He  forced  Saturn  to  surrender  to 
him  the  empire  of  the  world,  which  he  shared 
among  his  brothers,  giving  the  ocean  to  Nep- 
tune, and  hell  to  Pluto,  remaining  himself 
master  of  the  heavens;  he  was  called  the 
father  of  gods  and  men.  The  giants,  descended 
from  his  uncle  Titan,  made  war  upon  him, 
but  were  defeated.  He  gave  Juno,  his  wife 
and  sister,  ample  cause  for  jealousy,  and  from 
the  multiplicity  of  his  intrigues  was  almost 
literal^  the  father  of  his  people.  He  was 
generally  represented  with  thunderbolts  in 
his  hand,  the  eagle  at  his  side,  his  flowing 
hair  encircled  with  a diadem.  His  figure  was 
majestic,  and  a long  beard  added  to  the  im- 
posing aspect  of  his  lofty  countenance.  Bulls, 
in  preference  to  other  animals,  were  sacrificed 
to  him. 

JUNOT,  Andoche,  was  born  in  1771.  At 
the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1794,  Lieut.  Bonaparte 
was  dictating  a dispatch  on  a drumhead  to  a 
sergeant  of  artillery : a ball  struck  the  ground 
hard  by,  scattering  the  dirt  all  about.  “Very 
lucky,”  gayly  cried  the  sergeant,  not  flinch- 
ing; “we  need  no  sand.”  His  bearing  im- 
pressed the  lieutenant  to  say,  “ What  can  I 
do  for  you?”  “Everything!”  said  the  ser- 
geant ; “ you  can  change  my  worsted  shoul- 
der-knot into  an  epaulette.”  The  lieutenant 
did  more  than  this.  Sergeant  Junot  became 
a marshal  of  the  empire  and  Duke  of  Abran- 
tes.  He  died  in  1813. 

JUSTIN  MARTYR  was  born  of  pagan 
parents  in  Samaria  about  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century.  While  yet  a young  man  he 
w'as  converted  to  Christianity,  his  restless 


mind  having  sifted  the  various  philosophies 
of  the  Greeks,  and  wrote  many  treatises  in 
defense  of  the  faith  upon  which  he  settled.  He 
suffered  martyrdom  in  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Antoninus,  about  a.d.  165. 

JUSTINIAN  I.,  surnamed  the  Great,  Em- 
peror of  the  East,  celebrated  as  a lawgiver, 
was  born  in  483,  of  an  obscure  family.  He 
shared  the  fortune  of  his  uncle,  Justin  I.,  who, 
from  a lowly  station,  was  raised  to  the  throne. 
Justinian  flattered  the  people  and  the  senate, 
and,  in  527,  on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  was 
proclaimed  emperor.  He  gained  great  victo- 
ries, and  enacted  admirable  laws,  but  he  loaded 
his  subjects  with  taxes,  and  was  severe  to 
strangers,  while  the  crimes  of  his  own  serv- 
ants went  unpunished.  He  died  in  565,  in 
the  eighty -third  year  of  his  age.  The  digest 
of  the  Roman  law,  known  as  the  Justinian 
code,  is  the  great  glory  of  his  reign. 

JUVENAL,  Decius  Junius,  flourished  at 
Rome  in  the  latter  half  of  the  first  century. 
He  was  sent  to  Egypt  by  Domitian,  w’ho 
dreaded  his  satire,  but  returned  under  Trajan, 
in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age.  His 
sixteen  satires  are  powerful  and  caustic. 

JUXON,  William,  an  English  prelate,  was 
born  at  Chichester,  in  1582.  In  1635  he  w*as 
advanced  to  the  post  of  lord  high  treasurer, 
which  no  churchman  had  held  since  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.  This  office  he  resigned  in 
1641,  when  it  was  admitted  by  all  parties  that 
he  had  conducted  himself  without  reproach. 
After  attending  his  royal  master,  Charles  I., 
during  his  imprisonment  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  on  the  scaffold,  he  went  into  retirement ; 
but  at  the  restoration  he  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  had  the  satisfaction 
of  placing  the  crown  on  the  head  of  Charles 
II.  He  died  June  4th,  1663. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


405 


K. 


KALMUCKS,  a branch  of  the  Mongol  race, 
of  great  antiquity.  Their  tribes  are  scattered. 
In  1759  a part  of  them,  consisting  of  eighteen 
hundred  families,  settled  on  the  Volga,  and 
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the 
Russian  government,  to  whom  they  paid  vol- 
untary allegiance.  Others  are  settled  in  dif- 
ferent parts.  Many  of  them  are  Mohammed- 
ans. Their  personal  appearance  is  far  from 
pleasing,  and  their  habits  are  extremely  rude. 

KAMES.  Henry  Home  (1696-1782),  a 
Scotch  lawyer  and  judge, — in  which  latter 
capacity,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  coun- 
try, he  took  a title  as  Lord  Karnes,-— was  con- 
spicuous in  the  brilliant  literary  society  of 
Edinburgh,  and  wrote  several  metaphysical 
and  ethical  treatises,  the  best  of  which  is 
“ The  Elements  of  Criticism.” 

KANE,  Elisha  Kent,  was  born  at  Phila- 
delphia, Feb.  3d,  1820.  The  most  remarkable 
trait  of  his  boyhood  was  a love  for  feats  of 
daring  and  difficulty.  He  resorted  to  the 
University  of  Virginia  for  a collegiate  educa- 
tion, but  was  arrested  midway  in  the  course 
by  startling  manifestations  of  the  disease 
wrhich  finally  ended  his  life.  For  a long  time 
his  life  was  despaired  of  by  his  famity,  and 
when  he  recovered  it  was  only  to  be  informed 
that  he  might  at  any  moment  fall  as  suddenly 
as  from  a musket-shot.  He  was  now  in  his 
eighteenth  year,  and  about  to  commence  the 
serious  business  of  life  with  the  knowledge 
that  he  had  in  his  system  a fatal  disease  which 
might  suddenly  terminate  his  earthly  career 
at  a moment’s  warning,  and  which  was  sure 
to  be  always  a source  of  pain  and  suffering. 
His  father  said  to  him,  u Elisha,  if  you  must 
die,  die  in  the  harness,”  and  he  resolved  to 
act  in  conformity  with  the  advice,  which  was, 
in  reality,  a matter  of  necessity,  for  inaction 
was  more  injurious  to  him  than  constant  ex- 
posure to  dangers,  and  he  found  that  the  only 
way  to  combat  with  his  enemy  was  to  keep 
himself  incessantly  employed.  There  is  the 
best  authority  for  the  opinion,  according  to 
his  biographer,  that  his  ailments  had  always 
in  them  a preponderating  character  of  neuro- 
pathic disturbance.  Even  when  he  was  com 
30 


paratively  free  from  the  acute  form  of  rheu- 
matic disorder,  his  nerves  were  tingling  and 
rioting  with  irritation.  But  in  the  midst  of 
this  nervous  rioting  he  was  calm,  sedate, 
serious,  and  thoughtful.  His  friends  believing 
that  his  disease  rendered  him  unfit  for  the 
profession  of  an  engineer,  for  which  he  had 
been  preparing,  he  began  the  study  of  medi- 
cine. In  his  twenty-first  year  he  was  elected 
resident  physician  in  the  Pennsylvania  Hos- 
pital. He  attended  strictly  to  his  duties  for 
six  months,  while  he  was  laboring  under  so 
severe  an  attack  of  cardiac  disease  as  to  be 
unable  to  sleep  in  a horizontal  position,  and 
never  closing  his  eyes  at  night  without  the 
feeling  that  the  chances  were  against  his  ever 
opening  them  again  in  this  world.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  inaugural  thesis  on 
“Kyestein,”  which  attracted  attention  even 
among  the  savans  of  Europe.  His  father,  be- 
ing satisfied  that  the  routine  of  a physician’s 
life  would  be  fatal  to  his  son’s  constitution, 
obtained  for  him,  without  his  knowledge,  an 
appointment  as  a surgeon  in  the  navy.  He 
was  greatly  indisposed  to  the  place,  and  the 
position  he  held  on  shipboard  was  always 
odious  to  him.  His  aversion  to  a sea  life 
amounted  to  detestation ; but  he  yielded  to 
his  father’s  wishes,  and  after  his  examination 
prepared  himself  cheerfully  for  his  new  duties. 

He  was  appointed  upon  the  diplomatic 
staff  as  surgeon  to  the  first  American  embassy 
to  China  in  1843,  when  Mr.  Cushing  was 
sent  out  as  commissioner.  On  the  voyage 
out  he  had  the  advantage  of  stopping  at 
Madeira  and  Rio  Janeiro,  at  which  latter  place 
he  improved  his  time  by  making  an  ascent  of 
the  eastern  Andes,  which  rear  their  fantastic 
forms  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.  The  notes 
which  he  made  of  this  exploration  were  un- 
happily lost  while  he  was  traveling  on  the 
Nile.  On  the  voyage  from  Rio  to  Bombay  he 
employed  himself  assiduously  in  the  study 
of  navigation  and  modern  languages.  When 
the  frigate  arrived  at  Bombay,  Mr.  Cushing, 
who  had  gone  out  overland,  intending  to 
come  on  board  at  that  port,  had  not  come. 
Dr.  Kane  directly  began  to' visit  the  caves  of 


KAN 


466 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Elephanta,  and  every  other  object  of  interest  i» 
in  the  neighborhood,  and  then  started  on  an 
elephant  hunt  in  the  island  of  Ceylon. 

They  reached  Canton  in  July,  1844.  Kane 
soon  tired  of  the  sluggishness  of  diplomacy 
in  the  celestial  empire,  and,  obtaining  leave 
of  absence,  set  off  to  explore  the  Philippine 
Islands,  which  he  effected  mainly  on  foot. 
He  was  the  first  man  who  descended  into  the 
crater  of  Tael ; lowered  more  than  a hundred 
feet  by  a bamboo  rope  from  the  overhanging 
cliff,  and  clambering  down  some  seven  hund- 
red more  through  the  scoriae,  he  made  a topo- 
graphical sketch  of  the  interior  of  this  great 
volcanoe,  collected  a bottle  of  sulphurous 
acid  from  the  very  mouth  of  the  crater ; and, 
although  he  was  drawn  up  almost  senseless, 
he  brought  with  him  his  portrait  of  this 
hideous  cavern,  and  the  specimens  which  it 
afforded.  The  natives  were  much  outraged 
at  this  impious  invasion  of  the  dwelling  place 
of  their  deity,  so  that  his  life  was  also  in  peril 
from  them. 

After  the  departure  of  the  embassy  for 
home,  he  remained  at  Canton  to  establish 
himself  as  a physician  ; but,  at  the  end  of 
six  months,  he  was  brought  down  with  the 
rice  fever,  and  came  near  dying,  recovering 
only  after  a long  illness.  He  returned  home 
overland.  Before  he  reached  Philadelphia, 
he  had  ascended  the  Himalayas,  and  triangu- 
lated Greece,  on  foot ; he  had  visited  Ceylon, 
the  Upper  Nile,  and  all  the  mythologic  region 
of  Egypt,  traversing  the  route  and  making 
the  acquaintance  of  the  learned  Lepsius,  who 
was  then  prosecuting  his  archaeological  re- 
searches. He  twice  narrowly  escaped  death ; 
once  in  a skirmish  with  the  Bedouins,  in 
which  he  was  wounded  in  the  leg,  and  then 
from  an  attack  of  plague. 

Dr.  Kane  would  have  resigned  his  post  in 
the  navy,  had  not  honor  forbidden  this  in 
view  of  the  impending  war  with  Mexico.  He 
was  ordered  to  the  frigate  United  States, 
bound  for  the  coast  of  Africa.  Here  he  vis- 
ited the  slave  factories,  from  Cape  Mount  to 
the  river  Bonny,  and,  through  the  infamous 
Da  Souza,  got  access  to  the  barracoons  of 
Dahomey,  and  contracted,  besides,  the  coast 
fever,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  never 
wholly  recovered.  Jle  came  home  invalided. 
Believing  that  his  constitution  was  broken, 
and  his  health  rapidly  going,  he  called  upon 


(President  Polk,  and  demanded  an  opportu- 
nity for  active  service  that  might  crowd  the 
little  remnant  of  his  life  with  achievements 
in  keeping  with  his  ambition.  He  was 
charged  with  dispatches  to  Gen.  Scott,  of  great 
moment  and  urgency,  which  must  be  carried 
through  a region  occupied  by  the  enemy. 
Landed  at  Vera  Cruz,  he  asked  for  an  escort 
to  convey  him  to  the  capital,  but  the  officer 
in  command  had  no  troopers  to  spare : he 
must  wait,  or  he  must  accept,  instead,  a band 
of  ruffian  Mexicans  called  the  spy  company, 
who  had  taken  to  the  business  of  treason  and 
trickery  for  a livelihood.  He  accepted  them, 
and  went  forward.  Near  Puebla  his  troops 
encountered  a body  of  Mexicans  escorting  a 
number  of  distinguished  officers  to  Orizaba, 
among  whom  were  Gen.  Gaona,  governor  of 
Puebla,  his  son  .Maximilian,  and  Gen.  Tore- 
jon,  who  commanded  the  brilliant  charge  of 
horse  at  Buena  Vista.  The  surprise  was 
mutual,  but  the  spy  company  had  the  advan- 
tage of  the  ground.  At  the  first  instant  of 
the  discovery,  and  before  the  rascals  fully 
comprehended  their  involvement,  the  doctor 
shouted  in  Spanish,  “Bravo!  the  capital 
adventure!  colonel,  form  your  line  for  the 
charge!”  And  down  they  went  upon  the 
enemy ; Kane  and  his  gallant  Kentucky 
charger  ahead.  Understanding  the  princi- 
ple that  sends  a tallow  candle  through  a 
plank,  and  that  the  momentum  of  a body  is 
its  weight  multiplied  by  its  velocity,  he 
dashed  through  the  opposing  force,  and  turn- 
ing to  engage  after  breaking  their  line,  he 
found  himself  fairly  surrounded,  and  two  of 
the  enemy  giving  him  their  special  attention. 
One  of  these  was  disposed  of  in  an  instant 
by  rearing  his  horse,  who,  with  a blow  of  his 
fore-foot,  floored  his  man  ; and  wheeling  sud- 
denly, the  doctor  gave  the  other  a sword 
wound,  which  opened  the  external  iliac 
artery,  and  put  him  hors  de  combat.  This 
subject  of  the  doctors  military  surgery  was 
the  young  Maximilian.  The  brief  melee  ter- 
minated with  a cry  from  the  Mexicans,  “ We 
surrender.”  Two  of  the  officers  made  a dash 
for  an  escape:  the  doctor  pursued  them,  but 
soon  gave  up  the.  chase.  When  he  returned, 
he  found  the  ruffians  preparing  to  massacre 
the  prisoners.  As  he  galloped  past  the 
young  officer  whom  he  had  wounded,  he 
heard  him  cry,  “ Senor,  save  my  father.”  A 


KAN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


467 


group  of  the  guerilla  guards  were  dashing'’ 
upon  the  Mexicans,  huddled  together,  with 
their  lances  in  rest.  He  threw  himself  be- 
fore them ; one  of  them  transfixed  his  horse, 
another  gave  him  a severe  wound  in  the 
groin.  He  killed  the  first  lieutenant,  wounded 
the  second  lieutenant,  and  blew  a part  of  the 
colonel’s  beard  off*  with  the  last  charge  of  his 
six-shooter ; then  grappling  with  them  and 
using  his  fists,  he  brought  the  party  to  terms. 
The  lives  of  the  prisoners  were  saved,  and  the 
doctor  received  their  swords.  As  soon  *as 
General  Gaona  could  reach  his  son,  who  lay 
at  a little  distance  from  the  scene  of  the  last 
struggle,  the  doctor  found  him  sitting  by 
him,  receiving  his  last  adieu.  Shifting  the 
soldier  and  resuming  the  surgeon,  he  secured 
the  artery,  and  put  the  wounded  man  in  a 
condition  to  travel.  The  ambulance  got  up  for 
the  occasion  contained  at  once  the  wounded 
Maximilian,  the  wounded  second  lieutenant, 
and  the  man  that  had  prepared  them  for  slow 
traveling,  himself  on  his  litter,  from  the  lance 
wound  received  in  defense  of  his  prisoners ! 
When  they  reached  Puebla,  the  doctor’s 
wound  proved  the  worst  in  the  party.  He  was 
taken  to  the  government  house,  but  the  old 
general,  in  gratitude  for  his  generous  services, 
had  him  conveyed  to  his  own  house.  General 
Childs,  the  American  commander  at  Puebla, 
hearing  of  the  generosity  of  his  prisoner,  dis- 
charged him  without  making  any  terms,  and 
the  old  general  became  the  principal  nurse 
of  his  captor  and  benefactor,  dividing  his 
attentions  between  him  and  his  son,  who  lay 
wounded  in  an  adjoining  room.  This  illness 
of  our  hero  was  long  and  doubtful,  and  he 
was  reported  dead  to  his  friends  at  home. 

After  the  war  was  ended,  he  was  sent  to 
the  Mediterranean  in  the  store-ship  Supply, 
and,  while  on  this  voyage,  was  seized  with  an 
attack  of  tetanus,  the  most  terrible  of  all  dis- 
orders, when,  to  use  his  own  expression,  his 
body  felt  as  though  it  was  composed  of  fiddle- 
strings,  and  a host  of  devils  were  tuning  him 
up.  He  had  not  the  faintest  hope  of  recov- 
ering from  this  disorder,  but  he  did,  and 
returned  to  Norfolk,  not  quite  dead,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1849.  After  a brief  rest  at  home,  he 
was  employed  in  the  coast  survey. 

He  was  bathing  in  the  tepid  waters  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the  12th  of  May,  1850, 
when  he  received  his  telegraphic  order  to 


proceed  forthwith  to  New  York,  for  duty  upon 
the  Arctic  expedition.  In  nine  days  from 
that  date  he  was  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
United  States  on  his  dismal  voyage  to  the 
polar  seas.  Of  this  first  American  expedi- 
tion in  search  of  Franklin,  he  was  the  sur- 
geon, naturalist,  and  historian.  It  returned, 
after  an  absence  of  sixteen  months,  for  nine 
of  which  it  had  been  fast  in  the  ice,  without 
accomplishing  the  generous  object  for  which 
it  had  gone.  The  commander  of  this  expedi- 
tion, Lieutenant  De  Haven,  had  never  even 
heard  of  Doctor  Kane  until  they  met  for  the 
first  time  in  the  navy  yard  at  Brooklyn,  the 
day  before  they  set  sail.  When  he  took  the 
measure  of  the  man  upon  whom  the  health 
of  himself  and  crew  must  depend,  he  felt  a 
misgiving  that  he  was  not  the  right  man 
for  the  place ; if  there  had  been  time,  he 
would  have  requested  the  department  to  ex- 
change him  for  some  more  promising  person. 
He  made  up  his  mind  to  send  the  feeble-look- 
ing  little  doctor  back  as  soon  as  he  got  to 
Greenland,  if  he  should  hold  out  so  long. 
The  doctor  was  as  usual  sea-sick.  When 
they  touched  at  Whale-fish  Island,  after  hav- 
ing been  thirty-one  days  at  sea,  an  English 
transport  ship  was  found  there,  in  which  De 
Haven  benevolently  proposed  to  send  the 
doctor  home  as  an  invalid.  The  doctor  looked 
at  the  commanding  officer  in  blank  dismay, 
and  firmly  said,  “ I won’t  go.”  De  Haven 
soon  knew  him  better. 

Immediately  after  his  return,  Kane  set 
about  organizing  a second  expedition.  Of 
this  he  was  the  commander.  He  left  New 
York,  in  the  Advance,  a brig  of  120  tons, 
May  30th,  1853,  his  destination  being  the 
highest  point  attainable  through  the  north- 
ward of  Baffin’s  Bay,  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  He  found  a temperature  of  100° 
below  the  freezing  point,  and  verified  by 
actual  si^ht  the  fact  of  an  open  sea  in  this 
frigid  region,  which  had  long  been  ques- 
tioned. The  farthest  point  attained  was  a 
precipitous  headland,  named  Cape  Independ- 
ence, in  lat.  81°  22'  N.,  and  long.  65°  35'  W. 
From  it  the  western  coast  was  seen  stretching 
to 'the  north,  with  an  iceless  horizon,  and  a 
heavy  swell  rolling  on  with  white  caps.  Two 
islands  on  the  eastern  threshold  of  this  sea 
were  named  after  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his 
companion,  Captain  Crozier.  On  the  west, 


468 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  coast  was  observed  to  be  mountainous, 
and  the  farthest  distinctly  sighted  point  was 
a lofty  mountain,  estimated  to  be  in  lat.  82° 
30',  and  long.  66 3 west  (approximate),  which 
Dr.  Kane  proposed  to  name  after  Sir  Edward 
Parry,  who,  “as  he  has  carried  his  name  to 
the  most  northern  latitude  yet  reached, 
should  have  in  this,  the  highest  known  north- 
ern land,  a recognition  of  his  pre-eminent 
position  among  Arctic  explorers.” 

The  winter  of  1854  passed  with  many 
trials,  and  in  the  following  summer  it  be- 
came necessary  to  abandon  the  brig  and 
retreat.  On  the  17th  of  May,  Dr.  Kane  com- 
menced his  return  in  sledge-boats.  On  the 
6th  of  August,  in  eighty-three  days  after 
leaving  the  ship,  through  many  perils  and 
escapes,  he  arrived  at  Upernavik,  where  the 
Danish  authorities  gave  him  a cordial  wel- 
come. He  returned  to  New  York  on  the  11th 
of  October,  1855,  after  an  absence  of  thirty 
months.  Anxiety  had  begun  to  be  felt  for 
the  safety  of  his  party,  and  in  the  spring  an 
expedition  had  been  sent  out  for  its  relief, 
under  command  of  Lieut.  Hartstene.  Kane 
and  Hartstene  fell  in  with  each  other,  Sept. 
18th,  and  returned  to  New  York  together. 
The  thrill  of  delight  which  greeted  the  for- 
mer’s appearance  was  saddened  by  the  low 
state  of  his  health.  He  visited  England, 
hoping  to  be  recuperated  by  the  journey. 
Lady  Franklin  had  hoped  he  might  lead  yet 
one  more  party  upon  the  search  which  her 
devoted  heart  could  not  yet  give  over.  But 
Kane’s  strength  sank  lower  and  lower.  A 
resort  to  the  mild  clime  of  Cuba  was  of  no 
avail.  He  died  at  Havana,  Feb.  16th,  1857. 

Dr.  Kane  was  five  feet  six  inches  in  height, 
and  in  his  best  health  weighed  about  one 
hundred  and  thirty-five  pounds.  His  com- 
plexion was  fair,  and  his  hair  soft  and  silken, 
of  a dark  chestnut  color.  His  eyes  were  dark 
gray,  but  lustrous,  with  a wild  light,  when 
his  feelings  were  excited ; and  when  he  was  in 
the  torrent-tide  of  enraptured  action,  the 
light  beamed  from  them  like  flashing  scime- 
tars,  and  in  an  impassioned  moment  they 
gleamed  frightfully.  In  company,  when  the 
talk  ran  glib,  and  everybody  would  be  heard, 
he  was  silent,  but  terse  and  elastic  as  a steel 
spring  under  pressure.  He  had  a way  of 
looking  attentive,  docile,  and  as  interested  as 
a child’s  fresh  wonder ; but  no  one  would 


mistake  the  expression  for  the  admiration  of 
inexperience  or  incapacity ; yet  it  cheated 
many  a talker  into  a self-complaisance  that 
lost  him  the  opportunity  of  learning  something 
of  the  man  he  wanted  to  know.  Idle  curi- 
osity never  made  anything  of  him,  and  he  did 
nothing  at  gossip ; but  inquiry  with  an  aim 
was  never  disappointed. 

His  biographer,  Dr.  Elder,  asked  him  once, 
after  his  return  from  his  last  Arctic  expedi- 
tion, “ for  the  best  proved  instance  that  he 
knew  of  the  soul’s  power  over  the  body ; an 
instance  that  might  push  the  hard-baked 
philosophy  of  materialism  to  the  conscious, 
ness  of  its  own  idiocy.”  He  paused  a mo- 
ment, and  then  said  with  a spring,  “ The  soul 
can  lift  the  body  out  of  its  boots,  sir.  When 
our  captain  was  dying, — I say  dying,  I have 
seen  scurvy  enough  to  knowr, — every  old  scar 
in  his  body  was  a running  ulcer.  If  con- 
science festers  under  its  wounds  correspond- 
ingly, hell  is  not  hard  to  understand.  I 
never  saw  a case  so  bad  that  either  lived  or 
died.  Men  die  of  it  usually  long  before  they 
are  so  ill  as  he  was.  There  was  trouble 
aboard ; there  might  be  mutiny.  So  soon  as 
the  breath  was  out  of  his  body  we  might  be  at 
each  others’  throats.  I felt  that  he  owed  even 
the  repose  of  dying  to  the  service.  I went 
down  to  his  bunk,  and  shouted  in  his  ear, 
‘ Mutiny,  captain,  mutiny  ! ’ He  shook  off  the 
cadaveric  stupor:  ‘Set  me  up,’  he  said,  ‘and 
order  these  fellows  before  me.’  He  heard  the 
complaint,  ordered  punishment,  and  from 
that  hour  convalesced.  Keep  that  man  awake 
with  danger,  and  he  wouldn’t  die  of  anything 
until  his  duty  was  done.” 

Kane  was  a Christian  gentleman.  Dr. 
Elder  makes  a declaration  which  few  biogra- 
phers can  make : “ Bless  the  memory  of  the 
man  for  the  happiness  I have  this  day,  in 
declaring  that  I have  not  been  obliged  to 
suppress  a letter  or  a line  for  the  sake  of  his 
fame.”  His  brief  life  was  crowded  with 
action  and  adventure.  He  visited  India, 
Africa,  Europe,  South  America,  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific,  and  twice  penetrated  the  Arc- 
tic region  to  the  highest  latitudes  attained  by 
civilized  man.  He  encountered  the  extremest 
perils  of  sea  and  land,  in  every  climate  of  the 
globe;  he  discharged  in  turn  the  severest 
duties  of  the  soldier  and  the  seaman  ; attached 
to  the  United  States  navy  as  a surgeon,  he 


KAN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


469 


nevertheless  engaged  at  one  time  in  the  coast 
survey  of  the  tropical  ocean,  and  in  a month 
or  two  we  find  him  exploring  the  frigid  zone; 
and  all  the  while  that  his  personal  experien- 
ces had  the  character  of  romantic  adventure, 
he  was  pushing  them  in  the  spirit  of  scientific 
and  philanthropic  enterprise,  while  suffering 
from  an  organic  disease  which  might  snap 
his  thread  of  life  at  any  moment. 

KANSAS  was  organized  as  a territory  of 
the  United  States  in  1854.  It  includes  a 
vast  tract  of  country,  stretching  west  to  the 
crests  of  the  Rocky  Mountains ; but  its  rich- 
est part  lies  along  the  western  boundary  of 
Missouri,  and  thence  westward  for  a hundred 
and  fifty  miles.  This  district  is  watered  by 
the  Missouri,  the  Kansas  and  its  tributaries, 
and  bj'  the  many  headwaters  of  the  Osage 
and  the  Arkansas;  it  is  a prairie  country, 
the  timber  being  chiefly  confined  to  the  banks 
of  the  streams ; though  these  are  so  numer- 
ous that  the  unwooded  tracts  are  seldom  more 
than  five  miles  across.  The  prairies  are  all 
rolling,  and  in  some  spots  hilly.  The  soil  is 
a rich,  black  loam.  Coal  crops  out  on  many 
of  the  water-courses,  and  may  be  found  to  be 
abundant.  The  climate  of  Eastern  Kansas 
resembles  that  of  Kentucky  and  Missouri: 
it  is  warm  in  summer,  and  in  winter  mild, 
with  now  and  then  a few  severe  frosty  and 
stormy  days  and  nights.  The  wet  season  is 
in  May  and  June,  when  the  rivers  fill,  and 
some  overflow  their  banks.  The  fall  is  the 
dryest  season  of  the  year.  Snow7  in  winter 
rarely  exceeds  tw7o  or  three  inches  in  depth, 
and  soon  disappears.  The  greater  part  of 
the  territory  is  salubrious,  being  high  and 
dry.  The  low,  marshy  grounds  form  but  a 
small  portion  of  Kansas,  and  consequently 
there  is  but  little  danger  from  malaria. 

The  face  of  the  country  is  a continual  suc- 
cession of  undulating  ridges  and  valleys.  In 
the  western  section,  there  is  every  variety  of 
soil  and  aspect,  and  the  scenery  rises  to  great 
sublimity  and  grandeur.  There  are  spark- 
ling streams  and  placid  lakes,  and  an  amount 
of  water-power  surpassing  that  of  any  settled 
portion  of  the  United  States. 

The  area  is  114,793  square  miles. 

Kansas  is  a portion  of  the  great  tract  of 
country  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  France 
in  1803,  known  as  the  Louisiana  purchase, 
and  including  also  the  states  of  Louisiana, 


Arkansas,  Missouri,  IowTa,  and  Minnesota, 
and  the  Indian  and  Nebraska  territories. 
After  the  adoption  of  the  policy  of  Indian 
removals,  the  domain  of  Kansas,  except  a 
small  part  reserved  for  the  original  inhabit- 
ants, was  set  apart  as  the  abode  of  bands 
who  had  been  removed  from  their  ancient 
hunting  grounds  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
Here  were  placed  the  Wyandots,  the  Pota- 
watomies,  the  Kickapoos,  the  Shawmees,  and 
other  tribes,  the  smoke  of  w^hose  wigwams 
once  wreathed  among  the  forests  and  prairies 
north-west  of  the  Ohio.  Some  of  these  In- 
dians became  partly  civilized,  had  farms,  and 
lived  much  in  the  fashion  of  the  poorer 
class  of  Western  settlers.  They  had  been 
induced  to  remove  hither  by  the  promise  that 
this  should  be  their  permanent  home.  But 
the  overland  emigration  to  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia, passing  directly  through  their  terri- 
tory, made  its  value  known ; the  tide  of 
emigration  reached  the  border ; the  fine 
country  was  seen  with  greedy  eyes ; and  the 
necessity  of  a communication  writh  the  Pa- 
cific shore,  and  of  a settled  country  along  the 
road,  gave  a plausible  excuse  for  a speedy 
occupation.  Treaties  were  concluded  with 
several  of  the  Indian  tribes,  by  wrhich  large 
tracts  w7ere  opened  to  settlers ; and  in  May, 
1854,  the  territories  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
were  organized  by  act  of  Congress.  The 
violent  contest  that  sprang  up  between  pro- 
slavery men  and  the  friends  of  free  labor  to 
obtain  the  shaping  of  the  destiny  and  institu- 
tions of  this  fertile  empire,  impelled  an  un- 
precedented tide  of  emigrants  over  the  bor- 
ders, while  it  led  to  many  cruel  wrongs  and 
unhappy  disorders.  Civil  war  desolated  the 
infant  settlements,  and  the  blood  of  freemen 
was  poured  upon  the  soil. 

In  1858  gold  wras  discovered  at  Pike’s  Peak, 
among  the  mountains  in  the  western  section 
of  the  territory.  A large  emigration  rushed 
thither  the  next  spring.  Multitudes  re- 
turned disappointed,  penniless,  and  starving. 
The  final  result  of  the  Kansas  struggle  was, 
that  it  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a free 
state,  Jan.  29,  1861.  Its  capital  is  Topeka, 
and  its  population  in  1870  was  6,869. 

Leavenworth,  on  the  Missouri,  three  miles 
below  Fort  Leavenworth,  is  the  largest- town 
in  Kansas;  it  contains  17,873  inhabitants. 
Lawrence  has  8,320  inhabitants. 


KAN 


470 


COTTAGE  CYCLOP  i D I A OP 


KANT,  Imlanuel,  a distinguished  meta- 
physician, was  born  at  Konigsberg,  in  Prus- 
sia, April  21st,  1724,  and  there  resided  during 
his  long  and  tranquil  life,  dying  Feb.  24th, 
1804. 

KARS,  a town  of  Turkish  Armenia,  re- 
nowned for  its  defense  by  Gen.  Williams  with 
13,000  Turks,  three  months’  provisions,  and 
three  days’  ammunition,  against  the  Russian 
general  iMouravietf  with  an  army  of  .40, 000 
infantry  and  10,000  cavalry,  from  June  18th 
to  Nov.  25th,  1855.  The  sufferings  of  the 
garrison  were  very  great  from  cholera  and 
want  of  food.  On  the  29th  of  September, 
the  Russians  assaulted,  four  times  gaining 
the  redoubt,  and  being  as  often  driven  back. 
Their  loss  was  above  6,000;  that  of  the 
garrison  800.  They  continued  the  siege,  and 
on  the  25th  of  November  famine  compelled 
the  garrison  to  capitulate.  The  British  gov- 
ernment made  the  gallant  defender  a baronet, 
with  the  title,  Sir  William  Fenwick  Williams 
of  Kars. 

KATSBACH,  a rivet  of  Silesia,  near  which 
a battle  was  fought  Aug.  26th,  1818,  between 
the  Prussians  under  Blucher  and  the  French 
under  Macdonald.  This  was  a part  of  the 
great  conflict  known  as  the  battle  of  Dresden. 

KAUFMAN,  Angelica,  an  eminent  French 
female  painter;  died  1807,  aged  sixty -seven. 

KAUNITZ,  Wencelaus  Anthony,  Prince 
of,  a great  statesman  of  Austria,  and  the  able 
counselor  of  Maria  Theresa,  born  in  1711, 
died  in  1794. 

KEAN,  Edmund,  one  of  the  greatest  trage- 
dians that  ever  trod  the  English  stage,  was 
born  in  London,  1787.  He  came  upon  the 
boards  while  yet  a lad,  and  his  promise  in 
elocution  attracting  the  attention  of  Dr.  Drury, 
that  gentleman  placed  him  at  Eton,  where  he 
remained  three  years.  After  various  provin- 
cial appearances,  he  made  his  debut  as  Shy- 
lock,  at  Drury  Lane,  Jan.  26th,  1814.  The 
house  was  thin,  but  enough  were  present  to 
render  a verdict  of  fame,  which  crowded 
audiences  thereafter  stamped  with  approval. 
Kean  visited  America  in  1820,  and  again  soon 
after.  The  career  of  this  meteor  in  the  dra- 
matic firmament  was  marked  by  many  errors 
and  weaknesses.  The  same  impulsiveness  in 
which  they  often  originated,  was  the  spring 
to  profuse  charities  and  large-hearted  benevo- 
lence. He  died  in  England,  May  15th,  1833. 


His  son,  Charles  Kean,  inherited  a large  share 
of  his  talents,  while  endowed  with  more 
prudence  and  stability. 

KEATS,  John,  was  born  in  London,  Oct. 
29th,  1796,  and  in  youth  was  apprenticed  to 
a surgeon.  The  seeds  of  consumption  were 
in  his  frame,  and  when  “Endymion,”  his 
first  poem,  was  savagely  cut  up  in  the  Quar- 
terly Reviewr  such  was  the  agony  of  the 
sensitive  poet  that  he  ruptured  a blood  vessel 
in  the  lungs.  The  disease  progressed  apace ; 
it  was  not  to  be  checked  by  the  warm  Italian 
clime  to  which  he  resorted;  the  poet  “felt 
the  daisies  already  growing  over  him,”  and 
died  at  Rome,  Dec.  27th,  1820, 

KEITH,  James,  a field-marshal  in  the  Rus- 
sian service,  was  born  in  Scotland,  in  1696. 
In  1715  he  joined  the  Pretender,  and  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Sheriff-muir,  but 
made  his  escape  to  France.  From  Paris  he 
went  to  Spain,  and  obtained  a command  in 
the  Irish  brigade ; but,  on  accompanying  the 
Spanish  embassy  to  Russia,  he  entered  into 
the  service  of  that  state,  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  invested  with 
the  order  of  the  Black  Eagle.  By  his  skill 
Oczagon  was  taken ; and,  in  the  war  with 
Sweden,  he  materially  contributed  to  th«, 
victory  of  Wilmanstrand,  and  the  taking  of 
Aland.  He  had,  afterward,  a share  in  raising 
Elizabeth  to  the  throne;  but,  not  being 
rewarded  according  to  his  services,  he  left 
Petersburg  for  Prussia,  where  the  king  made 
him  governor  of  Berlin,  and  field-marshal. 
He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Hochkirchen, 
Oct.  14th,  1758.  Such  was  the  esteem  he  won, 
even  from  opponents,  that  Count  Daun  and 
Count  Lacy,  the  Austrian  commanders,  wept 
at  the  sight  of  his  lifeless  remains,  and  ordered 
their  burial  with  military  honors. 

KELLERMANN,  Francis  Christopher, 
Duke  of  Valmy,  a general  of  the  French  revo- 
lution, was  born  at  Strasburg,  in  1735.  His 
victory  at  Valmy,  over  the  Austrians  and 
Prussians,  Sept.  20th,  1792,  was  the  first  of 
the  series  of  victories  the  French  were  des- 
tined to  win.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon, 
Kellermann  made  his  peace  with  the  restored 
dynasty,  and  died  in  1820. 

KEMBLE,  John  Philip,  was  born  in  Lan- 
cashire, 1757.  He  came  of  a theatrical  family : 
Roger,  his  father,  was  a country  manager ; 
Sarah,  his  sister,  was  Mrs.  Siddons,  than 


KEM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


471 


which  need  more  be  said  of  her  ? Charles  and 
Stephen,  his  brothers,  were  actors  well  liked. 
John,  in  his  classic  rendering  of  characters  in 
tragedy,  approached  the  greatness  of  his  sis- 
ter. He  died  at  Lausanne,  Feb.  26th,  1823, 
of  a paralytic  attack. 

KENT,  James,  one  of  America’s  greatest 
jurists,  was  a native  of  Duchess  county,  N.  Y., 
and  born  July  31st,  1763.  He  graduated  at 


Yale  College  in  1781,  and,  entering  upon  the 
study  and  practice  of  law,  rose  step  by  step, 
till  in  1814  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of 
his  native  state.  Attaining  the  age  of  sixty 
in  1823,  a constitutional  provision  demanded 
his  withdrawal  from  the  chair  he  had  adorned 
by  his  industry  and  decisions.  He  was  after- 
ward law  professor  in  Columbia  College,  and 
died  in  1847. 


KENTUCKY  has  an  area  of  37,680  square 
miles;  population  in  1870, 1,321,011,  includ- 
ing all  classes.  In  the  east  the  country  is 
rugged  and  hilly ; the  acclivities  soften  as 
you  go  westward,  till  they  merge  into  almost 
a level  plain  along  the  Cumberland,  Tennes- 
see, and  Mississippi  Rivers.  The  greater 
portion  of  Kentucky  is  unsurpassed  for  fer- 
tility, but  the  region  watered  by  the  Lick- 
ing, Kentucky,  and  Salt  Rivers,  is  the  garden 
of  the  state,  exceeding  in  beauty  of  scenery 
and  richness  of  soil,  abounding  with  fine 
springs  and  streams,  and  sustaining  the 
largest  proportion  of  the  wealth,  population, 
and  improvement.  A substratum  of  lime- 
stone underlies  all  Kentucky,  and  as  a conse- 
quence there  are  many  large  caverns,  sinks, 
and  subterranean  waters.  Some  of  the  caves 
are  of  wonderful  dimensions,  as  the  Mammoth 
cave,  in  Edmonson  country,  whose  magnifi- 
cent avenues  have  been  explored  many  miles, 
and  still  stretch  into  mysterious  gloom  for 
unknown  spaces  beyond.  Streams  flow 
through  .its  recesses,  and  in  their  dark 
depths  eyeless  fish  are  found : what  need  of 


eyes  in  waters  over  which  broods  the  black- 
ness of  an  eternal  night ! 

The  mineral  resources  of  Kentucky  have 
not  yet  been  fully  explored.  Iron,  orej  bitu- 
minous coal,  and  lime  are  frequent.  Salt  is 
cheaply  made  from  the  salt  springs  of  the 
Kanawha  region.  These  springs  were  called 
licks  by  the  early  settlers,  since  they  were 
favorite  resorts  of  the  deer  and  other  animals, 
who  were  fond  of  licking  the  saline  efflores- 
cences so  abundant  around  them.  The  same 
name  was  applied  to  the  sulphureted  foun- 
tains that  occur.  Kentucky  has  made  some 
advance  in  manufactures : bagging,  bale-rope, 
and  cordage  are  extensively  made ; the 
Bourbon  whiskey  is  largely  distilled  from 
rye.  Agriculture  is  the  most  prevalent 
occupation,  and  maize,  wheat,  hemp,  and 
tobacco  are  the  great  staples.  Cattle,  horses, 
sheep,  and  swine  are  bred  in  great  numbers. 

Kentucky  was  originally  a part  of  Vir- 
ginia. Permanent  settlements  were  begun 
within  its  limits  in  1774.  The  border  war- 
fare with  the  Indians,  in  which  the  lives  of 
the  pioneers  were  often  lost,  gained  it  the 


KEN 


472 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


dreary  name  of  ‘ the  dark  and  bloody 
ground.’  These  dangers  and  trials  sank 
gradually  under  the  steady  stream  of  immi- 
gration, and  in  1792  Kentucky  took  her 
place  in  the  Union.  The  present  constitution 
was  ratified  in  1850.  A normal  school  has 
been  established  at  Lexington.  The  state 
institutions  for  the  relief  of  the  unfortunate 
consist  of  lunatic  asylums  at  Lexington  and 
Hopkinsville,  a deaf-mute  asylum  at  Danville, 
and  a school  for  the  blind  at  Louisville. 

Kentucky  sought  to  remain  “ neutral  ” in 
the  rebellion,  but  was  in  fact  on  the  side  of 
the  South.  Bishop  Polk  fortified  Columbus, 
Sept.  1861,  on  which  Grant  with  a Union 
force  instantly  seized  Paducah,  and  “ neutral- 
ity” was  at  an  end.  The  battle  of  Mill 
Spring,  Jan.  19,  1862,  gave  the  Unionists  the 
command  of  eastern  Kentucky,  and  the  fall 
of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  (Feb.  6 and  16, 
1862,)  forced  Johnston  to  evacuate  the  cen- 
ter of  the  state  and  Polk  the  west  of  it  at 
once;  and  the  rebels  after  that  time  never 
did  more  than  make  incursions  into  it,  secretly 
raise  men  and  means  among  their  numerous 
sympathizers  within  it,  and  use  their  aid  in 
obtaining  information. 

Frankfort,  the  capital,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Kentucky  River,  surrounded  by  a pic- 
turesque amphitheatre  of  hills,  had  in  1870, 
5,396  inhabitants.  The  beautiful  town  of 
Lexington  is  the  oldest  of  the  state.  A party 
of  hunters  while  encamped  here  first  heard 
of  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution  at 
Lexington  and  Concord ; hence  the  name ; 
population  in  1870,  14,801.  The  largest 
towTn  in  Kentucky  is  Louisville,  founded  in 
1778,  and  christened  two  years  after  in  honor 
of  Louis  XVI.,  the  ally  of  America.  Its 
commerce  and  manufactures  are  extensive, 
and  in  1 8 70  it  had  1 00, 753  inhabitants.  Cov- 
ington, Newport,  and  Maysville  are  other 
thriving  towns. 

KIDD,  Robert,  was  sent  out  with  an 
armed  vessel  to  put  down  piracy,  but  the 
adage,  ‘ set  a rogue  to  catch  a rogue,’  did  not 
work  well,  for  he  turned  pirate  himself.  He 
was  arrested  at  Boston,  in  1699  sent  to  Eng- 
land, and  there  hung  in  1701.  The  legends 
of  treasures  Kidd  and  his  comrades  buried 
and  sunk  along  the  New  England  coast  or  in 
the  Hudson,  have  not  died  out  even  yet 


KILLICRANKIE,  Battle  of,  fought  in 
Scotland  July  17th,  1689,  between  the  forces 
of  William  III.,  and  the  adherents  of  James 
II.,  commanded  by  Graham  of  Claverhouse, 
who  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory. 

KING,  Rufus,  a distinguished  American 
diplomatist,  orator,  and  statesman,  born  at 
Scarborough,  Maine,  in  1755,  and  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College,  in  1777 ; after 
which  he  studied  law  under  Theophilus  Par- 
sons of  Newburyport.  After  having  served 
a short  time  in  the  army,  he  commenced  the 
practice  of  his  profession,  and  obtained  a 
seat  in  the  congress  of  1784.  In  1787  he 
went  from  Massachusetts  to  the  convention 
assembled  for  the  purpose  of  framing  a con- 
stitution, and  in  1788  removed  to  New  York 
city.  The  next  year  he  was  elected  a mem- 
ber of  the  New  York  legislature,  and  chosen 
senator  of  the  United  States.  In  the  spring 
of  1796,  Mr.  King  was  appointed  by  Washing- 
ton minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of 
St.  James,  and  continued  in  the  discharge 
of  the  duties  of  his  office  until  1803,  when 
he  returned  to  this  country.  From  1813  to 
1825  he  was  again  in  the  federal  senate.  He 
was  sent  by  Mr.  Adams  minister  to  England 
once  more,  but  failing  health  compelled  him 
to  return.  He  died  April  29th,  1827,  in  the 
seventy -third  year  of  his  age. 

KING’S  EVIL,  supposed  to  be  cured  by 
the  touch  of  the  kings  of  England.  This 
vulgar  credulity  had  in  the  time  of  Charles 
II.  arisen  to  such  a height,  that,  in  fourteen 
years,  92,107  persons  were  touched;  and, 
according  to  Wiseman,  the  king’s  physician, 
they  were  nearly  all  cured ! The  first  who 
touched  for  it  was  Edward  the  Confessor, 
1 058.  The  practice  was  dropped  by  George  I. 

KLEBER,  Jean  Baptiste,  a celebrated 
French  general,  born  at  Strasburg,  in  1754 
In  the  Austrian  army  he  served  against  the 
Turks,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant. 
He  next  enrolled  himself  under  the  banners 
of  the  French  republic,  and  although  he 
openly  expressed  his  detestation  of  the  policy 
of  the  revolutionary  government,  he  experi- 
enced the  favor  of  the  directory,  who  were 
loath  to  part  with  so  able  a soldier.  Of  the 
nature  of  his  command  in  Egypt,  and  the 
manner  of  his  death,  June  14th,  1800,  we 
have  already  spoken.  [See  Egypt.] 


KLE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


473 


KLOPSTOCK,  Frederick,  an  eminent 
German  poet,  author  of  “ The  Messiah,”  born 
1724,  died  1803,  aged  seventy-nine. 

KNELLER,  Sir  Godfrey,  born  at  Lubeck 
about  1 648,  was  a famous  portrait  painter  in 
England  in  the  days  of  the  second  Charles 
and  James,  and  William  III.  He  died  in 
1723. 

KNIGHTHOOD,  Orders  of.  We  have 
elsewhere  given  an  account  of  the  rise  and 
decline  of  Chivalry,  of  the  manner  in  which 
Tournaments  were  conducted,  with  sketches 
of  the  most  famous  orders,  such  as  those  of 
the  Garter  and  the  Bath,  the  Templars,  and 
the  knights  of  Malta.  It  will  not  be  inap- 
propriate, here,  briefly  to  review  the  other 
important  orders  which  gave  a lustre  to  the 
institution  of  knighthood. 

As  regards  those  knights  who,  without  any 
other  addition,  are  thus  styled,  they  are  of 
the  greatest  antiquity.  For  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  Romans  (a  gowned  nation), 
who  bestowed  on  each  entering  upon  man’s 
estate  a virile  gown,  the  Germans  bestowed 
upon  their  young  men,  when  fit  to  handle 
arms,  armor  and  weapons.  Tacitus  speaks 
of  this  custom : “ The  manner  was  not  for 
any  one  to  take  arms  in  hand,  before  the 
state  allowed  him  as  sufficient  for  martial 
service.  An£  then  in  the  very  assembly  of 
counsell  either  some  one  of  the  princes,  or 
the  father  of  the  young  man,  or  one  of  his 
kins  folke,  furnish  him  with  a shield  and  a 
javelin.  This  with  them  standeth  instead 
of  a virile  gown  ; this  is  the  first  honor  done 
to  youth ; before  this  they  seeme  to  be  but 
part  of  a private  house,  but  now  within  a 
While  members  of  the  commonweale.”  Hence 
the  origin  of  knights,  or,  as  they  are  termed 
in  the  German  language,  icnechts ; which 
was  the  simple  form  of  creating  a knight, 
used  also  in  former  times  by  the  Lombards, 
the  Franks,  and  the  English,  who  are  de- 
scended from  the  Germans. 

Paulus  Diaconus  says  that  among  the 
Lombards,  “ It  is  the  custom  for  the  king’s 
son  not  to  dine  with  his  father,  unless  he 
have  previously  received  arms  from  some 
foreign  king.”  It  is  also  recorded  in  the 
annals  of  the  French  nation,  that  the  kings 
of  the  Franks  gave  arms  to  their  sons  and 
others,  and  girded  them  with  a sword.  King 
Alfred  of  England,  when  he  dubbed  his 


nephew  Athelstane  a knight,  gave  him  a 
scarlet  mantle  set  with  precious  stones,  and 
a Saxon  sword  with  a golden  scabbard.  In 
the  course  of  time,  the  English,  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Normans,  received  their 
knightly  arms  with  religious  ceremonies. 
Ingulphus  says  : “ He  that  was  to  be  conse- 
crated unto  lawful  warfare,  should  the  eve- 
ning before,  with  a contrite  heart,  make 
confession  of  his  sins  unto  the  bishop,  abbot, 
monk,  or  priest,  and  being  absolved,  give 
himself  to  prayer,  and  lodge  all  night  in  the 
church,  and  on  his  going  to  hear  divine  ser- 
vice the  next  day,  to  offer  his  sword  upon 
the  altar:  and  after  the  gospel,  the  priest 
was  to  put  the  sword,  being  previously 
blessed,  upon  the  knight’s  neck,  with  his 
benediction,  and  thus  after  he  had  heard 
mass  again,  or  received  the  sacrament,  he 
became  a lawful  knight.”  This  custom  did 
not  become  absolute  among  the  Normans. 

Kings  were  afterward  accustomed  to  send 
their  sons  to  neighboring  courts  to  receive 
the  honors  of  knighthood.  Thus  Henry  II. 
sent  to  David,  King  of  Scots ; and  Malcolm, 
King  of  Scots,  to  Henry  II.  ; and  Edward  I. 
of  England  to  the  King  of  Castile.  It„was 
at  this  time  also  that  to  the  sword  and  girdle, 
already  in  use,  gilt  spurs  were  added  as  an 
extra  ornament,  whence  to  this  day  knights 
are  called  in  Latin  Equites  aurate.  Moreover, 
they  had  the  privilege  of  wearing  and  using 
a signet. 

In  the  succeeding  age,  knights  were  cre- 
ated from  their  wealth.  Concerning  the 
creation  of  knights,  Matthew  Florilegus,  in 
the  time  of  Edward  I.,  has  written  as  fol- 
lows: “The  king  for  to  augment  and  make 
goodly  show  of  his  expedition  into  Scotland, 
caused  public  proclamation  to  be  made 
throughout  England,  that  whosoever  were 
to  be  made  knights  by  hereditary  succession, 
and  had  wherewith  to  maintain  that  degree, 
should  present  themselves  in  Westminster, 
at  the  feast  of  Whitsuntide,  there  to  receive 
every  one  the  ornaments  of  a knight  (saving 
the  equipage  or  furniture  that  belongeth  to 
horses)  out  of  the  king’s  wardrobe.  When 
as  therefore  there  flocked  thither  to  the  num- 
ber of  three  hundred  gallant  youths,  the 
sons  of  earls,  barons,  and  knights,  purple 
liveries,  fine  silk  scarfs,  robes  most  richly 
embroidered  with  gold,  were  plentifully  be- 


KNI 


474 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


stowed  among  them,  according  as  vras  befit- 
ting each  one : an.d  because  the  king’s  palace 
(large  though  it  were)  was  ‘ streited  ’ of  room 
for  so  great  a multitude  assembled,  they  cut 
down  the  apple-trees  about  the  new  temple 
in  London,  laid  the  walls  along,  and  there  set 
up  pavilions  and  tents,  wherein  these  noble 
young  gallants  might  array  and  set  out 
themselves  one  by  one  in  their  gorgeous  and 
golden  garments.  All  the  night  long  also, 
these  foresaid  youths,  as  many  as  the  place 
would  receive,  watched  and  prayed  in  the 
said  temple.  But  the  Prince  of  Wales,  by 
commandment  of  the  king  his  father,  held 
his  wake,  together  with  the  principal  and 
goodliest  men  of  this  company,  within  the 
church  of  AVestminster.  Now  such  sound 
was  there  of  trumpets,  so  loud  a noise  of 
minstrelsy,  so  mighty  an  applause  and  cry 
of  those  that  for  joy  shouted,  that  the  chant- 
ing of  the  convent  could  not  be  heard  from 
one  side  of  the  quire  to  the  other. 

“ AVell,  the  morrow  after,  the  king  dubbed 
his  son  knight,  and  gave  him  the  girdle  of 
knighthood  in  his  own  palace,  and  there- 
with bestowed  upon  him  the  duchy  of  Aqui- 
taine. The  prince  then,  thus  created  knight, 
went'  directly  into  Westminster  church  for  to 
grace  with  the  like  glorious  dignity  his  peers 
and  companions.  But  so  great  was  the  press 
of  people  thronging  from  the  high  altar,  that 
two  knights  were  thronged  to  death,  and 
very  many  of  them  fainted,  and  were  ready 
to  swoon ; yea,  although  every  one  of  them 
had  three  soldiers  at  least  to  lead  and  pro- 
tect him : the  prince  himself,  by  reason  of 
the  multitude  pressing  upon  him,  having 
divided  the  people  by  means  of  steeds  of  ser- 
vice, no  otherwise  than  upon  the  high  altar 
girt  his  foresaid  companions  with  the  orders 
of  knighthood.” 

At  present,  a person  on  whom  the  title  of 
knight  is  conferred,  kneels  down,  when  the 
king,  with  his  drawn  sword,  slightly  taps  him 
on  the  shoulder,  saying  to  him  in  French, 
u So  is  chevalier  au  nova  tie  Dieu ,”  that  is, 
“Be  thou  a knight  in  the  name  of  God;” 
afterward  his  majesty  adds,  “Avancez,  chev- 
alier,”  “Arise,  sir  knight.” 

The  honor  of  knighthood  was  formerly  so 
highly  and  sacredly  prized  that  if  anything 
was  promised  on  the  faith  and  honor  of  a 
knight,  it  was  always  performed  in  the  most 


scrupulous  and  punctilious  manner,  at  what- 
ever risk  it  was  undertaken.  AVhen  a knight 
was  disgraced  for  having  offended  the  laws, 
and  sentenced  to  suffer  death,  he  was  first 
despoiled  of  his  ensigns  of  knighthood,  by 
taking  off  his  military  girdle,  taking  away 
his  sword,  cutting  his  spurs  off  with  a hatchet; 
his  gauntlets  or  gloves  were  then  torn  from 
him,  and  the  escutcheon  of  his  arms  reversed. 

The  first  account  (according  to  Sir  AVilliam 
Segar)  that  we  have  of  ceremonies  in  making 
a knight  in  England,  was  in  the  year  506. 
A stage  was  erected  in  some  cathedral,  or  spa- 
cious place  near  it,  to  which  the  gentleman 
was  conducted  to  receive  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood. Being  seated  on  a chair  decorated  with 
green  silk,  it  was  demanded  of  him  if  he  were 
of  good  constitution,  and  able  to  undergo  the 
fatigue  required  of  a soldier;  also,  whether 
he  was  a man  of  good  morals,  and  what  cred- 
ible witnesses  he  could  produce  to  affirm  the 
same. 

Then  the  bishop,  or  chief  prelate  of  the 
church,  administered  the  following  oath: 
“Sir,  you  that  desire  to  receive  the  honor  of 
knighthood,  swear,  before  God  and  this  holy 
book,  that  you  will  not  fight  against  his  maj- 
esty, that  now  bestoweth  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood upon  you ; you  shall  also  swear  to  main- 
tain and  defend  all  ladies,  gentlemen,  widows, 
and  orphans ; and  you  shall  shtin  no  adven- 
ture of  your  person  in  any  way  where  you 
shall  happen  to  be.” 

The  oath  being  taken,  two  lords  led  him  to 
the  king,  who  drew  his  sword,  and  laid  it  upon 
his  head,  saying,  “ God  and  Saint  George  [or 
whatever  other  saint  the  king  pleased  to  name] 
make  thee  a good  knight.”  After  this,  seven 
ladies  dressed  in  white,  came  and  girt  a sword 
to  his  side,  and  four  knights  put  on  his  spurs. 
These  ceremonies  being  over,  the  queen  took 
him  by  the  right  hand,  and  a duchess  by  the 
left,  and  led  him  to  a rich  seat,  placed  on  an 
ascent,  where  they  seated  him,  the  king  sit- 
ting on  his  right  hand,  and  the  queen  on  his 
left.  Then  the  lords  and  ladies  sat  down  upon 
other  seats,  three  descents  under  the  king ; 
and  being  all  thus  seated,  they  were  enter- 
tained with  a delicate  collation ; and  so  the 
ceremony  ended. 

If  any  knight  absented  himself  dishonorably 
from  his  king’s  service,  leaving  his  colors,  go- 
ing over  to  the  enemy,  betraying  castles,  forts, 


KNI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


475 


&c.,  for  such  crimes  he  was  apprehended,  and 
caused  to  be  armed,  and  then  seated  on  a 
scaffold  erected  in  the  church;  where,  after 
the  king  had  sung  some  funeral  psalms,  as 
though  he  had  been  dead,  they  first  took  off 
the  knight’s  helmet  to  show  his  face,  then  his 
military  girdle,  broke  his  sword,  cut  off  his 
spurs  from  his  heels  with  a hatchet,  pulled  off 
his  gauntlets,  and  afterward  his  whole  armor, 
and  then  reversed  his  coat  of  arms.  After 
this  the  heralds  cried  out,  “ This  is  a disloyal 
miscreant,”  and,  with  many  other  ignoble 
ceremonies,  he  was  thrown  down  the  stage 
with  a rope. 

The  Knights  of  the  Thistle  is  a Scotch  or- 
der. As  to  the  origin  of  this  ancient  order, 
John  Lesly,  Bishop  of  Ross,  in  his  “History 
of  Scotland,”  says  it  took  its  beginning  from 
a bright  cross  in  heaven,  like  that  -whereon 
St.  Andrew  the  apostle  suffered  martyrdom, 
which  appeared  to  Achaius,  King  of  Scots, 
and  Hungus,  King  of  the  Piets,  the  night  be- 
fore the  battle  was  fought  betwixt  them  and 
Athelstane,  King  of  England,  as  they  were  on 
their  knees  at  prayer;  when  St.  Andrew? 
their  tutelary  saint,  is  said  also  to  have  ap- 
peared, and  promised  to  these  kings  that  they 
should  always  be  victorious  when  that  sign 
appeared.  These  kings  prevailing  over  Ath- 
elstane in  battle  the  next  day,  they  went  in 
solemn  procession,  barefooted,  to  the  kirk  of 
St.  Andrew,  to  return  thanks  to  God  and  his 
apostle  for  their  victory,  vowing  that  they 
and  their  posterity  would  ever  wear  the  figure 
of  that  cross  in  their  ensigns  and  banners. 
The  place  where  this  battle  was  fought  retains 
to  this  day  the  name  of  Athelstane’s  Ford,  in 
Northumberland.  James  Y.  of  Scotland,  in 
1534,  received  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece 
from  the  Emperor  Charles  V. ; as  also  that  of 
St.  Michael  from  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  1535, 
and  that  of  the  Garter  in  1536,  from  Henry 
VIII.  of  England;  and  in  memory  of  the  re- 
ception of  these  orders,  keeping  open  court, 
he  solemnized  the  several  feasts  of  St.  Andrew, 
the  Golden  Fleece,  St.  Michael,  and  St.  George 
of  England,  that  the  several  princes  might 
know  how  much  he  honored  their  orders. 
He  set  the  arms  of  the  princes  (encircled  with 
their  orders)  over  the  gates  of  his  palace  at 
Linlithgow,  with  the  order  of  St.  Andrew. 
About  the  time  of  the  reformation  this  order 
was  scarcely  used,  the  knights  then  being  so 


zealous  for  the  reformed  religion,  that  they 
left  their  order ; and  it  was  not  resumed  till 
the  reign  of  James  VII.  (II.  of  England),  who 
created  eight  knights,  and  for  their  better 
regulation,  signed  a body  of  statutes,  and  ap- 
pointed the  royal  chapel  at  Holyrood  to  be 
the  chapel  of  the  order,  as  it  still  continues. 
Queen  Anne  restored  this  order  to  its  ancient 
magnificence. 

The  order  of  Knights  of  St.  Patrick  was 
instituted  by  George  III.,  Feb.  5th,  1783,  con- 
sisting of  the  sovereign,  a grand  master,  a 
prince  of  the  blood  royal,  thirteen  knights, 
and  seven  officers.  The  first  investiture  of 
knights  of  this  order  was  performed  the  11th 
of  March,  1783,  with  much  ceremony.  Motto, 
Quis  separabit  ? “ Who  shall  part  us  ? ” 

The  order  of  Knights  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George  was  instituted  April  27th,  1818,  for 
the  united  states  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and 
for  the  ancient  sovereignty  of  Malta  and  its 
dependencies,  consisting  of  eight  knights- 
grand-crosses,  twelve  knights-commanders, 
and  twenty-four  knights,  exclusive  of  British 
subjects  holding  high  and  confidential  employ 
in  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  in  the  government 
of  Malta  and  its  dependencies.  Motto,  Aua- 
picium  melioris  cevi.  Ribbon,  red  with  blue 
edges. 

The  order  of  knights  bachelors  is  ihe  most 
ancient,  though  the  lowest,  in  England.  It 
was  accounted  the  first  of  all  military  dignity, 
and  the  foundation  of  all  honors.  The  word 
bachelor  was  added  by  Henry  III.,  and  the 
order  so  styled,  because  this  title  of  honor 
dies  with  the  person  to  whom  it  is  given,  and 
descends  not  to  his  posterity. 

We  must  not  omit  some  account  of  the 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table.  Arthur,  King 
of  the  Britons,  succeeded  his  father,  Uthur 
Pendragon,  who  was  brother  to  Aurelius  Am- 
brosius,  the  third  son  of  Constantine.  Uthur 
married  Igren,  Duchess  of  Cornwall,  by  whom 
he  had  this  son  Arthur  (born  at  Tindagal  in 
Cornwall),  who  was  the  eleventh  king  of  Eng- 
land from  the  departure  of  the  Romans,  and 
was  crowned  about  the  year  506.  King  Ar- 
| thur,  having  expelled  the  Saxons  from  Eng- 
I land,  conquered  Norway,  Scotland,  and  the 
greatest  part  of  France,  where  he  was  crowned 
at  Paris ; and,  returning  home,  lived  with  such 
splendor,  that  many  princes  and  knights  came 
from  all  parts  to  his  court,  to  give  proof  of 


KNI 


476 


C 0 T T A (2  E CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


their  valor  in  the  exercise  of  arms.  Upon 
this  he  erected  a fraternity  of  knights,  which 
consisted  of  four  and  twenty,  of  whom  he  was 
chief;  and  to  avoid  controversies  about  pre- 
cedency, he  caused  a round  table  to  be  made, 
from  which  they  were  denominated  Knights 
of  the  Round  Table.  The  said  table,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  hangs  up  in  the  castle  of 
Winchester,  where  they  used  to  meet;  the 
time  of  their  meeting  was  at  Whitsuntide. 

None  were  admitted  but  those  who  gave 
sufficient  proofs  of  their  valor  and  dexterity 
in  arms.  They  were  to  be  always  well  armed 
for  horse  or  foot ; “ they  were  to  protect  and 
defend  widows,  maidens,  and  children,  relieve 
the  distressed,  maintain  the  Christian  faith, 
contribute  to  the  church ; to  protect  pilgrims, 
advance  honor,  and  suppress  vice;  to  bury 
soldiers  that  wanted  sepulchres;  to  ransom 
captives,  deliver  prisoners,  and  administer  to 
the  cure  of  wounded  soldiers,  hurt  in  the  ser- 
vice of  their  country ; to  record  all  noble  en- 
terprises, that  the  fame  thereof  may  ever  live 
to  their  honor  and  the  renown  of  the  noble 
order.”  Upon  any  complaint  made  to  the 
king,  of  injury  or  oppression,  one  of  these 
knights,  whom  the  king  should  appoint,  was 
to  revenge  the  same.  If  any  foreign  knight 
came  to  court,  with  desire  to  show  his  prow- 
ess, some  one  of  these  knights  was  to  be  ready 
in  arms  to  answer  him.  If  any  lady,  gentle- 
woman, or  other  oppressed  and  injured  person 
did  present  a petition,  declaring  the  same, 
whether  the  injury  was  done  here,  or  beyond 
sea,  he  or  she  should  be  graciously  heard, 
and,  without  delay,  one  or  more  knights 
should  be  sent  to  take  revenge.  Every  knight, 
for  the  advancement  of  chivalry,  should  be 
ready  to  inform  and  instruct  young  lords  and 
gentlemen  in  the  exercises  of  arms.  According 
to  Guillim,  there  was  no  robe  or  habit  pre- 
scribed unto  these  knights,  nor  could  he  find 
with  what  ceremony  they  were  made,  neither 
what  offices  belonged  to  the  said  order,  except 
a register  to  record  their  noble  enterprises. 

In  June,  1757,  the  Empress-Queen  of  Ger- 
many instituted  the  Military  Order  of  Maria 
Theresa,  which  was  at  first  composed  of  an 
unlimited  number  of  knights,  divided  into 
two  classes ; the  first  of  which  wear  the  badge 
of  the  order  pendent  to  a broad  striped  wa- 
tered ribbon,  of  which  two-fifths  are  black 
and  three-fifths  yellow,  sashway s over  the 


right  shoulder,  and  a cross  or  star  embroid- 
ered in  silver  on  the  left  breast  of  their  outer 
garment.  The  second  class  wear  the  badge 
pendent  to  a narrow  striped  ribbon  at  the 
button-hole.  This  order  continued  from  its 
first  institution  until  the  year  1765,  when  the 
emperor  added  an  intermediate  class,  styled 
knights-commanders,  who  wear  the  ribbon 
sashways,  but  without  any  star  on  the  outer 
garment.  The  badge  of  the  order  is  a cross 
of  gold,  enameled  white,  edged  with  gold ; on 
the  centre  are  the  arms  of  Austria  encircled 
with  the  word  fortitudine,  and  on  the  reverse 
is  a cipher  of  the  letters  M.  T.  F.  {Maria  The- 
resa Fundator)  in  gold,  on  an  enameled 
ground.  This  order  is  conferred  on  military 
men  only. 

The  Ladies’  Order  in  Honor  of  the  Cross  is 
another  German  order.  A conflagration  which 
happened  at  the  emperor’s  palace  in  the  year 
1668,  was  the  occasion  of  the  foundation  of 
this  order.  The  badge  of  the  order  is  a golden 
medal  chased  and  pierced ; in  the  centre  the 
imperial  eagle,  over  all  a cross  surmounted 
with  the  letters  I.  H.  S.,  and  a small  cross  over 
the  H.,  with  this  motto,  Salus  et  Gloria , 
“ Safety  and  Glory.” 

Eleonora  di  Gonzaga,  widow  of  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  III.,  instituted  the  order  of  Ladies 
Slaves  to  Virtue  in  1662,  and  declared  herself 
sovereign#  of  it.  The  number  that  compose  it 
is  limited  to  thirty,  all  to  be  of  the  Romish 
religion,  and  of  the  best  nobility.  The  badge 
worn  by  the  ladies  of  this  order  is  a golden 
sun,  encircled  with  a chaplet  of  laurel,  enam- 
eled green,  with  this  motto  over  it,  Sola  uni- 
que triumphat.  It  is  worn  pendent  at  the 
breast  to  a small  chain  of  gold,  or  a plain 
narrow  black  ribbon. 

The  order  of  the  Bear  was  instituted  at  the 
abbey  of  St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland,  by  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  II.,  in  the  year  1213.  St. 
Ursus,  being  the  patron  of  it,  communicated 
the  name  to  the  same ; it  flourished  from  its 
institution  until  the  revolution  by  which  the 
house  of  Austria  lost  the  Swiss  cantons,  when 
it  was  abolished.  The  collar  was  a gold  chain 
interlaced  with  oak  leaves,  from  which  hung 
the  figure  of  a black  bear  on  a medallion. 

The  order  of  the  Elephant  is  a Danish  order 
of  great  celebrity.  It  was  instituted  by 
Christian  I.,  on  the  marriage  of  his  son  John 
with  Christina  of  Saxony,  in  the  year  1478, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


477 


since  which  time  it  has  subsisted  without  in- 
terruption or  degradation.  It  is  now  conferred 
only  on  princes  of  the  blood,  foreign  princes, 
or  noblemen  of  the  first  rank.  The  knights 
of  it  are  addressed  by  the  title  of  excellency. 
On  ordinary  occasions  they  wear  the  badge  of 
the  order  pendent  to  a sky-blue  watered  rib- 
bon, worn  sashways  over  the  right  shoulder, 
and  a star  of  eight  points  embroidered  in  sil- 
ver on  the  left  side  of  their  outer  garments. 
But  on  days  of  ceremony  they  wear  it  pendent 
to  a collar  of  gold  composed  of  elephants  and 
towers.  The  badge  is  an  elephant,  on  his 
back  a castle  enameled,  and  on  the  side  of  the 
elephant  a cross  of  Danebrog  in  diamonds. 

The  order  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  the  most 
illustrious  order  of  knighthood  in  France.  It 
was  instituted  by  Henry  III.,  in  the  year  1579, 
on  Whitsunday,  the  festival  on  which  he  was 
born  in  the  year  1551,  elected  King  of  Poland 
in  1573,  and  called  to  the  throne  of  France  in 
the  year  1574.  The  number  of  persons  that 
Gomposed  it  was  limited  by  the  statutes  to  one 
hundred,  exclusive  of  the  sovereign  or  grand- 
master. Of  these,  four  cardinals,  five  prelates, 
the  chancellor,  the  master  of  the  ceremonies, 
the  treasurer,  the  register,  and  the  provost, 
were  styled  commanders,  without  being  con- 
sidered as  knights,  though  they  usually  wore 
the  badges  of  the  order.  All  were  to  profess 
the  R.oman  Catholic  religion  ; and  the  knights 
were  to  prove  the  nobility  of  their  descent  for 
a hundred  years  and  upward ; but  no  proofs 
of  this  kind  were  required  of  the  commanders, 
whbse  offices  or  honors  were  commonly  sold 
at  a regulated  price.  The  King  of  France 
was  sovereign  or  grand-master  of  it ; and  by 
the  statutes  this  office  was  inalienably  annexed 
to  the  crown,  but  he  could  not  exercise  its 
functions  until  after  his  coronation,  when  he 
was  installed,  with  much  ceremony,  as  sover- 
eign of  the  order.  To  be  a knight  of  it,  it  was 
necessary,  for  all  except  princes  of  the  blood, 
to  have  attained  the  age  of  thirty-three,  and 
to  have  been  admitted  into  the  order  of  St. 
Michael,  into  which  even  the  princes  must 
enter  at  sixteen  years  old.  The  dauphin  only 
was  excepted  from  this  rule,  he  being  received 
into  both  orders  on  the  day  of  his  birth.  The 
commanders  were  not  knights  of  the  order  of 
St.  Michael,  and  here  arises  the  difference  be- 
tween their  styles  and  titles  and  those  by 
which  the  knights  were  distinguished;  the 


knights  being  called  Chevaliers,  des  Ordres 
du  Roy  ; and  the  commanders,  if  ecclesiastics, 
Commandeur  de  V Ordre  du  St.  Esprit;  if 
laymen,  Commandeur  des  Ordres  du  Roy. 

The  Royal  and  Military  Order  of  St.  Louis 
was  instituted  by  Louis  XIY.  in  the  year 
1693,  and  by  the  statutes  of  it  the  office  of 
the  sovereign  or  grand-master  was  annexed 
to  the  crown.  It  was  conferred  on  naval  and 
military  officers,  who  had  distinguished  them- 
selves in  the  service  at  any  age  or  at  any 
time ; but,  unless  they  had  done  so,  they  did 
not  obtain  it  until  they  had  served  five  and 
twenty  years  as  commissioned  officers  : after 
that  period,  they  expected  it  as  a matter  of 
right,  more  than  of  favor ; hence  it  happened 
that  the  number  of  knights  was  great  and 
unlimited.  In  this  order  were  three  classes  ; 
the  first  of  forty  knights,  who  were  styled 
Chevaliers  Grand  Croix.  They  wore  a flame- 
colored  watered  ribbon  sashways,  to  which 
was  pendent  a cross  of  eight  points,  enameled 
white,  edged  with  gold ; in  the  angles  four 
fleurs  de  lis,  and  on  the  middle  a circle, 
within  which  on  one  side  was  the  image  of 
St..  Louis  in  armor,  with  the  royal  mantle 
over  it,  holding  in  his  left  hand  a crown  of 
thorns,  and  in  his  right  hand  a crown  of 
laurel,  and  the  three  passion  nails,  all  proper, 
with  this  inscription,  Ludovicus  Magnus  in - 
stitui  anno  1693  ; on  the  reverse  a sword 
erect,  the  point  through  a chaplet  of  laurel, 
bound  with  a white  ribbon,  enameled  with 
this  motto,  Bellicce  virtutis  prcemium : be- 
sides which  they  wore,  embroidered  on  the 
left  side  of  their  outer  garment,  a gold  star 
of  eight  points  with  fleurs  de  lis  at  the  angles 
and  the  figures  of  St.  Louis,  with  the  motto 
on  the  centre.  The  second  class  were  eighty 
in  number,  and  were  styled  Chevaliers  com- 
mandeurs , &c.  These  wore  the  ribbon  and 

badge  in  the  same  manner  as  the  knights  of 
the  former  class,  but  had  no  star  embroidered 
on  their  outer  garment.  The  third  class  was 
not  limited  to  any  number,  and  the  knights 
of  it  were  styled  simply  Chevaliers  de  V Ordre 
Roy  ale  et  Militaire  de  St.  Louis.  These  wore 
the  badge  of  the  order  pendent  to  a flame- 
colored  watered  ribbon,  at  the  button-hole 
of  their  outer  garment.  The  knights  of  the 
first  class  had  pensions  of  from  four  to  six 
thousand  livres  a year,  and  when  a vacancy 
happened  among  them,  it  was  filled  by  the 


KNI 


478 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


next  seniority  of  the  second  class.  The 
knights  of  the  second  class  had  pensions  of 
from  three  to  four  thousand  livres  a year,  and 
the  vacancies  that  happened  among  them 
were  filled  up  by  the  king,  from  among  the 
most  favored  and  deserving  of  the  third  class. 
The  knights  of  the  third  class  had  no  pen- 
sions of  right,  but  it  frequently  happened 
that  the  poorest  and  the  most  distinguished 
of  them  obtained  small  pecuniary  favors, 
which  they  termed  gratification.  It  was  not 
necessary  to  be  of  a noble  family  to  be  ad- 
mitted into  this  order ; nor  did  it  ennoble  the 
family  of  the  person  who  obtained  it,  though 
it  gave  him  the  privileges  of  the  noblesse , and 
if  there  were  three  knights  of  it,  in  regular 
succession,  in  a plebeian  family,  it  ennobled 
all  the  branches  of  it.  All  knights  of  this 
order  must  be  Roman  Catholics. 

The  knights  of  the  order  of  Bourbon  were 
sometimes  called  knights  of  the  Thistle,  and 
knights  of  Our  Lady.  They  were  in  number 
twenty-six,  were  instituted  by  Louis  the 
Good,  Duke  of  Bourbon,  in  honor  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  in  the  year  1370,  and  became  extinct 
soon  after.  Their  motto  was  Allons , and  on 
their  collar  was  the  word  Esperance. 

The  order  of  the  Death’s  Head  was  first 
instituted  by  the  Duke  of  W urtemburg,  in  the 
year  1652,  and  both  sexes  were  equally  ad- 
mitted to  it;  but,  having  soon  fallen  into 
disuse,  it  was  revived  again  in  the  year  1709, 
by  Louise  Elizabeth,  widow  of  Philip,  Duke 
of  Saxe  Mersburg,  and  daughter  of  the  orig- 
inal founder.  The  badge  of  this  order  is  a 
death’s-head,  enameled  white,  surmounted 
with  a cross  pattee  black ; above  the  cross 
pattee  another  cross  composed  of  five  large 
jewels,  by  which  it  hangs  to  a black  ribbon 
edged  with  white,  and  on  the  ribbon  these 
words,  Memento  Mori,  worn  at  the  breast. 
But  on  the  death  of  any  of  the  order,  the 
survivors  wear  the  badge  pendent  to  a black 
ribbon  over  a white  one,  on  which  is  the 
name  of  the  deceased. 

Some  of  the  orders  of  knighthood  in  Pales- 
tine and  other  parts  of  Asia  were  very  cele- 
brated. The  order  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in 
Jerusalem,  according  to  Favin,  was  instituted 
by  Baldwin  L,  King  of  Jerusalem,  who  made 
the  regular  canons  (which  then  resided  in  a 
convent  adjoining  to  the  holy  sepulchre) 
knights  of  the  said  order ; they  were  to  guard 


| the  holy  sepulchre,  to  relieve  and  protect 
! pilgrims.  The  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  was 
! appointed  their  grand-master,  with  power 
for  conferring  the  order,  and  receiving  the 
vow  made  by  the  knights,  which  was  of 
chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience.  Their 
habit  was  white,  and  on  their  breast  a gold 
cross  potence,  cantoned  with  four  crosses  of 
the  same  without  enamel,  pendent  to  a 
black  ribbon.  - They  wore  the  cross  of  )rellow 
embroidery  on  the  left  side  of  their  robe. 
When  the  city  of  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  the  knights  retired  to  Italy,  and 
settled  at  Pemgia,  and  were  afterward  united 
to  the  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  [ See 
Malta,  Knights  of.] 

The  Polish  order  of  the  White  Eagle  was 
first  instituted  in  the  year  1325,  by  Uladis- 
laus  V. ; but,  having  soon  fallen  into  disuse,  it 
lay  in  oblivion  till  the  year  1705,  wrhen  Au- 
gustus, Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Po- 
-land,  revived  it  as  an  instrument  to  attach 
to  his  own  interest  and  person  several  of  the 
Polish  nobility,  "who,  he  feared,  were  inclined 
to  Stanislaus,  his  competitor.  Motto,  Pro 
fide,  rege , lege. 

Alphonso  Henriquez,  King  of  Portugal, 
instituted  the  order  of  the  Wing  of  St.  Mi- 
chael in  the  year  1165,  in  commemoration  of 
a victory  obtained  by  him  over  the  Moors, 
whom  he  imagined  he  overcame  by  the 
direct  interposition  of  St.  Michael,  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  legend,  appeared  fighting  in 
the  king’s  right  wing. 

The  order  of  St.  George  in  Rome  was  insti- 
tuted, according  to  some,  by  Pope  Alexander 
VI.,  in  the  j^ear  1496,  or,  according  to  Mi- 
chaeli,  by  Pope  Paul  III.,  to  encourage  naval 
men  to  defend  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  against 
pirates.  The  badge  of  it  was  a cross  of  gold 
within  a circle  of  the  same,  like  an  open 
crown. 

The  order  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  was 
instituted  by  Leo  X.  in  the  year  1520,  to 
defend  the  sea-coasts  of  his  territories  against 
the  Turks  who  threatened  them. 

The  order  of  the  Black  Eagle  was  instituted 
by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  at  his  coronation 
in  the  year  1701.  By  the  statutes  of  it,  the 
number  of  knights,  exclusive  of  the  prin- 
ces of  the  blood,  is  limited  to  thirty^,  who 
must  all  be  admitted  into  the  order  of 
Generosity  previous  to  their  receiving  this, 


KNI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


479 


unless  they  be  sovereign  princes ; the  knights 
to  prove  their  nobility  by  sixteen  descents. 
The  kings  of  Prussia  are  perpetual  grand- 
masters of  it.  There  belong  to  it  a chan- 
cellor, who  is  also  a knight,  a master  of  the 
ceremonies,  and  a treasurer.  The  ensign  of 
the  order  is  a gold  cross  of  eight  points  enam- 
eled blue,  having  at  each  angle  a spread 
eagle  enameled  black,  and  charged  with  a 
cipher  of  the  letters  F.  R.  This  each  knight 
wears  commonly  pendent  to  a broad  orange 
ribbon,  worn  sashways  over  the  left  shoulder, 
and  a silver  star  embroidered  on  the  left  side  of 
their  outer  garment,  whereon  is  an  escutcheon 
containing  a spread  eagle,  holding  in  one 
claw  a chaplet  of  laurel,  and  in  the  other  a 
thunderbolt,  with  this  motto  in  gold  letters 
round  it,  Suum  cuique.  The  king  chose  the 
Black  Eagle,  being  the  arms  of  Prussia,  and 
the  color  of  the  ribbon,  on  account  of  his 
mother,  a Princess  of  Orange. 

First  among  the  Russian  orders  is  that  of 
St.  Andrew.  Peter  the  Great  instituted  this 
order  in  the  year  1698,  and  chose  for  its 
patron  St.  Andrew  (on  account  of  this  apos- 
tle’s having  been,  according  to  tradition,  the 
founder  of  Christianity  among  the  Musco- 
vites)! His  motive  for  instituting  this  order 
was  to  animate  his  nobles  and  chief  officers 
in  their  wars  against  the  Turks  ; and  he  con- 
ferred it  on  those  who  had  signalized  them- 
selves in  his  service. 

The  order  of  the  Sword  in  Cyprus  was 
instituted  by  Guy  de  Lusignan,  about  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century,  soon  after  he  had 
acquired  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  by  purchase 
from  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion.  This  order  was 
on  its  institution  conferred  on  three  hundred 
barons,  who  were  then  created : it  continued 
to  flourish  until  it  became  extinct  on  the 
Turks  conquering  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Mot- 
to, Securitas  regni. 

The  most  celebrated  Spanish  order  was  the 
Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  This  order  was 
instituted  at  Bruges,  in  Flanders,  the  10th  of 
January,  1429  (the  day  of  his  marriage  with 
his  third  wife,  Isabella  of  Portugal),  by  Philip, 
Duke  of  Burgundy.  The  occasion  of  its 
institution  is  a subject  of  controversy  among 
antiquaries:  but  it  appears  most  probable, 
that,  having  determined  to  institute  an  order 
of  knighthood,  he  chose  for  the  badge  of  it 
the  material  of  the  staple*manufactories  of  his 


country,  which  was  the  fleece ; and  this  em- 
blem might  have  been  the  more  agreeable  to 
him  from  the  figure  it  made  in  the  heroic  ages 
of  the  world,  when  the  Argonautic  expedi- 
tion was  undertaken  for  it.  The  order  con- 
sisted of  thirty-one  knights,  including  the 
sovereign,  who  were  of  the  first  families  in 
the  Low  Countries.  The  knights  wore  a 
scarlet  cloak  lined  with  ermine,  with  a collar 
opened,  and  the  duke’s  cipher,  in  the  form  of 
a B,  to  signify  Burgundy,  together  with  flints 
striking  fire,  with  the  motto  “ Ante  ferity 
quam  flamma  micat .”  At  the  end  of  the 
collar  hung  a golden  fleece,  with  this  device, 
“ Pretium  non  vile  Idborum .”  When  the 
Netherlands  fell  to  Spain,  the  king  of  that 
country  was  grand-master,  and  the  order  be- 
came common  to  all  the  princes  of  the  house 
of  Austria,  as  being  descended  from  Mary 
of  Burgundy,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
last  duke  of  that  country. 

The  order  of  St.  Mark  was  conferred  by  the 
Doge  of  Venice,  and  by  the  senate,  upon 
persons  of  eminent  quality,  or  such  as  had 
deserved  well  of  the  state.  In  the  year  828, 
the  body  of  St,  Mark  was  removed  from  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt  (where  it  was  buried)  to  the 
city  of  Venice.  This  saint  was  taken  for  their 
tutelar  saint  and  guardian.  His  picture  was 
anciently  painted  upon  their  ensigns  and 
banners.  Motto,  Pax  tibi , Marce  Evangelista 
Meus. 

The  title  of  knight  was  sometimes  given  to 
women  also.  As  an  instance  (the  first  we 
read  of),  it  was  conferred  on  the  women  who 
preserved  the  city  of  Tortosa  from  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  Moors  in  1149,  by  their 
stout  resistance  to  the  attacks  of  the  besieged, 
by  which  means  the  Moors  were  forced  to 
raise  the  siege.  Large  immunities  and  favors 
were  bestowed  upon  them  and  their  descend- 
ants for  their  heroism  on  this  occasion. 

KNOX,  John,  the  celebrated  Scotch  re- 
former, was  born  in  1505,  at  Gifford,  in  the 
county  of  East  Lothian.  Though  bred  a 
friar,  he  early  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation.  He  became  tutor  to  some 
young  gentlemen  whom  he  carefully  brought 
up  in  Protestant  principles.  Notwithstand- 
ing his  life  was  sought  by  Cardinal  Beaton, 
and  his  successor,  Archbishop  Hamilton, 
Knox  went  on  propagating  the  new  doctrines ; 
and,  in  1547,  preached  publicly  at  St,  An- 


KNO 


480 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


drews  ; but  that  place  being  taken  the  same 
year  by  the  French,  he  was  carried  off  with 
the  garrison.  In  1549  he  recovered  his  lib- 
erty, and  landed  in  England,  where  he  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Edward  VI.  On  the 
accession  of  Mary,  he  went  to  Geneva  and 
thence  to  Frankfort,  where  he  took  part  with 
the  English  exiles  who  opposed  the  use  of  the 
liturgy ; but  their  adversaries  prevailing, 
Knox  returned  to  Geneva,  and  soon  after  went 
to  Scotland.  While  engaged  in  the  ministry, 
he  received  an  invitation  to  return  to  Geneva, 
with  which  he  complied ; and,  in  his  absence, 
the  bishops  passed  sentence  of  death  on  him 
for  heresy.  In  1558  he  printed  “The  First 
Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the  Monstrous 
Regiment  of  Women,”  intended  as  an  attack 
upon  Mary  of  England  and  his  own  sovereign  ; 
but  it  had  afterward  the  effect  of  provoking 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  her  ministers  against 
the  author.  The  year  following  he  returned 
to  his  own  country,  where  he  rendered  the 
Reformation  triumphant.  In  1567  he  preach- 
ed the  sermon  at  the  coronation  of  James 
VI.  He  died  at  Leith,  Nov.  24th,  15*72. 

KNOX,  Henry,  was  born  at  Boston,  July 
25th,  1750.  He  was  a bookseller  before  the 
Revolution,  but  volunteered  and  served  at 
Bunker  Hill.  Throughout  the  war  he  had 
command  of  the  artillery  department,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery,  par- 
ticularly at  York  town,  after  which  he  was 
created  major-general  by  Congress.  As  sec- 
retary of  war,  he  served  eleven  years.  His 
death  took  place  Oct.  25th,  1806,  a:t  Thomas- 
ton,  Maine. 

KORAN.  The  Koran,  or  Alcoran  (A1  Ko- 
ran), of  Mahomet  was  written  about  a.d. 
610.  Its  general  aim  was  to  unite  the  pro- 
fessors of  idolatry  and  the  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians in  the  worship  of  one  God  (whose  unity 
was  the  chief  point  inculcated),  under  certain 
laws  and  ceremonies,  exacting  obedience  to 
Mahomet  as  the  prophet.  It  was  written  in 
the  Koreish  Arabic,  and  this  language,  which 
possesses  every  fine  quality,  was  said  to  be 
that  of  paradise.  Mahomet  asserted  that 
the  Koran  was  revealed  to  him  during  a 
period  of  twenty -three  years,  by  the  angel 
Gabriel.  The  style  of  this  volume  is  beau- 
tiful, fluent,  and  concise,  and  where  the 
majesty  and  attributes  of  God  are  described, 
iff  is  sublime  and  magnificent.  Mahomet 


admitted  the  divine  mission  both  of  Moses 
and  Jesus  Christ.  The  leading  article  of  faith 
which  he  preached,  is  compounded  of  an 
eternal  truth  and  a necessary  fiction,  namely, 
that  there  is  only  one  God,  and  that  Mahomet 
is  the  apostle  of  God.  The  Koran  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  in  1148,  and  into  English 
and  other  European  languages  about  1763, 
et  seq.  It  is  a rhapsody  of  three  thousand 
verses,'  divided  into  one  hundred  and  four- 
teen sections. 

KORNER,  Theodore,  a celebrated  Ger- 
man poet,  born  in  1791.  Feeble  and  sickly 
during  his  early  youth,  he  roamed  the  garden 
and  forest  in  pursuit  of  health,  and  was  not 
prematurely  doomed  to  study.  His  earliest 
instructions  were  received  at  Freyburg,  but 
he  afterward  went  to  Leipzig,  which  imprudent 
conduct  compelled  him  to  quit.  The  month 
of  August,  1811,  the  date  of  Korner’ s arrival 
at  Vienna,  commenced  the  most  important  era 
of  his  life.  Shielded  by  the  purity  of  his  prin- 
ciples and  the  strength  of  his  religious  con- 
victions, he  was  uninfluenced  by  the  fascinat- 
ing allurements  of  that  gayest  and  most  light- 
hearted of  cities ; nor  did  he  for  a moment  for- 
get that  the  improvement  of  his  literary  taste, 
and  the  development  of  his  moral  character, 
was  a primary  object  in  his  visit  to  Vienna. 
The  brilliant  talents  which  then  encircled  the 
Viennese  theatres  wTith  a halo  of  brightness, 
fired  the  imagination  of  Korner,  and  he  re- 
solved to  appear  publicly  as  a candidate  for  the 
dramatic  laurel.  Sixteen  pieces,  of  different 
kinds,  composed  or  finished  in  the  space  of 
fifteen  months,  and  the  greater  part  performed 
with  a success  which  far  exceeded  the  expect- 
ations of  the  youthful  poet,  were,  together  with 
a few  fugitive  poems,  the  first  fruits  of  his  resi- 
dence in  a world  which  was  completely  litera- 
ry, as  w^ell  as  the  earliest  proofs  of  his  talent  for 
easy  versification.  On  the  first  representa- 
tion of  one  of  his  tragedies,  the  audience 
demanded  the  appearance  of  the  author,  an 
honor  to  poetic  talent  rarely  accorded  in 
Vienna.  Cherished  and  admired  by  the 
public,  he  was  soon  made  the  dramatic  poet 
of  the  court.  This  appointment  secured  his 
worldly  fortune,  and,  as  if  to  fill  his  happiness 
to  the  brim,  he  was  inspired  by  an  ardent 
passion  for  a worthy  object,  and  no  dark 
shadow  fell  upon  the  tide  of  his  affections. 

Such  was  the  er^riable  situation  of  Korner, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


481 


when,  at  the  commencement  of  the  y ear  1813, 
Prussia  called  upon  ker  sons  to  win  back  for 
her  the  priceless  guerdon  of  her  national  in- 
dependence. This  appeal  found  an  echo  in 
the  bosom  of  the  poet.  From  this  moment, 
all  his  thoughts,  all  his  affections,  turned  on 
the  liberation  of  his  country,  to  whose  service 
he  devoted  his  person  and  his  pen,  and  to 
whom  he  was  ready  to  sacrifice  his  life,  his 
fortune,  and  his  prospect  of  glory  and  love. 
As  soon  as  he  had  resolved  to  fight  for  the 
emancipation  of  Germany,  warmed  with  that 
enthusiasm  which  has  ever  been  repaid  wfith 
victory,  he  wrote  thus  to  his  father:  “The 
Prussian  eagle,  extending  his  pinions,  awakes 
in  every  bosom  a hope  of  national  liberty. 
At  this  moment,  when  the  stars  of  fate  are 
pouring  dowm  on  me  a flood  of  brightness, 
when  all  the  fascinating  joys  of  life  are  within 
my  reach, — at  this  moment,  I swear  to  God 
that  it  is  a noble  sentiment  which  animates 
me ; a firm  belief  that  no  sacrifice  is  too  great 
for  the  greatest  of  blessings,  the  liberty  of  our 
beloved  country.  I feel  compelled  to  rush 
into  the  fury  of  the  tempest.  Shall  I,  far 
from  the  path  of  my  victorious  brethren, 
send  them  hymns  and  songs  inspired  by  a 
safe  and  cowardly  enthusiasm  ? ” 

lie  set  out  from  Vienna  on  the  15th  of 
March,  and  at  Breslau  was  admitted  into  the 
corps  of  volunteers  commanded  by  Lutzow, 
whose  care  had  formed  the  band  that  bore  his 
name.  Youth  distinguished  by  the  high  tone 
of  their  sentiments,  and  the  finish  of  their 
education ; officers  already  known  by  honor- 
able services;  men  of  high  rank  and  reputa- 
tion, filled  with  a patriotic  and  religious  en- 
thusiasm,— had  assembled  in  crowds  beneath 
the  banners  of  Lutzow,  burning  to  avenge 
the  humiliation  of  Prussia.  A few  days  after 
the  admission  of  Korner,  the  affecting  and 
inspiring  ceremony  of  the  consecration  of 
Lutzow’s  corps  took  place  in  the  village 
church. 

Ardent,  brave,  and  devoted  to  his  military 
duties,  Korner  avoided  no  fatigues  and  perils, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  was  only  wearied  with 
inaction.  He  rose,  by  degrees,  to  the  post 
of  adjutant  to  Lutzow,  and  owed  this  ad- 
vancement only  to  the  intrepidity  and  intelli- 
gence which  he  displayed  on  every  occasion. 


Still,  poetry  and  song  occupied  his  leisure 
moments;  but  instead  of  being  his  recrea- 
tions, they  had  become  his  arms : his  lyre 
was  no  less  formidable  than  his  sword.  The 
events  of  the  day,  his  personal  emotions,  and 
the  patriotism  of  his  country  are  displayed 
in  his  verses. 

On  the  26th  of  August,  the  corps  of  Lutzow 
confronted  the  French  at  Kitzen.  During  an 
hour’s  halt  in  a forest,  Korner  composed  his 
famous  “Sword  Song.”  At  break  of  day  he 
wrote  it  in  his  portfolio,  and  was  reading  it 
to  a friend,  when  the  signal  for  attack  was 
given.  The  enemy,  although  superior  in 
point  of  numbers,  made  but  a brief  resistance. 
Korner  showed  himself  fiercely  eager  in  the 
pursuit.  Of  a shower  of  balls  which  the 
French  artillerists  poured  upon  the  Prussians, 
but  three  took  effect,  and  one  of  these  carried 
to  the  bosom  of  the  poet,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two,  that  glorious  death  which  he  had  so 
poetically  prophesied  and  so  religiously  de- 
sired. His  mortal  remains  were  interred  by 
the  wayside,  at  the  foot  of  an  oak,  the  tree 
whose  leaves  were  employed  by  the  ancient 
Romans  to  form  their  civic  crowns. 

KOSCIUSKO,  Thaddeus,  a Polish  general, 
was  born  of  a respectable  family  of  Lithuania, 
in  1756,  and  was  educated  at  the  military 
school  of  Warsaw,  after  which  he  went  to 
France,  and  next  to  America,  where  he  served 
as  aid-de-camp  to  Washington.  On  his  re- 
turn home  he  was  made  major-general,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  war  of  1792 
against  the  forces  of  the  royal  thieves  who 
had  divided  Poland  among  themselves.  Two 
years  afterward  the  Poles  again  took  up  arms, 
and  were  headed  by  Kosciusko ; but  all  his 
exertions  were  fruitless,  and  he  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  Russians.  Catharine  threw 
him  into  a dungeon ; Paul  released  him,  and 
tendered  him  his  own  sword,  which  the  illus- 
trious patriot  declined:  “I  no  longer  need  a 
sword,  for  I have  no  longer  a country.” 
Kosciusko  visited  America  a second  time, 
but,  in  1798,  returned  to  France,  where  he 
settled.  Bonaparte  vainly  endeavored  to  pro- 
cure his  services.  His  death  was  occasioned 
by  a fall  with  his  horse  down  a precipice,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Vevay,  Switzerland,  Oct.  16th, 


1817. 
KOS 


31 


482 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


L. 


LABOR.  Some  account  of  the  wages 
which  labor  received  in  England  in  the  olden 
time  may  not  be  uninteresting.  The  wages 
of  sundry  workmen  were  first  fixed  by  act  of 
parliament,  25th  Edward  III.,  1352.  Hay- 
makers had  but  one  penny  a day ; a mower 
of  meadows  5 d.  per  day,  or  6d.  an  acre. 
Reapers  of  corn,  in  the  first  week  of  August, 
2d,  in  the  second  3d,  per  day,  and  so  till  the 
end  of  August,  without  meat,  drink,  or  other 
allowance,  finding  their  own  tools.  A master 
carpenter  3d  a day,  other  carpenters  2d  per 
day ; a master  mason  4 d.  per  day,  other  ma- 
sons 3d  per  day;  and  their  servants  1 id  per 
day.  By  the  34th  Edward  III.,  1361,  chief 
masters  of  carpenters  and  masons,  4d  a day, 
and  the  others  3d  or  2d  as  they  are  worth ; 
13th  Richard  IT.,  1389,  the  wages  of  a bailiff 
of  husbandry  13s.  4d  per  year,  and  his  cloth- 
ing bnce  a year  at  most ; the  carter  10s.  ; 
shepherd  10s. ; oxherd  6s.  8d ; cowherd  6s. 
8d  ; swineherd  6s. ; a woman  laborer  6s.  ; 
driver  of  plough  7s.  From  this  up  to  the 
time  of  23d  Henry  VI.,  the  price  of  labor  was 
fixed  by  the  justices  by  proclamation.  In 
time  of  harvest,  a mower  4d  a day ; without 
meat  and  drink  6d ; reaper  or  carter  3d  a 
day ; without  meat  and  drink  5 d ; woman 
laborer,  and  other  laborers,  2d  a day ; with- 
out meat  and  drink  4 id  per  day.  By  the 
11th  Henry  VII.,  1496,  there  was  a like  rate 
of  wages,  only  with  a little  advance ; as,  for 
instance,  a free  mason,  master  carpenter, 
rough  mason,  bricklayer,  master  tiler,  plumb- 
er, glazier,  carver,  joiner,  was  allowed  from 
Easter  to  Michaelmas  to  take  6d  a day,  with- 
out meat  and  drink,  or  with  meat  and  drink 
4d  ; from  Michaelmas  to  Easter  to  abate  Id 
A master  having  under  him  six  men  was 
allowed  Ida  day  extra.  By  the  6 th  Henry 
VIII.,  1515,  the  wages  of  shipwrights  were 
fixed  as  follows:  a master  ship-carpenter, 
taking  charge  of  the  work,  having  men  under 
him,  5 d a day  in  the  summer  season,  with 
meat  and  drink ; other  ship-carpenter,  called 
a hewer,  4d ; an  able  clincher,  3d  ; holder, 
2d  ; master  caulker,  4d  ; a mean  caulker, 
311. ; a day  laborer,  by  the  tide,  4d 


LA  FAYETTE,  Gilbert  Mottier,  Marquis 
de,  was  born  at  Chavagnac,  near  Brionde,  in 
Auvergne,  Sept.  6th,  1757.  He  was  educated 
at  Paris,  appointed  an  officer  in  the  guards 
of  honor,  and,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  married 
the  daughter  of  the  Duke  de  Noailles.  In 
1777  he  left  France  secretly,  lest  his  gener- 
ous scheme  should  be  thwarted,  and  hastened 
to  America,  arriving  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  to 
wield  his  sword  in  behalf  of  liberty.  He 
received  a command  in  the  continental  army, 
and  raised  and  equipped  a body  of  men  at  his 
own  expense.  The  gallant  actions  which  he 
performed  will  forever  live  in  the  annals  of 
our  country.  In  1779  he  returned  to  France, 
for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  cause  of 
America,  and  materially  influenced  the  treaty 
which  was  then  concluded  with  France.  He 
returned  and  assumed  the  command  of  a body 
of  2,000  men,  whose  equipments  were  fur- 
nished partly  at  his  own  expense.  After 
displaying  chivalric  gallantry,  as  at  York- 
town,  the  young  marquis  once  more  set  sail 
for  his  native  country.  In  1784  he  complied 
with  the  various  urgent  entreaties  to  visit 
this  country,  and  was  everywhere  received 
with  the  most  touching  marks  of  gratitude 
and  esteem.  During  the  French  revolution 
he  appeared  the  warm  and  consistent  friend 
of  liberty,  but  the  enemy  of  licentiousness, 
and,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  national 
guard  of  Paris,  saved  the  lives  of  the  ro}ral 
family  at  Versailles.  He  organized  the  club 
of  Feuillans,  in  opposition  to  the  infamous 
Jacobin  club,  the  members  of  which  he  open- 
ly denounced.  He  was  appointed,  in  1792, 
one  of  the  major-generals  of  the  French 
armies,  and  vainly  endeavored  to  save  the 
king.  His  exertions  in  the  cause  of  human- 
ity procured  his  denunciation  before  the  bar 
of  the  assembly ; a price  was  set  upon  his 
head,  and  he  was  compelled  to  fly  from 
France.  But  he  was  taken  by  the  Austrians, 
and  confined  in  the  castle  of  Olmutz,  until 
Aug.  27th,  1797,  when  he  was  released.  La 
Fayette  opposed  the  usurpations  of  Napoleon, 
whose  conciliatory  offers  he  refused  without 
a single  exception.  In  1824,  he  was  once 


LAF 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  483 


more  the  guest  of  the  American  nation.  He 
landed  at  New  York  in  August,  and  passed 
triumphantly  through  each  of  the  states, 
being  received  everywhere  with  every  demon- 
stration of  delight.  The  war-worn  veterans 
of  the  Revolution  hailed  his  return  to  the 
scenes  of  his  earliest  exploits,  and  there  was 
not  one  dissentient  voice  in  the  acclamations 
which  welcomed  him.  Sept.  7th,  1825,  the 
frigate  Brandywine  restored  him  to  his  coun- 
try. In  the  December  following,  Congress 
granted  him  $200,000,  and  a township  of 
land.  During  the  French  revolution  of  1830, 
La  Fayette  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of 
the  national  guards,  an  office  which  he  re- 
signed in  December.  The  death  of  this  great 
man  was  duly  noticed  both  in  France  and 
this  country.  A political  opponent,  once  out 
of  the  arena,  was  to  La  Fayette  no  longer 
anything  but  a friend ; the  circle  of  those 
admitted  to  share  his  private  hospitality  was 
so  ample  that  it  comprised  the  partisans  of 
nearly  every  doctrine,  and  almost  the  natives 
of  every  clime;  but  no  feeling  was  ever 
wounded,  nor  even  a prejudice  assailed,  with- 
in its  sacred  limits.  It  was,  doubtless,  to 
this  admirable  feature  in  his  private  charac- 
ter that  he  owed  much  of  the  affectionate 
esteem  with  which  every  party  regarded  him, 
and  which  turned  Paris — frivolous,  volatile 
Paris — into  a city  of  mourning  at  his  death. 
He  died  May  21st,  1834,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
seven,  of  a malignant  fever,  occasioned  by 
walking  bareheaded  at  the  funeral  of  M.  Du- 
long,  a member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies. 

LAMB,  Charles,  one  of  the  quaintest  hu- 
morists in  modern  literature,  and  the  author 
of  the  genial  and  delightful  “Essays  of  Elia,” 
was  a school-mate  of  Coleridge  at  Christ'fe 
Hospital.  His  life  was  passed  as  a clerk  in 
the  East  India  House,  London.  Crown  Office 
Row  in  the  Inqjer  Temple  was  “ the  place  of 
his  kindly  engender,”  Feb.  18th,  1775.  He 
died  at  Enfield,  in  September,  1835. 

LANGDON,  John,  an  American  patriot, 
born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  1739,  was 
bred  up  to  the  business  of  a merchant,  and 
early  entered  into  the  cause  of  the  colonies. 
In  1775  he  took  his  seat  in  the  general  con- 
gress; in  1776  was  appointed  navy  agent;  in 
1777  was  speaker  of  the  assembly  of  New 
Hampshire,  and  in  1785  president  of  the 
senate.  He  was  afterward  a senator  in  Con- 


gress, and  governor  of  New  Hampshire.  lie 
died  Sept.  18th,  1819. 

LANNES,  John,  marshal  of  France,  and 
Duke  of  Montebello,  was  born  in  1769,  and 
in  1792  entered  the  army  as  sergeant-major. 
In  Italy,  Egypt,  and  Austria  he  raised  him- 
self in  the  estimation  of  Napoleon,  and  was 
created  by  him  marshal  of  the  empire.  At 
the  battle  of  Esslingen,  May  22d,  1809,  he 
lost  both  his  legs  by  a cannon-ball,  and  ex- 
pired a few  days  after. 

LAOCOON.  This  exquisite  piece  of  sculp- 
ture, one  of  the  triumphs  of  Grecian  art,  was 
modeled  by  Agesander,  Athenodorus,  and 
Polydorus,  all  of  Rhodes,  and  of  great  em- 
inence as  statuaries.  It  represents  the  death 
of  the  Trojan  hero,  Laocoon,  priest  of  Nep- 
tune, and  his  two  sons,  in  the  folds  of  two 
monstrous  serpents,  as  described  by  Virgil  in 
the  second  book  of  the  iEneid.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  1506  in  the  Sette  Sale  near  Rome, 
and  purchased  by  Pope  Julius  II.  It  is  now 
in  the  Vatican. 

LA  PEROUSE,  John  Francis  Galaup  de, 
a French  navigator,  born  in  Languedoc,  in 
1741,  who,  after  making  a successful  voyage 
of  discovery,  was  probably  wrecked  on  one  of 
the  New  Hebrides,  in  1788. 

LA  PLACE,  Pierre  Simon,  Marquis  de, 
born  near  Honfleur  in  March,  1749,  died  at 
Paris,  May  5th,  1827.  He  ranks  among  the 
greatest  of  mathematicians.  The  “ Mecan- 
ique  Celeste  ” is  the  monument  of  his  mind’s 
might. 

LATIMER,  Hugh,  was  born  at  Thurcaston, 
in  Leicestershire,  about  1470,  the  son  of  a 
respectable  yeoman.  He  was  bred  in  the 
Romish  faith,  but  was  led  to  change  his 
views  by  Thomas  Bilney,  a strenuous  advo- 
cate of  the  doctrines  of  Luther.  Being  an 
admired  preacher,  his  influence  was  of  great 
importance,  and  in  consequence  he  soon 
became  obnoxious  to  the  papal  party.  The 
martyrdom  of  Bilney,  at  Norwich,  served 
only  to  animate  Latimer,  who  had  the  courage 
to  write  a letter  of  remonstrance  to  the  king, 
on  the  evil  of  prohibiting  the  use  of  the  Bible 
in  England.  Henry  VIII.  took  this  in  good 
part,  and  presented  the  writer  to  the  living 
of  West  Kington,  in  Wiltshire;  but  this  only 
redoubled  the  malice  of  his  enemies,  who 
were  still  more  provoked  at  his  elevation,  in 
1535,  to  the  bishopric  of  Worcester;  for 


LAT 


484 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


which  he  was  indebted  to  the  good  offices  of 
Anne  Boleyn  and  Thomas  Cromwell.  Of  his 
plain  dealing,  the  following  circumstance  is  a 
proof.  It  was  then  the  custom  for  the  bish- 
ops to  make  presents,  on  new  year’s  day,  to 
the  king,  and  among  the  rest  Latimer  waited 
at  court  with  his  gift,  which,  instead  of  a 
purse  of  gold,  was  a New  Testament,  having 
the  leaf  turned  down  at  a passage  denouncing 
the  ruling  passion  of  the  king.  Henry, 
however,  was  not  offended  by  this  bluntness  ; 
and  when,  some  time  afterward,  Latimer  was 
called  before  him  to  account  for  a sermon 
which  he  had  preached  at  court,  he  justified 
it  so  honestly  that  the  monarch  dismissed 
him  with  a smile. 

But  after  the  fall  of  Cromwell,  his  adversa- 
ries prevailed,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower 
for  speaking  against  some  measures  of  the 
king  ; and  there  he  remained  for  the  rest  of 
Henry’s  reign.  On  the  accession  of  Edward, 
he  was  released ; but  though  he  was  now  in 
favor  at  court,  no  arguments  could  induce 
him  to  resume  the  episcopal  function.  He 
resided  with  Cranmer  at  Lambeth ; and 
when  Mary  ascended  the  throne,  “ Father 
Latimer,”  as  he  was  generally  called,  was 
cited  to  appear  before  the  privy-council,  by 
whom  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower.  On  passing 
through  Smithfield,  he  said,  “This  place  has 
long  groaned  for  me  ; ” but  he  was  not  sacri- 
ficed there,  the  triumphant  party  ordering 
him  to  be  conveyed  to  Oxford,  with  his 
friends,  Ridley  and  Cranmer.  There,  after  a 
mock  conference  and  degradation,  Latimer 
and  Ridley  were  brought  to  the  stake,  Oct. 
16th,  1555.  On  coming  to  the  spot,  Latimer 
said  to  his  companion,  “Be  of  good  comfort, 
master  Ridley,  and  play  the  man ; we  shall 
this  day  light  such  a candle,  by  God’s  grace, 
in  England  as,  I trust,  shall  never  be  put 
out.” 

LATINUS,  a son  of  Fannus,  by  Marcia,  and 
king  of  the  Aborigines  in  Italy,  who  were 
called  from  him  Latini.  He  married  Amata, 
by  whom  he  had  a son  and  a daughter.  The 
son  died  in  his  infancy,  and  the  daughter, 
Lavinia,  was  secretly  promised  in  marriage 
by  her  mother  to  Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutuli, 
one  of  her  most  powerful  admirers.  The 
gods  opposed  this  union,  and  the  oracle 
declared  that  Lavinia  must  become  the  wife 
of  a foreign  prince.  The  arrival  of  .dSneas  in 


Italy  seemed  favorable  to  this  prediction,  and 
Latinus,  by  offering  his  daughter  to  the  for- 
eign prince,  and  making  him  his  friend  and 
ally,  seemed  to  have  fulfilled  the  commands 
of  the  oracle.  Turnus,  however,  disapprov- 
ing of  the  conduct  of  Latinus,  claimed  Lavi- 
nia as  his  lawful  wife,  and  prepared  to 
support  his  cause  by  arms.  iEneas  took  up 
arms  in  his  own  defense,  and  Latium  was 
the  seat  of  war.  After  mutual  losses,  it  was 
agreed  that  the  quarrel  should  be  decided  by 
the  two  rivals,  and  Latinus  promised  his 
daughter  to  the  conqueror.  iEneas  obtained 
the  victory,  and  married  Lavinia.  Latinus 
soon  after  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son-in-law  about  900  b.c. 

LxVUD,  William,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  a favorite  minister  of  Charles  I.,  was 
born  at  Reading  in  1578.  Of  all  the  prelates 
of  the  time  Laud  departed  farthest  from  the 
principles  of  the  reformation,  and  drew  near- 
est to  Rome.  His  passion  for  ceremonies  ; 
his  reverence  for  holidays,  vigils,  and  sacred 
places  ; his  ill-concealed  dislike  of  the  mar- 
riage of  ecclesiastics  ; the  ardent  and  not 
altogether  disinterested  zeal  with  which  he 
asserted  the  claims  of  the  clergy  to  the  rev- 
erence of  the  laity, — would  have  made  him  an 
object  of  aversion  to  the  Puritans,  even  if  he 
had  used  only  legal  and  gentle  means  for  the 
attainment  of  his  ends.  But  his  understand- 
ing was  narrow,  and  his  commerce  with  the 
world  had  been  small.  He  was  by  nature 
rash,  irritable,  quick  to  feel  for  his  own  dig- 
nity, slow  to  sympathize  with  the  sufferings 
of  others,  and  prone  to  the  error,  common  in 
superstitious  men,  of  mistaking  his  own 
peevish  and  malignant  moods  for  emotions  of 
pibus  zeal.  Under  his  direction  every  corner 
of  the  realm  was  subjected  to  a constant  and 
minute  inspection.  Every  little  congrega- 
tion of  separatists  was  tracked  Qut  and  broken 
up.  Even  the  devotions  of  private  families 
could  not  escape  the  vigilance  of  his  spies. 
Such  fear  did  his  rigor  inspire,  that  the 
deadly  hatred  of  the  church,  which  festered 
in  innumerable  bosoms,  was  generally  dis- 
guised under  an  outward  show  of  conformity. 
On  the  very  eve  of  troubles  fatal  to  himself 
and  to  his  order,  the  bishops  of  several  exten- 
sive dioceses  were  able  to  report  to  him  that 
not  a single  dissenter  was  to  be  found  within 
their  jurisdiction.  His  attempt  to  force  the 


LAU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


485 


liturgy  upon  Scotland  hurried  on  the  storm 
already  muttering.  Laud  did  not  escape. 
Like  Strafford,  he  was  attainted,  and  on  the 
10th  of  January,  1644-5,  he  was  beheaded 
on  Tower  Hill. 

LAURENS,  Henky,  was  born  at  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.,  in  1724.  He  was  a merchant,  and 
amassed  an  ample  fortune  by  his  industry. 
He  was  in  London  at  the  breaking  out  of 
the  revolutionary  troubles,  but  returned  to 
America  in  1774.  In  1776  he  took  his  seat 
in  Congress,  of  which  body  he  was  president 
until  1778.  In  1779  he  was  appointed  minis- 
ter plenipotentiary  of  the  United  States  to 
Holland,  but  on  his  way  was  captured  by  the 
British  and  confined  fourteen  months  in  the 
Tower.  He  died  Dec.  2d,  1792,  at  nearly 
seventy  years  of  age. 

LAURENS,  John,  lieutenant-colonel,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  educated  in  England, 
and  joined  the  American  army  in  1777.  In 
1780  he  was  sent,  as  a special  minister  to 
France  ; by  his  boldness  in  presenting  to  the 
king  a memorial  at  the  levee,  he  received  a 
definite  answer  to  his  application  for  a loan, 
and  it  was  satisfactorily  arranged.  His  first 
essay  in  arms  was  at  Brandywine.  At  the 
battle  of  Germantown  he  exhibited  prodigies 
of  valor,  in  attempting  to  expel  the  enemy 
from  Chew’s  house,  and  was  severely  wound- 
ed. He  was  engaged  at  Monmouth,  and 
greatly  increased  his  reputation  at  Rhode 
Island.  At  Coosahatchie,  defending  the  pass 
with  a handful  of  men,  against  the  whole 
force  of  Provost,  he  was  again  wounded,  and 
was  probably  indebted  for  his  life  to  the  gal- 
lantry of  Captain  Wigg,  who  gave  him  his 
horse  to  carry  him  from  the  field,  when  inca- 
pable of  moving,  his  own  having  been  shot 
under  him.  He  headed  the  light  infantry, 
and  was  among  the  first  to  mount  the  British 
•lines  at  Savannah ; displayed  the  greatest 
activity  and  courage  during  the  siege  of 
Charleston ; entered,  with  the  forlorn  hope, 
the  British  redoubt  carried  by  storm  at  York- 
town,  and  received  with  his  own  hand,  the 
sword  of  the  commander;  by  indefatigable 
activity  thwarted  every  effort  of  the  British 
garrison  in  Charleston,  confining  them,  for 
upward  of  twelve  months,  to  the  narrow 
limits  of  the  city  and  neck,  except  when, 
under  protection  of  their  shipping,  they 
indulged  in  distant  predatory  expeditions; 


and,  unhappily,  at  the  very  close  of  the  war, 
too  careless  by  exposing  himself  in  a trifling 
skirmish,  near  Combahee,  sealed  his  devotion 
to  his  country  by  death,  Aug.  27th,  1781,  at 
the  early  age  of  twenty-nine. 

LAVALETTE,  Marie  Chamans,  Count  de, 
was  born  in  Paris,  in  1769,  of  obscure 
parents  ; notwithstanding  which  he  received 
a good  education,  became  the  aid-de-camp  of 
Bonaparte,  and  was  intrusted  with  several 
important  offices,  besides  being  made  a peer 
of  France.  In  1815,  on  the  restoration  of 
the  Bourbons,  he  was  tried,  and  condemned 
to  death  . for  high  treason ; but.  the  day 
before  the  execution,  his  heroic  wife,  who 
was  permitted  to  visit  him  for  a final  farewell, 
changed  clothes  with  him  in  prison,  and  the 
count  passed  the  guard  unnoticed,  and  entered 
the  sedan-chair  with  his  daughter.  He  found 
means  to  escape  to  Munich,  but  the  govern- 
ment had  the  inhumanity  to  detain  the  count- 
ess in  prison,  which  harshness  deprived  her 
of  reason.  Her  husband  was  pardoned,  and 
returned  to  France  in  1821.  Madame  Lava- 
lette  was  a niece  of  Josephine’s  first  husband. 

LAVATER,  John  Gaspar,  the  great  phys- 
iognomist, was  born  at  Zurich  in  1741,  and 
was  pastor  of  the  chief  church  of  that  city. 
When  Zurich  in  1801  was  taken  by  the 
French  under  Massena,  Lavater  was  mortally 
wounded. 

LAWRENCE,  James,  was  born  at  Burling- 
ton, N.  J.,  in  1781.  In  1798  he  entered  the 
navy  as  a midshipman,  and,  for  his  services 
in  the  Tripolitan  war,  was  made  first  lieuten- 
ant. Feb.  24th,  1813,  Lawrence,  in  command 
of  the  Hornet,  took  the  British  brig-of-w7ar 
Peacock,  after  an  action  of  fifteen  minutes. 
June  1st,  1813,  he  sailed  out  of  Boston  har- 
bor, in  command  of  the  frigate  Chesapeake,  to 
accept  the  challenge  of  Captain  Brooke  of  the 
Shannon.  The  result  might  have  been  easily 
•foretold.  The  Chesapeake  was  an  inferior 
vessel,  and  her  crew  shipped  upon  the  spur 
of  the  moment;  while  the  Shannon  was  a 
fine  vessel,  well  manned,  with  a crew  in 
perfect  training.  Lawrence  was  mortally 
wounded,  but  survived  the  action  four  days. 
His  last  words,  before  he  was  carried  below, 
were,  “ Don’t  give  up  the  ship  ! ” The  flag 
of  the  Chesapeake  was  not  hauled  down  until 
almost  all  her  officers  were  killed  or  wounded. 
LAWRENCE,  Sir  Thomas,  an  eminent 


LAW 


486 


C0TTAC3  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


portrait  painter,  born  at  Bristol,  May  4th, 
1769,  died  in  London,  Jan.  9th,  1830. 

LED  YARD,  John,  a celebrated  American 
traveler,  born  at  Groton,  Connecticut,  in 
1751.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  entered 
Dartmouth  College,  for  the  purpose  of  acquir- 
ing the  information  necessary  for  his  becom- 
ing a missionary  among  the  Indians.  He 
acquired  knowledge  with  great  facility,  but 
poverty  forced  his  withdrawal  from  college. 
So  ardent  a desire  did  he  have  for  travel,  that 
he  shipped  as  a sailor,  went  to  Gibraltar, 
enlisted  there,  procured  his  discharge,  and 
returned  home  in  one  year.  He  crossed  the 
Atlantic  again,  working  his  passage  to  Ply- 
mouth, and  thence  begging  his  way  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  became  acquainted  with  Capt. 
Cook,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his  last  and 
fatal  voyage.  In  1782  he  returned  to 
Connecticut.  Having  formed  a plan  of  mak- 
ing the  tour  of  the  globe  on  foot,  departing 
from  London  to  the  eastward,  he  went  as  far 
as  Irkutsk,  where  he  was  arrested,  by  an 
order  from  the  empress,  as  a French  spy,  and 
conducted  to  the  borders  of  Poland,  and 
there  liberated,,  with  an  intimation  that  his 
presence  in  the  dominions  of  the  czarina  was 
so  little  desirable,  that  a repetition  of  his 
visit  would  produce  a warrant  for  his  execu- 
tion. He  reached  London,  after  an  absence 
of  fifteen  months,  in  a destitute  condition,  at 
the  age  of  thirty-seven.  He  immediately 
accepted  a proposal  to  travel  into  the  interior 
of  Africa,  on  behalf  of  the  African  associa- 
tion. When  Sir  Joseph  Banks  first  mentioned 
the  enterprise  to  him,  and  asked  him  how 
soon  he  could  set  out,  “ To-morrow  morning,” 
was  the  reply . He  was  taken  ill  at  Cairo, 
and  died  Jan.  17th,  1789. 

His  uncle,  Col.  William  Ledyard,  com- 
manded Fort  Griswold  when  captured  by  the 
British,  Sept.  6th,  1781,  and  was  murdered 
by  the  British  officer  to  whom  he  delivered  his 
sword. 

LEE,  Arthur,  brother  of  Richard  Henry, 
was  born  in  Virginia,  Dec.  20th,  1740.  He 
was  educated  in  England  at  Eton,  took  the 
degree  ofM.  D.  at  Edinburgh,  and  commenced 
the  practice  of  medicine  in  Virginia.  After- 
ward he  returned  to  England,  and  studied 
law  at  the  Temple.  He  was  a secret  agent  of 
our  government  at  London  and  Paris,  associ- 
ated with  Deane  and  Franklin,  and,  on  the 


return  of  Franklin  to  America,  became  the 
sole  agent  of  Massachusetts.  In  1777  he  was 
appointed  by  Congress  commissioner  to 
Spain,  and  he  was  subsequently  employed  in 
Prussia.  He  returned  to  America  in  1780, 
and  the  next  year  he  was  chosen  to  the 
assembly,  from  which  he  went  to  Congress. 
He  was  called  to  the  board  of  treasury,  of 
which  he  continued  to  be  a member  from 
1784  to  1789.  He  died  at  his  farm,  Dec.  12th, 
1792. 

LEE,  Charles,  was  a native  of  North 
Wales,  the  son  of  a general  in  the  British 
army,  in  which  at  the  age  of  eleven  he  also 
held  a commission.  He  came  to  America  in 
1756,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  war 
with  the  French.  For  a time  he  dwelt  among 
the  Mohawks,  who  made  him  a chief,  with 
the  apt  name  of  Boiling  Water.  After  this 
he  served  as  a colonel  under  Burgoyne  in 
Portugal.  Several  pamphlets  that  he  wrote 
in  opposition  to  the  ministry  demolished  the 
hope  of  promotion  which  his  exploits  had 
earned,  and  he  entered  the  Polish  army  as 
aid  to  Poniatowski,  just  then  elected  king. 
On  one  occasion  he  was  sent  to  accompany 
the  Polish  ambassador  to  Constantinople. 
The  diplomatic  gentleman  traveled  too  slowly 
for  him ; so  he  dashed  ahead.  When  on  the 
frontiers  of  Turkey,  he  came  near  perishing 
with  cold  and  hunger,  among  the  Bulgarian 
mountains ; and,  after  his  arrival  at  Constan- 
tinople, he  was  very  near  being  buried  in  the 
ruins  of  his  house  by  an  earthquake.  He 
became  a major-general.  “I  flatter  myself,” 
said  he,  “ that  a little  more  practice  will  make 
me  a good  soldier,”  and  he  tried  a severe 
campaign  in  the  Russian  service.  After  this 
he  led  a wandering  life  through  the  south 
of  Europe,  troubled  with  gout,  rheumatism, 
and  the  effects  of  “a  Hungarian  fever,”  and 
pestered  with  a temper  more  cynical  and 
irascible  than  ever,  embroiling  him  in  many 
rencontres,  in  one  of  which  he  slew  his  an- 
tagonist, and  lost  two  of  his  fingers.  The 
irony  and  sarcasm  that  he  vented  upon  the 
British  ministry  through  the  journals,  gained 
him  a reputation  sufficient  for  a conjecture 
that  perchance  he  was  the  mysterious  Junius. 
He  had  early  espoused  the  cause  of  the  colo- 
nies, and  in  1773  he  came  again  to  America, 
where  his  military  renown  and  his  dashing 
manner  made  him  a welcome  acquisition  to 


LEE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


487 


the  patriot  cause,  and  alarmed  even  the 
British  ministry.  Purchasing  an  estate  in 
Virginia  he  was  often  a guest  at  Mount  Ver- 
non. When  war  broke  out,  Lee  was  one  of 
the  first  major-generals  commissioned.  He 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  remained  some  time 
in  the  hands  of  the  British,  but  was  released 
Oct.  17th,  1777.  At  the  battle  of  Monmouth 
he  permitted  his  command  to  retreat,  and 
was  reproached  by  Washington,  to  whom  he 
used  disrespectful  language.  He  was  tried 
by  a court-martial,  and  sentenced  to  a year’s 
suspension,  Aug.  12th,  1778.  He  died  Oct. 
2d,  1782.  He  was  an  able  officer,  but  proud 
and  ambitious. 

LEE,  Francis  Lightfoot,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  a brother 
of  Richard  Henry,  and  born  at  Stratford, 
Va.,  Oct.  14th,  1734.  He  was  educated  at 
home.  He  was  elected  to  the  house  of  bur- 
gesses in  1765,  and  continued  a delegate 
therein  till  1775,  when  he  was  sent  to  Con- 
gress. He  retired  to  private  life  in  1779, 
and  died  in  April,  1797. 

LEE,  Henry,  was  born  in  Virginia,  Jan. 
29th,  1756,  and  was  graduated  at  Princeton 
College  in  his  eighteenth  year.  In  1776  he 
obtained  the  command  of  a troop  of  the  Vir- 
ginia light  horse,  and  in  1777  joined  the 
main  army  under  Washington.  His  conduct 
throughout  the  whole  revolutionary  struggle 
merits  the  highest  praise.  Ever  in  the  front 
of  danger,  he  performed  several  daring  feats 
which  have  been  rarely  equaled.  After  the 
termination  of  the  war,  he  was  alternately  a 
member  of  Congress,  and  of  the  assembly 
of  his  state,  of  which  he  was  governor  for 
three  successive  years.  He  died  in  1818. 

LEE,  Richard  E.  See  Appendix,  p.  974. 

LEE,  Richard  Henry,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at 
Stratford,  Westmoreland  county,  Va.,  in  1 732, 
but  was  bred  in  England,  where  he  received  a 
finished  education.  He  returned  home  at 
nineteen,  and  busied  himself  in  philosophical 
studies.  Then  he  was  chosen  to  the  house 
of  burgesses,  where  he  won  himself  a high 
position  as  a talented  debater  and  a patriotic 
legislator.  He  was  appointed,  in  1764,  to 
draw  up  an  address  to  the  king,  and  brought 
forth  a masterly  state  paper ; and  in  1765  he 
assisted  Patrick  Henry’s  resolutions  against 


the  stamp  act  with  great  zeal.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  continental  congress,  1774- 
1780  and  1784-1787;  and  he  has  been  styled 
the  Cicero  of  the  famous  congress  of  1776, 
so  graceful  and  effective  was  his  oratory. 
June  7th,  1776,  he  moved  “that  these  united 
colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free 
and  independent  states;  that  they  are  ab- 
solved from  all  allegiance  to  the  British 
crown ; and  that  all  political  connection  be- 
tween them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is, 
and  ought  to  be,  dissolved ; ” supporting  the 
measure  with  one  of  his  most  eloquent 
speeches.  In  1784  he  was  chosen  president 
of  Congress ; and  from  1789  to  1792  he  was 
senator  from  Virginia.  He  died  June  19th, 
1794. 

LEGENDRE,  Adrian  Marie,  an  illustrious 
mathematician  of  France,  born  in  Paris, 
1751,  died  there  Jan.  16th,  1833. 

LEIBNITZ,  Godfrey  William,  born  at 
Leipsic,  July  3d,  1646,  died  at  Hanover, 
Nov.  14th,  1716.  He  was  the  great  rival  of 
Newton  in  science. 

LEIPSIC  (Leipzig),  the  second  city  in 
Saxony,  founded  in  the  tenth  century,  and 
now  containing  79,000  inhabitants.  It  is 
famous  for  its  fairs,  is  the  centre  of  the  Ger- 
man book-trade,  and  is  also  distinguished  by 
its  university.  Here  was  fought  an  import- 
ant battle  between  the  allies  and  the  French, 
Oct.  16th,  17th,  and  18th,  1813.  Napoleon 
with  160,000  men  contended  against  240,000 
Austrians,  Russians,  and  Prussians.  Against 
such  odds  he  might  have  conquered,  had  not, 
at  a critical  moment,  his  Saxon  allies  gone 
over  to  the  enemy.  Of  80,000  men  left  dead 
on  the  field,  more  than  half  were  French. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  won  a great  victory  over 
Tilly,  on  the  plain  of  Leipsic,  Sept.  7th, 
1631. 

LENTULUS,  a celebrated  family  at  Rome, 
which  produced  many  great  men  in  the 
commonwealth.  Publius  Lentulus  Sura 
joined  Cataline’s  conspiracy,  was  convicted, 
imprisoned,  and  afterward  executed. 

LEO.  There  have  been  twelve  popes  of 
this  name.  The  greatest  was  Leo  X.  (Gio- 
vanni de  Medici),  born  at  Florence  in  1475, 
being  the  second  son  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici. 
At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  made  a car- 
dinal. He  succeeded  Julius  II.  in  1513,  and 


LEO 


488 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


assumed  the  name  of  Leo.  He  was  a patron 
of  literature,  and  particularly  encouraged 
the  study  of  the  Greek  language.  He  de- 
sired to  complete  the  church  of  St.  Peter, 
and  the  sale  of  indulgences  to  raise  the 
money  swelled  the  wave  that  soon  broke  in 
the  Reformation.  He  died  in  1521. 

LEONIDAS,  a celebrated  king  of  Sparta, 
sent  by  his  countrymen  to  oppose  Xerxes. 
When  the  Persian  monarch  demanded  his 
arms,  Leonidas  answered,  “Come  and  take 
them!”  With  his  three  hundred  Spartans, 
and  a few  auxiliaries,  he  defended  the  pass 
of  Thermopylae  against  the  whole  Persian 
army,  480  b.c.  He  died  surrounded  by 
heaps  of  slain  enemies. 

LEPANTO,  Gulf  of,  a narrow  sea  between 
the  northern  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus  and 
the  mainland  of  Greece ; anciently  the  Gulf 
of  Corinth.  The  famous  sea  fight  of  Le- 
panto,  between  the  Turks  and  Spaniards,  in 
which  Cervantes  lost  his  hand,  was  fought 
Oct.  7th,  1571.  The  Turks,  being  at  anchor 
in  the  gulf,  and  hearing  that  the  Christians 
were  bearing  down  upon  them  from  Corfu, 
reinforced  their  fleet,  which  consisted  of  250 
galleys,  70  frigates  and  brigantines.  The 
Christian  fleet  consisted  of  210  galleys,  28 
transports,  and  6 galeapes,  furnished  with 
heavy  artillery,  commanded  by  Don  John  of 
Austria  (natural  son  of  Charles  V.),  includ- 
ing the  Spanish  squadron  furnished  by 
Philip  II.,  the  Venetian,  with  the  flower 
of  the  nobility  of  Venice,  and  the  pope’s 
galleys.  The  two  forces  engaged  with  all 
the  ancient  and  modern  weapons  of  attack 
and  defense,  arrows,  javelins,  grappling-irons, 
cannon,  muskets,  pikes,  and  swords.  They 
fought  hand  to  hand,  as  most  of  the  galleys 
grappled  together.  Don  John  of  Austria 
and  Veniero,  the  Venetian  .commander,  at- 
tacked the  Ottoman  admiral  Ali,  and  having 
taken  him  and  his  galley,  immediately  struck 
off  his  head,  and  placed  it  on  the  top  of  his 
own  flag.  The  Turks  lost  upward  of  150 
vessels.  Their  loss  in  killed  was  about 
15,000;  as  many  more  were  made  prisoners, 
and  5,000  Christian  slaves  were  set  at  liberty. 
The  Christians  are  said  to  have  lost  about 
5,000  men.  The  battle  lasted  from  six  in 
the  morning  till  evening,  when  the  approach- 
ing darkness,  and  the  roughness  of  the  sea, 
compelled  the  victors  to  put  into  the  nearest 

LEW 


haven,  whence  they  dispatched  couriers  to 
all  Christian  courts,  with  the  news  of  the 
triumph.  The  Christians  gave  no  quarter  in 
the  heat  of  the  fight. 

LEPIDUS,  Marcus  JEmilius,  one  of  the 
triumvirs  with  Augustus  and  Antony.  He 
was  sent  against  Brutus  and  Cassius,  and 
some  time  after  leagued  with  Mark  Antony, 
who  had  gained  the  hearts  of  his  soldiers  by 
artifice,  and  their  commander  by  address. 
He  received  Africa  as  his  portion  in  the  di- 
vision of  the  empire ; but  his  indolence  soon 
rendered  him  despicable  in  the  eyes  of  his 
soldiers  and.  of  his  colleagues,  and  Augustus, 
who  was  well  acquainted  with  the  unpopu- 
larity of  Lepidus,  went  to  his  camp,  and 
obliged  him  to  resign  the  power  to  which  he 
was  entitled  as  triumvir.  After  this  degrad- 
ing event,  he  sunk  into  obscurity,  and  re- 
tired, by  order  of  Augustus,  to  Cerceii,  a 
small  town  of  the  coast  of  Latium,  where  he 
ended  his  days,  b.c.  13,  forgotten  as  soon  as 
he  had  fallen. 

LESSING,  Gotthold  Ephraim,  was  born 
in  Upper  Lusatia,  1729.  As  a dramatist  and 
a critic  on  the  fine  arts,  he  held  a high  rank 
in  German  literature.  His  death  occurred  at 
Wolfenbiittel  in  1781. 

LEUCTRA,  a village  of  Boeotia,  famous 
for  the  victory  which  Epaminondas,  the  The- 
ban general,  here  obtained  over  the  superior 
force  of  Cleombrotus,  King  of  Sparta,  b.c. 
371.  From  that  time  the  Spartans  lost  the 
ascendency  which  they  had  for  centuries  held 
in  Greece. 

LEWIS,  Francis,  a signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  at  LlandafF, 
in  the  south  of  Wales,  March,  1713.  His 
education  was  finished  at  W estminster,  and 
he  entered  a mercantile  house  in  London. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  came  to  Amer- 
ica. He  became  an  active  politician,  espoused 
the  cause  of  liberty,  and  was  elected  a dele- 
gate from  New  York  to  the  continental  con- 
gress in  1775.  He  suffered  the  loss  of  much 
property  on  Long  Island  during  the  war.  He 
died  Dec.  30th,  1803. 

LEWIS  and  CLARKE.  In  1804,  Capt 
Meriwether  Lewis  and  Lieut.  William  Clarke, 
with  a party  of  twenty-eight  men,  were  dis- 
patched by  government  to  explore  the  north- 
western territory  between  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Pacific.  It  was  the  first  expedition  of 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


4S9 


the  kind  undertaken.  They  crossed  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  reached  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia,  their  observations  and  surveys 
being  eminently  successful,  and  furnishing 
the  first  reliable  details  of  that  vast  region. 
The  expedition  was  absent  two  years  and 
three  months. 

LEXINGTON,  a town  of  Massachusetts, 
eleven  miles  north-west  of  Boston,  where  the 
struggle  for  liberty  was  commenced,  April 
19th,  1775.  Gen.  Gage  dispatched  a force  of 
900  men  on  the  night  of  the  18th  to  seize  a 
magazine  of  military  stores  that  the  patriots 
had  gathered  at  Concord.  The  expedition  had 
been  planned  and  prepared  with  great  secresy, 
yet  wind  of  it  had  blown,  and  as  the  British 
stealthily  crept  forth  on  their  nocturnal 
march,  the  booming  of  alarm  guns  and  the 
clang  of  village  bells  told  that  the  country 
was  rising.  Lieut.  Col.  Smith  sent  back  for 
re-enforcements,  and  pushed  Major  Pitcairne 
forward  with  six  companies  to  secure  the 
bridges  at  Concord.  He  advanced  rapidly, 
capturing  every  one  that  he  met  or  overtook. 
When  a little  more  than  a mile  from  Lexing- 
ton, a horseman  was  too  quick  for  him,  and 
galloped  into  the  village  with  the  cry  that  the 
redcoats  were  coming.  When  the  British 
came  marching  up  the  road,  between  four  and 
five  in  the  gray  morning,  seventy  or  eighty 
yeomen  were  mustered  in  military  array 
on  the  green  near  the  meeting-house.  It  was 
a part  of  the  ‘ constitutional  army,’  pledged 
to  resist  by  force  any  open  hostility  of  British 
troops.  Besides  these,  there  were  a number 
of  lookers  on,  armed  and  unarmed.  The 
major  rode  forward,  brandishing  his  sword, 
and  shouted,  as  his  men  advanced  at  double 
quick  time,  “ Disperse,  ye  villains  ! Lay  down 
your  arms,  ye  rebels,  and  disperse.”  The 
yeomanry  stood  their  ground.  A scene  of 
confusion  ensued,  with  firing  on  both  sides : 
by  which  party  commenced  it  is  not  certain. 
Eight  of  the  patriots  were  killed,  ten  wounded, 
and  all  put  to  flight.  The  British  formed  on 
the  common,  discharged  a volley,  and  gave 
three  cheers ; Col.  Smith  came  up  ; the  whole 
force  pushed  on  for  Concord.  There  they  did 
the  work  for  which  they  had  been  detailed, 
so  far  as  they  could,  for  many  of  the  stores 
had  been  removed.  The  militia  were  not 
strong  enough  to  oppose  them,  but  the  minute- 
men  were  hurrying  in  from  every  quarter. 


About  ten  o’clock  a squad  ventured  to  dis- 
lodge the  British  from  the  north  bridge.  As 
they  came  near,  the  British  fired,  killing 
two ; a skirmish  ensued,  and  the  enemy  re- 
treated from  the  bridge.  About  noon,  the 
jaded  troops  commenced  their  march  for  Bos- 
ton. The  country  was  astir.  All  along  the 
road,  from  the  cover  of  trees,  sheds,  houses, 
fences,  rustic  marksmen  dealt  a deadly  retali- 
ation, and  a long  line  of  killed,  wounded,  or 
fatigued  marked  the  way. 

At  Lexington  they  were  joined  by  900 
more  troops,  sent  out  from  Boston,  under 
Lord  Percy.  These  brought  two  cannon 
with  them,  and  the  country  people  were  now 
kept  more  at  bay.  They  still  fired  upon  the 
troops,  however,  with  terrible  havoc.  The 
regulars,  as  the  English  troops  were  called, 
scrambled  into  Charlestown  at  sunset.  Sixty- 
five  of  their  number  had  been  killed,  one 
hundred  and  eighty  wounded,  and  twenty- 
eight  made  prisoners.  Of  the  provincials, 
forty-nine  were  killed,  thirty-nine  wounded 
and  missing.  There  were  never  more  than 
three  or  four  hundred  of  the  latter  fighting  at 
one  time,  and  these  fought  as  they  pleased, 
without  order.  The  regulars  were  obliged 
to  keep  in  the  main  road ; but  the  militia, 
knowing  every  inch  of  the  country,  flanked 
them,  and  fired  upon  them  at  all  the  corners. 
The  British,  maddened  by  the  galling  fire, 
burned  many  dwellings  in  their  retreat. 

Bancroft  eloquently  narrates  the  effects  pro- 
duced by  this  conflict.  Darkness  closed  upon 
the  country  and  upon  the  town,  but  it  was  no 
night  for  sleep.  Heralds  on  swift  relays  of 
horses  transmitted  the  war-message  from  hand 
to  hand,  till  village  repeated  it  to  village ; the 
sea  to  the  backwoods  ; the  plains  to  the  high- 
lands ; and  it  was  never  suffered  to  droop,  till  it 
had  been  borne  north,  and  south,  and  east,  and 
west  throughout  the  land.  It  spread  over  the 
bays  that  receive  the  Saco  and  the  Penobscot. 
Its  loud  reveille  broke  the  rest  of  the  trap- 
pers of  New  Hampshire,  and  ringing  like 
bugle-notes  from  peak  to  peak,  overleaped  the 
Green  Mountains,  swept  onward  to  Montreal 
and  descended  the  ocean  river,  till  the  re- 
sponses were  echoed  from  the  cliffs  of  Quebec. 
The  hills  along  the  Hudson  told  to  one  another 
the  tale.  As  the  summons  hurried  to  the 
south,  it  was  one  day  at  New  York ; in  one 
more  at  Philadelphia ; the  next  it  lighted  a 


LEX 


490 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


watchfire  at  Baltimore ; thence  it  waked  an 
answer  at  Annapolis.  Crossing  the  Potomac 
near  Mount  Vernon,  it  was  sent  forward 
without  a halt  to  Williamsburg.  It  traversed 
the  Dismal  Swamp  to  Nansemond  along  the 
route  of  the  first  emigrants  to  North  Carolina. 
It  moved  onward  and  still  onward  through 
boundless  groves  of  evergreen  to  Newbern 
and  to  Wilmington.  “For  God’s  sake,  for- 
ward it  by  night  and  by  day,”  wrote  Corne- 
lius Harnett  by  the  express  which  sped  for 
Brunswick.  Patriots  of  South  Carolina 
caught  up  its  tones  at  the  border,  and  dis- 
patched it  to  Charleston,  and  through  pines 
and  palmettoes  and  moss-clad  live  oaks, 
still  further  to  the  south,  till  it  resounded 
among  the  New  England  settlements  be- 
yond the  Savannah.  Hillsborough  and  the 
Mecklenburg  districts  of  North  Carolina  rose 
in  triumph,  now  that  their  wearisome  un- 
certainty had  its  end.  The  Blue  Ridge 
took  up  the  voice  and  made  it  heard  from 
one  end  to  the  other  of  the  valley  of  Vir- 
ginia. The  Alleghanies,  as  they  listened, 
opened  their  barriers,  that  the  ‘loud  call’ 
might  pass  through  to  the  hardy  riflemen  on 
the  Holston,  the  Watauga,  and  the  French 
Broad.  Ever  renewing  its  strength,  powerful 
enough  even  to  create  a commonwealth,  it 
breathed  its  inspiring  word  to  the  first  set- 
tlers of  Kentucky ; so  that  hunter?  who  made 
their  halt  in  the  matchless  valley  of  the  Elk- 
horn,  commemorated  the  nineteenth  day  of 
April  by  naming  their  encampment  Lexington. 

With  one  impulse  the  colonies  sprung  to 
arms;  with  one  spirit  they  pledged  them- 
selves to  each  other  “to  be  ready  for  the 
extreme  event.”  With  one  heart,  the  conti- 
nent cried  “ Liberty  or  Death.” 

The  first  measure  of  the  Massachusetts 
committee  of  safety,  after  the  dawn  of  the 
20th  of  April,  was  a circular  to  the  several 
towns  in  Massachusetts.  “We  conjure  you,” 
they  wrote,  “ by  all  that  is  dear,  by  all  that 
is  sacred, — we  beg  and  entreat,  as  you  will 
answer  it  to  your  country,  to  your  con- 
sciences, and  above  all,  to  God  himself,  that 
you  will  hasten  and  encourage  by  all  possible 
means  the  enlistment  of  men  to  form  the 
army ; and  send  them  forward  to  headquar- 
ters at  Cambridge  with  that  expedition  which 
the  vast  importance  and  instant  urgency  of 
the  affair  demands.” 


The  people  of  Massachusetts  had  not  waited 
for  the  call.  The  country  people,  as  soon  as 
they  heard  the  cry  of  innocent  blood  from  the 
ground,  snatched  their  firelocks  from  the 
walls ; and  wives,  and  mothers,  and  sisters 
took  part  in  preparing  the  men  of  their  house- 
holds to  go  forth  to  the  war.  The  farmers 
rushed  to  “the  camp  of  liberty,”  often  with 
nothing  but  the  clothes  on  their  backs,  with- 
out a day’s  provisions,  and  many  without  a 
farthing  in  their  pockets.  Their  country  was 
in  danger;  their  brethren  were  slaughtered; 
their  arms  alone  employed  their  attention. 
On  their  way  the  inhabitants  gladly  opened 
their  hospitable  doors,  and  all  things  were  in 
common.  For  the  first  night  of  the  siege, 
Prescott  of  Pepperell  with  his  Middlesex 
minute-men  kept  the  watch  over  the  entrance 
to  Boston,  and  while  Gage  was  driven  foi 
safety  to  fortify  the  town  at  all  points,  the 
Americans  already  talked  of  nothing  but 
driving  him  and  his  regiments  into  the  sea. 

At  the  same  time  the  committee  by  letter 
gave  the  story  of  the  preceding  day  to  New 
Hampshire  and  Connecticut,  whose  assistance 
they  entreated.  “We  shall  be  glad,”  they 
wrote,  “ that  our  brethren  who  come  to  our 
aid  may  be  supplied  with  military  stores  and 
provisions,  as  we  have  none  of  either,  more 
than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  ourselves.” 
And  without  stores,  or  cannon,  or  supplies 
even  of  powder,  or  of  money,  Massachusetts 
by  its  congress,  on  the  22d  of  April,  resolved 
unanimously  that  a New  England  army  of 
thirty  thousand  men  should  be  raised,  and 
established  its  own  proportion  at  thirteen 
thousand  six  hundred.  The  term  of  enlist- 
ment was  fixed  for  the  last  day  of  December. 

Long  before  this  summons  the  ferries  over 
the  Merrimack  were  crowded  by  men  from 
New  Hampshire.  “We  go,”  said  they,  “to 
the  assistance  of  our  brethren.”  By  one 
o’clock  of  the  20th,  upward  of  sixty  men  of 
Nottingham  assembled  at  the  meeting-house 
with  arms  and  equipments,  under  Cilley  and 
Dearborn ; before  two  they  were  joined  by 
bands  from  Deerfield  and  Epsom ; and  they 
set  out  together  for  Cambridge.  At  dusk 
they  reached  Haverhill  ferry,  a distance  of 
twenty-seven  miles,  having  run  rather  than 
marched;  they  halted  in  Andover  only  for 
refreshments,  and,  traversing  fifty-five  miles 
in  less  than  twenty  hours,  by  sunrise  of  the 


LEX 


2 1st  paraded  on  Cambridge  common, 
in  three  days  two  thousand  men  volunteered 
in  New  Hampshire. 

In  Connecticut,  Trumbull,  the  governor, 
sent  out  writs  to  convene  the  legislature  of 
the  colony  at  Hartford  on  the  Wednesday 
following  the  battle.  Meantime  the  people 
could  not  be  restrained.  On  the  morning  of 
the  20th,  Israel  Putnam,  of  Pomfret,  in  leather 
frock  and  apron,  was  assisting  hired  men  to 
build  a stone  wall  on  his  farm,  when  he  heard 
the  cry  from  Lexington.  Leaving  them  to 
continue  their  task,  he  set  off  instantly  to 
rouse  the  militia  officers  of  the  nearest  towns. 
On  his  return,  he  found  hundreds  who  had 
mustered  and  chosen  him  their  leader.  Issu- 
ing orders  for  them  to  follow,  he  himself 
pushed  forward  without  changing  the  checked 
shirt  he  had  worn  in  the  field,  and  reached 
Cambridge  at  sunrise  the  next  morning,  hav- 
ing ridden  the  same  horse  a hundred  miles 
within  eighteen  hours. 

From  Wethersfield,  a hundred  young  vol- 
unteers marched  for  Boston  on  the  22d,  well 
armed  and  in  high  spirits.  From  the  neigh- 
boring towns,  men  of  the  largest  estates,  and 
the  most  esteemed  for  character,  seized  their 
firelocks  and  followed.  By  the  second  night, 
several  thousands  from  the  colony  were  on 
their  way.  Some  fixed  on  their  standards 
and  drums  the  colony  arms,  and  round  it  in 
letters  of  gold,  the  motto,  that  God  who 
brought  over  their  fathers  would  sustain  the 
sons.  In  New  Haven,  Benedict  Arnold, 
captain  of  a volunteer  company,  agreed  with 
his  men  to  march  the  next  morning  for  Bos- 
ton. “Wait  for  proper  orders,”  was  the 
advice  of  Wooster;  but  the  self-willed  com- 
mander, brooking  no  delay,  extorted  supplies 
from  the  committee  of  the  town,  and  on  the 
29th  reached  the  American  headquarters 
with  his  company.  There  was  scarcely  a 
town  in  Connecticut  that  was  not  represented 
among  the  besiegers. 

The  nearest  towns  of  Rhode  Island  were  in 
motion  before  the  British  had  finished  their 
retreat.  At  the  instance  of  Hopkins  and 
others,  Wanton,  the  governor,  though  himself 
inclined  to  the  royal  side,  called  an  assembly. 
Its  members  were  all  of  one  mind ; and  when 
Wanton,  with  several  of  the  council,  showed 
hesitation,  they  resolved,  if  necessary,  to 


491 

e council  yielded,  and 
confirmed  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  assem- 
bly which  authorized  raising  an  army  of 
fifteen  hundred  men.  “ The  colony  of  Rhode 
Island,”  wrote  Bowler,  the  speaker,  to  the 
Massachusetts  congress,  “ is  firm  and  deter- 
mined ; and  a greater  unanimity  in  the  lower 
house  scarce  ever  prevailed.”  Companies  of 
the  men  of  Rhode  Island  preceded  this  early 
message. 

The  conviction  of  Massachusetts  gained  the 
cheering  confidence  that  springs  from  sympa- 
thy, now  that  New  Hampshire  and  Connecti- 
cut and  Rhode  Island  had  come  to  its  support. 
The  New  England  volunteers  were  men  of 
substantial  worth,  of  whom  almost  every  one 
represented  a household.  The  members  of 
the  several  companies  were  well  known  to 
each  other,  as  to  brothers,  kindred,  and 
townsmen;  known  to  all  the  old  men  who 
remained  at  home,  and  to  all  the  matrons 
and  maidens.  They  were  sure  to  be  remem- 
bered weekly  in  the  exercises  of  the  congre- 
gations ; and  morning  and  evening,  in  the 
usual  family  devotions,  they  were  commended 
with  fervent  piety  to  the  protection  of  Heav- 
en. Every  young  soldier  lived  and  acted,  as 
it  were,  under  the  keen  observation  of  all 
those  among  whom  he  had  grown  up,  and 
was  sure  that  his  conduct  would  occupy  the 
tongues  of  his  village  companions  while  he 
was  in  the  field,  and  perhaps  be  remembered 
his  life  long.  The  camp  of  liberty  was  a 
gathering  in  arms  of  schoolmates,  neighbors, 
and  friends  ; and  Boston  was  beleaguered 
round  from  Roxbury  to  Chelsea  by  an  unor- 
ganized, fluctuating  mass  of  men.  each  with 
his  own  musket  and  his  little  store  of  car- 
tridges, and  such  provisions  as  he  brought 
with  him,  or  as  were  sent  after  him,  or  were 
contributed  by  the  people  round  about. 

The  British  officers,  from  the  sense  of  their 
own  weakness,  and  from  fear  of  the  American 
marksmen,  dared  not  order  a sally.  Their 
confinement  was  the  more  irksome,  for  it 
came  of  a sudden  before  their  magazines  had 
been  filled,  and  was  followed  by  “ an  imme- 
diate stop  to  supplies  of  every  kind.”  The 
troops,  in  consequence,  suffered  severely  from 
unwholesome  diet;  and  their  commanders 
fretted  with  bitter  mortification.  They  had 
scoffed  at  the  Americans  as  cowards,  who 


LEX 


would  run  at  their  sight^^^JHMPPBP^^u 
themselves  from  destruction  only  by  the 
rapidity  of  their  retreat. 

Men  are  prone  to  fail  in  equity  toward 
those  whom  their  pride  regards  as  their 
inferiors.  The  Americans,  slowly  provoked 
and  long-suffering,  treated  the  prisoners  with 
tenderness,  and  nursed  the  wounded  as  though 
they  had  been  members  of  their  own  families. 
They  even  invited  Gage  to  send  out  British 
surgeons  for  their  relief.  Yet  Percy  could 
degrade  himself  so  far  as  to  calumniate  the 
countrymen  who  gave  him  chase,  and  offici- 
ally lend  himself  to  the  falsehood  that  “ the 
rebels  scalped  and  cut  off  the  ears  of  some 
of  the  wounded  who  fell  into  their  hands.” 
He  should  have  respected  the  name  which  he 
bore,  famed  as  it  is  in  history  and  in  song ; 
and  he  should  have  respected  the  men  before 
whom  he  fled.  The  falsehood  brings  dis- 
honor on  its  voucher ; the  people  whom  he 
reviled  were  among  the  mildest  and  most 
compassionate  of  their  race. 

LIBERIA.  In  1821  the  American  Colo- 
nization Society  established  a colony  of  eman- 
cipated slaves  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa, 
east  of  Sierra  Leone.  The  settlement  in 
1847  became  the  republic  of  Liberia.  Its 
area  is  about  24,000  square  miles,  and  its 
population  in  1863  was  422,000.  Its  institu- 
tions are  modeled  on  those  of  the  United 
States.  Whites  are  not  admitted  to  citizen- 
ship. Monrovia  is  the  capital. 

LIBRARIES.  The  first  public  library  of 
which  we  have  any  certain  account  in  history, 
was  founded  at  Athens,  by  Pisistratus,  544 
b.c.  The  first  private  library  known  was 
that  of  Aristotle,  334  b.c.  The  great  library 
at  Alexandria  was  founded  by  Ptolemy  Phil- 
adelphus,  284  b.c.,  and  was  nearly  destroyed 
when  Julius  Caesar  set  fire  to  the  city,  47 
b.c.,  four  hundred  thousand  valuable  MSS. 
being  lost.  On  its  ruins  a second  collection 
was  gathered,  consisting  of  seven  hundred 
thousand  volumes.  This  was  totally  destroy- 
ed by  the  Saracens,  who  heated  the  water  of 
their  baths  for  six  months,  by  burning  books 
instead  of  wood,  under  orders  from  the  Caliph 
Omar  in  642.  The  early  Chinese  literature 
suffered  a similar  loss,  the  Emperor  Chee- 
whang-tee  ordering  all  writings  to  be  de- 
stroyed, that  everything  might  begin  anew 
from  his  reign.  Pope  Gregory  I.  burned  the 


library  of  the  Palatine  Apollo,  desiring  to 
confine  the  clergy  to  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. From  that  time  all  ancient  learning 
not  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  the  church, 
has  been  emphatically  distinguished  as  pro- 
fane, in  opposition  to  sacred. 

The  first  public  library  in  Italy  was  found- 
ed by  Nicholas  Niccoli,  one  of  the  great 
restorers  of  learning.  At  his  death,  he  left 
his  library  for  the  use  of  the  public,  a.d. 
1436.  Cosmo  de  Medici  enriched  it,  after 
the  death  of  Niccoli,  with  the  invaluable 
Greek,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Chaldaic,  and  Indian 
MSS.  Among  the  great  libraries  of  Europe 
are  the  following : That  of  the  Vatican,  at 
Rome,  founded  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  in  1446 ; 
improved  by  Sixtus  V.,  1588;  it  contains 

150.000  volumes,  and  40,000  manuscripts. 
The  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna,  founded  by 
Frederick  III.,  1440,  and  by  Maximilian  I., 
1500  ; one  of  the  most  choice  existing.  The 
Imperial  library  of  Paris,  founded  by  Francis 
I.  about  1520;  it  contains  900,000  volumes, 
and  84,000  manuscripts.  The  Escurial,  at 
Madrid,  commenced  with  the  foundation  of 
that  sumptuous  palace,  by  Philip  II.  in  1562  ; 
the  Spaniards  regard  it  as  matchless.  The 
library  of  Florence,  by  Cosmo  de  Medici, 
1560,  of  great  value  in  illustrated  and  illumi- 
nated "works.  The  library  of  the  University 
of  Munich  contains  400,000  volumes,  and 

10.000  manuscripts  ; and  that  of  Gottingen, 

300.000  volumes,  and  6,000  manuscripts. 
The  Imperial  Library  at  St.  Petersburgh  was 
founded  in  1714,  but  it  consists  principally  of 
the  spoils  of  Poland. 

Richard  de  Bury,  chancellor  and  high 
treasurer  of  England,  so  early  as  1341,  raised 
the  first  private  library  in  Europe.  He  pur- 
chased thirty  or  forty  volumes  of  the  Abbot 
of  St.  Albans  for  fifty  pounds  weight  of  sil- 
ver. The  following  are  among  the  principal 
libraries  in  England : The  Bodleian,  at  Ox- 

ford, founded  40  Eliz.,  1598 ; opened  in  1602  ; 
this  library  contains  nearly  400,000  volumes, 
and  upward  of  30,000  manuscripts.  The 
Cottonian  Library,  founded  by  Sir  Robert 
Cotton,  about  1600;  appropriated  to  the 
public,  13  Will.  III.,  1701  ; partly  destroyed 
by  fire,  1731 ; removed  to  the  British 
Museum,  1753.  The  Radcliffeian,  at  Oxford, 
founded  by  the  will  of  Dr.  Radcliffe,  who 
left  £40,000  to  the  university,  1714;  opened, 


1740.  The  library  at'Cambridge,  1720,  when 
George  I.  gave  £5,000  to  purchase  Dr.  Moore’s 
collection.  The  library  of  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion, in  1803.  That  of  the  London  Institu- 
tion, of  Sion  College,  &c.,  and  the  great 
library  of  the  British  Museum,  containing 
above  562,000  volumes  and  100,000  manu- 
scripts, including  the  Cottonian,  the  Harleian, 
and  other  collections.  The  library  of  the 
University  of  Dublin,  and  the  Advocates’ 
Library  in  Edinburgh,  are  among  the  most 
extensive  and  valuable  in  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land. 

The  Astor  Library,  New  York,  contains 

120.000  books;  the  Boston  City  Public  Li- 
brary, 112,000;  the  Congressional  Library 
at  Washington,  85,000 ; the  Boston  Athe- 
naeum Library,  80,000  ; the  New  York  Mer- 
cantile Library,  64,000;  and  the  New  York 
State  Library  at  Albany  is  somewhat  larger. 
Of  college  libraries  in  the  United  States,  the 
largest  are: — Harvard  University.  140,000: 
Yale  College,  64,000 ; Brown  University, 

34.000  ; Dartmouth  College,  32,000. 

LINCOLN,  Abraham,  sixteenth  President 

of  the  United  States,  v/as  born  in  Hardin 
Co.,  Ky.,  Feb.  12,  1800,  of  poor  parents, 
in  a rude,  log  cabin.  When  he  was  eight 
years  old  they  removed  to  Indiana.  All  the 
school  education  of  his  life,  did  not  exceed 
one  year.  But  his  character  was  moulded 
by  a noble,  Christian  mother.  He  said  of  her, 
after  her  death,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  “All 
that  I am  or  hope  to  be,  I owe  to  my  angel 
mother.”  He  early  became  a reader,  devour- 
ing ev^ry  book  he  could  find.  When  21 
years  old  he  engaged  in  flat  boating  to  New 
Orleans.  Removing  to  Illinois  he  was  em- 
ployed in  a store,  where  he  earned  the  sou- 
briquet of  “Honest  Abe.”  In  1832  he  was 
Capt.  of  a company  in  the  Black  Hawk  War. 
He  then  studied  law,  was  Mem.  of  the  Leg- 
islature 1834-40,  Mem.  of  Congress  1846, 
and  a successful  lawyer  in  Springfield,  111. 
In  1858  he  had  his  great  contest  for  the  U. 
S.  Senatorship  with  Mr.  Douglas.  Though 
defeated  by  the  unfair  apportionment  of  the 
legislative  districts,  yet  he  fought  the  “ Little 
Giant”  with  such  wonderful  power  as  to 
surprise  the-  nation.  Who  is  this  Illinois 
lawyer  coping  with  the  ablest,  most  adroit 
debater  of  the  West  with  a fairness,  mag- 
nanimity and  skill  rarely  if  ever  equaled, 


became  the  question.  In  his  speeches  dur- 
ing this  contest,  there  are  passages  as  noble 
and  sublime  as  ever  fell  from  the  lips  of 
statesmen.  Evincing  such  clear  comprehen- 
sion of  the  designs  of  the  Slave  power,  ex- 
posing the  sophistries  of  its  friends  with  such 
marvelous  skill,  putting  the  claims  of  man- 
hood and  liberty  in  such  luminous  state- 
ment, he  in  this  contest  prepared  the  way  for 
his  nomination  for  the  Presidency.  He  was 
elected  President  in  1860,  defeating  Mr. 
Douglas.  The  southern  leaders  then  hast- 
ened their  treasonable  plans.  The  plotters 
in  Mr.  Buchanan’s  Cabinet  constrained  and 
fettered  him,  and  with  congressional  conspir- 
ators in  Washington,  were  in  constant  com- 
munication with  their  respective  States,  urg- 
ing on  the  work  of  national  destruction.^. 
Floyd,  Sec.  of  War,  had  the  national  arms 
transferred  from  northern  armories  to  south- 
ern arsenals.  Toucey,  Sec.  of  the  Navy,  had 
sent  away  beyond  call,  all  but  two  of  the 
vessels  of  war.  Howell  Cobb,  Sec.  of  the 
Navy,  resigned  on  the  plea  that  the  finances 
of  the  country  were  hopelessly  embarrassed. 
So.  Carolina  led  off  in  secession,  followed  at 
once  by  other  States.  Forts  and  arsenals 
were  seized  in  the  South,  a southern  confed- 
eracy formed,  and  thus  the  most  fearful  and 
criminal  rebellion  was  inaugurated  that  ever 
imperiled  a nation. j Washington  was  full 
of  treason.  The  governmental  departments 
Were  crowded  with  it.  Loyalty  was  derided 
and  dishonored.  Southern  sympathizers 
were  scattered  over  the  whole  North,  and 
those  who  loved  the  Union  were  oppressed 
with  terrible  apprehensions.  Such  was  the 
condition  of  the  country  whqn.  Feb.  11,  ’61, 
Mr.  Lincoln  started  from  his  home  in  Spring- 
field,  111.,  for  Washington.’  He  had  watched 
the  coming  storm,  and  he  asked  as  he  bade 
adieu  to  his  fellow  citizens,  their  prayers  to 
Almighty  God,  that  he  might  have  wisdom 
and  help  to  see  the  right  path  and  pursue  it. 
Those  prayers  were  answered.  He  guided  the 
ship  of  State  safely  through  the  angriest  storm 
that  ever  demanded  a brave  and  good  pilot. 
He  issued  his  emancipation  proclamation 
Sept.  22,  ’62,  thus  disenthralling  4,000,000 
slaves,  and  executing  his  own  words  of  1858, 
that  “this  government  cannot  endure  per- 
manently half  slave  and  half  free.”  He 
called  over  a million  men  to  arms,  and  thus 


LIN 


the  republic  was  vindicated,  against  the 
fiercest,  foulest  conspiracy  of  which  history 
has  any  record. 

Mr.  Lincoln,  reelected  President,  entered 
upon  his  second  term  March,  ’65.  In  April 
the  confederate  armies  surrendered  and  the 
Rebellion  was  ended.  In  company  with  Gen. 
Grant,  he  walked  unarmed  the  streets  of 
Richmond,  late  the  capital  of  the  confederate 
government.  But  only  a few  days  after,  and 
in  the  height  of  the  nation’s  triumph  and 
joy,  having  saved  his  country,  he  fell  a vic- 
tim to  the  long  nursed  and  remorseless  hate 
of  its  foes.  As  a chief  part  of  the  plot  to 
destroy  the  heads  of  the  government,  he  was 
assassinated  at  Ford’s  Theatre,  April  14,  ’65, 
by  John  Wilkes  Booth. 

Mr.  Lincoln  had  unsurpassed  fitness  for 
the  task  he  had  to  execute.  Without  any 
thing  like  brilliancy  of  genius,  without 
breadth  of  learning  or  literary  accomplish- 
ments, he  had  that  perfect  balance  of  thor- 
oughly sound  faculties,  which  give  an  almost 
infallible  judgment.  This,  combined  with 
great  calmness  of  temper,  inflexible  firmness 
of  will,  supreme  moral  purpose,  intense  pa- 
triotism, made  up  just  that  character  which 
fitted  him,  as  the  same  faculties  fitted  Wash- 
ington, for  the  salvation  of  his  country  in  a 
period  of  stupendous  responsibility  and 
frightful  peril.  No  man  ever  had  a greater 
trust,  and  no  man  ever  discharged  one  with 
more  illustrious  success  or  purer  renown. 

He  was  the  least  pretentious  of  men.  He 
never  even  professed  his  determination  to  do 
his  duty.  Samson  like  he  could  rend  a lion, 
and  tell  neither  father  nor  mother  of  it.  No 
thought  of  self,  no  sensitiveness  for  his  own 
good  name,  ever  seemed  to  enter  his  mind. 
An  intense,  all-comprehensive  patriotism  was 
the  constant  and  sole  stimulus  of  all  his  pub- 
lic exertions.  A public  trust  was  to  him  a 
sacred  thing.  Sublimer  moral  courage,  more 
resolute  devotion  to  duty,  more  conscien- 
tious patriotism,  cannot  be  found  in  history, 
than  he  displayed  in  the  greatest  emergen- 
cies that  ever  befell  a people. 

In  every  city  and  town  o.  prominence, 
services  in  sympathy  with  his  funeral  solem- 
nities at  Washington,  were  held,  and  the 
great  heart  of  the  Republic  throbbed  with 
pain  and  lamentation.  Then  the  martyred 
President  was  borne  to  his  final  resting  place 


in  Springfield,  111.,  with  dtmonstrations  of 
love,  gratitude  and  veneration,  all  along  the 
journey  of  a 1000  miles,  such  as  no  statesman 
or  emperor  ever  received.  “ Never  was  such 
a funeral  given  to  a national  ruler.  He  was  a 
statesman  without  a statesman’s  craftiness, 
a politician  without  a politician’s  meannesses, 
a great  man  without  a great  man’s  vices,  a 
philanthropist  without  a philanthropist’s  im- 
practicable dreams,  a Christian  without  pre- 
tensions, a ruler  without  the  pride  of  place 
and  power,  an  ambitious  man  without  self- 
ishness, and  a successful  man  without  van- 
ity. Humble  man  of  the  backwoods — boat- 
man, ax-man,  hired  laborer,  clerk,  surveyor, 
captain,  legislator,  lawyer,  debater,  orator, 
politician,  statesman,  President,  saviour  of 
the  republic,  emancipator  of  a race,  true 
Christian,  true  man,” — this  is  the  summary 
of  the  pure,  patriotic  life  and  grand  work  of 
Abraham  Lincoln. 

LINCOLN,  Benjamin,  born  at  Hingham, 
Mass.,  Jan.  13th,  1733,  0.  S.,  was  major  gen- 
eral of  the  provincial  militia,  and  in  Feb., 
1777,  received  the  same  rank  in  the  continent- 
al forces.  At  Saratoga,  he  was  wounded  in 
the  leg.  At  Yorktown,  he  distinguished  him- 
self, as  he  had  done  throughout  the  whole 
Revolutionar}’-  struggle.  He  afterward  com- 
manded the  militia  which  quelled  Shaj7’s  re- 
bellion. In  1787,  he  was  elected  Lt.  Gov.  of 
Mass.,  and  from  1789  till  near  his  death,  in 
1810,  was  collector  of  customs  in  Boston. 

LINNiEUS,  (Carl  Yon  Linne,)  the  great 
naturalist,  was  a native  of  Sweden.  He  ex- 
celled chiefly  in  botany,  and  raised  errtomol- 
ogy  to  the  rank  of  a science.  He  died  Jan. 
10th,  1778,  aged  71. 

LIVERPOOL,  Robert  Banks  Jenkinson, 
Earl  of,  premier  of  England,  1812-1827. 

LIVINGSTON,  Brockholst,  son  of  Will- 
iam, Gov.  of  New  Jersey,  was  born  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  Nov.  25,  1757,  and  served 
with  great  distinction  under  Schuyler,  and 
A mold.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1 783, 
became  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  New 
York  in  1802,  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  U.  States  in  1807,  and  died  Mar.  18,  1823. 

LIVINGSTON,  Philip,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  Albany, 
Jan.  15th,  1716,  became  a successful  mer- 
chant in  New  York,  after  graduating  at  Yale 
He  was  a Mem.  of  the  colonial  assem- 


Coll. 
LIV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


495 


bly  in  1759,  chairman  of  the  legislature  in 
1770,  Mem.  of  the  Continental  Congress 
1774-8,  and  died  at  York,  Pa.,  June  12,  1778. 

LIVINGSTON,  Robert  R.,  born  in  New 
York  city,  Nov.  27,  1746,  was  graduated  at 
King’s  Coll,  in  1765.  As  a lawyer  he  won  a 
very  high  reputation,  was  Mem.  of  the  first 
general  congress,  was  one  of  the  committee 
to  draw  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
in  1780  was  Sec.  of  foreign  affairs;  for  sev- 
eral years  chancellor  of  N.  York,  and  1801-5 
minister  to  France.  He  died  Mar.  26,  1813. 

LIVY.  Titus  Livius  Patavinus,  the  illus- 
trius  historian,  was  born  at  Patavium,  (now 
Padua)  b.  c.  59.  The  greater  part  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  Rome,  where  he  died  a.  d.  18. 

LOCKE,  John,  born  in  1632,  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  This  eminent  philosopher  was  a 
prominent  defender  of  civil  and  religious  lib- 
erty. The  most  celebrated  of  his  works  is 
“An  Essay  Concerning  Human  Understand- 
ing.” He  died  in  1704. 

LODI,  a town  in  Austrian  Italy.  One  of 
Napoleon’s  most  daring  exploits  was  per- 
formed here,  May  10,  1796,  by  forcing  the 
passage  of  the  bridge  over  the  Adda,  though 
defended  by  10,000  Austrians.  He  always 
spoke  of  it  as  “that  terrible  passage  of  the 
bridge  of  Lodi.” 

LOMBARDS,  also  called  Longobardi,  (long- 
beards)  was  originally  a Scandinavian  tribe. 
About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  their 
king,  Alboin,  conquered  all  upper  Italy  and 
a part  of  middle  Italy.  Desiderius,  the  last 
king,  was  conquered  a.  d.  774,  by  Charle- 
magne, who  subverted  their  kingdom  in  Italy’. 
Lombardy  belonged  to  the  Austrian  empire 
until  1859,  when  it  was  united  with  Italy. 

The  iron  crown  of  Lombardy  takes  its 
name  from  the  narrow  iron  band  within  it. 
The  outer  circlet  consists  of  six  equal  pieces 
of  beaten  gold,  united  by  hinges  and  set  with 
large  rubies,  emeralds  and  sapphires,  on  a 
ground  of  blue  gold  enamel.  Within  the 
circlet  is  the  iron  crown,  without  a speck  of 
rust,  though  it  has  been  exposed  more  than 
1500  3rears. 

LONDON,  the  metropolis  of  England 
and  the  British  Empire,  is  situated  on 
the  Thames,  about  50  miles  from  the  sea. 
Its  population  in  1861,  was  2,803,034, 
having  doubled  in  about  forty  years.  Its 


2,800  streets,  if  put  together,  would  extend 
3,000  miles  in  length.  As  a compact  mass 
of  houses,  the  metropolis  may  be  considered 
a parallelogram  about  six  miles  in  length  by 
three  and  a half  in  width,  thus  covering  an 
area  of  twenty -one  square  miles.  With  the 
suburbs  included  in  the  census  returns,  it 
comprised  an  area  of  122  square  miles. 

London  includes  the  cities  and  liberties  of 
London  and  Westminster,  the  boroughs  of 
Southwark,  Marylebone,  Finsbury,  Tower 
Hamlets,  and  Lambeth,  and  a number  of 
suburban  parishes  and  precincts  on  all  sides 
of  these  central  portions.  The  City  proper 
is  that  space  which  lay  within  the  ancient 
walls  and  liberties,  and  is  divided  from  West- 
minster by  Temple  Bar.  The  streets  are  for 
the  most  part  narrow  and  inconvenient,  for 
in  old  walled  towns  space  was  precious. 
Just  outside  of  the  eastern  limit  of  the  city 
is  the  Tower,  once  the  royal  residence,  then 
for  centuries  the  Bastile  of  England,  and  the 
scene  of  many  a historic  tragedy,  and  now 
little  else  than  an  armory  and  curiosity-shop. 
In  the  City  is  St.  Paul's,  in  whose  crypt  the 
great  admiral  and  the  great  general,  Nelson 
and  Wellington,  are  buried  side  by  side. 

The  city  and  liberty  of  Westminster  com- 
mences at  Temple  Bar,  and  extends  to  Ken- 
sington and  Chelsea.  Here  is  Westminster 
Abbey,  where  lie  the  ashes  of  some  of  Eng- 
land's greatest  men,  whether  in  letters,  in 
war,  or  in  counsel.  Over  the  way  is  the 
palace  of  Westminster,  in  which  parliament 
meets.  In  this  quarter  is  St.  James’s  Pal- 
ace, a dingy  pile  of  brick,  where  kings  and 
queens  once  dwelt,  and  where  the  court 
is  yet  held.  Back  of  it  is  St.  James’s  Park, 
at  whose  west  end  is  Buckingham  Palace,  the 
town  residence  of  Victoria.  Still  beyond  is 
Hyde  Park,  and  the  fashionable  section  of 
London,  known  as  the  West  End.  Our  limits 
would  not  allow  even  a meagre  catalogue  of 
the  spots  and  buildings  in  London  that  have 
historic  or  other  interest.  We  can  barely 
notice  the  most  important  incidents  in  its 
annals. 

London  fortified  by  the  Romans,  50. 
Walled,  and  a palace  built,  306.  Made  a 
bishopric,  514.  Repaired  by  Alfred,  884. 
Greatly  damaged  by  fire,  798,  982, 1086,  and 
1130.  Tower  built  by  William  I.,  1 078. 
Houses  of  timber  thatched  with  straw,  but  to 


LON 


496 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


prevent  fire,  ordered  to  be  built  with  stone, 
and  covered  with  slates,  1192,  but  the  order 
not  observed.  Awful  fire  at  London  Bridge, 
then  covered  with  buildings ; 3,000  persons 
were  drowned  in  the  Thames,  1212.  A char- 
ter by  King  John  to  the  Londoners  to  choose 
a mayor  out  of  their  own  body  annually 
(this  office  formerly  was  for  life),  to  elect  and 
remove  their  sheriffs  at  pleasure,  and  their 
common-councilmen  annually,  1215.  A com- 
mon hunt  first  appointed,  1226.  Aldermen 
first  appointed,  1 242.  The  houses  still  thatch- 
ed with  straw,  Cheapside  lay  out  of  the  city, 
1246.  All  built  of  wood,  1300.  Terrible  pes- 
tilence, in  which  50,000  citizens  die,  1348  to 
1357.  Privileges  taken  away,  but  restored  on 
submission,  1366.  The  first  lord  mayor  sworn 
at  Westminster  that  went  by  water,  and  the 
lord  mayor’s  show  instituted,  1453.  A sheriff 
fined  £50  for  kneeling  too  near  the  lord  mayor, 
when  at  prayers  in  St.  Paul’s  cathedral,  1486. 
Streets  first  paved,  1533.  The  Thames  water 
first  conveyed  into  the  city,  1580.  The  city 
yet  chiefly  built  of  wood,  and  in  every  respect 
very  irregular,  1600.  Plague  sweeps  off 
30,578  persons,  1602.  The  New  River 
brought  to  London,  1613.  The  lord  mayor 
and  sheriffs  arrested  at  the  suit  of  two  pre- 
tended sheriffs,  April  24th,  1652.  Great 
plague,  in  which  68,596  persons  perish.  The 
Great  Fire  broke  out  near  the  Monument  and 
burnt  three  days  and  three  nights,  destroy- 
ing 13,200  houses,  the  city  gates,  Guildhall, 
&c.,  eighty-nine  churches,  amongst  which 
was  St.  Paul’s  cathedral,  and  laying  waste 
400  streets ; the  ruins  covered  436  acres,  and 
the  conflagration  was  only  checked  by  biow- 
ing up  buildings,  Sept.  2d,  1666.  Streets 
first  lit  by  lamps,  1682.  Pilkington  and 
Shute,  the  city  sheriffs,  sent  prisoners  to  the 
Tower,  for  continuing  a poll  after  the  lord 
mayor  had  adjourned  it,  1682.  The  charter 
of  the  city  declared  forfeited  to  the  crown, 
June  12th,  1682.  Privileges  taken  away,  but 
restored,  1688.  Built  a new  mansion  house, 
1737.  Furnished  and  inhabited  the  same, 
1753.  Repaired  London  bridge,  1758,  when 
government  granted  them  £15,000,  and  per- 
mitted them  to  pull  down  the  gates,  1760. 
Began  Blackfriars  bridge,  Oct.  31st,  1760. 
The  common  council  ordered  to  wear  blue 
mazarine  gowns,  Sept.  14th,  1761.  Lost  the 
cause  against  the  dissenters  serving  sheriffs, 


July  5th,  1762.  The  city  remonstrated  on 
the  king’s  paying  no  attention  to  their  peti- 
tion for  a redress  of  grievances,  and  were  cen- 
sured, March,  1770.  Brass  Crosby,  Esq., 
lord  mayor,  and  Alderman  Oliver,  sent  to  the 
Tower  by  the  house  of  commons,  for  commit- 
ting their  messenger,  March,  1771.  The 
common  councilmen  discontinued  the  wear- 
ing of  their  mazarine  gowns  in  court,  in 
1775.  The  city  abandoned  to  the  mercy  of 
Lord  George  Gordon’s  ‘no-popery’  mob, 
June  2d  to  7th,  1780.  Gas-lights  used  in 
London,  August,  1807;  Pall  Mall  lit  in 
1809 ; and  the  city  generally  lighted  in  1814. 
Thames  Tunnel  opened,  March  25th,  1843. 
Great  Chartist  demonstration,  April  10th, 
1848. 

LONG  ISLAND,  Battle  of.  The  Brit- 
ish attacked  the  Americans  at  Brooklyn, 
L.  I.,  Aug.  26th,  1776,  and  after  a severe 
conflict,  in  which  the  raw  levies  of  the  latter 
fought  well,  drove  them  into  their  intrench- 
ments.  Washington,  fearing  lest  the  plan 
included  an  attack  on  New  York,  could  send 
but  few  re-enforcements.  Gen.  Sullivan  and 
Lord  Stirling  were  made  prisoners.  Gen. 
Howe  preferred  regular  approaches  to  a 
bloody  assault,  and  on  the  28th,  under  cover 
of  a dense  fog,  the  Americans  retreated  over 
the  river  to  New  York.  In  the  battle  5,000 
Americans  wTere  beset  by  more  than  twice  as 
many  British.  The  loss  of  the  former  in  all 
was  nearly  2,000:  the  latter  acknowledged 
380  killed  and  wounded.  The  Hessians,  here 
first  introduced  on  the  field,  plied  the  bayonet 
with  sanguinary  fury. 

LONGINUS,  an  eminent  Greek  philoso- 
pher and  rhetorician,  the  teacher  of  Zenobia, 
put  to  death  by  the  Roman  emperor  Aure- 
lian,  a.d.  273. 

LORETTO.  At  this  village,  in  Italy,  there 
is  shown  the  Casa  Santa , or  Holy  House,  in 
which  it  is  pretended  the  Virgin  Mary  lived 
at  Nazareth.  According  to  the  legend,  it  was 
carried  by  angels  into  Dalmatia  from  Galilee 
in  1291,  and  next  brought  here.  The  famous 
lady  of  Loretto  stands  upon  an  altar,  holding 
the  infant  Jesus  in  her  arms,  and  is  surround- 
ed with  gold  lamps,  whose  glare  conceals  her 
face.  She  is  clothed  with  a cloth  of  gold,  set 
off  with  jewels,  with  which  the  child,  though 
in  a shirt,  is  covered  also.  Loretto  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1796,  and  the  holy  image 


LOR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


497 


carried  to  France;  but  it  was  brought  back 
with  pious  pomp,  and  welcomed  with  the  dis- 
charge of  cannon  and  the  ringing  of  bells, 
borne  in  procession  to  the  holy  house  on  a rich 
frame,  resting  on  the  shoulders  of  eight  bish- 
ops, Jan.  5th,  1803. 

LOUDON,  Gideon  Ernest,  an  Austrian 
general,  was  born  at  Tootzen,  in  Livonia,  in 
1716,  of  a family  that  originally  came  from 
Scotland.  He  displayed  great  talents  in  the 
seven  years’  war,  and  was  made  a major- 
general,  and  invested  with  the  order  of  Maria 
Theresa.  In  1757  he  contributed  to  the 
victory  of  Hochkirchen,  and  afterward  gained 
that  of  Kunersdorf.  He  next  defeated  the 
Prussians  at  Landshut,  and  made  himself 
master  of  Glatz.  On  the  conclusion  of  the 
peace,  he  was  created  a baron  of  the  empire ; 
in  1766  nominated  an  aulic  counselor;  and 
in  1778  made  field-marshal.  Pie  next  com- 
manded against  the  Turks,  and  in  1789  took 
Belgrade.  He  died  July  14th,  1790.  His 
modesty  was  proverbial.  The  Duke  of 
Aremberg,  being  once  asked  by  the  empress 
at  a court  party  where  Loudon  was,  an- 
swered : “ There  he  is,  as  usual,  behind  the 
door,  quite  ashamed  of  possessing  so  much 
merit.” 

LOUIS  IX.  of  France,  commonly  called 
St.  Louis,  was  the  son  of  Louis  VIII.,  and  was 
born  in  1215.  Being  an  infant  at  the  time 
of  his  father’s  death,  the  regency  was  con- 
fided to  Blanche  of  Castile,  the  queen-dow- 
ager. Scarcely  had  Louis  attained  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years,  and  taken  the  reins  of 
government  into  his  own  hands,  when  Henry 
III.  of  England  demanded  the  provinces 
which  Louis  VIII.  had  promised  to  restore. 
A tender  was  made  of  Poitou,  and  part  of 
Normandy ; but  Henry  was  resolved  to  try 
the  issue  of  a battle,  and  his  army  was  de- 
feated on  the  banks  of  the  Charente.  In 
1248  Louis  undertook  a crusade  to  the  holy 
land,  and  landed  in  Egypt.  Damietta  was 
abandoned  by  the  Saracens  on  the  approach 
of  his  troops,  who  advanced  to  Cairo,  in  full 
confidence  of  success.  But  famine,  the 
sword,  and  disease  so  wasted  his  forces  that 
he  fell,  with  all  his  nobility,  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy.  His  ransom  was  the  city  of 
Damietta,  and  400,000  francs.  Louis  re- 
mained five  years  in  Palestine,  repaired  the 
fortifications  of  some  cities,  and  ransomed 

32 


nearly  twelve  hundred  prisoners;  but,  on  the 
news  of  his  mother’s  death,  he  returned 
promptly  to  France,  and  employed  himself 
in  securing  the  enjoyment  of  peace  and  jus- 
tice. His  piety  caused  him  to  build  many 
churches  and  hospitals,  and  his  subjects 
blessed  a reign  which  appeared  as  peaceful 
as  it  was  happy,  when  ill  news  from  Palestine 
roused  the  enterprising  spirit  of  the  king, 
and  another  crusade  was  determined  upon. 
He  departed  with  his  three  sons,  but  instead 
of  going  directly  to  Palestine,  landed  at 
Tunis,  and  commenced  the  siege  of  that 
place.  The  heat  of  the  climate  and  the 
plague  thinned  the  ranks  of  the  army ; Louis 
lost  one  of  his  sons,  and  died  himself  at  the 
age  of  fifty-five  years,  after  a reign  of  forty- 
four.  He  was  placed  among  the  saints  by 
Pope  Boniface  VIII. 

LOUIS  XI.  of  France,  the  son  of  Charles 
VII.,  was  born  in  1423.  In  1440  he  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  a faction  against  the 
king  his  father,  and  when  unsuccessful  fled 
to  the  court  of  Burgundy.  His  father’s 
death  took  place  July  1st,  1461,  and  Louis 
was  crowned  August  15th.  His  arbitrary 
measures  against  the  nobility  engaged  the 
principal  persons  of  the  kingdom  in  a com- 
pact to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  League 
of  the  Public  Good.  The  Duke  of  Berri, 
the  king’s  brother,  the  Dukes  of  Bretagne 
and  Bourbon,  and  the  Count  of  Charolais, 
Charles  the  Bold,  afterward  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, were  the  chiefs  of  this  party.  The 
king,  who  marched  to  defend  Paris,  engaged 
them  July  2d,  1465,  without  much  advan- 
tage ; but  he  broke  up  the  league  by  a peace 
concluded  in  October  following,  at  Conflans, 
in  which  he  agreed  to  give  Normandy  to 
his  brother,  and  to  cede  some  territories  to 
Burgundy.  Louis,  however,  did  not  keep 
his  pledges ; his  brother  was  soon  poisoned, 
and  it  was  thought  that  Louis  was  the  author 
of  the  atrocious  deed.  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy  determined  to  revenge  the  death 
of  his  friend,  but  he  fell,  in  the  midst  of  bril- 
liant projects,  in  a battle  with  the  Swiss. 
Louis  passed  his  last  years  in  the  chateau 
of  Plessis-les-Tours,  a prey  to  the  horrors  of  a 
guilty  conscience,  and  died  there  in  1483. 
Atrocious  executions,  tyranny,  and  sinister 
intrigues  had  stained  his  reign : yet  Pope 
Paul  II.  bestowed  upon  him  the  title  of 


LOU 


498 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Most  Christian  King.  In  his  last  illness,  it 
is  chronicled,  he  drank  the  warm  blood  of 
infants,  in  hope  of  restoring  his  wasted 
strength.  His  intrigues  engendering  a ne- 
cessity for  speedy  intelligence,  he  established 
post-houses  throughout  France  in  1470,  the 
first  institutions  of  the  kind  in  Europe. 

LOUIS  XII.,  born  in  1462,  the  son  of 
Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  Mary  of  Cleves, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  France  in  1498. 
In  early  life  his  temper  had  been  violent,  but 
he  bravely  resolved  that  the  King  of  France 
would  not  revenge  the  injuries  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans.  He  attempted  the  conquest  of 
Genoa,  Naples,  and  Milan : the  issue  proved 
unfortunate.  In  his  war  against  the  Span- 
iards he  was  equally  unsuccessful.  His  army 
won  the  field  of  Ravenna,  but  Gaston  de 
Foix,  his  nephew  and  great  general,  was 
slain.  When  courtiers  congratulated  the 
king,  he  said,  “I  wish  my  enemies  such  tri- 
umphs.” Henry  VIII.  of  England,  having 
waged  a successful  war  on  the  French  terri- 
tory, suddenly  broke  with  his  allies,  and 
made  peace  with  Louis.  In  the  midst  of  his 
preparations  to  recover  the  loss  he  had  sus- 
tained in  Italy,  Louis  died  in  1515.  Louis 
married  in  1473,  Jeanne,  daughter  of  Louis 
XI.  He  repudiated  her  upon  his  accession, 
in  order  to  wed  Anne  of  Bretagne,  the  widow 
of  his  predecessor,  Charles  VIII.  The  latter 
died  in  1514,  and  he  married  some  three 
months  before  his  death,  Mary,  sister  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  afterward  wife  of 
the  Duke  of  Suffolk,  and  grandmother  of 
Lady  Jane  Grey. 

LOUIS  XIII.,  born  in  1601,  succeeded  his. 
father,  Henry  IV.,  in  1610,  the  state  being 
placed  under  the  regency  of  his  mother, 
Mary  de  Medicis.  In  1611  Sully  retired 
from  the  court,  and  was  succeeded  by  an 
Italian,  Concini,  Marshal  d’Ancre,  who  ob- 
tained an  unlimited  sway.  He  supported 
Mary  de  Medicis  in  all  her  prodigal  meas 
ures ; but  his  unpopular  career  was  termin- 
ated by  Louis  through  an  assassin,  and  the 
queen-mother  was  exiled  to  Blois.  Richelieu 
reconciled  the  queen  and  Louis,  and  in  1624 
was  put  at  the  head  of  the  administration. 
He  died  in  1642,  and  his  death  was  soon 
followed  by  that  of  Louis,  who  survived  the 
cardinal  only  a few  months.  Louis  married 
Anne  of  Austria  in  1615.  The  louis-d’or 


(now  called  the  napoleon)  was  first  struck  in 
his  reign. 

LOUIS  XIV.,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
Sept.  5th,  1638,  ascended  the  throne  in  1643, 
under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  Anne  of 
Austria,  who  chose  Cardinal  Mazarin  as  her 
minister.  In  the  war  against  Spain  and 
Austria,  the  Duke  d’Enghien  (afterward  so 
gloriously  known  as  Conde)  and  Marshal 
Turenne  were  victorious  in  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands.  By  the  peace  of  Westphalia, 
in  1648,  France  gained  Alsace,  and  Sundgau, 
Brisaoh,  and  the  right  to  garrison  Phillips- 
burg.  In  the  same  year  began  the  civil  war 
of  the  Frondeurs,  against  Mazarin,  who  was 
relieved  by  the  great  Prince  of  Conde.  In 
1650  Conde  formed  an  independent  party, 
but  was  arrested  and  imprisoned,  and  in 

1652  was  defeated  by  the  royalists,  under 
Turenne,  at  the  battle  of  St.  Antoine.  In 

1653  Conde  joined  the  Spaniards,  the  war 
against  whom  was  vigorously  carried  on  by 
Turenne.  By  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  in 
1659,  Louis  gained  Roussillon  and  Conflans, 
a great  acquisition  of  territory;  and  in  1660 
he  received  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  Philip 
IV.,  in  marriage.  In  1661  Mazarin  died,  and 
Louis  took  upon  himself  the  affairs  of  gov- 
ernment, appointing  Colbert  his  minister  of 
finance,  under  whom  the  arts,  commerce,  and 
manufactures  greatly  flourished.  On  the 
death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  Louis  began 
the  career  of  those  conquests  which  acquired 
him  the  title  of  Great.  By  virtue  of  his 
marriage  with  the  infanta,  he  laid  claim  to 
Cambresis,  Franche-Comte,  Luxemburg,  and 
a great  part  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and 
entered  Flanders  at  the  head  of  an  army  of 
35,000  men.  However,  the  triple  alliance  of 
England,  Sweden,  and  Holland  compelled  the 
French  monarch  to  renounce  all  but  Flan- 
ders, and  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  in  1668.  Louvois  now  became 
minister  of  war;  and  in  1670  Louis  effected 
the  dissolution  of  the  triple  alliance;  pen- 
sioned off  the  English  king;  overran  great 
part  of  Holland,  and  compelled  the  Elector 
of  Brandenburg  to  conclude  a treaty  of  neu- 
trality in  1673.  In  1674  Louis,  being  aban- 
doned by  his  former  allies,  formed  a league 
with  Sweden,  and  resolved  to  humble  the 
republic  of  Holland.  He  made  a sham  at- 
tack on  Bommel  by  sea ; but  the  Prince  of 


LOU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


499 


Concle  being  compelled  to  retreat  with  his 
army,  the  united  provinces  were  lost  to 
France.  William  of  Orange  was  the  great 
leader  of  the  Dutch  armies. 

In  1675  Turenne  perished  before  Salzbach. 
At  length,  a treaty  was  signed  at  Nirneguen, 
in  167b,  whereby  all  the  provinces  wrested 
from  the  Dutch  were  restored,  and  Louis 
gained  Franche-Comte,  Dunkirk,  and  part  of 
Flanders.  In  1681  the  chambers  of  reunion 
were  erected;  and  in  1684  Louis  seized 
Strasburg,  Luxemburg,  and  Deux-Ponts.  In 
the  same  year  Louis  sent  a fleet  against 
Genoa;  and  in  the  following  year  he  bom- 
barded Tripoli  and  Tunis.  In  1685  he  re- 
voked the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  the  Protest- 
ants were  compelled  to  fly  the  kingdom  for 
safety.  In  1688  he  took  possession  of  Avig- 
non and  the  palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  which 
he  devastated  in  the  following  year.  When 
William  of  Orange  became  King  of  England, 
the  fortune  of  Louis  turned  on  the  decline. 
Louvois  died  in  1691,  and  in  1692  the  French 
fleet  was  destroyed  by  the  British  at  La 
Hogue.  The  French  were,  however,  victo- 
rious in  Spain  and  the  Netherlands,  under 
Vendome  and  Luxemburg. 

In  1696  Louis  concluded  the  peace  of  Turin 
with  Savoy ; and  in  the  following  year  the 
peace  of  Ryswick  was  concluded,  whereby 
Louis  restored  his  conquests  made  after  the 
death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain.  In  1700  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  succession  commenced, 
when  Louis  declared  for  Philip  of  Anjou,  his 
grandson,  in  opposition  to  Charles,  Archduke 
of  Austria,  who  was  supported  by  the  Euro- 
pean confederates.  W ar  was  declared  against 
France;  the  French  were  defeated  at  Blen- 
heim, Ramillies,  Oudenarde,  and  Malplaquet, 
and  Prince  Eugene  was  everywhere  triumph- 
ant. Louis  sued  for  peace  in  vain,  till  a 
change  in  the  English  cabinet  gave  a new 
turn  to  the  politics  of  Europe;  and  in  1713 
the  peace  of  Utrecht  was  concluded,  followed 
by  that  of  Radstadt,  between  Marshal  Villars 
and  Prince  Eugene,  when  Louis  ceded  his 
possessions  in  America  to  England,  and  his 
Italian  dominions  to  Austria  and  Savoy.  In 
1715  Louis  died,  in  the  seventy-second  year 
of  his  reign,  at  the  age  of  seventy-seven. 

After  the  death  of  Maria  Theresa,  Louis 
privately  married  Madame  de  Maintenon.  The 
ability  of  such  statesmen  as  Colbert  developed 


the  resources  of  France,  in  this  reign,  but  the 
long  and  costly  wars  had  a terrible  harvest  of 
corruption  and  impoverishment. 

LOUIS  XV.,  the  son  of  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy and  Maria  Adelaide  of  Savoy,  was  only 
five  years  of  age  at  the  death  of  the  preceding 
monarch,  his  great-grandfather,  and  was 
placed  under  the  regency  of  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans. In  1726  the  regency  of  Cardinal  Fleury 
commenced,  on  whose  death  Louis  took  on 
himself  the  management  of  public  affairs,  and 
declared  war  against  Germany  and  Hungary. 
After  a life  spent  in  the  greatest  voluptuous- 
ness, he  died,  an  object  of  general  odium,  in 
1774.  His  queen  was  Maria  Leczenski,  daugh- 
ter of  Stanislaus  of  Poland. 

LOUIS  XVI.  was  the  second  son  of  the 
dauphin  (son  of  Louis  XV.)  and  Maria  Jose- 
pha  of  Saxony,  daughter  of  Frederick  Augus- 
tus of  Poland.  He  was  born  in  1754,  and 
succeeded  his  grandfather.  Amiable,  but 
timid,  he  had  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  crimes 
of  his  ancestors,  and  was  guillotined  Jan.  21st, 
1793.  [See  France  and  Marie  Antoinette.] 

LOUIS  PHILIPPE,  King  of  the  French, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Philippe  Joseph,  Duke 
of  Orleans,  cousin  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  known 
to  the  world  by  the  sobriquet  of  Philippe 
Egalite.  His  mother  was  Marie,  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Penthievre,  and  he  was  born  in 
Paris,  Oct.  6th,  1773.  His  education  was  in- 
trusted to  Madame  de  Genlis.  In  1792,  being 
then  Due  de  Chartres,  he  was  commander  of 
a troop  of  dragoons  under  Kellermann,  making 
his  first  campaign,  and  distinguishing  himself 
against  the  Austrians  at  Valmy  and  Jem- 
mappes.  In  April,  1793,  he  was  summoned 
with  Gen.  Dumouriez  before  the  committee  of 
public  safety,  which  interfered  with  a scheme 
Dumouriez  had  nursed,  for  raising  the  young 
duke  to  the  French  throne.  Both  fled,  and 
with  difficulty  escaped  to  Austria,  whence  the 
duke  made  his  way  in  disguise  to  Switzerland, 
to  join  his  sister  and  Madame  de  Genlis.  The 
course  of  Egalite  made  his  children  hated  by 
the  French  royalists.  At  Zurich,  his  daugh- 
ter, being  recognized  in  the  public  square, 
was  openly  insulted  by  an  emigrant,  who 
rudely  tore  away  a part  of  the  poor  girl's  dress 
with  his  spur.  Instead  of  granting  protection, 
the  authorities  bade  them  move  on.  After 
more  insults  and  sufferings,  the  ladies  sought 
refuge,  under  assumed  names,  in  a convent 


LOU 


500 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


near  Bremgarten,  and  Louis  Philippe  became 
a solitary  wanderer.  After  many  straits  of 
indigence,  and  some  curious  experiences  for  a 
future  king,  he  obtained  a professorship  n the 
college  at  Reichenau.  His  pay  was  $258  a 
year,  and  he  taught  history,  geography,  math- 
ematics, and  the  English  language.  None 
but  the  director  of  the  institution  was  aware 
of  the  teacher’s  rank.  In  this  quiet  retreat  he 
received  news  of  his  father’s  death  by  the 
guillotine : he  threw  up  his  professorship,  and 
retired  to  Bremgarten.  He  carried  with  him 
an  honorable  testimonial  of  the  services  he 
had  rendered  at  the  academy,  and  was  justly 
proud  of  the  document  when  he  sat  upon  the 
throne  of  France,  reputed  the  wisest  monarch 
of  his  time. 

Melancholy,  and  weary  of  his  fate,  the  exile 
pined  to  quit  Europe,  and  in  a new  world  uto 
forget  the  greatness  and  the  sufferings  which 
had  been  the  companions  of  his  youth.”  But 
he  was  literally  without  a farthing.  A friend 
wrote  on  his  behalf  to  Mr.  Morris,  who  had 
been  ambassador  to  France  from  the  United 
States,  had  been  acquainted  with  Egalite,  and 
was  then  at  Hamburg,  about  to  return  to 
his  native  country.  Mr.  Morris  answered 
promptly  and  kindly,  offering  the  prince  a free 
passage  to  America,  and  his  services  after 
arrival  there ; and  he  transmitted  an  order  for 
£100  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  journey  to 
Hamburg.  Louis  Philippe  accepted  this 
friendship  in  the  spirit  in  which  it  was  offered. 

On  the  10th  of  March,  1795,  Louis  Philippe 
left  Bremgarten,  and,  traveling- still  incognito, 
reached  Hamburg  at  the  end  of  the  month. 
He  missed  his  kind  friend,  who  was  employed 
upon  diplomatic  business  in  Germany.  Some 
months  must  go  before  Mr.  Morris  could  return 
to  Hamburg,  and  these  the  young  adven- 
turer resolved  to  employ  in  exploring  North- 
ern Europe,  an  undertaking  beset  with  diffi- 
culties unknown  to  the  tourist*  of  to-day. 
From  Denmark  he  crossed  to  Sweden,  and 
thence  passed  into  Norway,  making  excursions 
that  were  remembered  long  afterward,  to  the 
iron  and  copper  mines  of  that  country.  The 
north  ward  journey  did  not  end  even  here : the 
traveler  was  not  content  until  he  had  advanced 
some  degrees  beyond  the  arctic  circle.  Re- 
turning southward,  he  traversed  on  foot  the 
desert  which  separates  the  Northern  Ocean 
from  the  river  Tornea.  Fifteen  days  were 


Occupied  in  the  journey,  during  which  no 
other  nourishment  than  the  milk  and  flesh  of 
the  reindeer  could  be  procured. 

Upon  his  return  from  this  expedition  Louis 
Philippe  received  the  gratifying  intelligence 
that  the  French  directory  were  prepared  to 
grant  liberty  to  his  brothers,  who  had  been 
kept  close  prisoners  since  their  father’s  death, 
upon  condition  that  the  Duke  of  Orleans  with 
them  would  consent  to  banishment  from  Eu- 
rope. The  consent  was  given  as  soon  as 
asked,  and  on  the  24th  of  October,  1796, 
Louis  Philippe  landed  in  Philadelphia.  It 
was  not  until  the  7th  of  February  following 
that,  after  a cruel  and  protracted  separation, 
the  three  brothers  met  in  the  same  city. 
They  soon  heard,  to  their  dismay,  that  their 
mother  too  had  been  expelled  from  her  native 
land.  Concluding  that  she  would  be  sent  to 
Cayenne,  they  determined  to  reach  that  colony 
before  her,  and  were  on  their  way,  when  they 
learned  that  Spain  was  her  destination.  This 
rendered  necessary  an  alteration  of  their 
plans : they  would  go  to  Havana,  and  thence 
sail  direct  to  Europe.  Their  route  was  to 
New  Orleans  by  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi. 
The  winter  had  set  in  severely,  and  the  dan- 
ger and  difficulty  of  the  expedition  were  fear- 
ful. On  the  Ohio  the  cold  was  so  bitter  that 
the  cider  and  milk  were  congealed  in  the  cabin 
of  the  boat,  although  it  was  heated  by  a large 
fire,  and  by  the  presence  of  seven  or  eight 
passengers.  Four  of  the  boatmen,  disabled 
by  cold  and  fatigue,  gave  way,  and  the  princes 
took  their  place.  Where  the  Ohio  falls  into 
the  Mississippi,  matters  were  even  worse ; for 
the  travelers,  having  no  boatmen  with  them 
who  knew  the  river,  were  obliged,  in  spite  of 
the  cold,  to  keep  watch  themselves  by  day 
and  night.  For  three  hundred  leagues,  at 
one  part  of  their  course,  they  met  with  but 
three  habitations.  After  many  hardships, 
from  which  two  of  the  three  adventurers  never 
thoroughly  recovered,  New  Orleans  was 
reached  at  last,  whence  they  embarked  for 
Cuba  on  board  an  American  vessel  under  a 
Spanish  flag.  The  devoted  young  men 
reached  Cuba,  to  be  immediately  expelled  by 
the  captain-general.  Orders  had  been  received 
to  deny  them  hospitality.  They  proceeded  to 
the  Bahamas,  thence  to  Halifax ; and  by  the 
kindness  of  the  Duke  of  Kent  (the  father  of 
Queen  Victoria),  then  governor  of  Nova  Scotia, 


LOU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


501 


they  were  enabled  finally  to  set  sail  for  Eng- 
land. They  reached  London  on  the  15th  of 
February,  1800. 

Their  destination,  however,  was  Spain,  not 
England.  Obtaining  a passage  in  a British 
frigate  as  far  as  Minorca,  they  sailed  from  that 
island  in  a Spanish  ship  to  Barcelona.  They 
were  now  within  hail  of  that  dear  mother 
whom  they  had  traveled  so  far  to  comfort  with 
their  presence.  Nevertheless,  they  were  not 
permitted  to  land  at  Barcelona ; and  the  poor 
woman  was  not  even  told  that  they  had 
reached  the  harbor  on  their  atfectionate  pil- 
grimage. The  princes  returned  to  England, 
and  took  up  their  abode  on  the  banks  of  the 
Thames  near  Twickenham.  Not  to  remain 
together  long.  The  Due  de  Montpensier  died 
of  consumption  in  1807,  and  was  buried  in 
W estminster  Abbey.  The  funeral  was  scarce- 
ly over  before  the  Comte  de  Beaujolais  was 
attacked  with  the  same  disease,  and  ordered 
to  a warmer  climate.  Louis  Philippe  accom- 
panied the  invalid  to  Malta,  and  there  buried 
him.  There  was  only  a sister  left. 

After  fifteen  years’  absence,  brother  and 
sister  met  again  at  Portsmouth.  The  meeting 
is  described  as  most  affecting.  They  vowed 
to  each  other  never  again  to  separate,  and  the 
vow  was  sacredly  kept.  In  company  they 
went  once  more  in  search  of  their  mother. 
With  difficulty  they  managed  to  convey  a 
letter  to  her,  fixing  a rendezvous  at  Minorca' 
and  the  7th  of  September,  1809,  they  landed 
at  that  island  to  embrace  at  last  the  object  of 
such  long  and  anxious  search.  After  a short 
sojourn  in  the  island,  the  three  set  sail  for 
Palermo,  where,  on  the  25th  of  the  following 
November,  Louis  Philippe  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ferdinand,  King  of  Naples.  In  Sicily, 
tranquillity  first  dawned  upon  the  agitated 
career  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  His  mother, 
his  sister,  and  his  wife  were  at  his  side ; chil- 
dren were  born  to  him  ; public  affairs  ceased 
to  harass  or  depress  him ; he  sought,  and 
found  happiness  at  the  family  hearth,  where 
Heaven  provides  it  for  all.  In  the  midst  of 
the  profound  calm  there  fell  a thunderbolt. 
Napoleon  was  beaten.  Louis  XVIII.  was  set 
upon  the  throne  of  France.  Louis  Philippe 
heard  the  news,  and  started  for  Paris  that  very 
moment. 

Marvelous  vicissitudes  of  life ! The  man 
who  had  been  refused  his  bed  of  straw  at  a 


farm-house,  reached  the  French  metropolis, 
and  hurried  to  the  Palais  Royal  to  set  foot 
again  in  his  magnificent  ancestral  home.  His 
heart  beating  high,  his  soul  pierced  with  a 
hundred  conflicting  sensations  that  expressed 
themselves  in  visible  tears,  the  restored  heir 
paced  the  well  known  galleries  and  visited 
the  well  remembered  gardens.  The  doors  of 
the  grand  staircase  chanced  to  be  opened. 
The  visitor  involuntarily  entered,  but  was 
stopped  by  a porter  wearing  the  imperial  liv- 
ery, who  said  that  strangers  were  not  allowed 
in  the  private  apartments.  Louis  Philippe, 
overcome  with  emotion,  fell  upon  his  knees, 
and  in  his  bewilderment  kissed  the  lowest  step 
of  the  staircase.  He  was  recognized  and 
admitted. 

That  dry  stick  ofBourbonism,  Louis XVIII., 
was  scarcely  on  the  throne  before  schemes 
were  on  foot  to  overthrow  the  old  dynasty, 
and  to  place  the  Duke  of  Orleans  at  the  head 
of  a constitutional  monarchy.  Intriguers  on 
every  side  were  as  busy  as  possible,  when 
the  astounding  announcement  was  made  that 
the  lion  chained  at  Elba  had  burst  his  bonds, 
and  was  advancing,  with  such  strides  as 
that  lion  alone  could  take,  rapidly  on  Paris. 
Intrigues  were  postponed  for  the  present. 
Louis  XVIII.  as  quick  as  lightning  was 
beyond  the  frontier.  Louis  Philippe,  accom- 
panied by  his  family,  was  again  at  Twicken- 
ham. Waterloo  put  matters  straight  for  the 
Bourbons,  had  the  men  been  wise  enough  to 
keep  them  so.  But  they  were  both  imbecile 
and  infatuated*  Louis  XVIII.  was  much  wor- 
ried by  the  popularity  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
“ I perceive,”  said  he,  “ that  although  Louis 
Philippe  does  not  stir,  he  advances.  How 
must  I manage  to  prevent  a man  from  walk- 
ing who  appears  as  if  he  did  not  make  a 
step  ? ” Charles  X.  was  admirably  adapted 
for  completing  the  ruin  of  his  own  fortunes 
and  those  of  all  who  belonged  to  him.  Rev- 
olution became  necessary  again.  France  had 
another  struggle  for  her  rights.  Fighting 
again  took  place  in  the  streets  of  Paris,  whilst 
Charles  X.  was  playing  a rubber  of  whist 
at  St.  Cloud,  and  Louis  Philippe  was  ner- 
vously watching  the  issue  of  a more  intricate 
game  at  the  palace  of  Neuilly.  The  friends 
of  a republic  threatened  to  shoot  all  who 
should  dare  to  speak  of  a monarchy.  Odillon 
Barrot  hit  upon  a happy  sentence  in  reply : 


LOU 


502 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


“ The  Duke  of  Orleans  is  the  best  of  repub- 
lics.” Louis  Philippe  was  created  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  kingdom,  from  which  it  was 
hardly  a step  to  the  throne ; and  on  the  9th 
of  August,  1830,  the  great-grandson  of  the 
Regent  grasped  the  sceptre  which  for  two 
centuries  the  family  of  Orleans  had  vainly 
endeavored  to  clutch. 

In  the  presence  of  God,  Louis  Philippe, 
King  of  the  French,  swore  to  govern  only 
by  the  laws,  and  “ to  cause  good  and  exact 
justice  to  be  administered  to  every  one  accord- 
ing to  his  right,  and  to  act  in  everything  with 
the  sole  view  to  the  interest,  the  welfare,  and 
the  glory  of  the  French  people.  It  was  a 
great  oath,  but  such  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected from  a king  cradled  in  misfortune,  and 
conscious  of  the  crying  necessities  of  the 
people  who  had  freely  elected  him  to  be  their 
chief.  Louis  Philippe,  no  doubt,  took  it  in 
sincerity,  and  fell  a sacrifice  afterward  to  his 
great  good  fortune.  He,  too,  gradually  forgot 
the  teachings  of  history. 

A sad  event  happened  in  1842  : the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  the  heir  to  the  throne,  was  thrown 
from  his  carriage,  and  killed,  on  the  13th  of 
July.  His  sister,  the  Duchess  ofWurtem- 
burg,  who  excelled  in  sculpture,  had  died 


Jan.  2d,  1839.  The  king  was  often  near 
death : many  attempts  for  his  assassination 
were  made.  Oct.  10th,  1846,  his  son  the 
Due  de  Montpensier  married  the  infanta  of 
Spain.  On  the  last  day  but  one  of  1847, 
Madame  Adelaide,  whose  counsel  had  often 
been  serviceable  to  her  royal  brother,  de- 
parted from  life.  In  February,  1848,  the 
revolution  broke  out.  On  the  24th,  Louis 
Philippe  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  infant 
grandson.  The  act  was  of  no  use.  A repub- 
lic was  proclaimed.  The  king  shaved  off  his 
whiskers,  put  on  green  spectacles,  called 
himself  Smith,  and  escaped  with  his  family 
to  England.  He  took  up  his  abode  at  Clare- 
mont, where  he  died  Aug.  26th,  1850. 

LOUISBURG,  formerly  a considerable 
town  and  fortress  of  the  island  of  Cape 
Breton.  It  was  taken  from  the  French  by 
the  English  fleet  under  Sir  Peter  Warren,  and 
the  provincial  forces  commanded  by  Sir 
William  Pepperrell,  in  the  year  1745;  but 
afterward  was  restored  to  France  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748.  It  was 
again  taken  by  the  English,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Admiral  Boscawen  and  General 
Amherst,  in  1758,  and  its  fortifications  were 
afterward  demolished.  It  is  now  deserted. 


LOUISIANA  has  an  area  of  41,346  square 
miles;  population  in  1870,  726,915,  of  which 
362,065  were  whites  and  364,210  colored. 
The  surface  is  low,  and  in  general  level,  with 
some  hilly  ranges  of  slight  elevation  in  the 
western  part,  and  numerous  basins  or  depres- 
sions of  the  soil.  Extensive  marshes  line  the 
southern  coast.  The  Mississippi,  as  it  nears 


the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  sends  off  numerous 
branches  from  its  main  channel,  of  which  the 
Atchafalaya,  Iberville,  and  La  Fourche  are  the 
most  important,  covering  the  country  with  a 
net-work  of  lakes  and  streams.  The  main 
channel  debouches  by  a delta  of  six  mouths, 
or  passes.  The  waters  of  the  mighty  stream 
periodically  overflow  large  alluvial  tracts. 


LOU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  503 


Great  dikes,  or  levees,  are  necessary  to  keep 
the  Father  of  Waters  in  good  behavior,  and 
through  these  he  often  bursts  deep  breaches, 
or  crevasses,  as  they  are  termed.  The  richest 
region  is  a strip  each  side  of  the  Mississippi, 
extending  from  a hundred  and  fifty  miles 
above  New  Orleans  to  forty  miles  below. 
Here  great  crops  of  sugar  are  raised.  All 
the  river  bottoms  have  a fertile  soil.  The 
Red  River  pours  its  tribute  to  the  great 
stream  within  the  limits  of  Louisiana,  but 
soon  after  leaving  Arkansas,  it  enters  a 
swampy  tract,  choked  with  numerous  thickets 
and  fallen  timber,  which  is  called  the  Raft. 
The  water  scatters  in  numerous  channels 
and  spreads  over  broad  expanses.  The  Raft 
extends  some  seventy  miles  in  length,  and  is 
an  unfortunate  barrier  to  navigation.  At 
great  expense  the  general  government  has 
made  a passage  for  steamboats.  The  rivers 
of  Louisiana  often  spread  into  broad  sluggish 
lagoons,  called  bayous.  The  staples  of  the 
state  are  cotton  and  sugar.  Large  herds 
of  cattle  and  horses  are  raised  on  the  fine 
pastures  of  the  western  prairies.  Rice, 
maize,  and  tobacco  are  grown.  Large  pine 
forests  cover  the  sandy  tracts  in  the  north 
and  west,  yielding  tar  and  pitch  plentifully. 

The  Mississippi  River  was  discovered  by 
land.  For  two  centuries  the  Spanish  marin- 
ers sailed  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  unaware 
that  one  of  the  largest  rivers  in  the  world 
emptied  its  waters  there.  The  French  after 
their  establishment  in  Canada,  heard  of  it, 
and  in  1663  reached  its  upper  banks.  Louis- 
iana was  explored  in  1682  by  La  Salle,  a 
Frenchman,  and  its  name  was  bestowed  in 
compliment  to  Louis  XIY.,  then  seated  on 
the  throne  of  France.  It  was  not  until  1699 
that  a regular  settlement  was  commenced  at 
Iberville,  by  M.  de  Iberville,  who  discovered 
the  mouth  of  the  great  river.  It  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Spain,  by  treaty,  in  1762,  but 
was  restored  to  France  in  1800,  and  was  pur- 
chased by  the  United  States  in  1803,  for 
$15,000,000.  The  vast  territory  thus  ac- 
quired includes  Louisiana,  Missouri,  Iowa, 
Minnesota,  Arkansas,  and  the  country  be- 
yond to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Louisiana 
was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  an  indepen- 
dent state  in  1812.  It  had  been  organized 
in  1804  into  the  territory  of  Orleans.  The 
state  seceded  Jan.  25,  1861,  the  U.  S.  prop- 


erty within  it  having  been  seized  a fortnight 
before.  It  experienced  much  of  the  severi- 
ties of  war,  and  much  actual  fighting.  The 
most  remarkable  of  the  combats  within  its 
border  was  the  tremendous  naval  combat  of 
April  22,  when  Farragut  with  his  fleet,  after 
bombarding  the  forts  below  New  Orleans  for 
four  days,  broke  the  rebel  boom,  passed  the 
forts  amid  a terrific  fire,  and  enabled  the 
Union  forces  to  occupy  the  city  without  re- 
sistance. Owing  to  this  occupation,  the  form 
of  establishing  a legal  government  was  early 
gone  through  with. 

The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a general 
assembly,  which  meets  on  alternate  years. 
The  governor  is  elected  by  the  people  for 
four  years  after  his  term.  Dueling  disfran- 
chises. A supreme  court  of  five  judges  is 
appointed  by  the  governor  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  senate.  The  judges 
and  officers  of  inferior  courts  are  elected  by 
the  people.  The  constitution  directs  the 
election  of  a superintendent  of  education  once 
in  four  years,  and  the  establishment  of  free 
public  schools.  The  state  maintains  an  asy- 
lum for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind,  at  Baton 
Rouge,  in  which  all  such  unfortunates  in 
Louisiana  can  be  educated  without  charge  for 
board  or  tuition.  A state  university  is  also 
established  at  New  Orleans. 

Baton  Rouge,  a pretty  town  with  many 
old  houses  in  the  French  or  Spanish  style,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  above  New 
Orleans,  is  the  capital.  The  United  States 
army  has  barracks  here.  Population,  in 
1870,  6,498  New  Orleans,  'the  great  com- 
mercial city  of  the  South-west,  is  situated  on 
the  Mississippi,  about  one  hundred  miles 
from  its  mouth,  following  the  course  of  the 
stream.  It  contained  in  1870,  191,418  in- 
habitants. A large  part  of  the  population 
are  French  and  Spaniards,  and  the  dwellings 
and  manners  of  the  inhabitants  are  more 
European  than  American.  It  is  built  on 
ground  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  river 
when  full,  and  an  embankment,  called  the 
levee,  protects  the  city  from  inundation. 
The  yellow  fever  periodically  visits  New 
Orleans  and  commits  great  ravages.  A bend 
in  the  river  gives  the  city  that  form  which 
has  won  it  the  name  of  the  Crescent  City. 
The  city  was  founded  in  1717,  and  named  in 
honor  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  who  was  re- 


LOU 


504: 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


gent  of  France  during  the  minority  of  Louis 
XV.  By  an  extraordinary  rise  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, a year  or  two  later,  the  spot  on 
which  several  buildings  had  been  erected 
was  overflowed,  and  was  for  a time  aban- 
doned. In  1722  the  settlement  was  again 
commenced,  with  a view  of  making  it  the 
chief  town  of  the  province.  The  next  year, 
when  Charlevoix  arrived  from  Canada  by 
way  of  the  river,  the  place  contained  about 
one  hundred  cabins,  without  much  order, 
two  or  three  better  dwellings,  a miserable 
storehouse  occupied  as  a chapel,  a shed  being 
converted  into  a house  of  prayer,  one  large 
wooden  warehouse,  and  a population  of  about 
two  hundred.  Soon  after  this,  an  accession 
was  made  to  the  population  by  the  arrival 
of  a company  of  Germans,  whose  descend- 
ants still  remain,  occupying  what  is  called 
the  German  Coast.  In  1727  the  Jesuits  and 
Ursuline  nuns  arrived,  and  were  accommo- 
dated on  a tract  of  land  in  the  lowest  part 
of  the  Faubourg  St.  Mary.  In  1763  the 
Jesuits,  being  expelled  from  the  dominions 
of  France,  Spain,  and  Naples,  were  obliged 
to  leave  Louisiana.  Their  property  in  New 
Orleans  then  seized  and  sold  for  $180,000, 
is  worth  at  this  day  some  $15,000,000.  In 
1764  British  vessels  began  to  visit  New  Or- 
leans, and  to  trade  with  the  inhabitants.  The 
exports  during  the  last  year  of  its  subjection 
to  France  amounted  to  $250,000 ; and  the 
population  was  3,190.  In  1769  it  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Spaniards.  The  commerce  suf- 
fered at  first  by  the  restrictions  of  the 
Spanish ; but  shortly  afterward,  through  a 
more  liberal  policy,  revived  again.  In  1785 
the  population  of  the  city  proper  was  4,980. 
In  1788  a great  fire  consumed  900  houses. 
In  1791  academies  and  schools  began  to  be 
opened  by  some  of  the  immigrants,  the  edu- 
cation of  the  young  having  previously  been 
in  the  hands  of  the  priests  and  nuns.  In 
1792  Baron  Carondolet  arrived,  who  divided 
the  city  into  four  wards,  and  recommenced 
lighting  it  and  employing  watchmen.  He 
erected  new  fortifications,  and  organized  the 
militia.  In  1794  the  first  newspaper  was 
published  here.  When  it  became  a posses- 
sion of  the  United  States,  the  population  of 
New  Orleans  did  not  much  exceed  8,000 ; 
and  its  revenues  were  less  than  $20,000.  In 


1804  it  was  made  a port  of  entry  and  deliv- 
ery; and  in  1805  it  received  a charter  of 
incorporation  as  a city.  January  10th,  1812, 
the  first  steamboat  arrived  from  Pittsburg. 
[See  New  Orleans,  Battle  of.] 

LOYOLA,  Ignatius  (Don  Inigo  Lopez  de 
Recalue),  the  founder  of  the  Jesuits,  was 
born  in  1491,  the  son  of  a Biscayan  gentle- 
man, and  in  early  life  was  a page  in  the  court 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  A wound  at  Pam- 
peluna  entailed  long  confinement,  from  which 
he  emerged  a religious  enthusiast ; so  that 
he  renounced  the  world,  and  begged  his  wa}r 
to  Palestine.  After  his  return  his  strange- 
ness of  manner  and  speech  brought  him 
under  the  ban  of  the  Spanish  inquisition,  and 
he  repaired  to  Paris,  in  1528.  There  Fran- 
cis Xavier  became  his  disciple.  Loyola  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  the  society  of  Jesuits.  Its 
history  we  have  already  given.  [See  Jesu- 
its.] He  was  its  general  till  his  death,  July 
31st,  1556.  Loyola  and  Luther  were  contem- 
poraries, the  one  laboring  to  exalt  the 
hierarchy  which  the  other  was  pulling  down. 

LUCAN,  a Latin  epic  poet;  born  at  Cor- 
duba  (Cordova)  in  Spain,  a.d.  37,  was  put  to 
death  by  Nero  in  the  year  64.  He  was  a 
nephew  of  Seneca. 

LUCCA,  a small  duchy  of  Italy,  originally 
a colony  of  the  Romans.  Its  area  is  only 
512  square  miles,  but  it  supports  a popula- 
tion of  261,000.  The  city  of  -Lucca  has 
24,000  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  ages 
Lucca  was  a republic.  It  is  now  a province 
of  Tuscany. 

LUCRETIA,  a noble  Roman  matron,  the 
wife  of  Collatinus,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Tarquin  the  Proud.  While  other  ladies  were 
engaged  in  frivolous  amusements,  she  was 
found  at  work  in  the  midst  of  her  handmaid- 
ens. Sextus,  the  son  of  Tarquin,  inflamed 
by  her  extreme  beauty  with  a base  passion, 
gained  entrance  to  her  apartment  at  mid- 
night, during  the  absence  of  her  husband, 
and  dishonored  her.  Lucretia,  unable  to 
survive  her  shame,  killed  herself.  Brutus 
(her  kinsman)  had  the  body  conveyed  to  the 
forum,  and  delivered  so  moving  and  inspir- 
ing an  address,  that  the  populace  rose  against 
their  oppressors,  and  the  regal  dignity  was 
abolished  in  Rome,  b.c.  510.  Brutus  and 
Collatinus  were  the  first  consuls. 


LUC 


HIST  OP.  Y AND  BIOGKAPHY. 


505 


LUCRETIUS,  a Latin  poet  and  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Rome,  b.c.  95,  died  by  his  own 
hand  52,  aged  forty-three. 

LUCULLUS,  Lucius  Licinius,  a great 
Roman  general,  born  about  b.c.  115,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  war  against  Mithri- 
dates  till  supplanted  by  Pompey,  b.c.  66. 
The  luxury  and  elegance  of  his  life  in  retire- 
ment have  made  his  name  a by-word.  When 
Cicero  and  Pompey  thought  to  surprise  him, 
he  ordered  his  attendants  to  serve  a slight 
refection  in  the  hall  of  Apollo : the  sumptu- 
ous banquet  would  have  sufficed  for  three 
hundred  patricians. 

LUNDY’S  LANE.  This  obstinate  conflict 
(known  also  as  the  battle  of  Bridgewater) 
was  fought  in  Canada,  near  the  falls  of  Niag- 
ara, between  the  Americans  and  British,  July 
25th,  1814,  the  former  gaining  a gallant  vic- 
tory. The  contest  was  prolonged  by  moon- 
light, and  it  was  not  till  midnight  that  the 
British  yielded  the  field.  Generals  Brown 
and  Scott  of  our  army,  and  the  British  gener- 
als Drummond  and  Riall,  were  severely 
wounded.  The  loss  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  about  900  on  each  side. 

LUNEVILLE,  an  open  city  of  Lorraine, 
department  of  Meurthe,  containing  12,500 
inhabitants.  A treaty  between  Austria  and 
the  French  republic,  was  concluded  here, 
Feb.  9th,  1801,  confirming  the  cessions  of 
Campo  Formio,  and  making  the  Rhine  to  the 
Dutch  territories  the  boundary  of  France. 

LUTHER,  Martin,  was  horn  Nov.  10th, 
1483,  at  Eisleben,  in  Lower  Saxony,  the  son 
of  a poor  miner.  Martin,  after  receiving  an 
excellent  education,  became  an  Augustine 
monk.  In  1508  he  became  lecturer  in  phi 
losophy  at  Wittemberg,  and,  while  thus  em- 
ployed, received  orders  from  his  superiors  to 
go  to  Rome,  where  he  had  ample  opportunity 
of  observing  the  corruptions  of  popery.  In 
1517  Leo  X.  published  indulgences  to 
enable  him  to  complete  the  building  of  St. 
Peter’s,  which  measure  proved  the  cause  of 
an  incurable  breach  in  the  Roman  church. 
Tetzel,  the  Dominican,  who  had  the  sale  of 
these  pardons  in  Germany,  behaved  so  scan- 
dalously that  Luther  published  a thesis  in 
which  he  denied  the  validity  of  papal  indul- 
gences. Tetzel,  who  was  then  at  Frankfort, 
caused  Luther’s  thesis  to  be  burnt,  and 
published  another  in  answer  to  it,  which 


roused  the  indignation  of  the  students  of 
Wittemberg  to  such  a degree  that  they  burnt 
his  thesis  in  return.  Luther,  in  the  midst 
of  these  proceedings,  wrote  to  the  pope  in 
terms  of  respect,  and  though  he  did  not  re- 
tract his  positions,  he  expressed  his  readi- 
ness to  submit  to  authority.  Meantime,  the 
contention  became  fiercer  between  the  cham- 
pions for  indulgences,  and  their  opponents. 
The  pope  aggravated  the  matter  by  citing  Lu- 
ther to  appear  at  Rome  ; but  the  latter  wisely 
declined  putting  himself  in  a place  where 
destruction  was  certain.  He  had  now  se- 
cured the  protection  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
who,  instead  of  giving  him  up,  demanded 
that  the  cause  should  be  heard  in  Germany. 
With  this  the  pope  complied,  and  Cajetan 
was  sent  to  Augsburg,  whither  Luther  re- 
paired ; but  after  two  ’conferences,  he  left  the 
place,  from  an  apprehension  of  a design  upon 
his  life.  In  1519  a conference  was  held  at 
Leipsic,  between  Luther  and  Eck,  professor 
of  divinity  at  Ingolstadt,  which  ended 
without  bringing  the  parties  nearer  to  each 
other. 

The  pope,  on  his  side,  became  exasperated, 
and  issued  his  bull  of  excommunication 
against  the  reformer,  who  caused  it  to  be 
publicly  burnt  in  the  presence  of  the  whole 
university  of  Wittemberg.  On  his  way  home 
from  the  diet  of  Worms,  in  1521,  he  was 
carried  off  by  a party  of  horsemen  to  one 
of  the  castles  belonging  to  his  friend  the 
elector,  who  adopted  this  method  to  secure 
him  from  his  enemies.  In  this  Patmos,  as 
he  called  it,  Luther  remained  ten  months, 
and  then  returned  to  Wittemberg,  where  he 
published  a sharp  reply  to  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,  who  had  written  a book  against 
him  on  the  seven  sacraments.  In  1529  the 
emperor  assembled  a diet  at  Spires,  to  check 
the  progress  of  the  new  opinions ; and  here 
it  was  that  the  name  of  Protestants  first 
arose,  from  the  protest  made  by  the  electoral 
princes  who  were  in  favor  of  the  reformation, 
against  the  rigorous  measures  which  were 
proposed  in  this  assembly.  In  1534  Luther’s 
translation  of  the  whole  Bible  was  published ; 
and  the  same  year  he  printed  a book  against 
the  service  of  the  mass.  At  length,  worn 
out  more  by  labor  than  age,  this  illustrious 
man  died  at  his  native  place,  February  18th, 
1546,  and  his  remains  were  solemnly  interred 


LUT 


506 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


in  the  cathedral  of  Wittemberg.  A little 
before  he  expired,  he  thrice  repeated,  “Into 
thy  hands  I commit  my  spirit.  God  of  truth, 
thou  hast  redeemed  me.” 

LUTZEN,  a small  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  in  the  government  of  Merseburg, 
the  neighborhood  of  which  is  famous  for  two 
bloody  battles.  The  first  was  fought  Nov. 
6th,  1632,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  de- 
feated by  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden, 
who  was  himself  killed  in  the  action.  This 
is  also  called  the  battle  of  Lippstadt.  In  the 
second,  fought  May  2d,  1813,  the  French, 
under  Bonaparte,  defeated  the  combined 
forces  of  Prussia  and  Russia,  commanded  by 
Gen.  Wittgenstein. 

LUXEMBURG,  capital  of  the  Dutch  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  and  now  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  the  world,  was  besieged, 
in  1794,  by  the  victorious  armies  of  France, 
and  capitulated  on  the  17th  of  June,  1795. 

LUXURY.  The  instances  of  extravagance 
and  luxury  are  numerous  in  the  history  of 
almost  all  countries,  ancient  and  modern,  and 
many  laws  have  been  enforced  to  repress  them. 
Horace  mentions  fo'wls  dressed  in  Falernian 
wine,  mussels  and  oysters  from  the  Lucrine 
lake  and  Circean  promontory,  and  black  game 
from  the  Umbrian  forests.  Lucullus,  at 
Rome,  was  distinguished  for  the  immoderate 
expenses  of  his  meals.  His  halls  were  named 
from  the  different  gods ; and  when  Cicero  and 
Pompey  attempted  to  surprise  him,  they  were 
amazed  by  the  costliness  of  a supper  which 
had  been  prepared  upon  the  word  of  Lucullus, 
who  merely  ordered  his  attendants  to  serve  it 
in  the  hall  of  Apollo:  this  feast  for  three  per- 
sons casually  met,  would  have  sufficed  for 
three  hundred  nobles  specially  invited.  In 
England,  luxury  was  restricted  by  a law 
wherein  the  palates  and  nobility  were  con- 
fined to  two  courses  every  meal,  and  two 
kinds  of  food  in  every  course,  except  on  great 
festivals.  The  law  also  prohibited  all  who 
did  not  enjoy  a free  estate  of  £100  a year  from 
wearing  furs,  skins,  or  silk ; and  the  use  of 
foreign  cloth  was  confined  to  the  royal  family 
alone;  to  all  others  it  was  prohibited,  a.d. 
1337.  An  edict  was  issued  by  Charles  VI.  of 
France,  which  said,  “Let  no  man  presume  to 
treat  with  more  than  a soup  and  two  dishes,” 
1840. 

LYCEUM.  The  Lyceum  took  its  name 


from  its  having  been  originally  a temple  of 
Apollo  Lyceus ; or  rather,  a portico,  or  gal- 
lery, built  by  Lyceus,  son  of  Apollo.  The 
Lyceum  was  a celebrated  spot  near  the  banks 
of  the  Ilissus,  in  Attica,  where  Aristotle 
taught  philosophy ; and  as  he  generally  taught 
his  pupils  while  he  walked,  they  were  hence 
called  peripatetics,  walkers  about,  and  his 
philosophy  was  called  from  this  place  the 
philosophy  of  the  Lyceum,  342  b.c. 

LYCURGUS,  a celebrated  lawgiver  of 
Sparta,  the  son  of  King  Eunomus,  and 
brother  to  Polydectes,  was  born  926  b.c. 
He  traveled  with  the  spirit  of  a philosopher 
and  visited  Asia  and  Egypt  without  suffering 
himself  to  be  corrupted  by  the  licentiousness 
and  luxury  which  prevailed  there.  He  re- 
turned home  at  the  earnest  solicitations 
of  his  countrymen.  The  disorders  which 
reigned  at  Sparta  induced  him  to  reform  the 
government.  This  happened  884  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  Lycurgus  established 
a senate,  composed  of  twenty-eight  senators, 
whose  authority  was  designed  to  preserve 
the  tranquillity  of  the  state,  and  maintain  a 
due  and  just  equilibrium  between  the  kings 
and  the  people,  by  watching  over  the  en- 
croachments of  the  former,  and  checking  the 
seditious  convulsions  of  the  latter.  All  dis- 
tinctions of  rank  were  destroyed,  and  by 
making  an  equal  and  impartial  division  of 
the  land  among  the  members  of  the  common- 
wealth, Lycurgus  banished  luxury,  and  en- 
couraged' the  useful  arts.  The  use  of  gold 
or  silver  was  totally  forbidden,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  heavy  brass  and  iron  coin  brought 
no  temptations  to  the  dishonest,  and  left 
every  individual  in  possession  of  his  effects , 
without  any  fear  of  robbery  or  violence.  All 
the  citizens  dined  in  common,  and  no  one 
had  greater  claims  to  indulgence  and  luxury 
than  another.  The  intercourse  of  Sparta 
with  other  nations  was  forbidden,  and  few 
were  permitted  to  travel.  The  youths  were 
intrusted  to  the  public  master,  as  soon  as 
they  had  attained  their  seventh  year,  and 
their  education  was  left  to  the  wisdom  of  the 
laws.  They  were  taught  early  to  think,  to 
answer  in  a laconic  manner,  to  attempt  to 
excel  in  repartee.  They  were  encouraged  to 
steal,  to  make  them  vigilant  and  self-reliant, 
and  only  punished  for  being  discovered. 
Thus  we  are  told  that  a youth,  who  earned 


LYO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


507 


off  a fox  beneath  his  cloak,  permitted  the 
animal  to  gnaw  into  his  vitals,  rather  than 
disclose  his  theft  by  dropping  the  prize. 
These  laws  gave  rise  to  a race  of  warriors 
distinguished  Tor  their  intrepidity,  fortitude, 
and  independence. 

After  promulgating  his  code,  Lycurgus  re- 
tired from  Sparta  to  Delphi,  or,  according  to 
others,  to  Crete;  and,  before  his  departure, 
he  bound  all  the  citizens  of  Lacedaemon  by  a 
solemn  oath,  that  neither  they  nor  their  pos- 
terity would  alter,  violate,  or  abolish  the  laws 
which  he  had  established,  before  his  return. 
He  soon  after  died,  having  ordered  his  ashes  to 
be  thrown  into  the  sea,  fearful  lest,  if  they 
were  carried  to  Sparta,  the  citizens  would 
consider  themselves  freed  from  the  oath  which 
they  had  taken,  and  empowered  to  make  a 
revolution.  The  wisdom  and  the  good  effect 
of  the  laws  of  Lycurgus  were  well  demonstra- 
ted at  Sparta,  where,  for  four  hundred  years 
they  remained  in  full  force,  but  the  legislator 
has  been  censured  as  cruel  and  impolitic. 
Lycurgus  has  been  compared  with  Solon,  the 
celebrated  legislator  of  Athens,  and  it  has  been 
judiciously  observed,  that- the  former  gave  to 
his  citizens  morals  conformable  to  the  laws 
which  he  had  established,  and  that  the  latter 
gave  to  the  Athenians  laws  which  coincided 
with  their  customs  and  manners.  The  office 
of  Lycurgus  demanded  resolution,  and  he 
showed  himself  inexorable  and  severe.  In 
Solon,  artifice  was  requisite,  and  he  showed 
himself  mild  and  even  indulgent.  The  mod- 
eration of  Lycurgus  is  highly  commendable ; 
particularly  when  we  recollect  that  he  treated 
with  the  greatest  humanity  and  confidence 
jAlcander,  a youth  who  had  put  out  one  of  his 
eyes  in  a seditious  tumult.  The  laws  of  Ly- 
curgus were  abrogated  b.c.  188. 

LYDIA,  anciently  Mseonia,  a celebrated 
kingdom  of  Asia  Minor,  whose  boundaries 
were  different  at  different  times.  It  received 
the  name  of  Lydia  from  Lydus,  one  of  its 
kings.  It  was  governed  by  monarchs,  who, 
after  the  fabulous  ages,  reigned  249  years,  in 
the  following  order:  Ardysus  began  to  reign 
797  b.c.  ; Alyattes,  761;  Meles,  747;  Can- 
daules,  735;  Gyges,  718;  Ardysus  II.,  680; 
Sadyattes,  631;  Alyattes  II.,  619,  and  Croe- 
sus, 562,  who  was  conquered  by  Cyrus  b.c. 
548,  when  the  kingdom  became  a province  of 
the  Persian  empire.  Three  different  races 


feigned  in  Lj^dia,  the  Atyadae,  the  Heraclidae, 
and  the  Mermnadae.  The  history  of  the  first 
is  obscure  and  fabulous ; the  Heraclidae  began 
to  reign  about  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war, 
and  the  crown  remained  in  their  family  for 
about  five  hundred  years,  and  was  always 
transmitted  from  father  to  son.  Cantbiulcs 
was  the  last  of  the  Heraclidae ; and  Gyges  the 
first  and  Croesus  the  last  of  the  Mermnadae. 
The  Lydians  were  great  warriors  in  the  reign 
of  the  Mermnadae.  They  invented  the  art  of 
coining  gold  and  silver,  and  were  the  first 
who  exhibited  public  sports,  &c.  Lydia  re- 
mained a part  of  the  eastern  Roman  empire 
until  1326,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Turks. 

LYMAN,  Phinehas,  born  at  Durham,  Ct., 
about  1716,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1738. 
He  was  afterward  a tutor  in  this  institution, 
studied  law,  settled  in  Suffield,  and  practiced 
with  success.  After  serving  as  a member  of 
the  assembly  of  Connecticut,  he  was  elected 
toihe  council,  and,  in  1755,  appointed  major- 
general  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Con- 
necticut forces.  In  the  battle  of  Lake  George 
the  command  devolved  upon  him,  and  he  also 
commanded  the  American  forces  in  the  expe- 
dition to  Havana.  After  spending  some  years 
in  England,  he  returned  to  America,  and  em- 
barked for  the  Mississippi,  where  a grant  of 
land  had  been  given  him  in  the  vicinity  of 
Natchez.  He  was  followed  by  his  family,  but 
died  in  1774,  before  their  arrival. 

LYNCH  LAWs.  There  are  various  accounts 
of  the  origin  of  this  designation  for  summary 
vengeance  upon  criminals  in  cases  where  the 
law  is  considered  too  slow  or  too  uncertain. 
According  to  one,  it  took  its  name  from  the 
stern  act  of  one  James  Lynqh  Fitz  Stephen, 
a merchant  of  the  Irish  town  of  Galway,  and 
in  1526  its  mayor  or  warden.  The  son  of  this 
Lynch  Fitz  Stephen,  having  committed  a foul 
murder,  his  father,  exercising  his  authority  as 
magistrate,  had  him  arrested  and  brought  for 
trial  before  himself.  The  son  was  convicted, 
and  the  father  not  only  sentenced  him  to  suf- 
fer the  extreme  penalty  of  the  law,  but  fearing 
a rescue  from  the  prison,  caused  him  to  be 
brought  home  and  to  be  hanged  before  his 
own  door.  For  this  harsh  act  Lynch  has 
sometimes  been  termed  the  Irish  Brutus.  The 
incident  was  commemorated  by  a skull  and 
crossbones  sculptured  over  the  door  before 


5YN 


608 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


which  the  son  was  hanged.  Another  version 
of  the  story  says  that  when  the  pitiless  father 
could  not  find  any  person  willing  to  act  as 
hangman,  he  himself  went  to  the  place  of  his 
son’s  confinement,  with  his  own  hands  tied 
the  cord  about  his  neck,  and  swung  him  off 
into  .the  dread  hereafter.  The  father  after- 
ward bitterly  repented  this  deed. 

The  American  system  of  Lynch  Law  began 
in  what  is  now  known  as  the  Piedmont  coun- 
try of  Virginia,  which  was  at  the  time  the 
western  frontier.  Having  no  law  of  its  own, 
and  being  several  miles  from  the  nearest  court 
of  criminal  jurisdiction,  controversies  were 
constantly  referred  to  men  of  sound  judgment 
and  impartiality  in  the  district,  whose  deci- 
sions were  regarded  as  final.  Prominent 
among  these  umpires  was  a man  whose  awards 
were  so  just,  sound,  and  unbiased  that  he  was 
known  as  Judge  Lynch  throughout  the  coun- 
try. In  the  course  of  time  criminals  were 
brought  before  him,  and  he  dealt  such  pun- 
ishment as  he  considered  due.  There  Were 
other  persons,  in  different  districts,  who  acted 
as  arbitrators  and  who  awarded  punishments ; 
but  Judge  Lynch  was  the  most  conspicuous, 
and  consequently  the  system  took  his  name, 
and  was  called  Lynch  Law.  This  was  a com- 
pliment to  his  integrity  and  high  character. 
But  of  late  years  the  term  has  been  regarded 
as  a reproach,  because  violent  and  unprinci- 
pled men — such  men  as  Lynch  was  wont  to 
punish — have  set  the  laws  at  defiance,  and 
while  inflamed  with  passion,  or  maddened  by 
a thirst  for  revenge,  have  usurped  the  prerog- 
atives of  the  courts  of  justice. 

LYNCH,  Thomas,  Jr.,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
St.  George’s,  S.  £!.,  Aug.  5th,  1749,  and  edu- 
cated in  England,  studying  law  in  London. 
In  1775  he  joined  the  Revolutionary  army, 
but  a severe  sickness  compelled  him  to  relin- 
quish his  plan  of  serving  his  country  in  the 
field.  He  was  elected  to  Congress,  and  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  but  his 
health  failing,  he  was  advised  to  go  to  St. 
Eustatia,  and  embarked  with  his  wife  in  De- 
cember, 1779,  after  which  date  the  vessel  was 
not  heard  of. 

LYSANDER,  a great  Spartan  general,  in 


the  last  years  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He 
drew  Ephesus  from  the  interest  of  Athens, 
and  gained  the  friendship  of  Cyrus  the 
Younger.  He  gave  battle  to  the  Athenian 
fleet,  consisting  of  120  ships,  at  iEgos  Pota- 
mos,  and  destroyed  it  all,  excepting  three 
ships,  with  which  the  enemy’s  general  fled  to 
Cyprus.  In  this  celebrated  battle,  which 
happened  407  b.c.,  the  Athenians  lost  3,000 
men,  and  with  them  their  empire  and  influ- 
ence among  the  neighboring  states.  Lysan- 
der  well  knew  how  to  take  advantage  of  his 
victory,  and  the  following  year  Athens,  worn 
out  by  a long  war  of  twenty-seven  years,  and 
discouraged  by  its  misfortunes,  gave  itself  up 
to  the  power  of  the  enemy,  and  consented  to 
destroy  the  Piraeus,  to  give  up  all  its  ships 
except  twelve,  to  recall  all  who  had  been  ban- 
ished, and,  in  short,  to  submit  in  everything 
to  the  power  of  Lacedaemon.  Besides  these 
humiliating  conditions,  the  government  of 
Athens  was  totally  changed,  and  thirty  ty- 
rants were  set  over  it  by  Lysander.  This 
glorious  success,  and  the  honor  of  having  put 
an  end  to  the  Peloponnesian  war,  increased 
the  pride  of  Lysander.  He  had  already  begun 
to  pave  his  way  to  universal  power,  by  estab- 
lishing aristocracy  in  the  Grecian  cities  of 
Asia,  and  now  he  attempted  to  make  the  crown 
of  Sparta  elective.  The  sudden  declaration  of 
war  against  the  Thebans  saved  him  from  the 
accusations  of  his  adversaries,  and  he  was 
sent,  together  with  Pausanias,  against  the 
enemy.  He  was  defeated  and  killed,  394 
b.c.,  in  the  Boeotian  war. 

LYSIMACHUS,  a son  of  Agathocles,  who 
was  among  the  generals  of  Alexander.  He 
sided  with  Cassander  and  Seleucus  againsb 
Antigonus  and  Demetrius,  and  fought  with 
them  at  the  celebrated  battle  of  Ipsus.  He 
afterward  seized  Macedonia,  after  expelling 
Pyrrhus  from  the  throne,  b.c.  286,  but  his 
cruelty  rendered  him  odious,  and  the  murder 
of  his  son  Agathocles  so  offended  his  subjects 
that  the  most  opulent  and  powerful  revolted 
from  him  and  abandoned  the  kingdom.  He 
pursued  them  to  Asia,  and  declared  war 
against  Seleucus,  who  had  given  them  a kind 
reception.  He  was  killed  in  a bloody  battle, 
281  b.c.,  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age. 


LYS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


509 


M. 


MACARTNEY,  George,  Earl,  celebrated 
in  diplomatic  history,  principally  for  his  em- 
bassy to  China  in  1793,  died  in  1806,  aged 
sixty -nine. 

MACBETH,  an  usurper  and  tyrant  who 
filled  the  Scottish  throne  during  a part  of  the 
eleventh  century.  He  murdered  his  kinsman 
and  king,  Duncan,  1040,  and  was  slain  in 
battle  by  Macduff,  at  Dunsinane  in  1057. 
Shakspeare’s  “ Macbeth  ” is  one  of  the  most 
powerfully  drawn  of  his  tragedies. 

MACDONALD,  Stephen  James  Joseph 
Alexander,  was  descended  from  a Scotch 
family  that  fled  to  France  in  the  time  of  the 
rebellion.  He  was  one  of  Napoleon’s  noblest 
generals,  and  reached  the  rank  of  Duke  of 
Tarentum  and  marshal  of  the  empire.  He 
died  in  1840,  at  the  age  of  seventy-five. 

MACDONOUGH,  Thomas,  born  in  Dela- 
ware, December,  1783,  gained  a brilliant  vic- 
tory over  the  British  fleet  on  Lake  Champlain, 
Sept.  11th,  1814.  Commodore  Macdonough, 
on  his  return  from  commanding  the  Mediter- 
ranean squadron,  died  of  consumption,  Nov. 
10  th,  1825. 

MACEDONIA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Eu- 
rope, founded  by  Caranus  and  Perdiccas,  b.c. 
800.  It  first  became  powerful  under  Philip 
and  his  son  Alexander  the  Great  (360-323 
b.c.),  the  last  of  whom  gave  it  new  splendor, 
subdued  the  neighboring  states,  destroyed  the 
liberties  of  Greece,  and  conquered  the  Persian 
empire.  Macedonia  continued  in  the  family 
,of  Alexander,  or  of  his  generals,  until  168  b.c., 
when  by  the  defeat  of  Perseus  it  became  a 
Roman  province.  It  continued  to  belong  to 
the  Eastern  empire  until  1393,  when  the  Turks 
under  Bajazet  IV.  invaded  the  country,  which 
was  finally  conquered  by  them  in  1429. 

MACHIAVELLI,  Nicolo,  was  born  of  a 
noble  family  of  Florence,  in  1469.  His  first 
efforts  produced  a comedy  called  Mandragora, 
which  proved  so  popular,  on  account  of  its 
satire,  at  Florence,  that  Leo  X.  sent  for  the 
actors  to  exhibit  it  to  a Roman  audience. 
Machiavelli  acquired,  however,  greater  fame 
by  his  political  writings.  By  the  influence  of 
the  Medicis,  and  as  a recompense  for  the  suf- 
fering he  had  endured  on  the  rack  on  suspi- 


cion of  a conspiracy  with  the  Soderim  against 
Julius,  afterward  Clement  VII.,  he  was  made 
secretary  and  historiographer  to  the  republic 
of  Florence.  He  died  in  1527,  of  a medicine 
which  he  had  taken. 

MACKINTOSH,  Sir  James,  was  born  Oc- 
tober 24th,  1765,  at  Alldowne  in  the  county 
of  Inverness,  Scotland,  and  was  educated  at 
King’s  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  had  for 
a fellow-student  the  celebrated  Robert  Hall. 
He  shone  as  a philosophical  historian,  critic, 
and  politician.  He  died  in  London,  rather 
suddenly,  May  30th,  1832. 

MACKLIN,  Charles,  an  eminent  actor, 
born  in  Ireland  1690,  continued  on  the  stage 
until  1789 ! Shylock  was  his  greatest  tri- 
umph. He  died  at  the  age  of  a hundred  and 
seven. 

MACOMB,  Alexander,  was  born  at  Detroit 
in  1782.  He  commanded  the  army  which  co- 
operated with  Macdonough’s  squadron  on 
Lake  Champlain,  in  1814,  and  won  the  day  at 
Plattsburg.  In  1835  he  oecame  commander- 
in-chief.  He  died  in  1841. 

MACPHERSON,  James,  a Scottish  writer, 
was  born  in  1738.  His  fame  rests  upon  his 
translation  from  the  Gaelic  of  the  poems  of 
Ossian,  the  authenticity  of  which,  denied  by 
many  writers,  was  partially  allowed  after  a 
severe  literary  investigation.  The  question 
gave  rise  to  warm  dispute  between  Macpher- 
son  and  Dr.  Johnson.  Macpherson  died  in 
1796. 

MADAGASCAR,  a large  island  of  Africa, 
960  miles  long,  and  from  200  to  500  broad ; 
population,  4,500,000.  It  is  extremely  fertile. 
It  was  first  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  sit- 
uated in  the  Indian  Ocean,  near  the  southern 
part  of  Africa,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  Mozambique  Channel.  Madagascar  yields, 
in  plenty,  wheat,  tobacco,  rice,  sugar,  grapes, 
honey,  and  excellent  fruits.  Almost  all  the 
European  animals  are  kept  in  abundance. 
The  forests  are  composed  of  a prodigious 
variety  of  trees,  and  furnish  vast  quantities 
of  ornamental  wood.  The  island  is  divided 
among  many  petty  kings  or  chiefs,  but  most 
of  them  have  been  subjugated  by  the  Ovahs, 


MAD 


510 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


The  religion  is  Mohammedan,  mingled  with 
idolatry  and  Judaism.  The  climate  is  very 
hot,  but  the  air  is,  in  most  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, healthful.  The  French  have  several  times 
attempted  to  form  settlements,  but  in  general 
unsuccessfully. 

MADEIRA,  an  island  off  the  western  coast 
of  Africa,  belongs  to  Portugal ; population, 
100,000.  It  is  situated  between  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar  and  the  Canaries,  is  fifteen  leagues 
long,  and  sixty  in  circumference.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Zarco,  a Portuguese,  in  1419.  It 
has  been  celebrated  for  its  excellent  wines. 
Funchal  is  the  capital.  Sugar  was  formerly 
grown,  but  gave  way  to  wine,  which  now 
seems  to  be  yielding  to  coffee. 

MADISON,  James,  the  fourth  president  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  Orange  county, 
Va.,  March  16th,  1751.  His  ancestors  were 
from  Wales,  and  among  the  early  emigrants 
to  Virginia.  James  received  a thorough  pre- 
paratory education,  and  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  in  1771,  remaining  afterward 
another  year  at  college,  and  continuing  his 
studies  under  Dr.  Witherspoon,  the  president. 
ITis  close  application  impaired  his  constitu- 
tion, and  for  many  years  his  health  was  feeble. 


He  commenced  the  practice  of  law  in  Vir- 
ginia, but  the  stirring  exigency  of  the  Revo- 
lution called  him  early  into  public  life.  He 
was  elected  a member  of  the  general  assem- 
bly of  Virginia  in  1776,  and  in  the  winter 
of  1779-80  was  chosen  a delegate  to  the  con- 
tinental congress,  of  which  body  he  continued 
an  active  and  prominent  member  till  1784. 
He  was  a distinguished  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  framed  the  federal  constitution, 
in  whose  debates  he  took  a leading  part,  and 
his  views  were  the  basis  of  the  instrument 
that  was  draughted.  Mr.  Madison  repre- 
sented Virginia  in  the  lower  branch  of  the  first 
federal  congress,  and  bore  an  active  part  in 
the  adoption  of  measures  for  the  organization 
of  the  government.  He  continued  a repre- 
sentative till  1797,  opposing  the  measures  of 
those  afterward  known  as  Federalists,  and  in 
his  views  of  national  policy  coinciding  with 
Jefferson,  with  whom  through  life  he  was 
connected  in  warm  personal  friendship.  Dur- 
ing the  eight  years  of  Jefferson's,  administra- 
tion, Madison  was  secretary  of  state,  and  he 
succeeded  his  friend  as  president  in  1809. 
He  filled  the  executive  chair  eight  years, 
during  which  (1812-1814)  our  country  was 


MAD 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


511 


engaged  in  war  with  Great  Britain.  In  the 
latter  year  the  British  took  Washington,  and 
President  Madison,  with  some  other  principal 
officers  of  the  government,  barely  escaped 
capture  by  a hurried  flight.  The  close  of 
Madison’s  administration  was  prosperous  and 
tranquil.  Upon  the  accession  of  Mr.  Monroe 
to  the  presidency,  Mr.  Madison  retired  from 
public  life  to  his  seat  at  Montpelier  in  Orange 
county,  Virginia,  where  he  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days.  He  died  June  28th, 
1836,  at  the  ripe  age  of  eighty -five.  He  was 
an  able  debater,  and  unexcelled  as  a political 
writer.  He  survived  all  other  signers  of  the 
constitution,  and  the  part  he  bore  in  framing 
that  instrument,  and  his  subsequent  advo- 
cacy of  it,  obtained  for  him  the  title  of  Father 
of  the  Constitution. 

In  his  forty- third  year,  1794,  Mr,  Madison 
wedded  Mrs.  Dolly  Paine  Todd,  of  Philadel- 
phia, the  daughter  of  a Virginian  Quaker,  and 
the  widow  of  a Pennsylvanian  lawyer  who 
had  died  in  less  than  three  years  after  her 
first  marriage.  No  children  were  born  to 
Mr.  Madison.  His  wife  was  twenty  years 
his  junior,  and  she  survived  him  many  years. 

MAECENAS,  Caius  Cilnius,  the  intimate 
friend  and  counselor  of  Augustus,  and  so 
great  a patron  of  men  of  letters,  that  it  has 
been  customary  to  style  every  minister  of 
a sovereign  prince  imitating  his  °xample, 
the  Maecenas  of  the  age  or  country  in  which 
he  lived.  According  to  Horace,  he  was  de- 
scended from  the  kings  of  Etruria.  Augus- 
tus, one  day,  being  on  the  tribunal,  passing 
sentence  of  death  on  several  persons,  Maece- 
nas sent  him  a paper  with  this  inscription, 
“ Come  down,  butcher ! ” which  struck  the 
emperor  so  forcibly  that  he  immediately  de- 
scended from  his  seat.  Maecenas  was  the 
patron  of  Virgil  and  Horace,  who  immortalized 
him  in  their  works.  He  distinguished  himself 
also  in  the  field,  particularly  at  the  battles  of 
Modena  and  Philippi.  When  Augustus  and 
Agrippa  went  to  Sicily,  Maecenas  assumed 
the  administration  of  the  government,  though 
he  was  not  ambitious  of  power.  He  died  8 
b.c.  In  private  life  his  character  was  stained 
by  a devotion  to  sensual  pleasures.  The 
dedication  of  books  was  first  introduced  in 
his  time. 

MAGALHAENS,  or  Magellan,  Fernando 
de,  a Portuguese  navigator,  who,  having 


served  under  Albuquerque,  obtained  the 
command  of  a fleet  from  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.,  and  discovered  the  straits  at  the  extrem- 
ity of  South  America  which  bear  his  name. 
He  took  possession  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
where  he  was  slain  in  a skirmish  with  the 
natives  in  1521.  His  companions  completed 
the  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  which  had 
been  Magalhaens’  bold  design.  It  was  the 
first  ever  performed. 

MAGNA  CHART  A (the  Great  Charter), 
the  charter  extorted  from  King  John  by  the 
English  barons  at  Runnymede,  June  15th, 
12 1 5,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  public 
rights  of  the  people  of  England. 

MAHOMET,  or,  according  to  the  orthog- 
raphy and  pronunciation  of  the  orientals, 
Mohammed  Glorified),  surnamed  Aboul 
Cassem,  the  founder  of  the  Arabic  empire, 
and  of  the  religion  to  which  he  gave  his.  name, 
was  born  at  Mecca,  the  10th  of  November, 
a.d.  570,  according  to  the  most  probable 
opinion.  He  was  of  the  tribe  of  the  Koreish- 
ites,  the  noblest  and  the  most  powerful  of  the 
country.  He  lost  his  father  before  he  was 
two  years  old,  and  his  mother  before  he  was 
eight;  but  their  affectionate  attention  was 
supplied  by  the  care  of  his  uncle,  Abu  Taleb, 
a merchant.  In  the  family  of  this  friendly 
protector,  he  was  employed  to  travel  with 
his  camels  between  Mecca  and  Syria,  till  his 
twenty-fifth  year,  when  he  entered  into  the 
service  of  Khadijah,  a rich  widow,  whom, 
though  twelve  years  older  than  himself,  he 
married  three  years  after.  Thus  suddenly 
raised  to  affluence  and  consequence  above 
his  countrymen,  he  formed  the  secret  plan 
of  obtaining  for  himself  the  sovereign  power, 
and  judging  there  was  no  way  so  likely  to 
gain  his  end  as  by  effecting  a change  in  the 
religion  of  his  countrymen,  he  adopted  that 
as  his  instrument. 

He  spent  much  of  his  time  alone  in  a cave 
near  Mecca,  employed,  as  he  gave  out,  in 
meditation  and  prayer ; though  it  is  said  that 
in  reality  he  called  to  his  aid  a Persian  Jew, 
well  versed  in  the  history  and  laws  of  his  sect, 
and  two  Christians,  one  of  the  Jacobite  and 
the  other  of  the  Nestorian  sect.  With  the 
help  of  these  men  he  framed  his  Koran,  or 
the  book  which  he  pretended  to  have  received 
at  different  times  from  heaven  by  the  hands 
of  the  angel  Gabriel.  At  the  age  of  forty  he 


MAH 


512 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


favored  a few  with  news  of  his  prophetic  char- 
acter, calling  himself  the  Apostle  of  God.  His 
disciples  at  first  consisted  only  of  his  wife, 
nephew,  and  servant,  but  in  the  course  of 
three  years  he  had  greatly  increased  the 
number  of  his  followers.  On  these  he  im- 
posed tales  generally  well  adapted  to  deceive 
ignorant  and  superstitious  minds.  He  pre- 
tended to  have  passed  into  the  highest  heavens 
in  one  night,  on  the  back  of  a beautiful  ass 
called  A1  Borak,  and  accompanied  by  the 
angel  Gabriel  ; and  that  he  there  had  an 
interview  with  Adam,  Abraham,  Moses,  and 
Jesus  Christ,  who  acknowledged  his  superi- 
ority, which  was  confirmed  to  him  by  the 
Deity  himself.  This  romance  staggered  even 
some  of  his  best  friends,  and  a powerful  party 
being  formed  against  him,  he  was  forced  to 
quit  Mecca,  and  to  seek  refuge  in  Medina. 
This  expulsion  dates  the  foundation  of  his 
empire,  and  of  his  religion.  The  Mohamme- 
dans adopt  it  as  their  chronological  era,  call- 
ing it  the  Hegira,  being  the  16th  of  July, 
a.d.  622. 

Mahomet  had  still  a number  'of  disciples, 
upon  whom  he  inculcated  the  principle,  that 
they  were  not  to  dispute  for  their  religion  by 
words-,  but  by  the  sword.  No  doctrine  could 
possibly  be  better  suited  to  a lawless  and 
wandering  people ; it  was  soon  carried  into 
practice,  and  the  Jewish  Arabs  were  the  first 
to  experience  its  effects.  Upon  them  the 
followers  of  Mahomet  committed  the  most 
shocking  cruelties:  numbers  were  put  to 
death,  others  were  sold  for  slaves,  and  their 
goods  distributed  among  the  soldiers. 

A faith  thus  propagated  could  not  but 
succeed  in  a country  like  Arabia.  Its  adhe- 
rents were  not  only  rewarded  by  plunder 
here,  but  a sensual  felicity  hereafter  was  held 
out  to  them.  To  those  who  fell  in  battle  he 
promised  a voluptuous  immortality, — a para- 
dise, where  cooling  fountains  tempered  the 
warm  air,  and  where  the  exertions  of  the 
faithful  were  rewarded  by  the  charms  of  the 
divine  Houris.  He  inculcated  the  doctrine 
of  an  irresistible  destiny,  declaring  that  ages 
before  his  birth  the  time  of  each  man’s  death 
was  fixed  ; and  by  impressing  on  his  follow- 
ers a belief  in  this,  he  enabled  them  to 
perform  deeds  of  unequaled  bravery,  rushing 
to  the  charge  with  an  impetuosity  almost 
supernatural,  and  courting  death  as  the  pass- 


port to  those  transports  which  were  to  have 
no  transitory  existence,  but  a blessed  im- 
mortality. Backed  by  followers  whom  his 
instructions  inspired  with  indomitable  spirit, 
he  beheld  his  arms  completely  triumphant. 

In  627  Mahomet  made  a treaty  with  the 
inhabitants  of  Mecca;  within  two  years  he 
violated  it,  and  captured  the  place.  Having 
made  himself  master  of  Arabia,  he  extended 
his  conquests  into  Syria,  where  he  took  sev- 
eral cities,  and  laid  some  of  the  princes  under 
tribute.  His  career  was  stopped  only  by  his 
death,  which  was  supposed  to  be  occasioned 
by  poison,  administered  to  him  by  a Jewess, 
and  sprinkled  on  a shoulder  of  mutton,  of 
which  the  prophet  partook  with  a high  relish. 
When  the  woman  was  examined  she  declared 
that  she  had  perpetrated  the  deed,  on  pur- 
pose to  try  whether  he  was  a true  prophet. 
The  poison  is  said  to  have  taken  effect  three 
years  after  it  had  been  administered.  When 
he  found  himself  dying,  Mahomet  caused 
himself  to  be  supported  to  the  mosque,  where 
he  celebrated  the  praise  of  God,  demanded 
pardon  for  his  sins,  and  then,  mounting  his 
throne,  said : “If  any  one  complaineth  that 
I have  stricken  him  unjustly,  lo ! here  is  my 
back ; let  him  return  the  blows.  If  I have 
injured  the  reputation  of  any  one,  let  him 
treat  me  in  the  same  manner.  If  I have 
taken  money  from  any  one,  I am  here  ready 
to  restore  it.”  His  last  words  were,  “ Lord, 
pardon  me ; and  place  me  among  those  whom 
thou  hast  raised  to  grace  and  favor.”  He 
died  the  8th  of  June,  a.d.  632,  having  lived 
sixty-three  years. 

He  was  of  small  stature,  and  of  a sanguine 
temperament ; he  had  a large  head,  regular 
and  decided  features ; his  eyes  were  large, 
black,  • and  full  of  fire ; his  forehead  was 
large,  his  nose  aquiline,  his  cheeks  full,  and 
his  mouth  large.  His  teeth  were  white, 
but  set  a little  apart  from  each  other,  and 
between  his  eye-brows  was  a vein  which 
swelled  when  he  was  in  anger.  Notwith- 
standing his  corpulency,  his  gait  was  easy 
and  graceful.  After  the  death  of  Khadijah,  he 
had  several  wives  and  concubines,  by  whom 
he  had  many  children,  but  left  only  one 
daughter,  -named  Fatima,  who  married  his 
successor  Ali. 

MAHOMET  I.,  Emperor  of  the  Turks,  was 
the  son  of  Bajazet  I.,  and  succeeded  his 


MAH 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


613 


brother  Moses  in  1413.  He  re-established 
the  glory  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  which  had 
been  ravaged  by  Tamerlane,  fixed  the  seat  of 
government  at  Constantinople,  and  died  in 
1421. 

MAHOMET  IV.  was  born  in  1642,  and 
became  emperor  in  1649,  after  the  tragical 
death  of  his  father,  Ibrahim  I.  He  marched 
in  person  against  Poland,  and  having  taken 
several  places,  made  peace  with  that  country 
on  condition  of  receiving  an  annual  tribute. 
Sobieski,  however,  defeated  him  near  Choczim, 
and  obtained  so  many  other  advantages  that 


a peace  favorable  to  Poland  was  concluded 
in  1676.  The  Janizaries,  attributing  this  and 
other  misfortunes  to  the  indolence  of  the 
sultan,  deposed  him  in  1 687,  and  sent  him  to 
prison,  where  he  died  in  1691. 

*MAHRATTAS,  a powerful  nation  of  moun- 
taineers in  India,  who  maintained  a series  of 
wars  with  the  British  in  the  first  part  of  the 
present  century.  Their  capital,  Poona,  was 
taken  in  1817.  The  possessions  of  the  Mah- 
rattas  formerly  extended  from  the  coast  of 
Malabar  to  that  of  Orissa,  in  the  Ghaut  Moun- 
tains, but  they  have  been  much  narrowed. 


MAINE  occupies  almost  half  the  surface 
of  New  England,  with  its  area  of  31,766 
square  miles.  In  18  70  there  were  626,915 
inhabitants.  The  aspect  of  the  north-western 
part  is  decidedly  mountainous ; some  of  the 
summits  have  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet. 
Mount  Katahdin,  a rugged  and  isolated  group 
of  hills  between  the  east  and  west  branches 
of  the  Penobscot,  is  5,335  feet  in  height.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  one-sixth  of  the  sur- 
face of  Maine  consists  of  water.  Some  of  the 
many  lakes  are  most  picturesque.  Moose- 
head  is  the  largest  of  these  sheets.  The 
streams  abound  with  salmon  and  large  trout. 
The  St.  John,  in  its  upper  course,  skirts  the 
northern  line  of  Maine;  the  St.  Croix  the 
eastern.  The  Penobscot,  Kennebec,  Andros- 
coggin, and  Saco  are  fine  and  important 
streams ; the  former  two  of  which  are  some 
ways  navigable ; but  the  frequent  falls  and 
rapids  in  all  the  rivers,  caused  by  the  uneven 

33 


face  of  the  country,  interdict  their  use  for 
internal  communication,  while  furnishing 
valuable  water-power  and  mill-seats.  Along 
the  jagged  coast  are  inlets,  harbors,  and 
bays,  sheltered  from  the  ocean  by  headlands 
and  islands,  which  verdant  groves  crown  and 
snowy  beaches  line. 

The  great  wealth  of  Maine  has  been  found 
in  her  wide  forests  of  pine  and  cedar,  which 
her  hardy  loggers  and  her  busy  mills  turn 
into  lumber  and  shingles.  Beneath  the  sur- 
face she  has  little  treasure.  Some  iron-ore 
has  been  found.  Granite  and  marble  are 
quarried  and  exported.  Lime  is  largely 
burnt  at  Camden  and  Thomaston.  Plentiful 
crops  of  grain,  flax,  and  hemp  are  grown, 
and  between  the  Kennebec  and  Penobscot  is 
a v^ry  fertile  country.  Maine  has  more 
shipping  than  any  other  state  except  Massa- 
chusetts and  New  York,  and  in  ship-building 
she  takes  the  lead  of  all. 


MAI 


514 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Maine  was  discovered  by  one  of  the  Cabots 
in  1497.  Afterward  the  French  came,  who 
called  the  country  west  of  the  Kennebec, 
Maine,  and  that  east  of  that  river,  Acadie. 
About  1 630,  English  settlements  were  founded 
in  the  former  region.  The  first  charter, 
which  was  proprietary,  was  granted  to  Sir 
Ferdinand  Gorges  in  1639;  but  in  1652  his 
schemes  of  colonization  had  fallen  through, 
and  the  tract,  under  the  name  of  the  county 
of  Yorkshire,  came  into  the  hands  of  Massa- 
chusetts, by  whom,  a quarter-century  later, 
it  was  purchased  from  the  Gorges  family. 
The  wars  between  the  French  and  English, 
and  the  maraudings  of  the  Indians,  long  re- 
tarded the  growth  of  the  colony.  After  the 
Revolution  it  continued  in  the  jurisdiction 
of  Massachusetts,  as  the  district  of  Maine, 
or  as  a waggish  South  Carolinian  said,  in 
allusion  to  its  noble  area,  “the  main  district 
of  Massachusetts.”  In  1820  a separation 
was  quietly  effected,  and  Maine  came  into  the 
Union  as  a sovereign  state. 

Both  houses  of  the  legislature,  and  the 
usual  state  officers,  are  elected  annually.  A 
council  of  seven  is  chosen  by  joint  ballot 
of  the  legislature,  to  advise  the  executive. 
Every  male  citizen  aged  twenty-one  or  more 
(excepting  paupers,  persons  under  guardian- 
ship, and  Indians  not  taxed),  who  has  had 
a residence  in  the  state  three  months,  has 
the  right  of  suffrage.  All  judicial  officers 
except  justices  of  the  peace  hold  office  during 
good  behavior,  or  until  seventy  years  of  age. 
Good  provision  is  made  for  education,  and  a 
school  for  the  reformation  of  juvenile  delin- 
quents is  supported  by  the  state. 

Angusta  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Kennebec, is  the  capital;  population  in  1870, 
7,808.  Portland,  on  Casco  Bay,  is  the  great 
commercial  city  of  Maine,  with  a harbor 
hardly  excelled  for  capacity  and  safety  on  our 
coast;  population  in  1870,  31,413.  Bangor, 
at  the  head  of  tide-water  on  the  Penobscot 
River  (population,  in  1870,  18,289),  is  a 
flourishing  and  pleasant  town,  and  contains  a 
theological  seminary. 

MA1NTENON,  Frances  d’Aubigne,  Mar- 
chioness de,  grand-daughter  of  Theodore 
Agrippa  d’Aubigne,  was  born  in  1635,  H^the 
prison  of  Niort,  where  her  dissolute  miher 
was  confined.  On  his  death,  Frances  was 
sent  to  France,  being  patronized  by  her 


parental  aunt,  Madame  de  Villctte.  From 
her,  however,  she  was  removed  by  an  order 
of  court,  lest  she  should  be  brought  up  a 
Protestant.  In  1651  she  married  the  cele- 
brated Scarron,  from  whom  she  learned  the 
Latin,  Spanish,  and  Italian  languages.  On 
his  death,  being  in  straitened  circumstances, 
she  accepted  a pension  from  the  queen,  which 
was  renewed  to  her  after  the  death  of  that 
princess,  through  the  favor  of  Madame  de 
Montespan  ; and  she  undertook  the  education 
of  the  children  of  Louis  XIV.  by  that  mis- 
tress. 

In  this  situation  she  acquired  the  esteem 
of  the  king,  who  in  1674  purchased  for  her 
the  estate  of  Maintenon,  which  name  she 
assumed.  In  1685  the  king,  over  whom  she 
had  gained  a complete  ascendency,  made 
her  his  wife,  though  the  marriage  was 
never  publicly  avowed.  She  has  been  ac- 
cused of  moving  him  to  revoke  the  edict  of 
Nantes;  but  this  is  improbable,  as  she  ex- 
erted her  influence  in  behalf  of  the  suffering 
Protestants. 

Her  better  actions  deserve,  beyond  all 
doubt,  much  of  the  notice  which  has  been 
given  to  the  meaner  part  of  her  story.  She 
exhibited  all  the  characteristics  of  a woman 
striving  to  be  great  beyond  the  sphere  of  her 
sex,  and  the  usual  inconsistencies  of  famous 
women  were  very  conspicuous  in  her:  yet 
many  of  her  acts  were  undoubtedly  great. 
The  royal  institution  of  St.  Louis,  for  the 
young  and  indigent  female  nobility,  was 
founded  by  Madame  de  Maintenon,  and  liber- 
ally endowed  by  the  king.  This  was  after- 
ward called  the  society  of  St.  Cyr,  and  was 
distinguished  by  many  excellent  regulations. 
To  her  influence  has  been  attributed  the 
settlement  of  that  peace  so  salutary  to  the 
French  affairs  after  the  destructive  effects 
of  the  seven  years’  war,  carried  against  all 
the  ambitious  designs  and  mortified  impa- 
tience of  the  French  generals.  For  a con- 
siderable time  she  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy 
with  Fenelon,  and  on  his  recommendation 
patronized  Madame  Guion ; but  afterwards  she 
joined  the  persecutors  of  that  excellent  man. 
On  the  death  of  Louis  she  retired  to  St.  Cyr, 
where  she  died  in  1718. 

MALBONE,  Edward  G.,  an  eminent 
miniature  painter,  resident  at  Newport,  R.  I., 
died  1807. 


MAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


515 


MALEBRANCHE,  Nicholas,  an  idealistic 
philosopher,  born  at  Paris  1638,  died  1715. 

MALESHERBES,  Christian  William  de 
Lamoignon,  an  eminent  French  counselor, 
was  born  at  Paris  in  1721.  In  1775  he  was 
made  minister  of  state  for  the  interior.  Un- 
der his  administration  numerous  abuses  were 
removed ; but  the  year  following,  when  Tur- 
got withdrew,  he  resigned,  and  traveled  into 
different  countries,  in  a plain  attire,  and 
under  an  assumed  name.  Of  the  revolution, 
he  conceived  a hope  that  it  would  be  produc- 
tive of  good;  yet  he  voluntarily  pleaded  the 
cause  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  defended  him  with 
all  the  ardor  of  conscious  rectitude.  He  was 
condemned  to  death,  with  his  daughter  and 
grand-daughter,  by  the  revolutionary  tribu- 
nal, April  22d,  1793. 

MALHERBE,  Francis,  a French  lyric 
poet,  died  1628,  aged  seventy-two. 

MALPLAQUET,  Battle  of.  This  mem- 
orable battle,  ten  miles  south  of  Mons,  in 
Belgium,  was  fought  on  the  11th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1709.  Of  the  allied  troops,  altogether 
amounting  to  almost  120,000  men,  two  ar- 
mies had  been  formed,  one  commanded  by 
the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  and  the  other  by 
Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy.  The  French  troops 
were,  for  the  most  part,  newly  raised  men, 
ill  clothed,  and  ill  mounted,  but  in  numbers 
equaling  the  foe.  To  re-enforce  their  army 
in  Flanders,  they  had  drawn  15,000  men 
from  Germany.  Marshal  Villars  was  com- 
mander-in-chief ; Marshal  Boufflers  had  been 
sent  to  assist  him  at  the  battle,  but  without 
encroaching  upon  his  authority. 

The  manner  in  which  the  French  were 
posted  may  be  thus  described.  Their  right 
wing  was  covered  by  the  wood  of  Taisniere 
on  one  side,  and  by  that  of  Jansart  on  the 
other.  The  latter  had  thick  hedges  behind 
it,  with  three  ditches  and  artificial  intrench- 
ments  one  behind  another ; the  access  also 
was  difficult,  because  of  a marshy  ground 
which  lav  before  them.  Against  this  wing 
the  Dutch  infantry  were  to  make  their  at- 
tack. Their  centre  took  up  all  the  open 
space  between  the  wood  of  Jansart  and  that 
of  Sart.  A hamlet  toward  the  middle  cov- 
ered the  depth  of  this  centre,  which  was 
also  defended  by  a line  extending  from  one 
wood  to  the  other.  Their  left  wing  was 
posted,  partly  in  the  wood  of  Sart,  and 


partly  behind  in  the  plain;  the  wood  served 
as  a natural  covert,  besides  which  they  had 
felled  trees,  and  raised  banks  of  earth  and 
fascines,  fortified  with  cannon.  In  the  lines 
of  their  centre  were  openings,  to  let  their 
cavalry  advance.  Their  artillery  was  posted 
on  advantageous  eminences,  and  they  had 
nothing  in  their  camp  to  encumber  them. 

The  signal  for  the  attack  was  given  by  the 
discharge  of  fifty  pieces  of  cannon.  Prince 
Eugene  then  advanced  with  his  right,  to 
penetrate  into  the  wood  of  Sart.  In  the 
charges  of  this  wing,  General  Shulemburg, 
the  Duke  of  Argyle,  and  other  generals  led 
on  eighty-six  battalions,  and  Count  Loweem 
twenty-two  other  battalions,  to  attack  the 
intrenchments  in  the  woods  of  Sart  and  Tais- 
niere. General  Withers  also,  with  nineteen 
battalions,  attacked  the  enemy  in  another 
intrenchment  beyond  the  woods  of  Taisniere 
and  in  Great  Blagniere.  The  design  in  both 
succeeded:  the  fight,  however,  was  long  and 
obstinate,  the  enemy  defending  themselves 
with  equal  vigor.  The  allies  were  repulsed 
more  than  once,  but  notwithstanding  the 
barricadoes  of  felled  trees  and  other  impedi- 
ments, the  action  wavering  almost  two  hours, 
they  saw  themselves  at  last  masters  of  the 
wood,  and  had  penetrated  so  far  that  they 
could  see  the  hind  part  of  the  intrenchments 
of  the  enemy’s  centre. 

The  attack  of  the  left  wing  did  not  begin 
till  half  an  hour  after  that  of  the  right,  but 
it  lasted  longer,  and  was  much  more  bloody. 
Thirty  battalions,  sustained  by  fifteen  others, 
Prussians,  Hanoverians,  or  Hessians,  engaged 
with  above  seventy.  These  thirty  battalions 
were  commanded  by  Prince  Friso  of  Nassau, 
general  of  the  foot,  and  by  Baron  Fagel. 
Following  his  example,  the  troops  of  his 
attack  advanced  as  far  as  the  third  intrench- 
ment. But  these  they  could  not  force,  as  the 
enemy  were  well  seconded  by  fresh  battal- 
ions drawn  from  their  centre.  The  assailants 
were  even  driven  back  to  their  own  post. 
Nevertheless  the  prince  led  on  his  troops  a 
second  time,  to  attack  those  intrenchments 
which  he  had  once  gained  and  lost  again. 
They  recovered  the  two  first,  but  the  third  still 
remained  impregnable.  When  the  enemy’s 
left  retired,  Marlborough  directed  the  Earl 
of  Orkney,  with  fifteen  battalions,  to  attack 
and  post  himself  in  the  intrenchments  in  the 


MAL 


516 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


plain  between  the  woods  of  Sart  and  Jansart. 
This  was  executed,  and  gave  the  horse  an 
opportunity  to  enter  them,  and  advance  into 
the  plain.  The  first  squadrons,  led  by  the 
Prince  of  Hesse  and  the  Prince  D’Auvergne, 
were  thrown  into  disorder  by  the  house- 
hold troops,  but  rallied,  under  the  fire  of 
those  battalions.  Advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages succeeded  alternately  six  times,  till  the 
Prince  of  Hesse  turning  to  the  left,  fell  upon 
the  rear  of  the  infantry  that  had  been  en- 
gaged with  the  Prince  of  Nassau.  This  was 
the  decisive  stroke.  On  the  sight  of  the 
diversion  made  by  the  Prince  of  Hesse,  the 
Dutch  battalions  recovered  new  strength, 
broke  through  the  third  and  last  intrench- 
ment,  and  drove  all  opposition  before  them. 
In  general,  the  French  made  their  retreat  in 
good  order ; but  three  regiments  of  Danish 
cavalry  made  a terrible  slaughter  among 
several  battalions  of  their  right  that  had  been 
surrounded.  The  allies  pursued  as  far  as 
the  village  of  Quievrain.  The  enemy  lost 
sixteen  of  their  cannon,  twenty  colors, 
twenty-six  standards,  and  left  other  indis- 
putable marks  of  victory,  including  a number 
of  prisoners.  Many  were  taken  next  morn- 
ing in  Bavay  and  the  neighboring  places, 
weariness  or  their  wounds  not  permitting 
them  to  follow  their  army.  Great  carnage 
was  there  on  both  sides ; the  allies  lost 

18.000  men. 

MALTA,  anciently  Melita,  and  formerly 
dependent  on  Sicily,  has  a population  of 

143.000  inhabitants  on  its  narrow  limits  of 
115  square  miles.  Gozo  and  Comino  are  two 
small  islands  in  its  vicinity.  Yaletta,  the 
capital  of  Malta,  is  one  of  the  strongest  places 
in  the  world,  and  has  a valuable  harbor,  of 
great  importance  in  the  commerce  of  the 
Archipelago  and  the  Levant.  The  island 
formerly  belonged  to  the  order  of  Malta,  or 
knights  of  St.  John.  The  French  gained 
possession  of  it  in  1798,  but  the  English  have 
held  it  since  1800.  The  soil  of  this  island, 
which  is  rock  covered  with  a light  bed  of 
earth,  produces  all  sorts  of  vegetables,  excel- 
lent fruits  (the  oranges,  in  particular,  being 
famous),  silk,  sugar,  and  cotton.  The  cli- 
mate is  mild,  and  the  atmosphere  so  clear 
that  almost  at  every  sunrise  and  sunset  the 
summit  of  iEtna,  128  miles  away,  can  be 


distinctly  descried.  The  Maltese  are  sober, 
fine  seamen,  and  devoted  to  commerce. 

MALTA,  Knights  of,  called  also  Hospi- 
tallers of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  Knights 
of  St.  John,  and  Knights  of  Rhodes.  Cer- 
tain Christian  merchants  of  Malphis  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  who  traded  to  Palestine, 
ohtained  leave  from  the  Caliph  of  Egypt  in 
1048,  to  dwell  near  the  Holy  Sepulchre  of 
Christ,  and  to  erect  a small  house  for  the 
entertainment  of  pilgrims,  which  they  named 
the  Hospital  of  Christians,  with  a small  ora- 
tory dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  Their 
number  increasing,  they  built  another  house 
for  women,  and  dedicated  it  to  St.  Mary  Mag- 
dalen. Their  number  still  increasing,  they 
built  a more  convenient  house,  the  other 
being  too  small,  and  dedicated  it  to  St.  John 
the  Baptist.  They  entertained  all  pilgrims 
that  came  for  devotion,  and  cured  the  diseased 
among  them.  They  grew  eminent  for  their 
devotion,  charity,  and  hospitality.  In  1118 
they  became  a military  order;  St.  John  the 
Baptist  being  their  patron,  they  were  called 
Brethren  Hospitallers  of  St.  John  Baptist  of 
Jerusalem,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
knights  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  ; they  took  the 
black  habit  of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustin, 
and  on  the  left  side  of  the  breast,  they  wore 
a cross  of  white  cloth,  with  eight  points.  In 
war  they  wore  crimson,  with  a white  cross, 
but  in  their  monasteries  and  on  the  day  of 
their  profession  the  black  garment  only. 
This  order  increased  in  wealth  after  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Templars,  most  of  whose 
lands  were  given  to  them.  They  had  in  sev- 
eral parts  of  Christendom  20,000  manors;  in 
England  the  lord  prior  of  the  order  was 
accounted  the  prime  baron  of  the  realm. 

Their  first  great  master  was  Gerald  de 
Sainct  Didier,  by  whom  they  were  founded. 
After  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Saladin,  they 
retired  to  Acre,  valiantly  defended  by  them 
in  1290.  The  last  master  that  had  his  resi- 
dence in  the  Holy  Land  was  John  de  Yilliers, 
in  whose  time,  being  driven  out  of  Palestine, 
they  removed  to  Cyprus,  and  then  to  the  isle 
of  Rhodes,  which  they  possessed  till  the  year 
1522,  when  they  were  expelled  by  Solyman 
the  Magnificent,  who  took  it  by  force,  through 
want  of  succor  by  the  Christian  princes. 
The  city  was  admirably  defended  by  the 


MAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


517 


knights,  under  the  conduct  of  their  great 
master,  Philip  de  Yilliers. 

After  the  loss  of  the  isle  of  Rhodes,  they 
removed  to  the  island  of  Malta,  which  with 
Tripoli  and  Gaza  were  granted  to  them  in  fee 
by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  a.d.  1530,  under 
the  tender  of  one  falcon  yearly  to  the  viceroy 
of  Sicily,  and  to  acknowledge  the  King  of 
Spain  and  Sicily  for  their  protector.  In  this 
isle  they  continued  a bulwark  to  those  parts, 
and  from  this  their  settlement,  were  called 
Knights  of  Malta. 

In  May,  1566,  they  were  besieged  by  Soly- 
man,  with  a navy  of  160  galleys  full  of 
Turkish  soldiers,  and  100  vessels  with  pro- 
visions. The  siege  was  sustained  for  four 
months  by  the  bravery  of  the  knights,  and 
the  conduct  of  their  great  master,  John  de 
Valete,  so  that  the  Turks  were  obliged  to 
raise  the  siege,  and  leave  30,000  of  their  men 
behind,  and  the  greater  part  of  their  artillery, 
on  the  8th  of  September  in  the  same  year. 
Upon  that  day  there  is  annually  a procession 
at  Malta,  in  memory  of  this  deliverance. 

These  knights  were  in  number  1,000 ; 500 
to  reside  in  the  island  of  Malta,  the  remainder 
dispersed  at  their  seminaries  in  Spain,  Ger- 
many, Italy,  and  France,  and  at  any  summons 
to  make  their  personal  appearance.  They 
had  a seminary  in  England  till  the  suppres- 
sion of  it  by  Henry  VIII. ; yet  they  continued 
to  appoint  one  to  whom  they  gave  the  title 
of  the  grand  prior  of  England.  Out  of  the 
following  nations  they  chose  their  officers : 
Provence,  the  grand  prior ; Auvergne,  the 
marshal  of  the  order ; Italy,  the  admiral  of 
the  order:  Arragon,  the  conservator  of  the 
order;  England  they  used  to  appoint  the 
great  colonel  of  the  cavalry;  Germany,  the 
high  bailiff  of  the  order;  Castile,  the  high 
chancellor  of  the  order. 

None  were  admitted  into  this  order,  but 
such  as  could  prove  their  gentility  for  six 
descents ; they  swore  to  defend  the  church, 
to  obey  their  superiors,  and  to  live  upon  the 
revenues  of  their  order  only.  There  were 
sixteen  called  the  great  crosses,  out  of  whom 
the  officers  of  the  order,  as  the  marshal, 
admiral,  chancellor,  &c.,  were#  chosen,  who, 
together  with  the  master,  punished  such  as 
were  convicted  of  any  crime. 

When  the  grand  master  died,  they  suffered 
no  vessel  to  go  out  of  the  island  till  another 


was  chosen,  lest  the  pope  should  interfere  in 
their  election,  which  was  as  follows:  the 
several  seminaries  named  two  knights  each, 
allowing  also  two  for  the  English ; and  those 
sixteen  from  among  themselves  chose  eight ; 
those  eight  chose  a knight,  a priest,  and  a 
friar  servant ; and  these  three,  out  of  the 
sixteen  great  crosses,  elected  the  great  mas- 
ter, who,  being  chosen,  was  styled  ‘The 
most  illustrious  and  most  reverend  Prince, 
the  Lord  Friar  N.  N.  Great  Master  of  the 
Hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  Prince  of 
Malta  and  Gaza.’ 

The  badge  of  the  order  was  a gold  cross  of 
eight  points,  enameled  white,  pendent  to  a 
black  watered  ribbon,  worn  at  the  breast. 
This  order  having  been  composed  of  persons 
of  different  countries,  the  badge  was  deco- 
rated so  as  to  distinguish  the  country  of  the 
bearer ; Germany,  by  an  imperial  crown 
and  eagle;  France,  the  crown  and  fleurs-de- 
lis,  & c. 

In  1798  the  knights  of  Malta  yielded  their 
dominion  to  the  French  power,  from  whom 
it  was  soon  after  wrested  by  the  British,  in 
which  crown  it  was  finally  vested  by  the 
peace  of  1814. 

MAMELUKES  (from  the  Arabic  Memalilc, 
a slave),  a body  of  cavalry,  formed  in  Egypt, 
1214,  from  Georgian  and  Circassian  slaves, 
chosen  for  their  beauty  and  strength.  From 
1254  they  governed  that  country  for  two 
hundred  and  sixty-three  years,  and  expelled 
the  Christians  from  Palestine  in  1291.  They 
remained  a military  body  in  Egypt,  till  the 
year  1810,  but  their  chiefs  were  treacherously 
destroyed  by  Mohammed  Ali  in  1811.  They 
were  mounted  on  superb  Turkish  horses, 
which,  although  spirited  and  full  of  fire,  were 
docile,  and  obedient  to  the  word  and  bit. 
The  prevailing  color  of  this  breed  is  gray,  and 
the  unfailing  «.  tenderness  with  which  the 
horses  of  the  Turks  are  treated,  is  repaid  by 
astonishing  fidelity  on  the  part  of  these  fine 
animals.  The  horses  of  the  Mamelukes  were 
splendidly  caparisoned,  and  their  studded 
trappings  and  rich  bits  rang  in  their  gallop. 
The  saddles  had  high  pommels  and  cruppers, 
and  the  huge  shovel  stirrups  were  occasion- 
ally gilded  and  curiously  ornamented.  The 
riders  wore  full  turbans,  light  jackets,  loose 
short  sleeves,  and  flowing  trowsers.  Their 
arms  were  an  ataghan,  or  sabre,  of  Damascus 


MAM 


518 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


steel,  which  is  so  finely  tempered  that  a blade 
composed  of  it  breaks  in  the  hand  of  an  un- 
skillful swordsman.  The  Mamelukes  were 
skilled  in  the  use  of  these  sabres,  and  never 
gave  slight  wounds.  Besides  the  ataghan,  the 
Mameluke  had  a carbine  slung  at  his  back, 
and  a brace  of  pistols  at  his  saddle-bow. 

At  the  famous  battle  of  the  Pyramids,  the 
Mamelukes  were  almost  annihilated  by  the 
French  infantry  under  Bonaparte.  The  im- 
penetrable squares  of  the  French  regiments 
received  them  with  a most  galling  fire.  The 
horses  reared  and  plunged,  and  the  riders 
fell  by  hundreds.  In  the  very  agony  of 
death,  while  expiring  upon  the  ground,  some 
of  the  dismounted  Moslems  dragged  them- 
selves to  the  feet  of  the  French  troops,  and 
cut  at  their  legs  with  their  long  crooked 
sabres.  Some  backed  their  chargers  upon 
the  infantry,  and  caused  them  to  strike  the 
soldiers  with  their  heels.  But  their  rout 
was  complete.  Many  perished  in  the  Nile, 
and  but  a remnant  escaped  to  Upper  Egypt. 
Although  individually  the  finest  cavalry  in 
the  world,  they  were  incapable  of  acting  in 
concert. 

MANLIUS,  Marcus  Capitolinus,  a Ro- 
man consul  and  commander,  who,  when 
Rome  was  taken  by  the  Gauls,  retired  into 
the  capito  and  preserved  it  from  a sudden 
attack  made  upon  it  in  the  night.  The  dogs 
which  were  kept  in  the  capitol  made  no  noise ; 
but  the  geese,  by  their  cry,  awoke  Manlius 
who  had  just  time  to  repel  the  enemy. 
Geese  from  that  period  were  always  held 
sacred  among  the  Romans,  and  Manlius  was 
honored  with  the  surname  of  Capitolinus. 
He  afterward  endeavored  to  subvert  the  lib- 
erties of  his  country,  and  was  thrown  down 
the  Tarpeian  rock,  383  b.c. 

MANLIUS,  Titus  Torquatus,  a famous 
Roman,  who  displayed  great  courage  in  his 
youth  as  a military  tribune.  In  the  war 
against  the  Gauls  he  accepted  a challenge 
given  by  one  of  the  enemy,  and  having  slain 
him  took  his  collar  from  his  neck,  on  which 
account  he  assumed  the  name  of  Torquatus. 
He  was  the  first  Roman  advanced  to  the 
dictatorship  without  being  previously  a con- 
sul. But  he  tarnished  his  glory  by  putting 
his  son  to  death,  for  defeating  the  enemy 
without  having  received  orders  to  attack 
them.  This  gave  great  disgust  to  the  Ro- 


mans ; and  on  account  of  his  severity  in  his 
government,  all  edicts  of  extreme  rigor  were 
called  Manliana  edicta.  He  flourished  b.c. 
340. 

MANSFIELD,  William  Murray,  Earl  of, 
was  born  in  Perthshire,  March  2d,  1705.  He 
was  chief-justice  of  the  King’s  Bench  from 
1756  to  1788,  in  which  year  he  retired;  and 
five  years  after,  he  died. 

MANTINEA,  a village  of  Greece,  where 
363  b.c.  a battle  was  fought  between  the 
Thebans  and  Lacedaemonians,  in  which  Epam- 
inondas  was  killed. 

MARAT,  Jean  Paul.  The  name  of  this 
monster  revives  the  recollection  of  the  worst 
atrocities  of  the  French  revolution.  He 
wrote  strongly  in  favor  of  the  worst  of  parties, 
and  was  a member  of  the  convention.  Marat, 
who  belonged  to  the  Mountain  party,  and 
was  deeply  implicated  in  their  sanguinary 
proceedings,  was  assassinated  by  Charlotte 
Corday,  in  1793.  He  was  born  in  Neuf- 
chatel,  Switzerland,  in  1746. 

MARATHON,  a village  of  Greece,  eighteen 
miles  north-east  of  Athens.  It  is  famous  for 
the  battle  fought  on  its  plains  Sept.  28th,  490 
b.c.,  in  which  Miltiades,  with  a small  Grecian 
force,  totally  defeated  the  numerous  army 
sent  by  Darius,  King  of  Persia,  to  conquer 
Greece. 

MARCY,  William  L.,  was  born  in  South- 
bridge,  Mass.,  December  12th,  1786.  In  the 
war  of  1812  he  served  gallantly  as  a lieuten- 
ant of  infantry.  He  was  bred  to  the  law  in 
the  state  of  New  York,  and  was  thrice  elected 
governor  of  the  state.  He  was  at  the  head 
of  the  war  department  during  Polk’s  ad- 
ministration, and  secretary  of  state  under 
President  Pierce.  He  died  suddenly  July 
4th,  1857. 

MARENGO,  a village  in  the  Sardinian 
duchy  of  Montferrat,  celebrated  for  the  victory 
of  Bonaparte  over  the  Austrians,  June  14th, 
1800.  Some  details  of  this  most  severe  con- 
flict, which,  perhaps  beyond  all  others,  estab- 
lished the  military  character  of  Bonaparte, 
then  consul,  are  well  entitled  to  a place  in  a 
compendium  of  history.  The  French  head- 
quarters were  removed  to  Yoghera,  which  the 
army  passed  through  on  its  way  to  Tortona, 
taking  up  a position  round  Tortona  to  block- 
ade it  by  divisions ; the  advance-guard  quietly 
went  round  the  town,  and  passed  without  any- 


MAR 


HISTORY  AtfD  BIOGRAPHY. 


519 


thing  remarkable  having  taken  place.  If  the 
Austrian  commander  was  doubtful  as  to  what 
line  of  conduct  he  ought  to  pursue,  this  was 
his  time  to  determine : the  possession  of  Ge- 
noa gave  him  choice  either  to  fight,  or  shut 
himself  up  in  the  garrison  he  held;  and  he 
should  not  have  forgotten  that  so  long  as  he 
held  Genoa,  his  army  had  a retreat  from  the 
port,  and  to  have  kept  the  communication 
open  with  that  city  should  have  been  his  chief 
concern.  The  French  fought  for  Genoa  from 
a knowledge  of  its  value,  and  Bonaparte  has- 
tened to  derive  advantage  from  the  neglect  of 
the  Austrians.  He  ordered  the  banks  of  the 
Po  opposite  Yalenza  to  be  guarded,  lest  they 
should  escape  that  way,  and  the  passes  be- 
tween Piedmont  and  Genoa  to  be  gained. 
Massena  and  Suchet  were  rapidly  advancing 
to  annoy  the  rear  of  the  Austrians,  and  the 
first  consul,  in  his  letter  to  his  colleagues,  does 
not  seem  ignorant  of  the  movements  in  his 
favor  by  the  army  of  Italy.  The  French  army 
understood  that  Melas  had  evacuated  Turin, 
and  was  advancing  to  meet  them  with  60,000 
men.  General  Gardanne  retired  to  take  post 
at  Marengo,  on  the  plain  of  which  his  great 
body  of  cavalry  would  be  of  much  service. 
Bonaparte  skirted  Marengo,  and  was  seen 
examining  the  ground  with  attention,  by  turns 
meditating  and  giving  orders. 

The  army  passed  that  night  at  St.  Julian’s, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  plain  of  Marengo.  On 
the  morning  of  the  14th  of  June,  some  dis- 
charges of  cannon  roused  them  from  their 
repose.  All  was  soon  in  readiness.  Gardanne 
was  attacked  at  seven  o’clock ; the  enemy 
showed  much  vigor  of  preparation ; a few 
weak  points  were  touched  on,  but  his  inten- 
tions were  unknown  till  late  in  the  morning. 
Berthier  was  first  in  the  field,  and  wounded 
soldiers  arriving,  owned  that  the  Austrians 
were  in  force.  General  Victor’s  division  was 
drawn  up  in  order  of  battle.  General  Lannes’ 
division  formed  the  right  wing.  The  French 
army  was  in  two  lines,  and  the  cavalry  sup- 
ported its  wdngs.  Bonaparte,  about  eleven 
o’clock,  hastened  to  the  field  of  battle.  Gen- 
eral Desaix  was  ordered  to  support  Victor. 
The  Austrians  were  careful  of  their  position 
near  the  bridge,  on  the  Bormida;  but  the 
principal  point  of  action  was  at  St.  Stefano: 
from  hence  they  could  cut  off  the  retreat  of 
the  French,  and  they  gave  their  attention  to 


this  point  The  division  under  Victor  began 
to  give  way,  and  many  corps  of  cavalry  and 
infantry  were  driven  back.  The  firing  came 
nearer,  and  a sudden  and  dreadful  discharge 
was  heard  on  the  Bormida ; the  French  were 
soon  seen  retreating,  carrying  the  wounded 
on  their  shoulders,  and  the  Austrians  gained 
upon  them.  Bonaparte  advanced,  and  urged 
all  he  met  with ; his  presence  encouraged 
them;  his  own  guards  no  longer  continued 
about  his  person,  but  near  him  shared  in  the 
battle.  The  grenadiers  of  the  consular  guard 
advanced  against  the  enemy:  although  they 
were  only  about  500  men,  they  still  advanced, 
and  forced  everything  in  their  passage ; they 
were  three  times  charged  by  the  enemies’ 
cavalry;  they  surrounded  their  colors  and 
wounded,  and  having  exhausted  all  their  am- 
munition, they  then  slowly  fell  back,  and 
joined  the  rear-guard. 

The  army  fought  retreating  in  all  direc- 
tions ; the  Austrians  turned  the  right  wing, 
the  garrison  of  Tortona  made  a sortie,  and  the 
French  were  thus  surrounded.  Bonaparte  in 
the  centre,  encouraged  the  gallant  corps  that 
defended  the  defile  which  crossed  the  road, 
shut  up  on  one  side  by  a wood,  and  on  tho 
other  by  some  thick  vineyards  of  lofty  growth ; 
the  village  of  Marengo  was  on  the  left.  Of 
the  French  artillery,  the  few  gunners  that 
remained  had  little  ammunition  left.  Thirty 
pieces  of  cannon,  well  served  by  the  enemy, 
cut  up  the  French.  In  the  midst  of  this 
slaughter,  the  first  consul  appeared  to  brave 
death.  The  ground  was  ploughed  up  by  the 
enemies’  shot,  even  between  the  legs  of  his 
horse;  but  undaunted,  and  with  the  greatest 
coolness,  he  gave  his  orders  as  events  required : 
he  was  urged  to  retire,  but  discovered  no 
change.  Marengo  seemed  the  prize  for  which 
both  parties  contended.  Gardanne  flanked 
the  corps  going  to  attack  it ; the  Austrians 
for  a moment  gave  way,  but  being  re-enforced, 
marched  on.  General  Kellerman,  the  younger, 
supported  the  left;  a regiment  of  dragoons 
routed  a column  of  Austrian  cavalry,  but  was 
charged  by  superior  numbers,  and  was  giving 
way,  when  two  more  columns  advanced  to 
his  assistance,  and  took  one  hundred  prisoners. 

The  consul  being  informed  that  the  reserve 
of  General  Desaix  was  not  yet  arrived,  has- 
tened to  the  division  of  General  Lannes  to 
slacken  its  retreat : he  told  them  it  was  his 


MAR 


520 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


practice  to  sleep  on  the  field  of  battle.  The 
enemy,  however,  advanced;  the  retreat  was 
absolutely  necessary,  and  took  place  in  good 
order.  Though  eighty  pieces  of  cannon  were 
playing  on  them,  this  did  not  annoy  the  firm- 
ness of  the  French : they  maneuvred  as  though 
they  were  on  parade.  At  four  in  the  after- 
noon, not  more  than  6,000  infantry  stood  to 
their  colors,  and  six  pieces  of  cannon  only 
could  be  made  use  of ; one-third  of  the  army 
was  unable  to  combat,  and  more  than  another 
third  was  occupied  in  removing  the  sick  and 
wounded,  owing  to  the  want  of  carriages. 

Every  circumstance  was  eminently  discour- 
aging to  the  French  army,  but  their  fortitude 
and  courage  changed  their  situation  in  the 
course  of  two  hours  afterward.  The  divisions 
of  Mounier.  and  Dcsaix  showed  themselves  ; 
they  arrived  on  a gallop,  after  a forced  march 
of  ten  leagues,  anxious  to  avenge  their  fallen 
comrades.  The  crowd  of  dead  and  wounded 
might  well  have  damped  their  ardor,  but  one 
opinion  only  reigned  among  them,  and  they 
rushed  on  to  glory.  General  Melas,  ignorant 
of  what  passed  in  the  French  line,  and  also 
ignorant  of  the  re-enforcements  that  had 
timely  arrived  to  their  succor,  changed  that 
disposition  which  had  given  him  success,  and 
which  it  was  his  interest  as  well  as  duty  to 
have  followed  up.  lie  extended  his  wings, 
thinking,  by  this  maneuvre,  to  cut  the  enemy 
off,  but  it  only  brought  on  his  owTn  disaster. 
Bonaparte,  whom  nothing  escaped,  seized  on 
this  favorable  opportunity,  and  altered  his  plan 
accordingly. 

When  Desaix  reached  the  heights,  the  con- 
sul, the  generals,  and  the  staff  wrent  through 
the  ranks  inspiring  confidence.  This  took  up 
near  an  hour,  wThile  the  Austrian  artillery 
was  bearing  upon  their  ranks,  and  many  were 
thus  killed  without  moving,  except  to  cover 
their  comrades’  dead  bodies.  The  signal  for 
charging  was  at  length  heard.  Desaix,  at  the 
head  of  a light  battalion,  threw  himself  upon 
the  Austrians,  and  charged  with  the  bayonet : 
all  the  French  were  in  motion  at  once,  in  two 
lines;  their  fire  carried  everything  before  it; 
the  enemy  were  in  every  position  overthrown. 
The  French  line  now  presented  a formidable 
front ; as  quick  as  the  cannon  were  brought  up, 
they  made  dreadful  havoc  among  the  affright- 
ed Austrians ; they  fell  back,  and  the  cavalry 
charged  with  fury ; a powder  wagon  blew  up, 


and  their  alarm  increased ; in  fact,  all  gave 
way  and  fled.  The  French  cavalry  rushed 
into  the  plain,  and  advanced  toward  the  en- 
emy. Desaix  trampled  on  all  obstacles  which 
opposed  him.  Victor  carried  Marengo,  and 
flew  toward  the  Bormida.  The  centre,  under 
Murat,  advanced  into  the  plain  ; he  much  an- 
noyed the  Austrian  centre,  and  kept  a great 
body  of  cavalry  in  check.  Desaix  cut  off  the 
left  wing  of  the  Austrians  completely,  and  in 
the  moment  of  his  victory  received  a mortal 
wound.  General  Kellerman  made  6,000  pris- 
oners, with  two  generals  and  officers  of  the 
staff.  Night  coming  on,  the  Austrians  were 
all  in  disorder ; all  crowded  together  near  the 
centre,  and  many  wrere  thrown  into  the  river, 
off  the  bridge ; their  artillery  intercepted  their 
retreat.  The  third  line  of  Austrian  cavalry, 
wishing  to  save  the  infantry,  came  up.  * A 
ditch  separated  the  combatants.  The  French 
crossed  it,  and  immediately  surrounded  the 
first  two  platoons.  The  Austrians  were 
thrown  into  disorder ; the  pursuit  continued, 
and  they  made  a great  many  prisoners  ; the 
Austrian  rear-guard  was  cut  to  pieces.  Night 
setting  in,  and  the  extreme  fatigue  of  the 
horses,  made  Murat  determine  not  to  expose 
his  troops  more  after  so  successful  a day’s 
wrork.  The  armies  had  been  fourteen  hours 
within  musket-shot  of  each  other,  and  wanted 
rest.  Victory  waved  on  each  side  four  times 
during  the  day,  and  sixty  pieces  of  cannon 
were  alternately  won  and  lost.  When  the 
battle  ended,  the  French  had  taken  12  stand- 
ards, 45  pieces  of  cannon,  and  12,000  prison- 
ers. The  Austrians  lost  seven  generals,  400 
officers,  and  6,000  men  killed  or  wounded. 
The  French  lost  Generals  Desaix  and  Watrin 
killed,  four  generals  of  brigade  wounded,  and 
3,000  men  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 
The  French  army,  when  the  battle  began, 
was  reckoned  at  about  45,000  strong,  with 
about  thirty  pieces  of  artillery.  The  Austrian 
army  was  from  55,000  to  60,000  men,  includ- 
ing near  18,000  cavalry,  and  an  immense  train 
of  artillery  well  provided.  By  this  victory 
Bonaparte  became  the  master  of  Italy. 

MARGxVRET  of  Anjou.  [ See  Plantage- 
nets,  Henry  VI.  J 

MARGARET,  the  Countess  of  Salisbury, % 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  brother  of 
Edward  IV. ; beheaded  May -27th,  1541,  aged 
seventy. 


MAR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


521 


Mx\RGARET,  Queen  of  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway,  commonly  called  the  Semiramis 
of  the  North,  vanquished  Albert  her  rival  at 
Falkoping  in  1389,  and  died  in  1412.  Albert 
had  contemptuously  termed  her  “the  king  in 
petticoats.” 

MARIA  THERESA,  born  May  13th,  1717, 
was  the  eldest  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  of  Aus- 
tria. Her  succession  to  the  throne,  in  defiance 
of  the  ‘family  compact,’  had  been  guaranteed 
by  all  the  leading  states  of  Europe : yet  upon 
the  decease  of  her  father,  she  was  attacked  by 
Prussia,  France,  Spain,  Bavaria,  Sardinia,  and 
Sicily,  each  of  whose  monarchs  had  picked 
out  the  slice  of  her  domains  he  would  like. 
A long  war  ensued.  Her  husband  was  her 
cousin,  Francis  of  Lorraine.  At  one  time  the 
enemy  stalked  in  her  capital : she  fled  to 
Presburg,  and  appealed  to  the  Hungarians. 
“Let  us  die  for  our  king  Maria  Theresa,” 
(they  never  would  acknowledge  a queen),  was 
their  cry,  and  by  their  loyalty  and  valor  the 
empire  was  saved.  Maria  Theresa  was  pious 
and  just,  and  her  court  was  a bright  contrast 
to  the  debaucheries  of  other  kingdoms.  The 
great  empress  died  Nov.  29th,  1780.  A little 
while  before  she  breathed  her  last,  she  lay 
with  closed  eyes,  apparently  slumbering.  One 
of  the  attendants  whispered,  “ The  empress 
sleeps.”  At  once  she  opened  her  eyes : “No,” 
she  said,  “ I do  not  sleep  ; I wish  to  meet  my 
death  awake.” 

MARIAMNE,  the  wife  of  Herod  the  Great, 
by  whom  she  had  two  sons,  Alexander  and 
Aristobulus,  and  two  daughters.  Herod  was 
very  fond  of  Mariamne;  but  she  had  little 
regard  for  him,  especially  after  he  put  to  death 
her  brother  Aristobulus.  When  Herod  went 
to  Rome  to  court  the  favor  of  Augustus,  he 
left  secret  orders  with  Josephus  and  Sohemus, 
to  destroy  Mariamne  and  her  mother,  if  any 
misfortune  should  happen  to  him.  Mariamne, 
having  obtained  the  secret  from  Sohemus, 
upbraided  Herod  at  his  return,  with  his  in- 
humanity, for  which  he  put  her  to  death,  to- 
gether with  Sohemus,  b.c.  22. 

MARIE  ANTOINETTE,  the  accomplished, 
beautiful,  and  unfortunate  queen  of  Louis 
XVI.  of  France,  whom  she  married  while  he 
was  dauphin,  was  the  daughter  of  Francis  I. 
and  Maria  Theresa,  and  was  born  at  Vienna 
in  1755.  Her  accomplishments,  talents,  grace, 
virtue,  and  uncommon  loveliness  fitted  her 


for  the  queen  of  a gallant  nation,  and  as  such 
she  would  have  been  honored  in  France,  had 
she  lived  before  oppression  had  roused  the 
people  to  madness.  Her  mother,  in  a letter 
to  her  future  husband,  after  alluding  to  the 
care  with  which  she  had  formed  her  mind, 
says,  “ Above  all  things,  I have  recommended 
to  her  humility  before  God,  because  I am 
convinced  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  secure 
the  happiness  of  the  subjects  confided  to  us, 
without  love  to  Him,  who  destroys  the  scep- 
tres and  the  thrones  of  kings  according  to  his 
will.”  The  marriage  took  place  at  Versailles, 
May  16th,  1770,  and  was  celebrated  with  un- 
common splendor;  but  immediately  after  the 
ceremony,  a thunder-storm  of  unparalleled 
violence  broke  over  the  palace  of  Versailles, 
darkened  the  surrounding  scenery,  and  struck 
terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  people  for  miles 
around.  On  May  30th,  the  festivities  at  Paris 
were  saddened  by  a most  terrible  accident ; a 
number  of  citizens  being  crushed  to  death  in 
the  Rue  Royale,  by  some  mismanagement  on 
the  part  of  the  proper  authorities.  Fifty-three 
persons  were  found  dead,  and  three  hundred 
more  were  dangerously  injured. 

The  magnanimity  of  Marie  Antoinette  dis- 
played itself  soon  after  her  elevation  to  the 
throne,  on  the  death  of  Louis  XV.  An  officer 
of  the  body-guard,  who  had  given  offense  on 
some  former  occasion,  expressed  his  intention 
of  resigning  his  commission,  but  the  queen 
forbade  him.  “Remain,”  said  she;  “forget 
the  past.  Far  be  it  from  the  queen  to  avenge 
the  injuries  of  the  dauphiness.”  She  devoted 
herself  to  the  interests  of  her  people  with  an 
assiduity  unparalleled  in  a sovereign  of  her 
age;  yet;  becoming  obnoxious  to  the  court 
party,  her  character  was  assailed  in  every 
shape  and  quarter.  She  was  accused  of  set- 
ting on  foot  conspiracies  which  never  existed, 
and  of  entertaining  views  which  never  entered 
her  mind.  She  was  termed  the  Austrian,  and 
it  was  openly  asserted  as  well  as  privately  in- 
sinuated, that  her  heart  was  estranged  from 
the  country  of  her  husband,  and  her  mind 
solely  occupied  with  the  interests  of  her  native 
land.  In  her  conduct  there  was  matter  for 
gentle  reproof,  but  none  for  malevolent  accu- 
sation. A gayety  which  sometimes  degener- 
ated into  levity,  a passion  for  fashionable  nov- 
elties, and  an  unwary  contempt  for  court  for- 
malities, instead  of  being  regarded  as  the  foi- 


MAR 


522 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


bles  and  imprudences  of  a young  and  innocent 
mind,  were  construed  into  evidences  of  the 
existence  of  loose  principles,  unbridled  ex- 
travagance, and  hatred  for  the  nation.  She 
was  likewise  charged  with  pettishness  under 
reproof;  and  we  can  readily  conceive  how  a 
woman  of  so  high  a rank,  conscious  of  the 
purity  of  her  intentions,  and  perpetually  as- 
sailed by  reckless  cavilers,  assumed  in  reply 
to  the  unworthy  insinuations  of  her  enemies, 
the  tone  which  her  virtue  and  her  birth  ap- 
peared to  warrant.  The  affair  of  the  diamond 
necklace  created  an  extraordinary  sensation. 
A jeweler  at  Paris  demanded  payment  for  a 
necklace  so  costly  that  the  finances  of  a queen 
would  hardly  warrant  its  purchase.  Exami. 
nation  brought  proof  of  the  queen’s  integrity. 
A lady  of  the  stature  and  complexion  of  the 
queen  had  succeeded  in  disguising  herself, 
and  passing  herself  off  as  Marie  Antoinette, 
upon  a cardinal  in  a midnight  meeting  in  the 
park  of  Versailles. 

The  long  gathering  cloud  broke  in  storm 
in  1789.  On  the  6th  of  October,  the  mob 
broke  into  the  palace  of  Versailles,  murdered 
some  of  the  body-guards,  and  threatened  the 
queen  in  the  most  frightful  language.  At 
midnight  she  received  a letter  from  a friendly 
clergyman,  advising  her  to  seek  safety  in 
flight,  as  her  life  would  be  sacrificed  early 
the  next  morning.  She  resolved  to  remain 
and  destroyed  the  warning  letter.  She  heard 
the  footsteps  of  the  ruffian  rabble ; she 
thought  her  time  had  come ; but  her  life  was 
saved.  The  progress  of  the  ruffians  was 
arrested  at  the  very  door  of  her  bed-chamber, 
where  her  faithful  guards  laid  down  their 
lives  to  secure  for  their  queen  a retreat  to 
the  chamber  of  the  king.  The  king  and 
queen  showed  themselves  with  their  chil- 
dren in  the  balcony.  The  mass  of  heads 
beneath  for  a moment  ceased  to  be  agitated ; 
but  it  was  only  for  a moment.  Silence  was 
broken  by  a thousand  tongues:  “No  chil- 
dren ! no  children ! The  queen ! the  queen 
alone ! ” This  was  a trying  moment ; but 
Antoinette  had  firmness  for  the  crisis.  Put- 
ting her  son  and  daughter  into  her  husband’s 
arms,  she  advanced  alone  into  the  balcony. 
A spectacle  like  this  filled  the  fierce  people 
with  admiration,  and  thundering  shouts  of 
“ Long  live  the  queen,”  succeeded  to  the 
imprecations  of  the  preceding'moment.  Such 


is  the  fickleness  of  a mob!  The  march  to 
Paris  was  a succession  of  terrors.  The 
heads  of  two  faithful  guardsmen,  elevated  on 
pikes,  met  the  eyes  of  the  poor  queen  as  she 
looked  from  her  carriage  windows. 

The  fate  of  Marie  Antoinette  darkened 
rapidly.  With  the  king  she  fled  to  Va- 
rennes.  With  him  she  was  brought  back  to 
Paris.  Her  courage  did  not  fail  in  the  scene 
of  the  legislative  assembly,  before  which 
body  she  was  present  with  her  husband, 
heard  his  deposition  pronounced,  and  then 
went  into  the  Temple,  where  he  was  impris- 
oned. Here,  where  the  light  of  heaven 
faintly  fell  through  grated  windows,  sur- 
rounded by  her  family,  she  appeared  to  feel 
entire  resignation  to  the  will  of  Him  on 
whom  the  happiness  of  the  humblest  indi- 
vidual depends.  When  she  heard  the  con- 
demnation of  the  king  from  the  lips  of  the 
royal  victim,  she  had  the  firmness  to  con- 
gratulate him  on  the  speedy  delivery  from 
trouble  which  awaited  him.  The  eternal 
separation  from  her  son  did  not  shake  her 
firmness,  and,  with  a heart  apparently  un- 
broken, she  was  consigned  to  the  loathsome 
depths  of  a dungeon,  Aug.  5th,  1793.  The 
accusations  brought  against  the  unhappy 
queen  on  her  trial,  were  all  unfounded,  and 
were  merely  advanced  because  her  enemies 
had  still  respect  enough  for  justice  to  mimic 
its  forms  in  their  guilty  court.  In  the  in- 
dictment she  was  named  the  Widow  Capet. 
She  was  charged  with  having  squandered 
the  public  money,  and  with  leaguing  in  secret 
with  the  foreign  enemies  of  France.  The 
clearness  of  her  innocence,  the  falsehood  and 
frivolity  qf  witnesses,  the  eloquence  of  de- 
fenders, were  of  no  avail:  Marie  Antoinette 
was  doomed  to  die  upon  the  scaffold. 

The  expression  of  her  countenance  as  she 
passed  to  the  place  of  execution  awed  the 
bloodthirsty  populace ; but  the  matchless 
beauty  of  that  countenance  was  gone  forever. 
Her  hair  had  turned  white  in  prison ; her 
dress  was  tattered.  One  unacquainted  with 
the  ravages  of  grief  could  not  believe  that 
the  haggard  and  forsaken  being  now  led  to 
sacrifice  was  the  young  queen  who  a short 
time  before  held  in  thrall  the  chivalry  of 
France,  by  her  exquisite  loveliness,  her  win- 
ning grace  and  sportive  gayety.  Antoinette 
cast  back  a long  last  look  at  the  Tuileries,  a 


MAR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


523 


look  which  told  of  sorrowful  remembrance, 
and  of  agonizing  emotion ; then,  with  an  air 
of  dignified  resignation,  she  ascended  the 
scaffold.  “ My  God ! ” cried  she,  as  she 
kneeled  on  that  fatal  platform,  “enlighten 
and  affect  my  executioner ! Adieu,  my  chil- 
dren— my  beloved  ones — forever ! I am  go- 
ing to  your  father  1”  This  unfortunate 
woman  perished  in  her  thirty-eighth  year, 
October  16  th,  1793. 

MARIE  DE  MEDICIS,  the  queen  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  was  the  daughter  of  Francis 
II.,  Grand-Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the  Arch- 
duchess Joan  of  Austria.  She  was  wedded 
to  Henry  in  1600,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven. 
At  his  death  in  1610,  their  son,  Louis  XIII., 
was  only  nine  years  of  age,  and  Marie  acted 
as  regent.  Intrigues  and  discords  disturbed 
her  reign ; Richelieu  felt  his  way  to  supreme 
power ; and  the  unhappy  dowager  was  at  last 
driven  from  France.  Abandoned  by  all  her 
Italian  kin,  and  neglected  by  her  unnatural 
son,  she  suffered  for  the  common  means  of 
life,  and  died  in  a garret  at  Cologne  in  1642. 

MARION,  Francis,  was  born  at  Winyaw, 
S.  C.,  in  1732.  “He  was  not  larger  than  a 
New  England  lobster,  and  might  easily 
enough  have  been  put  into  a quart  pot.” 
He  served  in  expeditions  against  the  Chero- 
kees  and  other  hostile  tribes,  and  at  the 
opening  of  the  Revolution  received  a cap- 
tain’s commission,  from  which  he  rose  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier  of  his  native  state.  The 
exploits  of  Marion  and  his  men  kept  the 
British  and  Tories  of  South  Carolina  in  con- 
stant terror,  and  are  among  the  most  spirited 
reminiscences  of  that  thrilling  time.  The 
wariness  and  rapidity  of  the  brave  partisan 
gained  him  the  familiar  name  of  the  Swamp 
Fox.  He  died  Feb.  29th,  1795.  His  last 
words  were,  “Thank  God,  since  I came  to 
man’s  estate,  I have  never  intentionally  done 
wrong  to  any  man.” 

MARIUS,  Caius,  a celebrated  Roman 
general.  He  conquered  Jugurtha,  King  of 
Numidia,  and  afterward,  for  several  suc- 
cessive years,  carried  on  war  with  the  Cim- 
bri  and  Teutones,  barbarous  nations  who 
attempted  to  subdue  Italy.  In  his  old  age 
he  engaged  in  a civil  war  with  Sylla,  and  was 
compelled  to  flee  to  Africa.  He  landed  at 
Carthage.  Presently  there  came  a mes- 
senger from  C.  Sextilius,  the  governor  of  the 


province,  ordering  him  to  depart.  He  sat  in 
silence,  glaring  sternly  at  the  envoy,  and 
when  asked  what  reply  should  be  made  to 
the  praetor,  he  groaned  and  said,  “ Tell  him 
you  saw  Caius  Marius  sitting  an  exile  among 
the  ruins  of  Carthage.”  His  party  becoming 
victorious,  he  returned  to  Rome,  where 
amidst  massacre  he  died,  86  b.c.  He  was 
seven  times  consul. 

MARLBOROUGH,  John  Churchill,  Duke 
of,  was  born  at  Ashe,  in  Devonshire,  in  1650, 
and  received  an  indifferent  education,  for  his 
father  took  him  to  court  at  the  age  of  twelve 
years.  About  1666  he  was  made  an  ensign 
in  the  guards,  owing  his  colors  to  the  dis- 
grace of  his  sister  Arabella  by  the  Duke 
of  York,  and  served  for  some  time  at  Tan- 
gier. In  1672  he  was  with  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth, who  served  with  the  French  against 
the  Dutch,  and  was  made  captain  of  grena- 
diers. The  conduct  of  Mr.  Churchill  at  the 
battle  of  Nimeguen  gained  the  particular 
notice  of  Marshal  Turenne,  who  called  him 
“ the  handsome  Englishman  who  would  one 
day  make  a great  general.”  At  the  siege 
of  Maestricht,  his  bravery  was  so  distin- 
guished that  the  French  king  thanked  him 
particularly  at  the  head  of  the  line.  He  was 
madd,  6n  his  return  to  England,  lieutenant- 
colonel,  gentleman  of  the  bed-chamber,  and 
master  of  the  robes  to  the  Duke  of  York. 
He  attended  that  prince  to  Holland,  and 
into  Scotland,  and  about  this  time  married 
Miss  Sarah  Jennings,  one  of  the  Princess 
Anne’s  maids  of  honor.  In  1682  he  was 
made  a peer,  by  the  title  of  Baron  Eymouth 
in  Scotland;  and  when  James  came  to  the 
crown,  he  was  sent  ambassador  to  France  to 
announce  the  event.  In  1685  he  was  created 
Lord  Churchill  of  Sandridge  in  the  county 
of  Hertford.  The  same  year  he  took  part 
in  the  suppression  of  Monmouth’s  rebellion. 
When  the  Prince  of  Orange  landed,  Churchill 
assured  the  king  he  would  shed  his  last  drop 
of  blood  in  his  service.  The  hypocrite  had 
long  been  in  correspondence  with  William, 
had  corrupted  the  army,  and  shortly  after 
completed  his  treachery  by  joining  the 
invaders.  The  prince  was  proud  of  this 
acquisition,  gave  his  lordship  a gracious 
reception,  and  intrusted  him  with  the  sole 
regulation  of  the  army.  In  1689  he  was 
sworn  of  the  privy  council,  and  made  one 


MAR 


52L 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  the  gentlemen  of  the  bed-chamber  of  the 
king,  and  created  Earl  of  Marlborough.  The 
same  year  he  was  sent  to  Holland  as  com- 
mander of  the  English  forces.  He  next 
served  in  Ireland,  and  reduced  Cork,  with 
other  strong  places.  But  notwithstanding 
these  important  services,  he  was  dismissed 
from  his  employments,  and  committed  to  the 
Tower;  from  which,  however,  he  was  soon 
released.  .The  cause  of  this  was  supposed 
to  be  a suspicion  that  he  favored  the  Jacobites. 

At  the  commencement  of  Queen  Anne’s 
reign,  the  earl  came  to  England,  whence  he 
had  been  sent  ambassador  to  Holland,  and 
recommended  a speedy  war  with  France  and 
Spain,  which  advice  was  followed.  He  went 
to  the  continent  as  captain-general  of  the 
English  forces,  and  performed  many  brilliant 
actions  throughout  his  various  campaigns, 
too  numerous  indeed  to  be  detailed  here. 
Blenheim,  Ramillies,  Oudenarde,  and  Mal- 
plaquet  were  among  the  greatest  of  his 
victories.  At  the  battle  of  Bamillies,  May 
12th,  1706,  he  narrowly  escaped  death,  a 
cannon-shot  taking  off  the  head  of  Colonel 
Bingly  as  he  was  helping  the  duke  to  his 
horse.  In  1711  he  returned  to  England, 
deprived  of  his  employments  by  Queen  Anne, 
through  the  intrigues  of  his  enemies.  George 
I.  restored  him  his  military  appointments. 
He  died  June  15th,  1722. 

Marlborough  rose  fast  in  the  court  and  in 
the  army,  and  was  early  distinguished  as  a 
man  of  fashion  and  of  pleasure.  His  stature 
was  commanding,  his  face  handsome,  his 
address  singularly  winning,  yet  of  such  dig- 
nity that  the  most  impertinent  fops  never 
ventured  to  take  any  liberty  with  him ; his 
temper,  even  in  the  most  vexatious  and 
irritating  circumstances,  always  under  per- 
fect command.  His  education  had  been  so 
much  neglected  that  he  could  not  spell  the 
most  common  words  of  his  own  language ; 
but  his  acute  an(J  vigorous  understanding 
amply  supplied  the  place  of  book  learning. 
He  was  not  loquacious;  but,  when  he  was 
forced  to  speak  in  public,  his  natural  elo- 
quence moved  the  envy  of  practiced  rhetori- 
cians. His  courage  was  singularly  cool  and 
imperturbable.  During  many  years  of  anx- 
iety, and  peril,  he  never,  in  any  emergency, 
lost  even  for  a moment  the  perfect  use  of  his 
admirable  judgment. 


Unhappily,  the  splendid  qualities  of  John 
Churchill  were  mingled  with  alloy  of  the 
most  sordid  kind.  Some  propensities,  which 
in  youth  are  singularly  ungraceful,  began 
very  early  to  show  themselves  in  him.  He 
was  thrifty  in  his  very  vices,  and  levied 
ample  contributions  on  ladies  enriched  by 
the  spoils  of  more  liberal  lovers.  He  was, 
during  a short  time,  the  object  of  the  violent 
but  fickle  fondness  of  the  Duchess  of  Cleve- 
land. On  one  occasion  he  was  caught  with 
her  by  King  Charles,  and  was  forced  to 
leap  out  of  the  window.  She  rewarded  this 
hazardous  feat  of  gallantry  with  a present 
of  five  thousand  pounds.  With  this  sum 
the  prudent  young  hero  instantly  bought  an 
annuity  of  five  hundred  a year,  well  secured 
on  landed  property.  Already  his  private 
drawers  contained  heaps  of  broad  pieces, 
which,  fifty  years  later,  when  he  was  a duke, 
a prince  of  the  empire,  and  the  richest  sub- 
ject in  Europe,  remained  untouched. — Mac- 
aulay. 

MARMONT,  Augustus  Frederick,  the 
last  survivor  of  Napoleon’s  marshals,  com- 
menced his  military  career  in  the  army  of 
the  monarchy.  Napoleon  made  him  Duke 
of  Ragusa.  He  was  the  seventh  of  the  im- 
perial marshals  whose  laurels  were  plucked 
by  Wellington  in  Spain.  He  surrendered 
Paris  to  the  allies  in  1814,  and  afterward 
steadily  adhered  to  the  Bourbons.  After  the 
revolution  of  1830  he  was  struck  from  the 
list  of  the  army.  He  died  at  Venice  in  1852, 
at  the  age  of  seventy-eight. 

MARMONTEL,  John  Francis,  an  eminent 
French  writer,  born  at  Bort,  in  Limousin,  in 
1723.  He  was  the  son  of  a tailor,  but  edu- 
cated at  the  college  of  Toulouse,  and  after- 
ward made  an  abbe.  He  was  imprisoned  in 
the  Bastile  for  writing  a satire  oft  an  influen- 
tial person,  but  escaped  the  revolutionary 
fury.  He  died  in  1799  at  Abbeville.  His 
literary  character  depends  chiefly  on  his 
“Moral  Tales,”  many  of  which  were  not  very 
moral. 

MARRIAGE.  Among  the  Babylonians, 
at  a certain  time  every  year,  the  marriageable 
women  were  assembled,  and  disposed  of  to 
the  best  bidder  by  the  public  erier.  The 
richest  citizens  purchased  at  such  high  prices 
as  pleased  them,  and  the  money  thus  ob- 
tained was  used  to  portion  off  the  women  to 


MAR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


525 


whom  nature  has  been  less  liberal  of  personal 
charms.  When  all  the  beauties  had  been 
struck  off,  the  crier  put  up  the  more  ordinary 
lots,  beginning  with  the  most  ill-favored 
virgins  that  remained,  and  announcing  a 
premium  for  each.  The  bidders  named 
sums  below  this  premium,  at  which  they 
would  be  willing  to  take  the  maid,  and  he 
who  bid  lowest  was  declared  the  happy  man. 
Thus  every  woman  was  provided  for.  This 
custom  originated  with  Atossa,  daughter  of 
Belochus,  about  1433  b.c.  The  first  institu- 
tion of  union  between  man  and  woman  for 
life,  with  ceremonies  of  binding  and  solemn 
nature,  is  ascribed  to  Cecrops,  at  Athens, 
1554  b.c.  The  prevailing  ceremony  in  most 
countries  was  that  of  a man  leading  home  his 
bride,  after  a solemn  contract  with  her  friends. 
That ’this  contract  might  be  the  more  sacred, 
it  was  made  the  work  of  the  priest.  The 
Greeks  considered  full  moons,  or  times  of 
conjunction  of  the  sun  and  moon,  as  seasons 
most  propitious  for  marriage.  The  celebra- 
tion of  marriages  in  churches  was  ordained 
hy  Pope  Innocent  III.  Marriage  in  Lent 
was  forbidden  a.d.  364.  Celibacy  was  en- 
joined upon  bishops  in  692,  and  upon  priests 
in  1015.  In  the  early  ages  concubinage  was 
sanctioned.  A Roman  might  have  either  a 
wife  or  a concubine  ( semi-conjux ),  but  not 
both  together.  Constantine  the  Great  gave 
a check  to  concubinage,  but  did  not  abolish 
it,  for  it  subsisted  many  years  in  the  church. 
In  Germany  morganatic  or  left-handed  mar- 
riages are  known  between  princes  and  women 
of  lower  rank,  in  which  it  is  stipulated  that 
the  offspring  shall  not  inherit  the  condition 
of  the  father.  Most  of  the  early  nations 
permitted  polygamy.  It  was  general  among 
the  Jews,  and  still  obtains  in  the  East.  In 
Media  it  was  a reproach  to  a man  to  have 
less  than  seven  wives.  Among  the  Romans 
Mark  Antony  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who 
took  two  wives,  and  the  practice  became 
frequent  until  forbidden  by  Arcadius,  a.d. 
393.  Polygamy  has  been  adopted  by  the 
Mormons. 

Wild  Will  Shakspeare  and  rare  Ben  Jon- 
son  were  both  susceptible  youth  as  well  as 
brother  poets;  the  one  wedded  his  Ann 
Hathaway  at  eighteen,  the  other  an  unknown 
sweetheart  at  twenty.  Dr.  Sam  Johnson, 
Burke,  quaint  Fuller,  Scott,  and  Dante  wived 


at  twenty-six ; Byron,  Bonaparte,  AVashing- 
ton,  and  Wellington  at  twenty -seven  ; Penn 
and  Sterne  at  twenty-eight;  and  Burns  at 
thirty.  Chaucer,  Hogarth,  and  Peel  wedded 
at  thirty-two  ; the  poetical  philosopher  Davy, 
and  the  philosophical  poet  Wordsworth,  at 
thirty-three ; Franklin  at  thirty-four  ; Aris- 
totle and  Linnaeus  at  thirty-nine  ; and  Martin 
Luther  broke  loose  from  celibacy  at  forty- 
two.  Addison  lived  a bachelor  till  he  was 
forty-four;  Swift  toyed  with  Stella  and  Van- 
essa till  he  was  forty-nine,  and  then  sopped  the 
former’s  love  and  jealousy  with  a clandestine 
marriage ; Buffon,  fond  as  he  was  of  animated 
nature,  waited  till  he  was  fifty-five;  while 
old  Parr  took  him  a fresh  rib  at  one  hundred 
and  twenty.  The  pious  Jerem}r  Taylor,  who 
thought  “ marriage  a die  of  the  greatest  con- 
tingency, and  yet  of  the  greatest  interest  in 
the  world  next  to  the  last  throw  for  eternity,” 
ventured  it  at  twenty-six,  and  liked  his  luck 
so  well  that,  being  early  left  a widower,  he 
tried  a second  throw.  [See  Bachelors.]  In 
the  feudal  law,  banns  were  a solemn  procla- 
mation of  anything,  and  hence  (about  1200) 
arose  the  custom  of  asking  banns,  or  giving 
notice  before  marriage.  Marriages  were  first 
solemnized  by  justices  of  the  peace  in  the 
time  of  Cromwell.  [See  II t men.] 

MARS,  in  ancient  mythology,  the  son  of 
Juno,  and  the  god  of  war.  He  is  represented 
with  a helmet  on  his  head,  a spear  in  his 
hand,  often  on  a car,  animated  with  the  ar- 
dor of  battle.  The  Romans  honored  him 
most,  and  erected  many  temples  to  him.  His 
priests,  the  Salii,  celebrated  his  festivals  by 
dancing,  and  beating  their  bucklers  in  accord 
to  music.  He  was  the  favorite  of  Venus,  and 
completely  supplanted  Vulcan,  who,  however, 
revenged  himself. 

MARSHALL,  John,  was  a Virginian  by 
birth.  In  the  Revolution  he  bore  arms  in 
his  country’s  behalf,  seeing  service  at  Bran- 
dywine, Germantown,  and  Monmouth.  With 
Messrs.  Pinckney  and  Gerry,  he  was  sent  .on 
an  embassy  to  France  in  1797.  During  the 
last  year  of  the  elder  Adams’s  administra- 
tion he  was  secretary  of  state  ; and  that  pres- 
ident, Jan.  31st,  1801,  appointed  him  chief- 
justice  of  the  supreme  court.  This  eminent 
station  he  adorned  till  his  death  in  1836. 

MARSHALS  OF  FRANCE.  The  following 
list  of  the  marshals  of  France  under  Napoleon, 


MAR 


526 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


will  be  useful  to  the  reader  of  French  his- 
tory. Arrighi,  Augereau,  Bernadotte,  Ber- 
thier,  Bessieres,  Davoust,  Jourdan,  Junot, 
Kellerman,  Lannes,  Lefebre,  Macdonald, 
Marmont,  Massena,  Moncey,  Mortier,  Murat, 
Ney,  Oudinot,  Soult,  Suchet,  and  Victor. 
The  following  were  Napoleon’s  chief  officers 
of  state : Cambaceres,  Caulaincourt,  Cham- 
pagne, Duroc,  Fouche,  Le  Brun,  Maret, 
Savary,  and  Talleyrand. 

MARSTON  MOOR.  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax, 
and  the  Scots,  under  the  Earl  of  Leven,  were 
besieging  York,  when  Prince  Rupert  deter- 
mined to  raise  the  siege.  The  hostile  armies 
met  on  Marston  Moor,  July  3d,  1644.  The 
energy  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  here  first 
came  into  notice,  and  the  steady  valor  of  the 
warriors  whom  he  had  trained,  retrieved  the 
day  after  it  had  been  disgracefully  lost  by  the 
Presbyterians,  and  the  royalists  received  a 
blow  from  which  they  never  recovered. 

MARTIAL,  Marcus  Valerius,  a Latin  sa- 
tiric poet,  died  a.d.  104,  aged  seventy -five. 

MARTIN,  Luther,  an  eminent  lawyer,  first 
attorney-general  of  Maryland,  which  office  he 
held  during  the  war,  and  nearly  forty  years ; 
became  chief-justice  of  the  city  court  of  Bal- 
timore; died  July  10th,  1826,  in  his  eighty- 
second  year.  He  was  one  of  the  convention 
that  formed  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States. 

MARVELL,  Andrew,  a poet,  political 
writer,  and  patriotic  member  of  parliament, 
was  born  at  Hull  in  1620.  He  was  the  friend 
of  Milton,  and  his  associate  as  Latin  secre- 
tary. Charles  II.  delighted  in  the  patriot’s 
society,  and  once  sent  Danby  the  treasurer 
to  him,  with  an  offer  of  a place  at  court  and 
an  immediate  present  of  a thousand  pounds. 
Inflexible  Marvell  refused  the  bribes,  and  in 
illustration  of  his  independence  called  his 
servant  to  witness  that  for  three  days  he  had 
dined  on  one  shoulder  of  mutton ! When  the 
treasurer  was  gone,  Marvell  was  forced  to 
send  to  a friend  tomorrow  a guinea!  He 
died  Aug.  16th,  1678. 

MARY,  Queen  of  Scotland.  [See  Stuart.] 

MARYLAND.  In  1870  the  population 
was  780,894,  of  whom  605,497  were  whites, 
and  175,391  colored.  Its  whole  area  is  rather 
more  than  13,600  square  miles,  though  its 
land  surface  is  only  about  11,000.  The  sec- 
tion lying  east  of  Chesapeake  Bay  is  locally 


known  as  the  Eastern  Shore,  and  the  opposite 
coast  as  the  Western  Shore.  The  Potomac 
divides  Maryland  from  Virginia.  The  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  state  is  crossed  by  the 
Blue  Ridge,  and  the  Alleghanies  traverse  the 
western.  Large  fields  of  bituminous  coal  are 
found  in  the  west,  iron  ore  throughout  the 
state,  and  fine  marble  for  building  is  quar- 
ried. Indian  corn  and  wheat  are  the  agricul- 
tural staples  of  the  Eastern  Shore,  and  these 
with  tobacco  form  those  of  the  Western. 
Cotton,  flax,  and  hemp  are  also  raised. 

George  Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore,  a Catholic 
gentleman  who  desired  to  found  an  asylum 
from  persecution  for  the  sect  of  which  he  was 
a distinguished  member,  visited  Maryland, 
but  died  in  England  while  preparing  for  the 
emigration.  His  son  Cecil  obtained  a patent 
of  the  territory  designed  for  the  father.  It 
was  to  have  been  called  Crescentia,  but  he 
named  it  Maryland,  in  honor  of  Henrietta 
Maria,  the  wife  of  Charles  I.  He  appointed 
his  brother,  Leonard  Calvert,  governor  of  the 
colony.  The  first  settlement  was  made  at  St. 
Mary’s  on  the  Potomac,  March,  1634,  land 
having  been  bought  from  the  Indians.  The 
most  marked  feature  in  the  new  colony  was 
its  liberality  to  religious  belief.  Its  toleration 
was  surpassed  only  by  the  little  band  that 
had  gathered  about  Roger  Williams  on  the 
plantation  of  Providence.  The  general  assem- 
bly of  Maryland,  in  1649,  enacted  “that  no 
person  or  persons  within  this  province,  pro- 
fessing to  believe  in  Jesus  Christ,  shall  from 
henceforth  be  anywise  troubled,  molested, 
or  discountenanced  for,  or  in  respect  of,  his 
or  her  religion,  nor  in  the  free  exercise  there- 
of, within  this  province,  nor  any  way  com- 
pelled to  the  belief,  or  exercise  of  any  other 
religion,  against  his  or  her  consent.”  Among 
various  provisions  to  secure  this  statute  was 
a curious  one  that  any  person  who  should, 
upon  any  occasion,  declare,  or  call  by  way  of 
reproach,  any  other  person  residing  in  the 
province  a Heretic,  Schismatic,  Idolator, 
Puritan,  Presbyterian,  Independent,  Popish 
Priest,  Jesuit,  Jesuited  Papist,  Lutheran, 
Calvinist,  Anabaptist,  Brownist,  Antinomian, 
Barrowist,  Roundhead,  Separatist,  or  other 
name  or  term,  in  a reproachful  manner, 
relating  to  religion,  should  for  every  such 
offense  be  fined  ten  shillings  sterling,  or  if  he 
could  not  pay  this,  he  was  to  be  publicly 


MAR 


whipped,  and  then  be  imprisoned  till  he 
should  appease  the  injured  person  by  pub- 
licly asking  his  forgiveness. 

This  toleration  attracted  many  colonists ; 
Puritans  from  New  England  and  Episcopa- 
lians from  Virginia  mingled  with  the  Catholic 
founders.  Gradually  the  control  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  Protestants.  During  the 
time  of  the  English  commonwealth  they  ill 
repaid  the  previous  generosity  of  their  Cath- 
olic brethren.  At  the  revolution  of  1688  the 
patent  of  the  colony  was  set  aside,  and  the 
government  assumed  by  the  crown.  In  1716 
the  proprietor  was  restored  to  his  privileges, 
which  were  finally  abrogated  by  the  people 
at  the  commencement  of  the  American  Rev- 
olution. 

The  governor  of  Maryland  is  chosen  by  the 
people  for  a term  of  four  years,  the  state  be- 
ing divided  into  three  districts,  from  each  of 
which,  in  order,  the  governor  is  taken.  The 
general  assembly  meets  biennially,  and  half 
the  senators  are  chosen  once  in  two  years. 
Every  male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  aged 
twenty-one  or  more,  who  has  resided  one 
year  in  the  State,  has  the  right  of  suffrage. 
The  constitution  forbids  imprisonment  for 
debt,  and  lotteries.  Vetoed  bills  can  be 
passed  by  a three-fifths  vote  of  the  Legisla- 
ture. Ministers  of  the  gospel  are  not  eligible 
as  members  of  the  general  assembly.  The 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  a court  of  appeals, 
circuit  courts,  and  inferior  tribunals.  The 
iudges  of  the  several  courts  are  elected  in  the 


counties  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  various 
judicial  circuits.  Judges  must  be  thirty  years 
old  and  have  attained  a residence  of  five  years 
in  the  state  and  six  months  in  the  district. 
The  judges  must  be  persons  selected  from  those 
learned  in  the  law,  and  are  ineligible  at  the  age 
of  seventy.  In  the  matter  of  public  education, 
Maryland  is  behind  many  of  her  sister  states. 

Annapolis,  situated  on  the  south-west  side 
of  the  Severn,  two  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
forty  miles  north-east  of  Washington,  since 
1699  has  been  the  seat  of  the  state  govern- 
ment; population  in  1870,  5,744.  In  the 
venerable  state-house  the  continental  con- 
gress sometimes  sat  during  the  Revolution, 
and  in  its  senate  chamber  Washington  re- 
signed his  commission  at  the  close  of  the 
war.  Baltimore,  a city  and  port  of  entry  in 
Baltimore  county,  Mar}dand,  is  situated  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Patapsco,  fourteen  miles 
from  its  entrance  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  It 
was  founded  in  1730.  The  population  in 
1870  was  267,354.  It  is  the  third  city  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  centre  of  most  of  the 
trade  of  Maryland,  and  of  a portion  of  that 
of  the  western  states  and  Pennsylvania.  It 
is  built  around  a basin  which  affords  a safe 
harbor,  the  narrow  entrance  of  which,  being 
guarded  by  Fort  M’ Henry,  secures  the  city 
against  a naval  enemy.  Several  of  the  pub- 
lic buildings  are  elegant,  and  imposing  in 
appearance.  The  Washington  monument  is 
a chaste  and  conspicuous  structure  of  mar- 
ble. St.  Mary’s  College  is  a Catholic  insti- 


523 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tution  of  great  repute.  During  the  last  war, 
the  city  of  Baltimore  was  attacked  by  the 
British,  and  on  the  12th  of  September,  the 
battle  at  North  Point  was  fought.  On  the 
next  day  Fort  M’ Henry  was  bombarded,  the 
enemy  beaten  off,  and  General  Ross,  the 
English  commander,  slain.  The  bravery  man- 
ifested in  defense  of  Baltimore  would  prevent 
the  event  fr#om  falling  into  oblivion,  but  to 
commemorate  it,  an  elegant  marble  monu- 
ment, thirty-five  feet  high,  called  the  Battle 
monument,  has  been  erected.  From  the  num- 
ber of  its  monuments,  Baltimore  is  often 
called  the  Monumental  City. 

MASANIELLO,  the  common  appellation  of 
Tomaso  Aniello,  a fisherman  of  Naples,  who 
headed  a revolt  of  the  populace  against  the 
Spanish  in  1647.  Masaniello  was  then  twen- 
ty-five. He  was  assassinated,  after  a few 
successful  days,  in  which  he  had  200,000  men 
in  arms.  Like  many  men  of  low  origin  who 
have  suddenly  risen  to  sovereign  power,  he 
became  bewildered  by  change  of  his  fortunes, 
and  his  phrenzy  was  probably  heightened  by 
his  intemperate  habits,  which  impelled  him  to 
commit  many  acts  of  sanguinary  violence. 

MASHAM,  Abigail,  bed-chamber  woman 
to  Queen  Anne,  in  which  situation  she  sup- 
planted the  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  her 
kinswoman,  and  procured  the  dismissal  of  the 
Whig  ministry,  which  led  to  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  in  1713.  She  died  in  1734. 

MASINISSA,  king  of  a small  country  in 
Africa,  took  part  with  the  Carthaginians 
against  Rome,  but  afterward  became  the  ally 
of  the  Romans,  who  were  indebted  to  him 
for  many  victories.  At  his  death  he  made 
Scipio  iEmilianus  guardian  of  his  kingdom. 
He  died  b.c.  149. 

MASON  AND  DIXON’S  LINE.  The 
controversy  between  the  heirs  of  Penn  and 
Lord  Baltimore,  concerning  the  boundaries 
of  their  proprietary  lands,  led  to  the  running 
of  a line  between  Pennsylvania  and  Mary- 
land, in  1767,  by  Mason  and  Dixon,  two 
skillful  surveyors.  It  is  now  popularly 
spoken  of  as  the  dividing  line  between  the 
free  and  the  slave  states. 

MASON,  George,  a statesman  of  Virginia, 
member  of  the  convention  which  framed  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States,  which  he 
refused  to  sign  on  the  ground  that  it  tended 


too  much  toward  centralization ; died  1792, 
aged  sixty-seven. 

MASSACHUSETTS.  The  Bay  State  com- 
monwealth, upon  her  7,250  square  miles, 
sustained  in  1870  a population  of  1,457,351 
In  the  west  the  surface  is  generally  hilly, 
often  rugged,  the  country  being  traversed 
west  of  the  Connecticut  by  the  Iioosac  range 
and  a prolongation  of  the  Green  Mountains ; 
while  east  of  that  river  is  a continuation  of 
the  White  Mountains.  Eastward  the  sur- 
face is  for  the  most  part  broken  by  gentle 
swells,  spreading,  as  it  approaches  the  ocean 
in  the  south-east,  into  a level  sandy  plain. 
Every  part  is  well  watered,  though  the 
streams  are  more  useful  for  agricultural  and 
mechanical  purposes  than  as  channels  of  com- 
munication. Rich  and  broad  meadows  skirt 
the  Housatonic,  the  Connecticut,  and  the 
Merrimack,  and  much  of  the  remaining  soil  is 
moderately  productive.  Though  some  parts 
of  the  west  are  too  rugged,  and  some  in  the 
east  too  sandy,  the  central  part  contains 
many  fine  farms,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
numerous  commercial  and  manufacturing 
towns  of  the  sea-coast,  the  cultivation  is  often 
higher  than  is  practicable  in  districts  more 
remote  from  a market.  Taken  as  a whole, 
Massachusetts  is  the  best  tilled  state  in  the 
Union,  and  her  husbandry  the  most  thrifty 
and  skillful.  In  minerals,  the  recesses  of 
her  soil  are  not  productive.  There  are  quar- 
ries of  fine  granite  at  Quincy,  and  elsewhere 
of  other  handsome  building  stone. 

Fisheries,  navigation,  commerce,  and  man- 
ufactures are  the  important  branches  of  in- 
dustry. The  tonnage  of  her  shipping  is 
more  than  one-sixth  of  the  total  tonnage  of 
the  United  States.  New  Bedford  and  Nan- 
tucket have  the  lead  in  whaling.  The  hardy 
fishermen  of  Marblehead  and  Gloucester  and 
ports  adjoining,  have  a like  pre-eminence  in 
the  cod,  mackerel,  and  herring  fisheries.  In 
manufactures,  Massachusetts  is  more  largely 
engaged  than  any  other  state.  Boots  and 
shoes,  cottons,  woolens,  leather,  clothing,  soap, 
candles,  and  oil,  straw  braid  and  bonnets, 
paper,  ship-building,  machinery  and  iron  man- 
ufactures of  every  variety,  cabinet  ware,  are 
the  foremost  of  the  products  that  her  busy 
towns  and  villages  bring  forth.  Shall  we 
mention  that,  according  to  the  last  census 


MAS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


529 


she  distills  more  than  half  the  rum  of  the 
country  ? 

Massachusetts  was  first  settled  at  Ply- 
mouth in  1620,  by  the  Puritans.  “It  is  to  this 
sect,”  remarks  the  historian  Hume,  “whose 
principles  appear  so  frivolous,  and  whose 
habits  so  ridiculous,  that  the  English  owe  the 
whole  freedom  of  their  constitution.”  No 
less  is  to  be  claimed  for  those  who  crossed  the 
ocean,  and  settled  in  New  England.  They 
fled  from  persecution  at  home.  It  was  their 
intention  to  settle  farther  south,  but  either 
by  accident  or  by  treachery  they  were  thrown 
upon  the  inhospitable  shores  of  New  Eng- 
land in  the  dead  of  winter.  The  separate 
colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  was  founded  at 
Salem  in  1628;  Boston  vtas  settled  in  1630, 
and  other  towns,  such  as  Charlestown,  New- 
town (now  Cambridge  1,  Dorchester,  Rox- 
bury,  &c.,  rapidly  sprang  up.  Persecution 
had  not  taught  the  Puritans  the  lesson  of 
toleration  and  religious  liberty  that  it  gave 
to  Roger  Williams  and  Lord  Baltimore.  The 
government  which  seemed  best  to  these  brave, 
earnest  zealots  was  a theocracy,  and  they 
dealt  harshly  with  the  Quakers,  and  other 
men  not  in  their  fellowship.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  very  often  the  Quakers  and 
other  enthusiasts  ran  into  excesses  as  con- 
trary to  the  spirit  of  true  religion  as  were 
the  whippings,  the  brandings,  and  the  hang- 
ings wherewith  they  were  punished. 

The  two  colonies  continued  under  distinct 
governments  until  1692,  when  a royal  char- 
ter brought  them  together.  Henceforth  the 

u 


governor  was  appointed  by  the  crown.  The 
colonists  in  the  early  years  suffered  severely 
from  the  Indian  wars,  and  afterward  in  the 
contests  with  the  French  possessions  in 
Canada,  whereby  was  echoed  the  noise  of 
contending  nations  on  the  battle-fields  of 
Europe.  The  men  of  Massachusetts  were 
foremost  in  the  expeditions  undertaken  by 
the  British  against  the  French  in  America. 
Their  blood  was  shed  before  Quebec  and 
at  Louisburg,  and  their  best  and  bravest 
were  ever  ready  in  the  field  to  support  the 
interest*  of  their  parent  country.  At  length, 
when  the  oppressive  measures  of  Great 
Britain  could  no  longer  be  submitted  to, 
Massachusetts  was  the  seat  of  the  earliest 
conflicts  in  favor  of  liberty.  The  plains  of 
Lexington  and  Concord,  and  the  heights  of 
Charlestown,  have  become  hallowed  by  the 
American  blood  that  bedewed  them,  and 
the  glorious  example  of  Massachusetts  was 
speedily  followed  by  the  sister  colonies. 

In  1786  an  insurrection  broke  out  under 
one  Shays,  but  he  was  defeated  at  Spring- 
field,  in  1787.  Since  then  nothing  has 
occurred  to  disturb  the  tranquillity,  or 
affect  the  prosperity,  of  this  flourishing  and 
wealthy  state. 

The  constitution  vests  the  legislative  power 
in  a senate  and  house  of  representatives, 
styled  the  general  court,  whose  sessions  are 
annual.  The  governor  and  other  state  offi- 
cers are  chosen  by  the  people  annually. 
The  governor  has  the  title  of  lhis  excellency/ 
and  the  lieutenant-governor  that  of  ‘his 


MAS 


530 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


honor.’  The  right  of  suffrage  is  granted  to 
every  male  citizen  twenty-one  years  of  age 
or  more  (excepting  paupers  and  persons 
under  guardianship),  who  has  resided  within 
the  commonwealth  one  year,  and  within  the 
town  six  months,  and  shall  not  be  in  ar- 
rears for  taxes.  An  executive  council  of 
eight  members  is  chosen  annually  by  the 
people  in  districts.  The  judiciary  is  vested 
in  a supreme  court,  a court  of  common  pleas, 
and  such  inferior  tribunals  as  the  general 
court  may  establish.  The  judges  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  council,  and  hold 
their  offices  during  good  behavior.  In  the 
matter  of  education  Massachusetts  is  sur- 
passed by  no  state  in  the  Union.  Harvard 
University  at  Cambridge  is  the  oldest  and 
best  endowed  institution  in  the  United  States. 
With  it  are  connected  a theological,  a law, 
a medical,  and  a scientific  school.  Its  library 
is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  United  States, 
containing  about  140,000  volumes.  Wil- 
liams College,  Amherst  College,  and  the 
theological  seminary  at  Andover,  are  all 
valuable  institutions,  and  worthy  of  the 
patronage  they  receive.  The  towns  sustain 
schools  of  every  grade,  from  the  primary  to 
the  academic.  The  state  supports  normal 
schools  at  Westfield,  Framingham,  Bridge- 
water,  and  Salem;  lunatic  hospitals  at  Wor- 
cester, Taunton,  and  Northampton ; a reform 
school  for  boys  at  Westborough;  an  indus- 
trial school  for  girls  at  Lancaster;  and  a 
school  for  idiots  at  South  Boston. 

Boston,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts,  and 
the  largest  city  of  New  England,  is  situated 
on  a peninsula  at  the  western  extremity  of 
Massachusetts  Bay.  Population,  250,526  in 
1870.  Its  extent,  inclusive  of  the  peninsula 
of  South  Boston,  is  nearly  three  square 
miles.  The  secure  and  commodious  harbor 
is  gemmed  with  many  islands,  some  of 
which  are  fortified.  The  streets  are  quite 
narrow  and  irregular.  Most  of  the  modern 
buildings  are  built  of  brick  or  of  granite. 
The  state-house,  on  a hill  which  commands 
a view  of  the  city  and  its  environs,  is  a large 
building  of  brick,  and  contains  a fine  marble 
statue  of  Washington,  executed  by  Chan- 
trey.  Among  the  public  buildings,  a patri- 
otic interest  belongs  to  Faneuil  Hall,  called 
“the  cradle  of  liberty,”  from  the  public 


meetings  held  there  previous  to  the  Revolu- 
tion. Boston  contains  numerous  literary, 
scientific,  and  charitable  societies.  It  is  the 
second  commercial  city  of  the  United  States. 
Ihe  common  is  the  principal  public  square. 
It  is  surrounded  by  the  mall,  a handsome 
graveled  walk,  fenced  in,  and  shaded  with 
fine  elm-trees,  and  contains  about  fifty  acres. 

The  first  settlement  of  Boston  was  in  1630, 
when  John  Winthrop,  the  first  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  and  the  company  of  immi- 
grants with  him,  having  arrived  and  tarried 
for  a short  time  at  Charlestown,  removed 
their  location  to  the  peninsula.  There  was 
one  solitary  inhabitant  there  at  an  earlier 
date,  the  Rev.  William  Blackstone,  of  whom 
Mather  speaks  as  “a  godly  Episcopalian,” 
who  in  1626  had  built  a cottage  near  what  is 
now  called  Spring  street,  in  the  western  part 
of  the  city.  In  1634  fifty  acres  of  land  were 
set  off  to  Mr.  Blackstone,  which  was  about 
one-twelfth  part  of  the  peninsula,  he  being 
“the  first  European  inhabitant.”  Not  long 
afterward,  when  he  wished  to  remove,  the 
town  purchased  all  his  “right  and  title  to  the 
peninsula  of  Shawmut”  for  £30,  each  free- 
holder paying  six  shillings,  and  some  of  them 
more.  Mr.  Blackstone  afterward  settled  in 
Rhode  Island.  The  peninsula  was  called 
by  the  Indians  Shawmut,  and  by  the  early 
colonists  Tri-mountain,  from  its  three  prom- 
inent hills.  The  first  church  was  built  in 
1632.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  the  char- 
ter of  Massachusetts  was  declared  forfeited 
by  a decree  of  chancery,  and  Sir  Edmund 
Andros  was  appointed  the  first  royal  gover- 
nor. In  April,  1689,  the  Bostonians  seized 
upon  the  governor  and  imprisoned  him,  hav- 
ing first  taken  possession  of  the  fort  and 
castle  in  the  harbor.  In  a little  more  than 
a month  afterward,  the  news  of  the  revolu- 
tion in  England  was  welcomed  in  Boston 
with  general  exultation. 

April  17th,  1704,  the  first  number  of  the 
Boston  News  Letter , the  earliest  newspaper 
in  America,  was  published  by  John  Camp- 
bell, the  postmaster,  a native  of  Scotland. 

In  1765,  when  the  obnoxious  stamp  act 
passed,  the  person  appointed  to  distribute 
the  stamps  in  Boston  was  compelled  to 
decline  the  office,  and  the  house  of  the  lieu- 
tenant-governor (Hutchinson)  was  destroyed 
by  the  mob.  On  the  breaking  out  of  these 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


531 


tumults,  which  appeared  to  threaten  the 
downfall  of  authority,  Boston  was  forced  to 
receive  a large  military  and  naval  force,  which 
it  was  thought  would  quell  the  spirit  of  in- 
subordination. The  citizens  regarded  the 
soldiers  with  little  favor,  and  only  wanted  a 
pretext  to  show  their  hostility  openly.  March 
5th,  1770,  a sergeant’s  guard  in  King  (now 
State)  street,  being  pressed  upon  and  pelted 
by  the  mob,  fired  and  killed  five  men.  This 
is  called  the  Boston  massacre.  After  the 
tax  had  been  imposed  on  tea,  the  Americans 
resolved,  if  possible,  to  prevent  the  landing 
and  sale  of  it.  When  three  of  the  tea  ships 
arrived,  December  16th,  1773,  a party  of 
men  disguised  as  Indians,  went  on  board 
and  threw  all  the  tea  overboard.  In  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  the  port  of  Boston  was  closed 
by  act  of  parliament,  and  the  importation  and 
exportation  of  goods  prohibited.  The  gen- 
eral court  held  its  sittings  in  Salem,  and 
more  troops,  together  with  a military  gover- 
nor, were  sent  to  Boston.  In  1775,  after  the 
battles  of  Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill,  British 
troops,  to  the  number  of  10,000  men,  were 
besieged  in  Boston  until  the  March  follow- 
ing. During  this  siege,  the  inhabitants 
suffered  greatly,  for  many  who  wished  to 
leave  the  town  were  not  permitted  to  do  so, 
but  forced  to  stay  against  their  will,  and 
treated  as  tories  by  the  American  army  on 
their  entrance.  The  British  officers  amused 
themselves  by  acting  plays  in  Faneuil  Hall, 
the  “cradle  of  liberty”  being  fitted  up  taste- 
fully on  the  occasion.  General  Burgoyne 
wrote  a farce  called  the  “Boston  Blockade,” 
in  which  the  Yankees  were  severely  satirized, 
and  a happy  triumph  of  the  royal  arms  pre- 
dicted. The  sarcasms  on  the  weakness  of 
the  Americans  with  which  this  piece  was 
interspersed,  received  a curious  commentary 
on  the  frequent  explosions  of  the  shells 
which  were  thrown  into  the  town  by  the 
besiegers.  A cannon-ball  entered  the  tower 
of  the  Brattle-street  church,  where  it  is  still 
preserved.  Boston  was  evacuated  by  the 
British,  March  17th,  1776,  and  did  not  again 
suffer  from  their  presence. 

We  have  only  room  for  a list  of  the  other 
important  towns  of  the  state,  with  their 
population  according  to  the  census  of  1870. 
Salem,  24,117.  Lowell,  40,928.  Cambridge, 
39,634.  Charlestown,  28,323.  New  Bedford, 


21.320.  Worcester,  41,105.  Lynn,  28,233. 

Springfield,  26,703.  Newburyport,  12,595. 

Lawrence,  28,921.  Fall  River,  26,766. 

Taunton,  18,629. 

MASSACRES.  . Of  all  the  Carthaginians 
in  Sicily,  397  b.c.  2,000  Tyrians  crucified, 
and  8,000  put  to  the  sword  for  not  surren- 
dering Tyre  to  Alexander,  331  b.c.  The 
Jews  of  Antioch  fall  upon  the  other  inhabit- 
ants and  massacre  100,000,  for  refusing  to 
surrender  their  arms  to  Demetrius  Nicanor, 
tyrant  of  Syria,  154  b.c.  A dreadful  slaugh- 
ter of  the  Teutones  and  Ambrones,  near 
Aix,  by  Marius  the  Roman  general,  200,000 
being  left  dead  on  the  spot,  102  b.c.  The 
Romans  throughout  Asia,  women  and  children 
not  excepted,  cruelly  massacred  in  one  day, 
by  order  of  Mithridates,  King  of  Pontus, 
88  b.c.  A great  number  of  Roman  senators 
massacred  by  Cinna,  Marius,  and  Sertorius, 
and  several  of  the  patricians  dispatched 
themselves  to  avoid  the  horrid  butcheries, 
86  b.c.  Again,  under  Sulla,  and  Cataline, 
his  minister  of  vengeance,  82  and  79  b.c. 
At  Prseneste,  Octavianus  Caesar  ordered  300 
Roman  senators  and  other  persons  of  distinc- 
tion to  be  sacrificed  to  the  manes  of  Julius 
Caesar,  41  b.c. 

At  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  1,100,000 
Jews  were  put  to  the  sword,  a.d.  70.  Cas- 
sius, a Roman  general,  under  the  Emperor 
M.  Aurelius,  put  to  death  400,000  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Seleucia,  167.  At  Alexandria, 
many  thousand  citizens,  by  order  of  Anto- 
ninus, 213.  The  Emperor  Probus  put  to  death 
700,000  of  the  inhabitants  upon  his  reduction 
of  Gaul,  277.  Eighty  Christian  fathers,  by 
order  of  the  Emperor  Gratian,  at  Nicomedia, 
were  put  into  a ship,  which  was  set  on  fire, 
and  driven  out  to  sea,  370.  Thessalonica, 
when  upward  of  7,000  persons,  invited  into 
the  circus,  were  put  to  the  sword  by  order 
of  Theodosius,  390.  Belisarius  put  to  death 
above  30,000  citizens  of  Constantinople  for  a 
revolt  on  account  of  two  rapacious  ministers 
set  over  them  by  Justinian,  552.  Of  the 
Latins,  by  order  of  Andronicus,  1184,  at 
Constantinople.  The  Sicilians  massacred  the 
French  throughout  the  whole  island,  without 
distinction  of  sex  or  age,  on  Easter  day,  the 
first  bell  for  vespers  being  the  signal ; this 
horrible  affair  is  known  in  history  by  the 
name  of  the  Sicilian  vespers,  1282.  Of  the 


MAS 


532 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


Swedish  nobility  at  a feast,  by  order  of  Chris- 
tian II.,  1520.  Of  70,000  Huguenots,  through- 
out the  kingdom  of  France,  attended  with 
circumstances  of  the  most  horrid  treachery 
and  cruelty;  it  began  at  Paris  in  the  night 
of  the  festival  of  St.  Bartholomew,  August 
24th,  1572,  by  secret  orders  from  Charles  IX., 
at  the  instigation  of  Catharine  de  Medicis, 
his  mother ; it  is  styled  in  history  the  mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew.  Of  the  Christians 
in  Croatia,  by  the  Turks,  when  65,000  were 
slain,  1592.  Of  a great  number  of  Protes- 
tants at  Thorn,  who  were  put  to  death  under 
a pretended  legal  sentence  of  the  chancellor 
of  Poland,  for  being  concerned  in  a tumult 
occasioned  by  a popish  procession,  1724.  At 
Batavia,  where  12,000  Chinese  were  killed 
by  the  natives,  October,  1740.  Of  the  whites 
by  the  insurgent  negroes  of  St.  Domingo, 
March  29th,  1804.  Several  awful  massacres 
in  France  during  the  reign  of  terror  from 
1789  to  1794.  Massacre  of  600  negroes  by 
the  French  at  St.  Mark’s,  1802.  Massacre 
at  Algiers,  March  10th,  1806.  Insurrection 
and  dreadful  massacre  of  the  French  at 
Madrid,  May  2d,  1808.  Dreadful  massacre 
of  the  Mamelukes  in  the  citadel  of  Cairo, 
March  1st,  1811.  [See  Scio.j  Massacres 
of  vast  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  of  Cadiz, 
by  the  soldiery,  whose  ferocious  disorders 
continue  for  some  days,  March  6th,  1820. 

Massacre  of  300  English  nobles  on  Salis- 
bury Plain  by  Hengist,  a.d.  474.  Of  the 
Danes,  in  the  southern  counties  of  England, 
in  the  night  of  November  13th,  1002;  at 
London  it  was  most  bloody,  the  churches 
being  no  sanctuary ; among  the  rest  Gunilda, 
sister  of  Swein,  King  of  Denmark,  left  in 
hostage  for  the  performance  of  a treaty  but 
newly  concluded.  Of  the  Jews,  1189.  Some 
few  pressing  into  Westminster  Hall,  at  the 
coronation  of  Richard  I.,  were  put  to  death 
by  the  people,  and  a false  alarm  being  given, 
that  the  king  had  ordered  a general  massa- 
cre of  them,  the  people  in  many  parts  of 
England,  from  an  aversion  to  them,  slew  all 
they  met.  In  York,  500  who  had  taken 
shelter  in  the  castle,  killed  themselves, 
rather  than  fall  into  the  hand  of  the  people. 
Of  the  Protestants  in  Ireland,  when  40,000 
were  killed,  1641.  Of  the  Macdonalds  at 
Glencoe,  in  Scotland,  1691.  Of  64  American 


prisoners  at  Dartmoor,  England  (disowned 
by  British  government),  April  6th,  1815. 

Massacre  of  the  first  settlers  of  Virginia, 
of  whom  347  were  murdered  in  one  night, 
1622,  by  the  savages.  At  Wilkesbarre  by 
the  British  and  savages,  July  3d,  1778.  By 
the  British  and  savages  at  Cherry  Valley,  in 
New  York,  Nov.  11th,  1778.  Both  these 
sanguinary  acts  were  done  under  the  direction 
of  Colonel  John  Butler.  Of  the  Moravian  In- 
dians, by  a party  from  the  western  part  of 
Pennsylvania,  headed  by  Colonel  Williamson, 
June,  1782.  American  garrison  of  Chicago, 
on  their  retreat  from  the  place,  by  the  sav- 
ages, August  15th,  1812.  Of  the  American 
wounded  prisoners  at  Frenchtown,  on  the 
river  Raisin,  January  22d,  1813,  by  the  Ind- 
ians, with  the  privity  of  the  British. 

MASSENA,  Andre,  Duke  of  Rivoli,  and 
Prince  of  Esslingen,  marshal  of  France,  born 
at  Nice  in  1758,  was  a favorite  general  of 
Napoleon,  and,  in  consequence  of  his  success 
during  his  Italian  campaign,  was  called  by 
the  emperor  the  ‘ darling  of  victory.’  In  1799 
he  defeated  the  Russians  at  Zurich,  and  in  the 
following  year  defended  Genoa  during  a pro- 
tracted siege  till  he  was  absolutely  starved 
into  capitulation.  In  1809  he  signalized  him- 
self greatly  in  the  battle  of  Esslingen  (or  As- 
pern)  in  Germany,  and  by  his  firmness  saved 
the  French  imperial  army  from  annihilation. 
In  1810  he  was  defeated  by  Wellington  in  the 
Portugal  campaign.  The  Iron  Duke  called 
Massena  the  ablest  opponent  he  ever  encoun- 
tered. Marshal  Marmont,  a companion  in 
arms  of  this  tenacious,  fierce,  and  invincible 
soldier,  thus  describes  him.  “ His  iron  frame 
contained  a soul  of  fire.  His  glance  was 
piercing,  his  activity  extreme;  no  man  was 
ever  more  brave.  He  troubled  himself  little 
in  maintaining  order  among  his  troops,  or  in 
providing  for  their  wants,  and  his  dispositions 
before  battle  were  mediocre ; but  the  combat 
once  commenced,  they  became  excellent,  and 
by  the  advantages  he  drew  from  his  army  in 
action  he  soon  repaired  any  previous  faults. 
His  education  was  slight,  but  he  had  much 
natural  talent,  great  subtlety,  and  a profound 
knowledge  of  the  human  heart.  He  was  very 
avaricious.  His  love  for  women  was  ardent, 
and  his  jealousy  resembled  that  of  the  Italians 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  was  in  friendly 


MAS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


533 


relations  with  General  Bonaparte,  whom  he 
was  far  from  believing  to  be  the  equal  of  him- 
self as  a soldier.  There  were  not  in  him  the 
necessary  elements  of  a commander-in-chief  of 
the  first  class,  but  there  never  existed  a man 
superior  to  Massena  in  executing,  on  the 
grandest  scale,  operations  to  which  another 
gave  the  impulse.”  Massena  acknowledged 
the  Bourbons  upon  Napoleon’s  first  abdication, 
but  joined  his  old  commander  at  the  return 
from  Elba.  He  died  in  1817. 

MASSILLON,  Jean  Baptiste,  a great  pul- 
pit orator  of  France,  was  born  in  Provence,  in 
1663.  Louis  XIV.  said  to  him,  “Father, 
when  I hear  other  preachers,  I go  away  much 
pleased  with  them,  but  when  I hear  you,  I 
go  away  much  displeased  with  myself.”  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  Clemont  in  1717,  where 
he  died  in  September,  1742. 

MASSINGER,  Philip,  an  English  dramatic 
writer,  died  in  1640,  aged  fifty-six. 

MATHER,  Increase,  an  eminent  American 
divine,  born  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  died  in 
1723,  aged  eighty-four. 

MATHER,  Cotton,  son  of  Increase  Mather, 
also  an  eminent  divine  and  writer,  died  in 
1727,  aged  sixty-five. 

MATHEW,  Theobald,  familiarly  known 
as  “ Father  Mathew,”  was  born  at  Thomas- 
town  in  Tipperary  in  1790.  He  was  bred  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood.  Cork  was 
his  post  of  labor.  In  1838  he  commenced 
his  public  labors  against  the  crjdng  evil  of 
drunkenness.  His  unostentatious  effort  grew 
in  might,  and  in  a progress  through  Ireland 
in  1839  he  had  the  joy  of  administering  the 
pledge  to  several  hundred  thousand  of  his 
count^men.  The  prestige  of  such  success, 
combined  with  the  purity  of  his  personal 
character,  rendered  him  an  object  of  wonder- 
ing veneration  among  the  Irish.  He  was 
received  with  enthusiasm  during  a visit  to 
this  country,  whence  he  returned  home  in 
1851.  His  benevolent  crusade  reduced  him 
to  poverty  and  debt,  and  wore  him  into  a long 
illness,  from  which  death  set  him  free  at 
Queenstown  in  Ireland,  Dec.  8th,  1856. 

MATHIAS  CORVINUS,  called  the  Great, 
King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  was  the  son  of 
John  Hunniades..  The  enemies  of  his  father 
confined  him  in  prison  in  Bohemia ; but  on 
regaining  his  liberty  he  was  elected  King  of 
Hungary  in  1458,  His  election,  however, 


was  opposed  by  many  of  the  Hungarian  lords, 
who  offered  the  crown  to  Frederick  III.  The 
Turks,  profiting  by  these  divisions,  invaded 
the  country,  but  were  expelled  by  Mathias, 
who  compelled  Frederick  to  yield  to  him  the 
crown  of  St.  Stephen,  of  which  he  had  ob- 
tained possession.  The  war  was  afterward 
renewed,  and  Mathias,  overrunning  Austria, 
took  Vienna  and  Neustadt,  on  which  the 
emperor  was  obliged  to  make  a peace  in  1487. 
Mathias  reformed  many  abuses,  particularly 
with  respect  to  duels  and  law-suits,  and  was 
preparing  an  expedition  against  the  Turks, 
when  he  died  of  an  apoplexy  in  1490. 

MATILDA,  or  Maud,  the  daughter  of  Henry 
I.  of  England,  and  wife  of  Henry  V.,  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  was  nominated  in  1135 
successor  to  the  English  throne  by  her  father ; 
but  in  her  absence  her  cousin  Stephen 
usurped  the  title.  Arriving  in  England  with 
a large  army  in  1139,  she  defeated  Stephen, 
and  was  acknowledged  queen  in  a parliament 
held  in  1141.  Stephen  afterward  defeated 
the  empress,  on  which  the  national  synod 
declared  for  him,  and  Matilda  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  kingdom.  On  the  death  of  the 
emperor  she  married  Geoffrey  Plantagenet, 
Earl  of  Anjou,  by  whom  she  had  a son,  after- 
ward Henry  II.  of  England.  Matilda  died  in 
1177,  aged  sixty -seven. 

MAURICE,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  suc- 
cessful supporter  of  the  Protestant  cause  in 
Germany,  killed  in  the  battle  of  Sievenhausen, 
1553,  aged  thirty-two  years. 

MAURICE,  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange, 
and  grandson  by  his  mother  .to  Maurice  of 
Saxony,  was  a pre-eminent  Dutch  general, 
and  died  in  1625,  aged  fifty-eight.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  independence  of 
Holland  from  Spain. 

MAXENTIUS,  Marcus  Aurelius  Vale- 
rius, a Roman  emperor,  was  the  son  of 
Maximianus  Hercules,  and  declared  himself 
Augustus  in  306.  He  was  opposed  by  Gal- 
erius  Maximianus,  who  was  defeated,  and 
slew  himself.  Maxentius  then  marched  into 
Africa,  where  he  became  odious  by  his  cruel- 
ties. Constantine  afterward  defeated  him  in 
Italy,  and  he  was  drowned  in  crossing  the 
Tiber  in  312.  Before  the  battle  Constantine 
adopted  the  cross  as  his  standard,  and  after 
the  victory  he  made  Christianity  the  religion 
of  the  empire. 


MAX 


534 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


MAXIMINUS,  Caius  Julius  Yerus,  Em- 
peror of  Rome,  was  the  son  of  a peasant  in 
Thrace,  and  having  displayed  great  courage 
in  the  Roman  armies,  he  rose  to  command. 
On  the  death  of  Alexander  Severus,  he  caused 
himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor,  a.d.  235. 
He  was  a great  persecutor,  and  put  to  death 
above  four  thousand  persons  on  suspicion  of 
their  being  concerned  in  a conspiracy  against 
him.  His  soldiers  assassinated  him  near 
Aquileia,  a.d.  256.  His  stature  and  strength 
were  very  extraordinary,  and  his  disposition 
proportionably  brutal.  Forty  pounds  of  meat 
and  eighteen  bottles  of  wine  were  his  ordi- 
nary allowance  for  a day.  His  strength  was 
such  that  he  is' said  to  have  stopped  a chariot 
in  full  speed  with  one  of  his  fingers. 

MAZARIN,  Julius,  a Roman  cardinal  and 
minister  of  state,  was  born  in  Piscina  in  Italy, 
in  1602.  Being  appointed  nuncio  extraord- 
inary to  France,  he  acquired  the  friendship 
of  Richelieu  and  the  confidence  of  Louis  XIII. 
In  1641  Pope  Urban  VIII.  made  him  cardi- 
nal ; and  on  the  death  of  Richelieu,  Louis 
appointed  him  minister  of  state.  He  was 
also  nominated  one  of  the  executors  of  the 
king’s  will,  and  had  the  principal  manage- 
ment of  affairs  during  the  minority  of  Louis 
XIY. ; but  at  length  the  murmurs  of  the 
people  rose  so  much  against  him,  that  he 
found  it  expedient  to  quit  the  kingdom,  and 
a price  was  set  on  his  head.  He  afterward 
recovered  power.  His  application  to  business 
produced  a disease  of  which  he  died  in  1661. 

MAZEPPA,  John,  a Polish  gentleman, 
born  in  the  palatinate  of  Podolia,  was  edu- 
cated as  the  page  of  John  Casimir.  An 
intrigue  with  the  wife  of  a Polish  gentleman 
caused  him  to  be  bound,  naked,  to  the  back 
of  a wild  horse. 

“‘Bring  forth  the  horse!’ — the  horse  was 
brought ; 

In  truth  he  was  a noble  steed, 

A Tartar  of  the  Ukraine  breed ; 

Who  looked  as  though  the  speed  of  thought 
Were  in  his  limbs;  but  he  was  wild, 

Wild  as  the  wild  deer  and  untaught ; 

With  spur  and  bridle  undefiled — 

’Twas  but  a day  he  had  been  caught ; 

And  snorting,  with  erected  mane, 

And  struggling  fiercely,  but  in  vain, 

In  the  full  foam  of  wrath  and  dread, 

To  him  the  desert-born  was  led.” — Byron. 

On  being  loosed,  the  horse,  which  was  of  the 
Ukraine,  returned  thither,  bearing  Mazeppa 


half  dead  with  hunger  and  fatigue.  Some 
peasants  afforded  him  succor,  and  he  re- 
mained a long  time  among  them,  signalizing 
himself  in  many  exertions  against  the  Tar- 
tars. The  superiority  of  his  understanding 
acquired  him  the  chief  command  of  the  Cos- 
sacks, and,  in  consequence  of  his  increasing 
reputation,  Peter  the  Great  made  him  Prince 
of  the  Ukraine.  He,  however,  joined  Charles 
XII.,  and  fought  for  him  at  the  fatal  battle 
of  Pultowa.  After  this  defeat  he  retired  into 
Wallachia,  and  thence  to  Bender,  where  he 
died  in  1709. 

In  some  parts  of  Germany,  during  the  feudal 
times,  an  infringement  of  the  forest  laws  was 
punished  by  chaining  the  offender  to  the 
back  of  a wild  stag,  which  bounded  away 
with  him,  through  thorny  thickets  and  wild 
passes,  until  death  relieved  him  of  his  suffer- 
ings. 

M’KEAN,  Thomas,  a signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  was  born  March 
19th,  1734,  in  the  county  of  Chester,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1757. 
For  seventeen  successive  years  he  was  elected 
a member  of  the  assembly.  He  was  sent  to 
the  congress  held  at  New  York  in  1765,  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Revolutionary  proceed- 
ings, and  served  in  arms  in  New  Jersey, 
where  he  greatly  distinguished  himself.  He 
was  a delegate  from  Delaware,  1774,  1776, 
and  1778-83,  and  in  1781  he  was  president 
of  that  body.-  October  23d,  1781,  he  ad- 
dressed a letter  to  Congress,  resigning  his 
office  of  president;  Congress  next  day  unani- 
mously resolved  that  Thomas  M’Kean  be 
requested  to  resume  the  chair,  and  act  as 
president.  To  this  he  acceded.  He  was 
chief-justice  of  Pennsylvania  twenty-two 
years,  and  in  1799  was  chosen  governor  of 
that  state.  He  was  governor  of  Pennsylva- 
nia nine  years,  and  died  June  24th,  1817,  in 
his  eighty -fourth  year,  being  one  of  four  sur- 
vivors of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence. 

MECCA,  a large  city  of  Arabia,  derives  its 
celebrity  from  being  the  birth-place  of  Ma- 
homet, and  the  seat  of  his  power  ; and  accord- 
ingly every  pious  Mussulman  should  make  a 
pilgrimage  to  it  at  least  once  in  his  life.  Here 
a conspiracy  was  formed  against  the  prophet, 
and  flight  was  his  only  resource.  After  an 


MEC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  535 


exile  of  seven  years,  however,  the  fugitive 
missionary  was  enthroned  as  the  prince  and 
prophet  of  his  native  country. 

MEDIA,  a country  of  ancient  Asia.  It 
was  originally  called  Aria,  till  the  age  of 
Medus,  the  son  of  Medea,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  Media.  The  province  of  Media  was 
first  raised  into  a kingdom  by  its  revolt  from 
the  Assyrian  monarchy,  b.c.  820;  and,  after 
it  had  for  some  time  enjoyed  a kind  of  repub- 
lican government,  Deioces,  by  artifice,  pro- 
cured himself  to  be  called  king,  700  b.  c.  After 
a reign  of  fifty-three  years,  he  was  succeeded 
by  Phraortes,  b.c.  647 ; who  was  succeeded  by 
Cyaxares,  b.c.  625.  His  successor  was  Asty- 
ages,  b.c.  595,  in  whose  reign  Cyrus  became 
master  of  Media,  b.c.  551  ; and  ever  after  the 
country,  was  occupied  by  the  Persians. 

The  Medes  were  warlike  in  the  primitive 
ages  of  their  power ; they  encouraged  polyg- 
amy, and  were  remarkable  for  the  homage 
which  they  paid  to  their  sovereigns,  who 
were  styled  kings  of  kings.  This  title  was 
afterward  adopted  by  their  conquerors,  the 
Persians ; and  it  was  still  in  use  in  the  age 
of  the  Roman  emperors. 

MEDICI,  Cosmo  de,  called  the  Elder,  the 
founder  of  an  illustrious  family  at  Florence, 
was  a merchant,  and  was  born  in  1389.  He 
acquired  great  wealth,  which  he  appropriated 
to  the  noble  purposes  of  advancing  learning 
and  supporting  learned  men.  He  collected 
a noble  library,  which  he  enriched  with 
inestimable  manuscripts.  The  envy  excited 
against  him  by  his  riches,  and  by  his  ambi- 
tion, raised  him  many  enemies,  by  whose 
intrigues  he  was  obliged  to  quit  his  native 
country.  He  retired  to  Venice,  where  he 
was  received  as  a prince.  His  fellow-citizens 
afterward  recalled  him,  and  he  bore  a prin- 
cipal share  in  the  government  of  the  republic 
for  thirty  years.  He  died  in  1464.  On  his 
tomb  was  engraved  this  inscription:  “The 
Father  of  his  People,  and  the  Deliverer  of  his 
Country.” 

MEDICI,  Lorenzo  de,  the  Magnificent, 
grandson  of  Cosmo,  born  in  1448,  died  1492. 
He  was  a munificent  patron  of  letters  and 
the  arts. 

MEDINA,  a city  of  Arabia,  celebrated  from 
its  containing  the  tomb  of  Mahomet.  During 
his  residence  there  it  was  attacked  by  an 
army  of  10,000  enemies,  but  the  prudence 


of  Mahomet  declined  a general  engagement, 
and  the  confederates  at  length  retired. 

MEDINA  SIDONIA,  Alfonso  Perez  Guz- 
man, Duke  of,  commander  of  the  celebrated 
Spanish  armada  in  1588. 

MELANCTHON,  Philip,  illustrious  re- 
former, and  coadjutor  of  Luther,  born  1497, 
died  1560,  aged  sixty-three.  His  name  was 
Schwartzerd,  which,  according  to  the  pedan- 
tic custom  of  the  age,  he  changed  into  the 
Greek  Melancthon,  both  meaning  ‘black 
earth.’ 

MENDELSSOHN,  Felix  Bartiioldy,  the 
eminent  composer,  was  a native  of  Hamburg, 
and  died  at  Leipsic,  Nov.  4th,  1847,  aged 
thirty-eight. 

MENZIKOFF,  Alexander,  a prince  of  the 
Russian  empire,  was  the  son  of  a peasant,  and 
the  servant  of  a pastry-cook,  who  employed 
him  to  cry  pies  about  the  streets.  His  ap- 
pearance pleasing  Peter  the  Great,  he  took 
him  into  his  service.  Menzikoff  soon  insin- 
uated himself  into  the  confidence  of  his 
sovereign,  who  at  length  conferred  on  him 
the  title  of  prince.  In  1713  he  was  accused 
of  peculation,  and  condemned  to  pay  a heavy 
fine,  which  the  czar  remitted,  and  restored 
him  to  favor.  Under  the  Czarina  Catharine 
he  had  still  more  power.  His  daughter  was 
married  to  Peter  II.,  who  made  Menzikoff 
Duke  of  Cozel,  and  grand-master  of  the 
imperial  hotel.  But  by  the  intrigues  of 
Dolgorucki,  mistress  of  the  czar,  he  fell  into 
disgrace,  and  was  banished  to  his  estate ; 
where  he  lived  in  such  magnificence  that 
Peter  was  persuaded  to  send  him,  for  his  own 
safety,  into  Siberia,  and  there  he  died  in  a 
poor  hut  in  1729. 

MERCATOR,  Gerard,  a Fleming,  im- 
prover of  a method  of  projecting  maps  which 
bears  his  name,  died  in  1594,  aged  eighty- 
two. 

MERCER,  Hugh,  a most  respectable  and 
valuable  general  in  the  Revolutionary  war ; 
killed  in  the  battle  of  Princeton,  January, 
1777,  at  the  age  of  fifty-six.  He  was  a native 
of  Scotland,  and  a physician  by  profession. 
Congress  resolved  that  the  oldest  son  of  Gen. 
AYarren,  and  the  youngest  son  of  Gen.  Mer- 
cer, should  be  educated  at  the  expense  of  the 
United  States. 

MESS  ALINA,  Valeria,  daughter  of  Mes- 
salinus  Barbatus,  and  wife  of  the  Emperor 


MES 


536 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


Claudius,  an  abandoned  woman.  Having 
espoused  her  favorite  Silius,  in  the  lifetime  of 
her  husband,  she  was  put  to  death  by  order 
of  the  emperor,  a.d.  46. 

There  was  another  of  this  name,  who  was 
the  third  wife  of  Nero,  after  her  fourth  hus- 
band, Atticus,  had  been  put  to  death  by  that 
tyrant.  On  the  death  of  Nero  she  devoted 
the  remainder  of  her  days  to  study,  and 
acquired  a great  reputation. 

MESOPOTAMIA,  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Assyria,  underwent  all  the  revolutions  of  this 
and  the  Persian  empire,  till  it  was  conquered 
by  Trajan  in  106 ; after  which  it  several  times 
changed  masters  betwixt  the  Romans  and  the 
Persians,  but  generally  belonged  to  the  latter, 
till  it  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  together 
with 'the  rest  of  Persia,  in  651.  It  was  seized 
by  the  Seljuks  in  1046,  and  by  Genghis  Khan 
in  1218.  In  1360  Tur  Ali  Beg,  the  Turkman, 
founded  the  dynasty  called  Ak  Koyunlu,  or 
the  White  Sheep,  in  this  country. 

It  submitted  to  Timur  Beg  in  1400,  but  hie 
did  not  retain  the  conquest.  In  1514  it  was 
conquered  by  Ismael  Sofi  the  Persian,  was 
half  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1554,  recov- 
ered by  the  Persians  in  1613,  but  completely 
reduced  by  the  Turks  in  1637,  when  they 
took  Bagdad. 

METALS.  The  seven  metals  are  mentioned 
by  Moses  and  Homer.  Virgil  speaks  of  the 
melting  of  steel  in  furnaces.  The  Phoenicians 
had  great  skill  in  working  metals. 

Iron  was  found  on  Mount  Ida  by  the  Dac- 
tyles,  1432  b.c.,  after  the  forest  had  been 
burned  by  lightning.  The  Greeks  claimed 
the  discovery  of  iron,  and  ascribed  glass  to 
the  Phoenicians ; but  in  the  fourth  chapter  of 
Genesis,  Moses  mentions  Tubal  Cain  as  “an 
instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron.” 
Iron  furnaces  among  the  Romans  were  un- 
provided with  bellows,  but  were  placed  on 
eminences,  with  the  grate  in  the  direction  of 
the  prevailing  winds.  Swedish  iron  is  very 
celebrated,  and  Dannemora  is  the  greatest 
mine  of  Sweden.  Iron  was  first  cast  in  Eng- 
land, in  Sussex,  1543.  Tinning  of  iron  was 
introduced  into  England  from  Bohemia  in 
1681.  Iron  was  first  discovered  in  America, 
in  Virginia,  1715.  Railroad  iron  was  first 
manufactured  in  the  United  States  in  1841. 

It  is  said  that  copper  was  known  before 
iron.  In  the  eighth  chapter  of  Ezra  we  read 


of  two  vessels  of  fine  copper,  precious  as  gold. 
Copper  was  first  found  in  Sweden  in  1396, 
and  the  mine  of  Fahlun  is  the  most  surprising 
artificial  excavation  in  the  world.  In  England 
copper  was  discovered  in  1561,  and  it  is  now 
an  important  branch  of  British  trade.  In 
Japan  copper  is  the  most  common  of  all  the 
metals.  Within  the  last  few  years  copper 
has  been  found  in  the  richest  abundance  in 
the  vicinity  of  Lake  Superior.  Its  existence 
there  was  known  as  early  as  1636. 

Gold  has  been  obtained  abundantly  in  Af- 
rica, Japan,  and  South  America.  The  Rus- 
sian mines  in  the  Ural  Mountains  were  con- 
sidered the  richest  in  the  world  till  1847, 
when  the  discoveries  okCalifornia  dazzled  the 
world.  In  1851  similar  realms  of  auriferous 
wealth  were  found  in  Australia. 

Silver  exists  in  most  parti  of  the  world, 
but  the  mines  of  South  America  are  by  far 
the  richest.  A mine  was  opened  in  the  dis- 
trict of  La  Paz  in  1660,  so  rich  that  the  silver 
was  often  cut  with  a chisel.  In  1749  a mass 
of  silver  weighing  three  hundred  and  seventy 
pounds  was  sent  to  Spain.  From  a mine  in 
Norway,  a piece  was  dug,  and  sent  to  the 
royal  museum  at  Copenhagen,  weighing  five 
hundred  and  sixty  pounds,  and  worth  $8,000. 
In  England  silver  vessels  were  first  used  by 
Wilfrid,  a Northumbrian  bishop,  a lofty  and 
ambitious  man,  a.d.  709.  Silver  knives, 
spoons,  and  cups  were  great  luxuries  in  1300. 

Mercury,  or  quicksilver,  was  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  has  been  found  in  Europe,  Peru, 
California,  and  China.  The  mines  near  Car- 
niola  in  Austria,  and  those  of  Almeida  in 
Spain,  are  the  chief  in  Europe.  The  former, 
discovered  by  accident  in  1497,  have  some- 
times yielded  twelve  hundred  tons  in  a year. 
The  anti-venereal  virtues  of  mercury  were 
found  by  James  Carpus,  an  Italian  surgeon, 
in  1512.  Calomel  was  first  prepared  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  Pallas  congealed  mer- 
cury by  artificial  cold  in  1772.  Winter  un- 
aided did  the  same  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1759. 
The  use  of  quicksilver  in  refining  silver  was 
discovered  in  1540. 

The  Phoenicians  traded  with  England  for 
tin  more  than  eleven  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  It  also  appears  to  have  been 
known  in  the  day  of  Moses.  Tin  is  a scarce 
metal.  Cornwall  is  its  most  productive 
source ; it  occurs  in  the  mountains  between 


MET 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


537 


Spain  and  Portugal,  and  in  those  between 
Saxony  and  Bohemia;  and  it  has  also  been 
brought  from  Malacca,  Chili,  and  Mexico. 

Lead,  another  of  the  ancient  metals,  is  more 
abundant.  The  lead  mines  of  Illinois  are 
among  the  richest  in  the  world.  Leaden 
pipes  for  the  conveyance  of  water  were 
brought  into  use  in  1236. 

The  discovery  of  zinc,  so  far  as  anything 
certain  is  known,  is  due  to  the  moderns.  It 
is  said,  however,  to  have  been  long  known  in 
China,  and  is  noticed  by  European  writers  as 
early  as  a.d.  1231,  though  the  method  of  ex- 
tracting it  from  the  ore  was  unknown  for 
nearly  five  hundred  years  after. 

Brass  was  known  among  all  the  early  na- 
tions. There  is  a tradition  that  when  Lucius 
Mummius  burnt  Corinth  to  the  ground,  146 
b.c.,  the  riches  he  found  were  immense,  and 
during  the  conflagration  all  the  metals  in  the 
city  melted,  and  running  together,  formed  the 
valuable  composition  called  Corinthian  brass. 
This  may  well  be  doubted,  for  the  Corinthian 
artificers  had  long  before  obtained  great  credit 
for  their  method  of  combining  gold  and  silver 
with  copper ; and  the  Syriac  translation  of  the 
Bible  says  that  Hiram  made  the  vessels  for 
Solomon’s  temple  of  Corinthian  brass. 

METASTASIO,  Pietro,  an  eminent  Italian 
poet,  born  at  Rome,  1698,  died  at  Vienna, 
1782.  In  1729  he  was  appointed  imperial 
laureate  to  the  Austrian  court. 

METON,  an  astronomer  of  Athens,  inventor 
of  the  cycle  which  bears  his  name,  flourished 
B.c.  432-410. 

MEXICO,  now  a republic  of  North  Amer- 
ica, formerly  belonged  to  Spain,  and  was  then 
governed  by  a viceroy.  Its  area  is  1,038,865 
square  miles  and  its  population  7,360,000. 
The  land  attains  an  uncommon  elevation  in 
the  interior,  the  city  of  Mexico,  the  capital, 
being  7,000  feet  above  the  ocean.  The  high- 
est summit  of  the  Cordilleras  of  Mexico,  is 
the  volcanic  peak  of  Popocatepetl,  17,884  feet 
high.  The  climate  on  the  coast  is  hot,  and 
in  general  unhealthy,  but  upon  the  high  table- 
land in  the  interior,  it  is  uncommonly  salu- 
brious. A large  portion  of  the  soil  is  fertile, 
producing  maize,  wheat,  sugar,  indigo,  to- 
bacco, agave,  different  kinds  of  fruits,  bana- 
nas, manioc,  vanilla,  cocoa,  cochineal,  log- 
wood, and  mahogany.  The  annual  produce 
of  the  rich  gold  and  silver  mines,  for  which 


Mexico  is  celebrated,  has  sometimes  been 
$20,000,000.  One  of  these  mines  is  eight 
miles  in  length,  and,  in  one  place,  1,640  feet 
in  depth.  The  religion  is  Roman  Catholic. 
Education  is  generally  neglected,  although 
there  is  a university  in  the  city  of  Mexico. 
A large  portion  of  the  population  is  composed 
of  subdued  Indians. 

Mexico  is  divided  into  twenty-one  provinces 
or  departments,  which  correspond  to  the  for- 
mer states  of  the  federal  republic.  The  capi- 
tal is  the  city  of  Mexico,  one  of  the  finest 
cities  in  all  the  world  for  the  uniformity  of  its 
site,  the  breadth  and  regularity  of  its  streets, 
and  the  extent  of  its  squares  and  public  places. 
The  many  churches  and  convents,  with  their 
cupolas  and  towers,  add  to  its  splendor.  The 
population  is  said  to  amount  to  150,000. 

When  in  1519  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez 
commenced  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  they  found 
the  native  Mexicans  far  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion, wealthy,  hospitable,  liberal,  and  in  gen- 
eral inoffensive.  They  appeared  to  have  an 
instinctive  dread  of  the  foreigners,  and  yet 
treated  them  with  kindness.  They  were  will- 
ing to  share  their  wealth  with  the  Spaniards, 
but  nothing  less  than  the  whole  would  satisfy 
the  cupidity  of  the  Christians.  After  scenes 
of  cruelty  and  treachery,  the  Spanish  leader 
completed  the  conquest  in  1521.  The  coun- 
try continued  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a Span- 
ish viceroy,  until  it  declared  itself  independent 
in  1820. 

After  the  brief  empire  of  Iturbide,  a consti- 
tution modeled  on  ours  was  adopted.  Of  the 
ups  and  downs  of  Mexican  politics,  the  dis- 
sensions that  have  torn  the  country,  the  am- 
bitious dictators  that  have  aspired,  risen,  and 
fell,  we  can  not  here  give  a sketch.  In  1835 
Texas  revolted,  and  afterward  established  it- 
self as  an  independent  state.  Its  annexation 
to  the  United  States  resulted  in  a war  between 
Mexico  and  the  latter.  The  Mexicans  fought 
bravely,  but  the  decision  was  certain.  Of  the 
victories  of  Taylor,  at  Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la 
Palma,  Monterey,  and  Buena  Yista,  and  those 
of  Scott,  at  Yera  Cruz,  Cerro  Gordo,  Contre- 
ras, Churubusco,  Chapultepec,  and  Molino 
del  Rey,  we  have  made  separate  mention. 
The  triumphs  of  Scott  were  crowned  by  the 
possession  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  Elsewhere 
too,  in  California  and  in  New  Mexico,  victory 
perched  upon  the  American  standards.  Peace 


MEX 


538 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


was  ratified  in  February,  1848.  The  Rio 
Grande  was  made  the  boundary  of  Texas; 
New  Mexico  and  Upper  California  were  ceded 
to  the  United  States,  and  the  latter  paid 
$ 1 5, 000, 000  and  assumed  claims  to  the  amount 
of  $3,250,000.  This  is  known  as  the  treaty 
of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo. 

Although  we  still  name  Mexico  a republic, 
because  it  is  legally  and  in  justice  such,  yet 
it  was  chiefly  subdued  during  1861-5  by  the 
treacherous  and  despotic  interference  of  the 
French  emperor.  Miramor  while  president 
of  Mexico,  had  negotiated  a loan  with  the 
banking  house  of  Jecker,  by  which  he  re- 
ceived $750,000,  for  which  Jecker  was  to 
receive  $15,000,000.  Louis  Napoleon  caused 
Jecker  to  be  admitted  a French  citizen,  took 
up  his  claim  as  a pretence,  and  induced  Spain 
and  England  to  send  troops  along  with  his 
own  to  Mexico,  on  pretence  of  enforcing  pay- 
ment of  the  claims  against  Mexico  of  all  three, 
in  all  about  $76,000,000.  The  invading  force 
reached  Vera  Cruz  in  December,  1861.  The 
Spanish  and  English  troops  were  withdrawn 
9th  Apr.,  1862,  on  pretence  of  distrust  of  the 
Jecker  claim,  but  the  French  went  on  alone, 
meeting  no  effective  resistance.  Maximilian, 
an  Austrian  arch-duke,  accepted  the  emperor- 
ship of  Mexico,  which  Napoleon  now  offered 
him,  and  crossing  the  ocean,  issued  a procla- 
mation on  May  28,  1864,  at  Vera  Cruz,  “ac- 
cepting ” the  throne.  He  relied  on  the  aid 
of  French  bayonets  to  hold  it,  but  was  unsuc- 
cessful and  being  captured  by  the  Liberal 
Government,  was  by  its  order  executed  at 
Queretaro,  June  19,  1867. 

MICHAEL  ANGELO.  Michelangelo 
Buonarroti  was  of  a noble  and  ancient 
fanily,  and  born  at  Caprese  in  Tuscany, 
March  6th,  14  75.  Any  one  of  his  high  qual- 
ities would  have  made  the  fortune  of  an  or- 
dinary man.  He  was  a distinguished  painter, 
sculptor,  architect  and  poet,  and  “ cunning 
of  fence.”  The  beauty  of  the  Sistine  Chapel 
at  Rome  consists  principally  in  the  perfec- 
tion of  his  paintings.  At  fifty,  he  commenced 
painting  the  “ Last  Judgment”  there,  em- 
bracing a multitude  of  figures  in  various  atti- 
tudes, and  with  different  expressions,  it  is  an 
unwearying  object  of  contemplation  for  the 
artist  and  lover  of  the  fine  arts.  Between 
Michelangelo  and  Raphael,  there  was  a gener- 
ous rivalry,  the  former  never  forgetting  that 


Raphael  had  perfected  his  style  only  after 
having  diligently  studied  the  frescoes  of  the 
Sistine  Cliapel.  Raphael  is  said  to  have 
often  exclaimed  that  he  thanked  God  he  was 
born  in  the  days  of  Michelangelo. 

The  Farnesian  family  had  built  a house 
upon  the  bank  of  the  Tiber.  Cardinal  Far- 
nese  wished  to  have  the  halls  adorned  by  the 
the  pencil  of  Raphael,  to  give  additional 
beauty  to  this  charming  place.  The  artist 
stipulated  that  no  one  should  inspect  his 
work  until  it  was  finished.  But  the  friends 
of  Raphael  spread  abroad  high  reports  of  the 
triumphs  which  the  painter  had  achieved; 
praising  in  especial,  the  “Banquet  of  the 
Gods,”  the  “Nuptials  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,” 
and  the  “Triumph  of  Galatea.”  These  re- 
ports inflamed  the  curiosity  of  Buonarroti, 
and  he  swore  by  the  “Inferno”  of  Dante, 
that  he  would  gain  admission  into  the  Far- 
nesian villa,  examine  the  works  of  Raphael, 
and  prevent  their  completion. 

Michelangelo,  having  discovered  that  Ra- 
phael went  late  to  his  work,  disguised  him- 
self as  a vender  of  brandy,  and  taking  with 
him  a huge  basket  filled  with  biscuits  and 
brandy,  directed  his  steps  at  an  early  hour 
to  the  gate  of  the  Farnesian  palace.  His 
cries  of  “Brandy!  brandy!”  roused  the 
masons ; the  gate  was  opened.  Behold 
Michelangelo  in  the  interior  of  the  Farne- 
sina ! The  workmen  were  soon  busily  em- 
ployed upon  the  biscuits  and  the  brandy ; 
he  passed  through  the  corridors,  and  was 
soon  before  the  frescoes  of  Raphael.  The 
fine  picture  of  Galatea  attracted  his  attention, 
and,  noticing  a scaffold  and  a wall  in  readi- 
ness for  the  painter,  he  ascended  and  drew 
with  a piece  of  charcoal  a gigantic  head  of 
Jupiter,  after  which  he  left  the%villa  precipi- 
tately, without  stopping  for  his  basket. 
When  Raphael  arrived  at  noon,  on  beholding 
the  splendid  head,  he  exclaimed,  “ Michelan- 
gelo ! ” From  that  day  he  painted  no  more 
in  the  Farnesina,  and  his  works  remained 
unfinished.  The  head  of  Jupiter  remains 
still  upon  the  wall,  covered  with  a glass,  and 
attracts  the  admiration  of  artists  and  con- 
noisseurs. 

The  great  artist  was  never  married.  He 
died  at  Rome,  Feb.  17th,  1564,  and  his  body 
was  entombed  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce 
at  Florence. 


MICHIGAN  consists  of  two  distinct  penin- 
sulas, separated  by  the  waters  of  Lake  Huron 
And  Lake  Michigan.  In  all,  it  has  an  area 
of  56,243  square  miles,  populated  in  1870 
by  1 .84,059  inhabitants.  The  surface  of  the 
southern  peninsula  is  in  general  slightly  un- 
dulating; the  watershed,  that  divides  the 
streams  flowing  into  Lake  Huron  and  Lake 
Erie  from  those  running  into  Lake  Michigan, 
gradually  rises  in  the  north,  which  is  more 
broken.  The  country  is  well  timbered  with 
oak,  hickory,  poplar,  sugar  maple,  and  white 
and  yellow  pine.  There  are  some  prairies. 
The  land  of  southern  Michigan  is  very  fer- 
tile, and  all  the  state  is  well  watered.  The 
northern  peninsula  has  not  been  fully  ex- 
plored, but  it  is  much  more  rugged  than  the 
southern.  The  Pictured  Rocks  are  a remark- 
able sight  on  the  northern  coast.  A lofty 
wall  of  sand-stone  extends  along  the  shore 
for  the  distance  of  about  twelve  miles,  rising 
perpendicularly  with  an  elevation,  in  some 
parts,  of  three  hundred  feet.  The  face  of 
the  wall  discolored  by  the  water,  presents 
the  appearance  of  landscapes,  buildings,  and 
various  objects  delineated  by  the  hand  of 
man,  while  in  some  places  the  cliffs  are 
broken  into  grotesque  forms  by  the  fury  of 
the  ever-dashing  surge ; groups  of  overhang- 
ing precipices,  towering  walls,  caverns,  water- 
falls, and  prostrate  ruins  are  here  mingled 
in  the  most  wonderful  disorder.  One  of  the 
most  curious  formations  consists  of  a tabular 
mass  of  sand-stone,  about  fifty  feet  in  diame- 
ter and  eight  feet  thick,  supported  by  four 


columns,  which  are  nearly  round  and  exhibit 
almost  the  regularity  of  masonry ; they  are 
from  three  to  seven  feet  in  diameter  and 
about  forty  feet  high,  and  support  four  light 
and  lofty  arches. 

The  most  remarkable  natural  feature  of 
Michigan  is  the  great  lakes  by  which  it  is 
nearly  surrounded.  Lying  in  the  centre  of 
a vast  continent,  with  their  surfaces  six  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  they 
penetrate  far  down  below  that  level,  since 
they  have  a depth  varying  from  eight  hun- 
dred to  a thousand  feet.  Lake  Michigan  lies 
chiefly  in  the  state  that  bears  its  name.  This 
great  sheet  of  water  has  a width  of  from 
eighty  to  one  hundred  miles;  its  length  is 
about  three  hundred  and  sixty  miles,  and  it 
has  an  area  of  about  26,000  square  miles. 
In  general,  it  is  remarkable  for  the  absence 
of  bays  and  harbors,  the  coast  being  through- 
out a greater  part  of  its  windings  unbroken 
by  any  considerable  indentations.  Green 
Bay  in  the  north-west  is,  however,  a fine 
expanse,  of  about  twenty-five  miles  in  width, 
extending  far  up  into  the  land,  and  accessible 
to  vessels  of  two  hundred  tons  burthen. 
Ships  of  any  size  may  float  in  Lake  Michigan, 
but  the  waters  on  its  shores  are  shallow. 
Lake  Michigan  communicates  through  the 
Straits  of  Michilimackinac, — called  in  the 
country  Mackinaw, — four  miles  wide,  with 
Lake  Huron.  It  is  remarkably  free  from 
islands,  but  toward  its  northern  extremity  are 
the  Manitou  Isles  and  the  Beaver  Islands. 

The  geologists  who  surveyed  the  northern 


MIC 


540 


COTTAGE  CYCLC  JDIA  OP 


peninsula,  by  order  of  the  general  govern- 
ment, reported  that  its  beds  of  iron  are  of 
such  magnitude,  the  ore  of  such  purity,  and 
the  vast  forests  so  suitable  for  charcoal,  that 
this  region  must  yet  be  one  of  the  most 
valuable  in  the  world  for  the  manufacturing 
of  the  finer  varieties  of  wrought  iron  and 
steel.  Copper  is  also  found  in  great  extent 
and  richness. 

French  traders  early  entered  Michigan,  and 
established  a post  at  Detroit.  France  yielded 
the  country  to  England  in  1763.  It  was 
organized  as  a territory  of  the  United  States 
in  1805,  and  in  1836  was  admitted  into  the 
Union.  Both  branches  of  the  legislature  are 
chosen  and  meet  biennially.  The  style  of 
the  laws  is,  “ The  people  of  the  state  of 
Michigan  enact.”  The  governor  is  elected 
biennially.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  held  by 
every  male  citizen  above  twenty-one  ; every 
male  inhabitant  who  has  resided  in  the 
state  two  years  and  a half,  and  declared 
his  intention  to  become  a citizen  of  the 
United  States  six  months  before  the  elec- 
tion ; and  every  civilized  male  inhabitant 
of  Indian  descent,  a native  of  the  United 
States  and  not  a member  of  any  tribe ; all 
of  whom  must  have  resided  in  the  state  three 
months  before  an  election.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a supreme  court,  circuit 
courts,  probate  courts,  and  justices  of  the 
pehce.  Good  provision  is  made  for  common- 
school  education,  and  the  state  sustains  a 
normal  school,  an  asylum  for  the  insane,  and 
an  asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the 
blind. 

Lansing  is  the  capital  of  the  state ; popu- 
lation in  1870,  5,241.  The  largest  town  of 
Michigan  is  Detroit,  situated  between  Lakes 
Erie  and  St.  Clair  on  the  west  side  of  the 
river  Detroit;  population  . in  1870,79,577. 
It  is  well  built  on  a gentle  ascent  from  the 
river.  It  wras  settled  by  Canadian  French 
in  1683.  In  1760  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  British.  In  1784  it  became  by  treaty 
a possession  of  the  United  States,  which 
maintained  a garrison  there  from  1796  untd 
within  a few  years  past.  It  was  first  incor- 
porated as  a city  in  1802.  In  the  war  of 
1812  Detroit  was  captured  by  the  British, 
and  recaptured  by  the  Americans  the  next 
year.  In  1815  it  received  a new  charter  of 
incorporation.  The  city  has  twice  been  ex- 


tensively devastated  by  fire;  first  in  1805, 
when  it  was  nearly  destroyed ; and  after- 
ward in  1837,  when  the  destruction  of  prop- 
erty was  very  great.  Population,  79,577. 

MICKLE,  William  Julius,  a Scotch  poet, 
and  translator  of  “ The  Lusiad,”  born  in  1734, 
died  in  1788. 

MIDDLETON,  Arthur,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at 
Middleton  Place  in  South  Carolina,  1743. 
He  was  educated  in  England,  returned  to 
America  in  1773,  was  an  active  republican, 
and  in  1776  was  elected  to  a seat  in  Con- 
gress, of  which  body  he  was  a member  till 
1778,  and  again  from  1781  to  1783.  He 
was  in  Charleston  during  the  siege  of  1780, 
and  was  made  a prisoner  at  the  time  of  the 
surrender.  The  fires  of  the  Revolution 
melted  away  a large  portion  of  his  ample 
fortune.  He  continued  active  in  public  life 
until  his  death,  Jan.  1st,  1787. 

MIFFLIN,  Thomas,  major-general  in  the 
Revolutionary  war;  president  of  Congress 
in  1783,  and  in  that  character  received  the 
resignation  of  Washington  in  a public  audi- 
ence at  Annapolis ; was  nine  years  governor 
of  Pennsylvania ; died  Jan.  20th,  1800,  in 
the  fifty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

MILAN,  formerly  a duchy  in  the  north 
of  Italy,  was  comprised,  with  several  other 
districts,  under  the  general  name  of  Lom- 
bardy, until  the  fourteenth  century,  when 
Visconti,  a Milanese  nobleman,  purchased 
the  ducal  title  from  the  reigning  emperor. 
The  marriage  of  his  daughter  to  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  gave  rise  to  the  pretensions  of 
the  kings  of  France  to  this  duchy.  After 
the  death  of  the  last  duke  of  this  line, 
Francis  Sforza,  a man  of  family  and  talents, 
so  ingratiated  himself  with  the  people  that 
he  was  unanimously  chosen  duke  in  1450. 
On  the  extinction  of  the  Sforza  family  a 
century  after,  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  gave 
the  Milanese  as  a fief  of  the  empire  to  his 
son  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  it  remained  an 
appendage  to  that  crown  till  1706,  when  a 
brilliant  campaign  of  Prince  Eugene  put  it 
in  possession  of  the  house  of  Austria,  to 
which,  with  the  exception  of  the  Sardinian 
Milanese,  it  continued  subject  during  ninety 
years,  until  the  victories  of  Bonaparte  in 
1796.  On  the  formation  of  the  Cisalpine 
republic,  the  whole  of  Milan,  divided  into  four 


MIL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


541 


departments,  was  comprised  in  ft;  but  on 
the  restoration  of  the  old  order  of  things  in 
1814,  the  part  belonging  to  Sardinia  was 
restored,  and  the  remainder  incorporated 
with  Austrian  Italy. 

Milan,  the  capital  city  of  the  Austrian 
crownland  of  Lombardy,  contains  many 
splendid  public  buildings,  and  162,000  in- 
habitants. The  French  made  themselves 
masters  of  it  in  1796;  but  were  driven  out 
in  1799  by  the  victorious  army  of  the  Aus- 
trians and  Russians.  After  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  Milan  again  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  French,  and  continued  the  seat  of  their 
viceroy  until  the  fall  of  Bonaparte  in  1814. 

The  celebrated  Milan  decree  of  Napoleon 
against  all  continental  intercourse  with  Eng- 
land, was  proclaimed  Dec.  17th,  1807. 

MILLER,  Hugh,  was  born  at  Cromarty,  a 
small  seaport  town  in  the  north  of  Scotland, 
in  1802.  He  received  a scanty  schooling  and 
became  a stone  mason.  He  was  fond  of 
reading  and  a keen  observer  of  nature.  He 
attracted  attention  by  various  contributions 
to  newspapers,  and  in  1840  became  editor 
of  the  Witness , a leading  Edinburgh  journal. 
Geology  was  his  favorite  study,  and  his 
treatise,  “The  Old  Red  Sandstone,”  stamped 
him  with  a high  and  worldwide  reputation 
that  was  well  sustained  by  his  subsequent 
publications.  He  shot  himself  in  an  insane 
paroxysm  resulting  from  excessive  mental 
labor,  Dec.  81st,  1856.  The  day  previous 
he  had  completed  a work  entitled  “The  Tes- 
timony of  the  Rocks.” 

MILTIADES,  an  Athenian,  married  Hege- 
sipyla,  the  daughter  of  Olorus,  the  king  of 
the  Thracians.  In  the  third  year  of  his  gov- 
ernment his  dominions  were  threatened  by 
an  invasion  of  the  Scythian  Nomades,  whom 
Darius  had  some  time  before  irritated  by 
entering  their  country.  He  fled  before  them  ; 
but,  as  their  hostilities  were  but  momentary, 
he  was  soon  restored  to  his  kingdom.  Three 
years  after  he  left  Chersonesus,  and  set  sail 
for  Athens,  where  he  was  received  with 
great  applause.  He  was  present  at  the  cele- 
brated battle  of  Marathon,  in  which  all  the 
chief  otticers  ceded  their  power  to  him,  and 
left  the  event  of  the  battle  to  depend  upon 
his  superior  abilities.  He  obtained  an  im- 
portant victory  over  the  more  numerous 
forces  of  his  adversaries ; yet  when  he  had 


demanded  of  his  fellow-citizens  an  olive 
crown,  as  the  reward  of  his  valor  in  the  field 
of  battle,  he  was  not  only  refused,  but  se- 
verely reprimanded  for  presumption. 

Some  time  after,  Miltiades  was  intrusted 
with  a fleet  of  seventy  ships,  and  ordered  to 
punish  those  islands  which  had  revolted  to 
the  Persians.  He  was  successful  at  first; 
but  a sudden  report  that  a Persian  fleet  was 
coming  to  attack  him,  changed  his  opera- 
tions as  he  was  besieging  Paros.  He  raised 
the  siege  and  returned  to  Athens,  where  he 
was  accused  of  treason,  and  particularly  of 
holding  correspondence  with  the  enemy. 
The  falsity  of  these  accusations  might  have 
appeared,  if  Miltiades  had  been  able  to  come 
into  the  assembly.  A wound  which  he  had 
received  before  Paros  detained  him  at  home ; 
and  his  enemies,  taking  advantage  of  his 
absence,  became  more  eager  in  their  accu- 
sations and  louder  in  their  clamors.  He  was 
condemned  to  death ; but  the  rigor  of  the 
sentence  was  retracted  on  the  recollection  of 
his  great  services  to  the  Athenians,  and  he 
was  put  into  prison  till  he  had  paid  a fine  of 
fifty  talents  to  the  state.  His  inability  to 
discharge  so  great  a sum  detained  him  in 
confinement ; his  wounds  became  incurable 
soon  after,  and  he  died  about  b.c.  489.  The 
crimes  of  Miltiades  were  probably  aggravated 
in  the  eyes  of  his  countrymen  when  they 
remembered  how  he  made  himself  absolute 
in  Chersonesus ; and  in  condemning  the  bar- 
barity of  the  Athenians  toward  a general 
who  was  the  source  of  their  military  pros- 
perity, we  must  remember  the  jealousy  which 
ever  reigns  among  a free  and  independent 
people,  and  how  watchful  they  are  in  defense 
of  the  natural  rights  which  they  see  wrested 
from  others  by  violence  and  oppression. 

MILTON,  John,  was  descended  from  an 
ancient  family  at  Milton  in  Oxfordshire.  His 
father,  whose  desertion  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic faith  was  the  cause  of  his  disinheritance, 
settled  in  London  as  a scrivener,  and,  marry- 
ing a woman  of  good  family,  had  two  sons 
and  a daughter.  John,  the  eldest  son,  was 
born  in  Bread  street,  December  9th,  1608. 
He  received  the  rudiments  of  learning  from 
a domestic  tutor,  Thomas  Young,  afterward 
chaplain  to  the  English  merchants  at  Ham- 
burg, whose  merits  are  gratefully  commem- 
orated by  his  pupil,  in  a Latin  elegy.  At  a 


MIL 


642 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


proper  age  he  was  sent  to  St.  Paul’s  school, 
and  there  began  to  distinguish  himself  by  his 
intense  application  to  study,  as  well  as  by  his 
poetical  talents.  In  his  sixteenth  year  he 
Was  removed  to  Christ’s  College,  Cambridge, 
Where  he  was  admitted  a pensioner. 

Of  his  course  of  studies  in  the  university 
little  is  known ; but  it  appears,  from  several 
exercises  preserved  in  his  works,  that  he  had 
acquired  extraordinary  skill  in  writing  Latin 
verses  which  are  of  a purer  taste  than  any 
preceding  compositions  of  the  kind  by  Eng- 
lish scholars.  He  took  the  degrees  both  of 
bachelor  and  master  of  arts ; the  latter  in  1632, 
when  he  left  Cambridge.  He  renounced  his 
original  intention  of  entering  the  church,  for 
which  he  has  given  as  a reason,  that,  “ com- 
ing to  some  maturity  of  years,  he  had  per- 
ceived what  tyranny  had  invaded  it ; ” which 
denotes  a man  early  habituated  to  think  and 
act  for  himself. 

He  returned  to  his  father,  who  had  retired 
from  business  to  a residence  at  Horton,  in 
Buckinghamshire  ; and  he  there  passed  five 
years  in  the  study  of  the  best  Roman  and 
Grecian  authors,,  and  in  the  composition  of 
some  of  his  finest  miscellaneous  poems.  This 
was  the  period  of  his  “Allegro”  and  “Pen- 
seroso,”  his  “ Comus”  and  “ Lycidas.”  That 
his  learning  and  talents  had  at  this  time 
attracted  considerable  notice,  appears  from 
an  application  made  to  him  from  the  Bridge- 
water family,  wrhich  produced  his  admirable 
masque  of  “Comus,”  performed  in  1634,  at 
Ludlow  Castle,  before  the  Earl  of  Bridgewater, 
then  Lord  President  of  Wales;  and  also  by 
his  “ Arcades,”  part  of  an  entertainment  pre- 
sented to  the  Countess  dowager  of  Derby, 
at  Harefield,  by  some  of  her  family. 

In  1638  he  obtained  his  father’s  leave  to 
improve  himself  by  foreign  travel,  and  set  out 
for  the  continent.  Passing  through  France, 
he  proceeded  to  Italy,  and  spent  a considera- 
ble time  in  that  seat  of  the  arts  and  of  litera- 
ture. At  Naples  he  wTas  kindly  received  by 
Manso,  Marquis  of  Villa,  who  had  long  before 
deserved  the  gratitude  of  poets  by  his  patron- 
age of  Tasso ; and,  in  return  for  a laudatory 
distich  of  Manso,  Milton  addressed  to  him  a 
Latin  poem  of  great  elegance.  He  left  Italy 
by  the  way  of  Geneva,  where  he  contracted 
an  acquaintance  with  twm  learned  divines, 
John  Diodati  and  Frederic  Spanheim  ; and  he 


returned  through  France,  having  been  absent 
about  a year  and  three  months. 

On  his  arrival,  Milton  found  the  nation 
agitated  by  civil  and  religious  disputes  wThich 
threatened  a crisis ; and  as  he  had  expressed 
himself  impatient  to  be  present  on  the  theatre 
of  contention,  it  has  been  thought  extraor- 
dinary that  he  did  not  immediately  place 
himself  in  some  active  station.  But  his  turn 
was  not  military ; his  fortune  precluded  a 
seat  in  parliament;  the  pulpit  he  had  de- 
clined ; and  for  the  bar  he  had  made  no 
preparation.  His  taste  and  habits  were  alto- 
gether literary ; for  the  present,  therefore, 
he  fixed  himself  in  the  metropolis,  and  under- 
took the  education  of  his  sister  Philips’s  two 
sons.  Soon  after,  he  was  applied  to  by  several 
parents  to  admit  their  children  to  the  benefit 
of  his  tuition.  He  therefore  took  a commo- 
dious house  in  Aldersgate  street,  and  opened 
an  academy.  Disapproving  the  plan  of  edu- 
cation in  the  public  schools  and  universities, 
he  deviated  from  it  as  widely  as  possible.  He 
put  into  the  hands  of  his  scholars,  instead 
of  the  common  classics,  such  Greek  and  Latin 
authors  as  treated  on  the  arts  and  sciences, 
and  on  philosophy  ; thus  expecting  to  instill 
the  knowledge  of  things  with  that  of  words. 
We  are  not  informed  of  the  result  of  his  plan ; 
but  It  will  appear  singular  that  one  wTho  had 
himself  drunk  so  deeply  at  the  muse’s  fount, 
should  withhold  the  draught  from  others. 
We  learn  that  he  performed  the  task  of  in- 
struction with  great  assiduity. 

Milton  did  not  long  suffer  himself  to  lie 
under  the  reproach  of  having  neglected  the 
public  cause  in  his  private  pursuits ; and,  in 
1641,  he  published  four  treatises  relative  to 
church  government,  in  which  he  gave  the 
preponderance  to  the  Presbyterian  form  above 
the  Episcopalian.  Resuming  the  same  con- 
troversy in  the  following  3Tear,  he  numbered 
among  his  antagonists  such  men  as  Bishop 
Hall  and  Archbishop  Usher.  His  father, 
wrho  had  been  disturbed  by  the  king’s  troops, 
now  came  to  live  with  him ; and  the  neces- 
sity of  a female  head  of  such  a house  caused 
Milton,  in  1643,  to  form  a connection  with 
Mary,  the  daughter  of  Richard  Powell,  Esq., 
a magistrate  of  Oxfordshire.  This  was,  in » 
several  respects,  an  unhappy  marriage ; for 
his  father-in-law  wras  a zealous  royalist,  and 
his  wufe  had  accustomed  herself  to  the  jovial 


MIL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


543 


hospitality  of  that  party.  She  had  not, 
* therefore,  passed  above  a month  in  her  hus- 
band’s house,  when,  having  procured  an 
invitation  from  her  father,  she  went  to  pass 
the  summer  in  his  mansion.  Milton’s  invita- 
tions for  her  return  were  treated  with  con- 
tempt ; upon  which,  regarding  her  conduct 
as  a desertion  which  broke  the  nuptial  con- 
tract, he  determined  to  punish  it  by  repudia- 
tion. In  1644  he  published  a work  on  “The 
Doctrine  and  Discipline  of  Divorce;”  and, 
in  the  next  year,  it  was  followed  by  “Tetra- 
chordon,  or  Expositions  upon  the  Four  Chief 
Places  in  Scripture  which  treat  of  Marriage.” 
He  farther  reduced  his  doctrine  into  practice, 
by  paying  his  addresses  to  a young  lady  of 
great  accomplishments  ; but,  as  he  was  pay- 
ing a visit  to  a neighbor  and  kinsman,  he 
was  surprised  with  the  sudden  entrance  of 
his  wife,  who  threw  herself  at  his  feet  and 
implored  forgiveness.  After  a short  struggle 
of  resentment,  he  took  her  to  his  bosom ; and 
he  sealed  the  reconciliation  by  opening  his 
house  to  her  father  and  brothers,  when  they 
had  been  driven  from  home  by  the  triumph 
of  the  republican  arms. 

Tn  the  progress  of  Milton’s  prose  works,  it 
will  be  right  to  mention  his  “ Areopagitica ; 
a Speech  of  Mr.  John  Milton,  for  the  Liberty 
of  Unlicensed  Printing;”  a work,  published 
in  1644,  written  with  equal  spirit  and  ability, 
and  which,  when  reprinted  in  1738,  was 
affirmed  to  be  the  best  defense  that  had  ever 
then  appeared  of  that  essential  article  of 
public  liberty.  In  the  following  year  he  took 
care  that  his  poetical  character  should  not  be 
lost  to  the  world,  and  published  his  juvenile 
poems,  Latin  and  English. 

Milton’s  principles  of  the  origin  and  end  of 
government  carried  him  to  a full  approbation 
of  the  trial  and  execution  of  the  king ; and, 
in  order  to  conciliate  the  minds  of  the  people 
to  that  act,  he  published,  early  in  1649,  a 
work  entitled,  “The  Tenure  of  Kings  and 
Magistrates ; proving  that  it  is  lawful,  and 
hath  been  so  held  through  all  ages,  for  any 
who  have  the  power,  to  call  to  account  a 
tyrant  or  wicked  king  and,  after  due  con- 
viction, to  depose  and  put  him  to  death,  if 
the  ordinary  magistrate  have  neglected  or 
denied  to  do  it.”  Certainly,  it  would  not 
be  easy  to  express,  in  stronger  terms,  an 
author’s  resolution  to  leave  no  doubts  con- 


cerning his  opinion  on  this  important  topic. 
II is  appointment  to  the  Latin  secretaryship 
to  the  council  of  state  was,  probably,  the 
consequence  of  his  decision. 

The  learned  Frenchman,  Salmasius,  or 
Saumaise,  having  been  hired  by  Charles  II., 
while  in  Holland,  to  write  a work  in  favor  of 
the  royal  cause,  which  he  entitled,  “ Defensio 
Regia,”  Milton  was  employed  to  answer  it ; 
which  he  did  in  1651,  by  his  celebrated  “ De- 
fensio pro  Populo  Anglicano,”  in  which  he 
exercised  all  his  powers  of  Latin  rhetoric, 
both  to  justify  the  republican  party,  and  to 
confound  and  vilify  the  famous  scholar  against 
whom  he  took  up  the  pen.  By  this  piece  he 
acquired  a high  reputation,  both  at  home  and 
abroad  ; and  he  received  a present  of  a thou- 
sand pounds  from  the  English  government. 
His  book  went  through  several  editions; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  work  of  Sal- 
masius was  suppressed  by  the  States  of  Hol- 
land, in  whose  service  he  lived  as  a professor 
at  Leyden.  Milton’s  intense  application  to 
study  had,  for  some  3rears  preceding,  brought 
on  an  affection  of  the  eyes,  which  gradually 
impaired  his  sight ; and,  before  he  wrote  his 
“ Defensio,”  he  was  warned  by  his  physi- 
cians that  the  effort  would  probably  end  in 
total  blindness.  This  opinion  was  soon  after 
justified  by  a gutta  serena,  which  seized  both 
his  eyes,  and  subjected  the  remainder  of  his 
life  to  those  privations  which  he  has  so  feel- 
ingly described  in  some  passages  of  his  poems. 
His  intellectual  powers,  however,  suffered  no 
eclipse  from  this  loss  of  his  sensitive  faculties ; 
and  he  pursued,  without  intermission,  both 
his  official  and  his  controversial  occupations. 

Cromwell  at  length  died,  and  Charles  II. 
returned  in  triumph.  Milton  was  discharged 
from  his  office,  and  lay  for  some  time  con- 
cealed in  the  house  of  a friend.  The  house 
of  commons  desired  that  his  majesty  would 
issue  a proclamation  to  call  in  Milton’s  “ De- 
fenses of  the  People,”  and  “ Iconoclastcs,” 
together  with  a book  of  Goodwyn’s.  The 
books  were  accordingly  burnt  by  the  common 
hangman ; but  the  authors  were  returned  as 
having  absconded ; nor,  in  the  act  of  indem- 
nity, did  the  name  of  Milton  appear  among 
those  of  the  excepted  persons. 

He  now,  in  reduced  circumstances,  and 
under  the  discountenance  of  power,  removed 
to  a private  habitation  near  his  former  resi- 


MIL 


5U 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


dence.  He  had  buried  his  first  wife ; and  a 
second,  the  daughter  of  Captain  Woodcock, 
in  Hackney,  died  in  childbed.  To  solace  his 
forlorn  condition,  he  desired  h-4>  friend,  Dr. 
Paget,  to  look  out  a third  wife  for  him,  who 
recommended  a relation  of  his  own,  named 
Elizabeth  Minshull,  of  a good  family  in  Chesh- 
ire. His  powerful  mind  now  centered  in 
itself,  and,  undisturbed  by  contentions  and 
temporary  topics,  opened  to  those  great  ideas 
which  were  continually  filling  it;  and  the 
result  was  “Paradise  Lost.”  Much  discus- 
sion has  taken  place  concerning  the  original 
conception  of  this  grand  performance;  but 
whatever  hint  may  have  suggested  the  rude 
outline,  it  is  certain  that  all  the  creative 
powers  of  a strong  imagination,  and  all  the 
accumulated  stores  of  a life  devoted  to 
learning,  were  expended  in  its  completion. 
Though  he  appears  at  an  early  age  to  have 
thought  of  some  subject  in  the  heroic  times 
of  English  history,  as  peculiarly  calculated 
for  English  verse,  yet  his  religious  turn,  and 
assiduous  study  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
produced  a final  preference  of  a story  derived 
from  the  sacred  writings,  and  giving  scope 
to  the  introduction  of  his  theological  system. 
It  would  be  superfluous,  at  this  time,  to 
weigh  the  merits  of  Milton’s  great  work, 
which  stands  so  much  beyond  competition ; 
but  it  may  be  affirmed,  that  whatever  his 
other  poems  can  exhibit  of  beauty  in  some 
parts,  or  of  grandeur  in  others,  may  all  be 
referred  to  “Paradise  Lost”  as  the  most 
perfect  model  of  both. 

Not  exhausted  bj^this  great  effort,  Milton 
followed  it  in  1G70  by  “Paradise  Regained,” 
and  his  tragedy  of  “Samson  Agonistes.” 
With  these  the  record  of  his  poems  closes. 
He  sank  tranquilly  under  an  exhaustion  of 
the  vital  powers  in  November,  1674. 

It  is  impossible  to  refuse  to  Milton  the 
honor  due  to  a life  of  the  sincerest  piety  and 
the  most  dignified  virtue.  No  man  ever  lived 
under  a more  abiding  sense  of  responsibility. 
No  man  ever  strove  more  faithfully  to  use  his 
time  and  talent  “as  ever  in  the  great  Task- 
master’s eye.”  No  man  so  richly  endowed 
was  ever  less  prone  to  trust  his  own  pow- 
ers, or  more  prompt  to  own  his  depend- 
ence on  “ that  eternal  and  propitious  throne, 
where  nothing  is  readier  than  grace  and 
refuge  to  the  distresses  of  mortal  suppliants. 


His  morality  was  of  the  loftiest  character. 
He  possessed  a self-control  which,  in  one 
susceptible  of  such  vehement  emotions,  was 
marvelous.  No  one  ever  saw  him  indulging 
in  those  propensities  which  overcloud  the 
mind  and  pollute  the  heart.  No  youthful 
excesses  treasured  up  for  him  a suffering  and 
remorseful  old  age.  From  his  youth  up  he 
was  temperate  in  all  things,  as  became  one 
who  had  consecrated  himself  to  a life-struggle 
against  vice  and  error  and  darkness,  in  all 
their  forms.  He  had  started  with  the  con- 
viction “that  he  who  would  not  be  frustrate 
of  his  hope  to  write  well  hereafter  in  lauda- 
ble things,  ought  himself  to  be  a true  poem  ; 
that  is,  a composition  and  pattern  of  the  best 
and  honorable  things ; ” and  from  this  he 
never  swerved.  His  life  was  indeed  a true 
poem ; or  it  might  be  compared  to  an  an- 
them on  his  own  favorite  organ — high-toned, 
solemn  and  majestic. 

MINDEN,  a town  of  Prussia,  containing 
9,000  inhabitants.  Here  Prince  Ferdinand 
gained  a victory  over  the  French  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1759.  The  merit  of  the  victory  is 
principally  to  be  ascribed  to  the  valor  and 
steadiness  of  the  British  troops  engaged. 
Min  den  surrendered  on  the  next  day ; and  the 
French  retreated  to  the  other  side  of  the 
W eser. 

MINNESOTA.  Among  the  states  that 
within  a few  years  have  been  born  from  the 
wilderness,  the  growth  of  none  has  been  more 
like  that  of  Aladdin’s  palace  than  that  of  Min- 
nesota, the  land  of  ‘ sky-tinted  water.’  It  was 
a part  of  the  domain  purchased  with  Louisi- 
ana in  1803.  French  missionaries  and  traders 
had  known  of  the  country  for  nearly  two 
hundred  years,  and  the  Chippewa  and  Sioux 
or  Dacotah  tribes  of  Indians,  who  possessed 
it,  saw  scarcely  any  other  representatives  of 
the  white  race,  long  after  the  cession.  But  in 
1816  Congress  passed  a law  excluding  foreign- 
ers from  the  Indian  trade,  and  in  1819  Fort 
Snelling  was  established.  In  1831  Henry  R. 
Schoolcraft  traced  the  Mississippi  to  its  source 
in  Lake  Itasca.  But  though  the  region  which 
he  visited  began  to  be  better  known,  it  con- 
tinued for  years  to  be  many  miles  to  the  west- 
ward of  civilization. 

In  1849  the  territory  of  Minnesota  was  or- 
ganized. In  1857  it  was  divided  nearly  in 
twain.  The  western  portion  it  is  proposed  to 
MIN 


call  the  territory  of  Dacotah,  while  in  1858 
the  eastern  portion  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  the  sovereign  state  of  Minnesota. 
Area  about  80,000  square  miles;  population 
about  200,000.  The  constitution  prohibits 
slavery.  The  auditor  is  to  be  elected  for  three 
years ; the  other  state  officers  for  two.  The 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  justices  of  the 
peace,  a supreme  court,  district,  probate,  and 
such  other  inferior  courts  as  the  legislature 
may  establish  by  a two-thirds  vote ; all  judges 
and  justices  to  be  elected  by  the  people  for 
terms  in  no  case  longer  than  seven  years. 
The  legislature  can  not  grant  divorces,  author- 
ize lotteries,  or  contract  a debt  over  $250,000. 
It  may  pass  a general  banking  law,  under 
stringent  restrictions  and  requirements. 
All  males  twenty-one  years  of  age,  who  have 
resided  in  the  United  States  one  year  and  in 
the  state  four  months  next  preceding  an  elec- 
tion, if  white  citizens  of  the  United  States ; or 
white  persons  of  foreign  birth  who  have  de- 
clared their  intention  to  become  citizens ; or 
persons  of  mixed  white  and  Indian  blood,  or 
of  Indian  blood,  who  have  adopted  the  lan- 
guage, customs,  and  habits  of  civilization, — 
are  voters  in  the  district  of  which  they  have 
been  ten  days  residents : no  religious  or  prop- 
erty qualifications  are  required.  No  person 
shall  be  rendered  incompetent  to  give  evidence 
in  consequence  of  his  opinions  on  matters  of 
religion. 

With  the  exception  of  a ridge,  dividing  the 
Mississippi  from  Lake  Superior,  called  the 
Hauteurs  de  Terres,  or  Highlands,  and  the 
magnificent  limestone  bluffs  upon  the  Missis- 

35 


sippi  below  St.  Paul,  Minnesota  is  a country 
of  high  rolling  prairies  and  river  bottoms  lined 
with  forests.  This  region  is  the  highest 
ground  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  it 
forms  the  watershed  of  three  great  basins. 
The  Mississippi,  the  Red  River  of  the  North, 
and  rivers  that  feed  Lake  Superior  take  their 
rise  within  its  limits,  and  it  is  one  of  the  best 
watered  tracts  in  the  Union.  The  Minnesota 
or  St.  Peter’s,  the  St.  Francis,  and  the  St. 
Croix  are  important  tributaries  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  there  are  myriads  of  lesser  streams. 
Along  the  northern  portion  of  the  state  is  a 
region  thickly  studded  with  lakes  whose  crys- 
tal depths  are  the  head-waters  of  the  mighty 
river.  The  climate  of  Minnesota  is  cold  in 
the  long  winters,  but  the  clearness  and  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  absence  of 
sudden  or  extreme  changes,  temper  the  sever- 
ity so  that  the  winters  are  not  more  trying 
than  those  of  lower  latitudes.  On  the  fertile 
soil,  maize,  oats,  and  wheat,  wdth  the  other 
ordinary  cereals,  grow  well.  The  pine  forests 
are  a source  of  much  wealth  and  industry. 

In  1766  Jonathan  Carver,  of  Connecticut, 
conceived  the  idea  of  reaching  the  Pacific  from 
the  further  extremity  of  the  great  chain  of 
inland  seas.  [ See  Carver.]  He  describes 
Minnesota  as  a “most  delightful  country, 
abounding  with  all  the  necessaries  of  life  that 
grow  spontaneously.  Wild  rice  grows  here 
in  great  abundance ; and  every  part  is  filled 
with  trees,  bending  under  their  loads  of  fruit, 
such  as  plums,  grapes,  and  appbs.  The 
meadows  are  covered  with  hops,  and  many 
sorts  of  vegetables,  while  the  ground  is  stored 


MIN 


546 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


with  useful  roots,  with  angelica,  spikenard, 
and  ground-nuts  as  large  as  hens’  eggs.”  He 
also  speaks  of  a “milk-white  clay”  abounding 
near  the  south  bend  of  the  Minnesota,  “out 
of  which  china  ware  might  be  made,  equal  in 
goodness  to  the  Asiatic;”  and  also  of  “a  blue 
clay,  which  serves  the  Indians  for  paint.” 

Whittier  has  briefly  sketched  the  history 
of  the  western  wilderness,  Minnesota,  or  Iowa, 
or  Wisconsin,  or  Kansas. 

“Behind  the  red  squaw’s  birch  canoe 
The  steamer  smokes  and  raves, 

And  city  lots  are  staked  for  sale 
Above  old  Indian  graves. 

I hear  the  tread  of  pioneers 
Of  nations  yet  to  be — 

The  first  low  wash  of  waves,  where  soon 
Shall  roll  a human  sea.” 

The  growth  of  Minnesota  especially,  since  its 
organization,  has  been  startling.  Its  whole 
population,  in  1850,  was  6,077 ; in  1857,  Hen- 
nepin county  alone,  in  which  are  the  towns 
of  St.  Anthony  and  Minneapolis,  contained 
13,863  inhabitants.  St.  Paul,  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Mississippi,  is  the  capital  of  the  state. 
In  1846  it  contained  but  ten  white  inhabit- 
ants: in  1870,  there  were  20,030  inhabitants! 
Fifteen  miles  above  St.  Paul,  are  the  falls  of 
St.  Anthony.  The  Indians  called  this  beau- 
tiful cataract  Minnehaha,  ‘laughing  water.’ 
As  early  as  1680  Father  Hennepin  gave  them 
the  name  of  his  patron  saint. 

MINORCA,  the  second  of  the  Balearic 
Islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  contains  44,000 
inhabitants.  It  produces  some  wines,  and 
olive  oil,  and  has  mines  of  iron,  lead,  and 
admirable  marble.  The  climate,  although 
hot,  is  agreeable.  In  1708  the  English  took 
possession  of  it,  and  retained  it  till  1756, 
when  it  was  retaken  by  a French  fleet  and 
army,  after  the  failure  of  an  attempt  to  re- 
lieve it,  which  led  to  the  execution  of  the 
unfortunate  Admiral  Byng.  At  the  peace 
of  1763  Minorca  was  restored  to  Britain; 
but  in  1782  it  was  retaken  by  the  Spaniards. 
It  was  once  more  taken  by  the  British  in 
1798;  but  was  restored  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens  in  1802. 

MINOS,  a king  of  Crete,  who  gave  laws 
to  his  subjects,  b.c.  1015,  which  still  re- 
mained in  full  force  in  the  age  of  the  philoso- 
pher Plato.  His  justice  and  moderation 
procured  him  the  appellation  of  the  favorite 
of  the  gods,  the  wise  legislator,  in  every  city 


of  Greece;  and  according  to  the  poets  he 
was  rewarded  for  his  equity,  after  death, 
with  the  office  of  supreme  and  absolute  judge 
in  the  infernal  regions. 

MIRABEAU,  Honore  Gabriel  Riquetti, 
Count  de,  was  born  in  1749.  He  was  born 
with  a club-foot.  In  addition  to  this  defect, 
his  tongue,  fastened  by  the  froenum,  gave 
little  promise  of  oratorical  success.  But  the 
size  and  vigor  of  his  limbs,  and  the  circum- 
stance of  two  molar  teeth  being  already 
formed  in  his  mouth,  were  sufficiently  extraor- 
dinary. He  was  also  early  attacked  with 
the  small-pox,  which  left  its  usual  impress  on 
his  face.  In  a letter  from  the  marquis,  his 
father,  to  the  Countess  of  Rochefort,  the 
following  passage  occurs:  “A  fete  is  this 
day  given  in  honor  of  my  mother  [the  dow- 
ager-marchioness, widow  of  Jean  Antoine  de 
Mirabeau,  then  seventy-two  years  of  age]. 
It  is  the  production  of  my  son’s  tutor  (an 
indefatigable  author  and  actor  of  such  fol- 
lies). You  will  see  a little  monster  perform 
therein,  whom  they  call  my  son ; but  who, 
were  he  the  son  of  La  Thorrillere,  could  not 
display  a greater  aptitude  for  all  sorts  of 
devilment.”  In  another  letter,  dated  21st 
of  September,  1758,  he  writes  thus:  “My 
son,  whose  size,  prattle,  and  ugliness  are 
wonderfully  on  the  increase,  grows  more 
exquisitely  and  peculiarly  ugly  from  day 
to  day,  and,  withal,  a most  indefatigable 
speechifier.” 

At  an  early  age  he  quarreled  with  his 
father,  and  fled  from  the  paternal  mansion, 
but  the  old  gentleman  procured  a lettre  de 
cachet , and  imprisoned  him.  He,  however, 
escaped,  and  lived  for  a long  time  in  habits 
of  dissipation : in  proof  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing anecdote  is  related.  Mirabeau,  one 
day,  called  up  his  valet  to  discharge  him. 
The  fellow  asked  the  reason.  “It  is  this,” 
said  Mirabeau.  “You  were  drunk  yesterday, 
as  I myself  was.  Now,  sir,  you  remember 
you  agreed  to  get  drunk  only  on  days  when 
I was  sober.” — “I  remember  it,”  replied  the 
valet;  “but  you  will  excuse  me  when  you 
reflect  upon  the  impossibility  of  my  obeying 
you — for  you  are  drunk  every  day.”  Mira- 
beau reflected  a moment,  and  retained  the 
domestic. 

He  went  to  Berlin  toward  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Frederick,  and  was  there  when  the 


MIR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


547 


French  revolution  commenced,  on  which  he 
returned  home,  and  was  elected  a member 
of  the  states-general.  He  rendered  his  name 
memorable  by  the  display  of  the  most  polished 
and  powerful  eloquence.  In  1791  he  became 
president  of  the  national  assembly.  He  died 
of  a fever  on  the  2d  of  April,  that  year. 

MISSISSIPPI.  The  area  of  Mississippi  is 
47,156  miles;  population  in  1870,  827,922,  ol 
whom  382,896  were  whites  and  the  remainder 
colored.  Numerous  ranges  of  moderate  hills 
give  to  a greater  part  of  the  surface  a diversi- 
fied character.  Along  the  Mississippi  River 
there  is  an  extensive  region  of  swamps,  sub- 
ject to  inundation.  In  the  south-east  the  soil 
is  low,  and  here  the  gulf  coast,  which  further 
west  is  marshy,  begins  to  appear  solid,  dry, 
and  covered  with  pines.  There  are  extensive 
tracts  of  pine-lands,  in  which  the  soil  is  light, 
but  not  unproductive  ; and  a large  proportion 
of  £he  land  is  fertile.  Mississippi  is  well 
watered  by  numerous  streams  and  navigable 
rivers,  which  intersect  nearly  every  part  of 
the  state.  The  Mississippi  washes  the  whole 
western  border ; the  Tennessee  laves  the 
north-eastern  corner ; and  the  Yazoo,  Big 
Black,  Pearl,  and  Pascagoula  flow  through 
the  interior.  Once  tobacco  and  indigo  were 
the  great  products  of  Mississippi,  but  cotton 
is  now  the  overshadowing  staple.  Maize  and 
rice  are  cultivated  somewhat  largely. 

This  region  was  originally  part  of  French 
Louisiana,  and  in  1716  Fort  Rosalie  was 
erected  at  Natchez.  In  1763  it  was  ceded  to 
Great  Britain,  and  twenty  years  after  was 
claimed  by  Spain  as  part  of  Florida.  In 


1 798  that  power  relinquished  it  to  the  United 
States,  and  it  was  received  into  the  Union  in 
1817.  The  legislature  meets  biennially,  the 
representatives  being  elected  for  two  and  the 
senators  for  four  years.  The  governor  holds 
office  for  a term  of  four  years,  and  is  ineligi- 
ble for  office  more  than  two  terms  in  succes- 
sion. Every  male  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  aged  twenty-one  or  more,  who  has  re- 
sided in  the  state  one  year,  is  an  elector. 
There  is  a high  court  of  errors  and  appeals? 
consisting  of  three  judges,  one  chosen  by  the 
people  biennially ; and  a circuit  court,  a judge 
being  chosen  for  four  years  in  each  judicial 
district ; and  a probate  court  for  each  county. 
The  supreme  court  is  the  highest  court  of  the 
state  and  its  judges  are  appointed  for  terms 
of  three,  six,  and  nine  years  by  the  governor 
with  the  consent  of  the  senate.  The  court  is 
held  at  the  seat  of  government  once  in  two 
years.  A superintendent  of  education  is 
elected  once  in  four  years.  An  asylum  for 
the  blind,  one  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  a 
lunatic  hospital,  are  supported  by  the  state 
at  Jackson. 

Jackson,  the  capital  of  the  state,  had  in 
1870,  4,234  inhabitants.  Natchez  is  the 
largest  and  most  important  town.  It  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  parts ; the  lower  town, 
called  Natchez  under  the  Hill,  or  the  Land- 
ing, is  built  on  a dead  level  on  the  margin  of 
the  river,  and  is  occupied  by  warehouses, 
tippling-shops,  boarding-houses  for  boatmen, 
&c. ; the  upper  town  stands  on  a lofty  bank 
or  bluff*.  This  place  has  been  occasion- 
ally visited  by  the  yellow  fever  and  other 


548 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  C P 


diseases,  but  it  is  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  an  agreeable  and  healthful  residence. 
It  was  visited  by  a terrible  hurricane  in 
1836.  Natchez  is  285  miles  above  New 
Orleans.  Its  river  and  inland  trade  is  exten- 
sive. Its  population  in  1870  was  9,057.  Here 
was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Great  Sun 
or  principal  chief  of  the  Natchez,  a powerful 
and,  in  comparison  with  their  savage  neigh- 
bors, a polished  people ; they  had  an  estab- 
lished worship,  and  regular  laws,  and,  on 
an  altar  sacred  to  the  sun,  they  kept  up  a 
perpetual  fire  in  honor  of  the  Great  Spirit. 
In  1716  the  French,  whom  they  had  received 
with  kindness,  were  allowed  to  establish  a 
post,  called  St.  Rosalie,  in  their  territory; 
but  bickerings,  as  usual,  soon  ensued  between 
the  whites  and  the  Indians,  and  the  latter, 
stung  to  madness  by  the  injuries  they  had 
experienced,  surprised  the  fort  and  put  the 
garrison  to  death  in  1729.  The  French  sent 
a great  force  into  the  country,  and  pursued 
the  war  with  so  much  vigor  that  the  whole 
nation  was  exterminated  or  sold  into  slavery, 
with  the  exception  of  a few  who  joined  the 
Chickasaws  and  Choctaws.  The  ruins  of 
Fort  St.  Rosalie  are  still  to  be  seen  at  Nat- 
chez. In  the  vicinity  there  is  a group  of 
remarkable  mounds,  from  which  numerous 
relics,  such  as  pipes,  weapons,  vessels  cov- 
ered with  figures,  &c.,  have  been  obtained. 
Vicksburg,  farther  up  the  river,  is  the  next 
town  in  importance  population  in  1870, 
12,443.  Mississippi  was  prominent  in  the 
rebellion,  Jeff  Davis  having  long  been  a 
resident,  and  the  leading  politician  there. 
It  seceded  Jan.  10,  1861.  It  was  one  of  the 
chief  centers  of  the  Union  military  opera- 
tions, and  was  terribly  ravaged  during  the 
war.  The  chief  military  occurrences  in  it 
were,  Grant’s  siege  and  capture  of  Vicks- 
burg, the  siege  of  Port  Hudson,  Grierson’s 
raid,  Sherman’s  march  across  the  state,  and 
Smith’s  raid.  It  returned  to  the  Union  in 
August,  1865,  by  convention. 

MISSOLONGHI,  a fortress  in  Greece, 
memorable  for  its  siege,  and  the  heroic  resist- 
ance of  the  garrison.  After  a defense  of 
twelve  months,  the  Greeks  were  so  near  star- 
vation that  cats  and  rats  were  greedily  de- 
voured. They  determined  by  one  more 
sortie  to  cut  their  way  through  the  belea- 
guering camp.  On  the  22d  of  April,  1826, 


three  thousand  fighting  men  were  to  rush 
headlong  upon  the  besiegers,  and  hew  a path 
for  the  women  and  children,  while  the  retreat 
was  to  be  covered  by  a thousand  men,  and  the 
fortress  to  be  guarded  by  a few  heroes  who 
were  ready  to  yield  their  lives  for  the  safety 
of  their  wives  and  brethren.  Treachery  re- 
vealed the  plan  to  the  Turkish  general ; he 
prepared  for  the  onset,  and  amid  great  car- 
nage and  capture  Missolonghi  fell. 

MISSOURI  has  an  area  of  67,380  square 
miles,  and  in  1870  had  1,721,295  inhabit- 
ants. The  country  south  of  the  Missouri 
River  is  traversed  in  different  directions  by 
the  chains  of  the  Ozark  Mountains.  North 
of  the  Osage  and  the  Missouri,  the  country 
is  undulating  and  agreeably  diversified,  while 
in  the  south-east,  with  the#  exception  of  .a 
narrow  strip  on  the  border  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, there  is  a low  inundated  morass,  form- 
ing a portion  of  the  great  Arkansas  swamp. 
This  inundated  tract  is  for  the  most  part 
heavily  timbered,  and  the  hilly  country  to 
the  north  and  west  is  well  covered  with  pine, 
sycamore,  hackberry,  cottonwood,  and  sugar 
maple,  though  some  of  the  hills  are  rugged 
and  barren.  The  rest  of  the  state  is  divided 
between  forest  and  prairie.  Rich  alluvial 
belts,  sometimes  prairie  and  sometimes  wood" 
land,  generally  skirt  the  rivers  ; much  of  the 
upland  is  of  the  first  quality,  while  a large 
portion  of  the  inferior  land  is  yet  productive 
and  well  adapted  to  farming.  Cotton  is 
grown  a little  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state;  tobacco  is  more  extensively  raised, 
and  hemp,  wheat,  Indian  corn,  and  the  other 
cereal  grains  are  cultivated  with  success. 
Great  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  are 
reared. 

Missouri  is  bountifully  supplied  with  navi- 
gable channels.  The  great  river  whose  name 
it  bears,  flows  through  its  centre,  and  the 
Mississippi  washes  all  its  eastern  line.  The 
Osage,  Gasconnade,  Grand,  and  Chariton 
are  the  most  considerable  tributaries  of  the 
Missouri.  In  mineral  treasures  Missouri  is 
very  rich.  Lead  and  iron  are  obtained  abun- 
dantly in  the  hilly  region  south  of  the  Mis- 
souri. Bituminous  coal  is  extensively  found. 

The  French  visited  this  country  very 
early,  but  formed  no  settlements  till  the 
middle  of  the  last  century.  St.  Genevieve 
was  founded  in  1763,  and  St.  Louis  in  1764. 


MIS 


Missouri  was  included  in  the  Louisiana  pur- 
chase, and  in  1821  became  a member  of  the 
Union,  the  Missouri  compromise  being  part 
of  the  arrangement,  but  being  repealed  in 
1854.  Missouri  was  early  and  long  a seat  of 
hostilities  during  the  rebellion.  It  refused 
to  secede  by  vote,  February  18,  1861,  but 
only  the  prompt  energy  of  General  (then 
Captain)  Lyon,  saved  it  to  the  Union.  Ly- 
on’s short  but  glorious  campaign,  Fremont’s 
campaign  and  command,  several  rebel  inva- 
sions from  Arkansas,  and  a long  series  of 
horrible  guerrilla  atrocities,  constitute  the 
war  record  of  the  state.  It  however  passed 
an  emancipation  ordinance  January  11,  1865, 
and  quietly  acquiesced  in  the  restoration  of 
national  authority.  It  is  now  likely  to  enter 
upon  a very  prosperous  career  as  a free  state. 

Jefferson  City,  on  the  Missouri,  the  capital 
of  the  state,  has  about  4,500  inhabitants.  The 
great  emporium  of  the  state  and  of  the  Missis- 
sippi valley  is  St.  Louis.  Till  it  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  Americans  it  was  a mere  vil- 
lage : since  the  transfer  it  has  thriven  plenti- 
fully, and  in  1870  had  310,864  inhabitants. 
As  prosperous  a future  would  seem  to  lie 
before  it. 

MITHRIDATES.  Mithridates  I.  was  the 
third  king  of  Pontus.  He  was  tributary  to 
the  crown  of  Persia,  and  his  attempts  to  make 
himself  independent  proved  fruitless.  He 
was  conquered  in  a battle,  and  obtained  peace 
with  difficulty.  Xenophon  calls  him  merely 
a governor  of  Cappadocia.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Ariobarzanes,  b.c.  363. 

The  second  of  this  name  was  grandson  to 


Mithridates  I.  He  made  himself  master  of 
Pontus,  which  had  been  conquered  by  Alex- 
ander, and  had  been  ceded  to  Antigonus  at 
the  general  division  of  the  Macedonian  empire 
among  the  conqueror’s  generals.  He  reigned 
about  twenty -six  years,  and  died  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  eighty-four,  b.c.  302. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Mithridates 

III.  This  enterprising  and  powerful  monarch 
enlarged  his  paternal  possessions  by  the  con- 
quest of  Cappadocia  and  Paphlagonia,  and 
died  after  a reign  of  thirty-six  years. 

The  fourth  succeeded  his  father  Ariobarza- 
nes, who  was  the  son  of  Mithridates  III. 

The  fifth  succeeded  his  father  Mithridates 

IV.  and  strengthened  himself  on  his  throne 
by  an  alliance  with  Antiochus  the  Great, 
whose  daughter  Laodice  he  married.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Pharnaces. 

The  sixth  succeeded  his  father  Pharnaces. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  kings  of  Pontus  who 
made  alliance  with  the  Romans.  He  furnished 
them  with  a fleet  in  the  third  Punic  war,  and 
assisted  them  against  Aristonicus,  who  had 
laid  claim  to  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus.  He 
was  murdered  b.c.  123. 

The  seventh,  surnamed  Eupator,  and  the 
Great,  succeeded  his  father  Mithridates  VI., 
though  only  at  the  age  of  eleven  years.  The 
beginning  of  his  reign  was  marked  by  ambi- 
tion, cruelty,  and  artifice.  He  murdered  the 
two  sons  whom  his  sister  Laodice  had  had  by 
Ariarathes,  King  of  Cappadocia,  and  placed 
one  of  his  own  children,  only  eight  years  old, 
on  the  vacant  throne.  These  violent  proceed 
ings  alarmed  Nicomedes,  King  of  Bithynia, 


MIT 


550 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


who  had  married  Laodice,  the  widow  of  Ari- 
arathes.  He  suborned  a youth  to  act  as  King 
of  Cappadocia,  as  the  third  son  of  Ariarathes, 
and  Laodice  was  sent  to  Rome  to  impose  upon 
the  senate,  and  assure  them  that  her  third 
son  was  still  alive,  and  that  his  pretensions  to 
the  kingdom  of  Cappadocia  were  just  and  well 
grounded.  Mithridates  used  the  same  arts  of 
dissimulation.  He  also  sent  to  Rome  Gordius, 
the  governor  of  his  son,  who  solemnly  declared 
before  the  Roman  people,  that  the  youth  who 
sat  on  the  throne  of  Cappadocia  was  the  third 
son  and  lawful  heir  of  Ariarathes,  and  that  he 
was  supported  as  such  by  Mithridates. 

This  intricate  affair  displeased  the  Roman 
senate ; and  finally,  to  settle  the  dispute  be- 
tween the  two  monarchs,  the  powerful  and 
rapacious  arbiters  took  away  the  kingdom  of 
Cappadocia  from  Mithridates,  and  Paphlago- 
nia  from  Nicomedes.  These  two  kingdoms 
being  thus  separated  from  their  original  pos- 
sessors, were  presented  with  their  freedom  and 
independence ; but,  the  Cappadocians  refused 
it,  and  received  Ariobarzanes  for  king.  Such 
were  the  first  seeds  of  enmity  between  Rome 
and  the  King  of  Pontus. 

Mithridates,  the  more  effectually  to  destroy 
the  power  of  his  enemies  in  Asia,  ordered  all 
the  Romans  that  were  in  his  dominions  to  be 
massacred.  This  was  done  in  one  night,  and 
no  less  than  150,000,  according  to  Plutarch, 
or  80,000  Romans,  as  Appian  mentions,  were 
made  at  one  blow  the  victims  of  his  cruelty. 
This  universal  massacre  called  aloud  for  re- 
venge. Aquilius,  and  soon  after  Sylla, 
marched  against  Mithridates,  with  a large 
army.  The  former  was  made  prisoner;  but 
Sylla  obtained  a victory  over  the  king’s  gen- 
erals, and  another  decisive  engagement  ren- 
dered him  master  of  all  Greece,  Macedonia, 
Ionia,  and  Asia  Minor,  which  had  submitted 
to  the  victorious  arms  of  the  monarch  of  Pon- 
tus. This  ill  fortune  was  aggravated  by  the 
loss  of  about  200,000  men,  who  were  killed  in 
the  several  engagements  that  had  been  fought ; 
and  Mithridates,  weakened  by  repeated  ill 
success  by  sea  and  land,  sued  for  peace  from 
the  conqueror,  which  he  obtained  on  condition 
of  defraying  the  expenses  that  the  Romans 
had  incurred  by  the  war,  and  of  remaining 
satisfied  with  the  possessions  which  he  had 
received  from  his  ancestors. 

While  these  negotiations  of  peace  were  car- 


ried on,  Mithridates  was  not  unmindful  of  his 
real  interests.  His  distress,  and  not  his  in- 
clinations, obliged  him  to  ask  for  peace.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  Sylla,  he  took  the  field  with 
an  army  of  140,000  infantry  and  16,000  horse, 
which  consisted  of  his  own  forces  and  those 
of  his  son-in-law  Tigranes,  King  of  Armenia. 
With  such  a numerous  army,  he  soon  made 
himself  master  of  the  Roman  provinces  in 
Asia ; none  dared  to  oppose  his  conquests,  as 
the  Romans,  relying  on  his  fidelity,  had  with- 
drawn the  greatest  part  of  their  armies  from 
the  country. 

The  news  of  his  warlike  preparations  was 
no  sooner  heard,  than  Lucullus,  the  consul, 
marched  into  Asia,  and  without  delay  blocked 
up  the  camp  of  Mithridates,  who  was  then 
besieging  Cyzicus.  The  Asiatic  monarch 
escaped  from  him,  and  fled  into  the  heart  of 
his  kingdom.  Lucullus  pursued  him  with  the 
utmost  celerity,  and  would  have  taken  him 
prisoner  after  a battle,  had  not  the  avidity  of 
his  soldiers  preferred  the  plundering  of  a mule 
loaded  with  gold,  to  the  taking  of  a monarch 
who  had  exercised  such  cruelties  against  their 
countrymen,  and  shown  himself  so  faithless 
to  the  most  solemn  engagements. 

The  appointment  of  Glabrio  to  the  command 
of  the  Roman  forces,  instead  of  Lucullus,  was 
favorable  to  Mithridates,  and  he  recovered  the 
greatest  part  of  his  dominions.  The  sudden 
arrival  of  Pompey,  however,  soon  put  an  end 
to  his  victories.  A battle,  in  the  night,  was 
fought  near  the  Euphrates,  in  which  the  troops 
of  Pontus  labored  under  every  disadvantage. 
An  universal  overthrow  ensued,  and  Mithri- 
dates, bold  in  his  misfortunes,  rushed  through 
the  thick  ranks  of  the  enemy,  at  the  head  of 
eight  hundred  horsemen,  five  hundred  of 
whom  perished  in  the  attempt  to  follow  him. 
He  found  a safe  retreat  among  the  Scythians ; 
and,  though  destitute  of  power,  friends,  and 
resources,  he  yet  meditated  the  destruction  of 
the  Roman  empire,  by  penetrating  into  the 
heart  of  Italy  by  land.  These  wild  projects 
were  rejected  by  his  followers,  and  he  sued 
for  peace.  It  was  denied  to  his  ambassadors, 
and  the  victorious  Pompey  declared  that  to 
obtain  it,  Mithridates  must  ask  it  in  person. 
He  scorned  to  trust  himself  in  thfe  hands  of 
his  enemy,  and  resolved  to  conquer  or  to  die. 
His  subjects  refused  to  follow  him  any  longer, 
and  they  revolted  from  him,  and  made  his  son 


MIT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


551 


Pharnaces  king.  The  son  showed  himself 
ungrateful  to  his  father,  and  even,  according 
to  some  writers,  ordered  him  to  be  put  to 
death. 

This  unnatural  treatment  broke  the  . heart 
of  Mithridates  ; he  obliged  his  wife  to  poison 
herself,  and  attempted  to  do  the  same  himself. 
It  was  in  vain : the  frequent  antidotes  he  had 
taken  in  the  early  part  of  his  life  strengthened 
his  constitution  against  the  poison.  When 
this  was  unavailing,  he  attempted  to  stab  him- 
self. The  blow  was  not  mortal ; and  a Gaul, 
who  was  then  present,  at  his  own  request  gave 
him  the  fatal  stroke,  about  63  b.c.,  in  the 
seventy-second  year  of  his  age.  This  prince, 
who  made  war  against  the  Romans  forty  years, 
and  was  never  entirely  vanquished  but  by 
Pompey,  although  he  had  lost,  many  battles 
against  Lucullus,  has  been  much  praised. 
Cicero  calls  him  the  greatest  of  kings  since 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  tales 
of  his  cruelty  and  lack  of  faith  come  to  us 
through  the  Romans : we  do  not  hear  Mithri- 
dates’ side. 

MODENA,  a duchy  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
containing  586,500  inhabitants.  In  1796  the 
Duke  of  Modena  was  expelled  from  his  domin- 
ions by  the  French:  in  1797  they  were  in- 
corporated with  the  Cisalpine  republic ; in 
1814  they  were  restored  to  the  duke;  and 
by  the  peace  of  Villa  Franca,  in  1859,  Mo- 
dena became  . part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

MOHATZ,  Battles  of,  in  lower  Hungary. 
In  a great  battle  .here,  Louis  of  Hungary  was 
defeated  by  the  Turks  under  Solyman  II., 
with  the  loss  of  22,000  men,  1526.  Prince 
Charles  of  Lorraine  defeated  the  Turks  here 
in  1687. 

MOHILOW,  Battle  of,  July  23d,  1812,  in 
which  the  Russians  under  Prince  Bagration 
were  defeated  with  immense  loss  by  the 
French  under  Marshal  Davoust. 

MOLDAVIA,  one  of  the  Danubian  princi- 
palities, has  an  area  of  17,000  square  miles, 
and  a population  of  1,254,500.  Jassy,  the 
capital,  has  about  50,000  inhabitants. 

MOLIERE,  John  Baptist,  a much  celebra- 
ted French  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Paris, 
1622,  died  1673,  aged  fifty-one.  His  pater- 
nal name  was  Poquelin. 

MOLINO  DEL  REY.  This  strong  fortifi- 
cation, defended  by  14,000  Mexicans  under 
Santa  Anna,  was  carried  by  the  Americans 


under  Gen.  Worth,  Sept.  8th,  1847.  The  loss 
of  the  Mexicans  in  killed  and  wounded  was 
3,000,  besides  2,000  who  deserted  during  the 
conflict.  The  American  loss  was  116  killed, 
665  wounded,  and  18  missing.  The  capture 
of  Molino  del  Rey  was  an  important  step 
toward  gaining  the  city  of  Mexico. 

MOLUCCAS,  or  Spice  Islands,  lie  between 
the  Sunda  Isles,  the  Philippines,  and  New 
Holland.  These  islands  were  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1511,  but  now  belong  to 
the  Dutch,  who  obtain  from  them  sandal- 
wood, cloves,  and  spices.  Ambojma  is  the 
largest  and  most  productive  of  the  Molucca 
Islands.  It  is  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  length. 
In  1623  the  merchants  of  the  English  factory 
here  were  tortured  and  put  to  death  by  the 
Dutch.  The  United  Provinces  refused  satis- 
faction to  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  but  paid  to 
Cromwell  £300,000  as  a small  indemnity. 

MOLWITZ,  Battle  of,  April  10th  (March 
30th),  1741.  Frederick  III.  obtained  a great 
victory  over  the  Austrians. 

MONCEY,  Adrien,  Duke  of  Conegliano 
and  marshal  of  the  empire,  was  born  at  Be- 
sancon  in  1754,  and  entered  the  army  at  the 
age  of  fifteen.  He  served  variously  in  the 
wars  of  Napoleon.  As  governor  of  the  Inva- 
lides  he  received  the  ashes  of  his  former  em- 
peror in  1840.  He  died  in  1842. 

MONEY  is  mentioned  as  a medium  of  com- 
merce in  Genesis  xxiii.,  when  Abraham  pur- 
chased a field  as  a sepulchre  for  Sarah,  in  the 
year  of  the  world  2139.  In  profane  history 
the  coinage  of  money  is  ascribed  to  the  Lydi- 
ans. Moneta  was  the  name  the  Romans  gave 
their  silver,  it  having  been  coined  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Juno  Moneta,  269  b.c.  Money  was 
made  of  different  ores,  and  even  of  leather 
and  other  articles,  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times.  It  was  made  of  pasteboard  by  the 
Hollanders  so  late  as  1574.  Charles  II.  coined 
tin,  and  James  II.  gun  metal  and  pewter. 
The  North  American  Indians  used  for  money, 
small  beads  made  of  variously  colored  shells, 
which  they  called  wampum.  [ See  Coin.] 

MONGOLS.  The  name  of  Mongolia  is 
now  given  to  a vast  extent  of  country  in  the 
interior  of  Asia,  between  38°  and  53°  N.  lat., 
84°  and  124°  E.  long.,  comprising  an  area  of 
about  1,250,000  square  miles.  Like  their 
ancestors,  the  Mongols  of  to-day  lead  a noma- 
dic life,  subsisting  on  the  produce  of  their 


MON 


552 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


herds,  without  attempting  to  till  the  ground. 
Their  wealth  consists  in  their  numerous 
droves  of  camels,  horses,  and  sheep.  All  the 
Mongols  speak  the  same  language,  and  admit 
that  they  all  belong  to  the  same  nation  and 
have  a common  origin.  They  are  under  the 
government  of  the  Chinese,  though  there  is 
indelible  hatred  between  the  two  races.  Ac- 
cording to  a rough  estimate,  it  is  thought  that 
the  Mongols,  after  having  lived  in  peace  for 
more  than  a century,  can  bring  to  the  field 
500,000  warriors  ; and  as  each  man  is  a war- 
rior, it  is  presumed  that  the  whole  population 
does  not  exceed  2,000,000.  The  Mongols  have 
been  improperly  confounded  with  the  Tartars : 
no  two  nations  could  be  more  distinct  phys- 
ically. The  names  of  Mongols  and  Tartars 
did  not  become  known  until  after  the  con- 
quests of  Genghis  Khan,  who  honored  his 
tribes  with  the  pompous  title  of  Koelcae  Mon-  j 
ghoel  (celestial  people);  whereas  the  con- 
quered Turki  hordes  were  called  Tartars 
(tributaries). 

Genghis  Khan,  born  in  1163,  became  the 
chief  of  a petty  Mongol  clan  in  the  thirteenth 
year  of  his  age,  and  having  first  overcome  the  j 
neighboring  hordes,  he  soon  united  the  nu-  | 
merous  wandering  tribes  into  a conquering 
nation,  and  successively  subdued  the  greatest 
part  of  Asia.  His  son  Oktai  was  equally  suc- 
cessful. In  their  western  expeditions  the 
Mongol  armies  advanced  even  to  Hungary 
and  Silesia ; so  that  after  the  dreadful  battle 
of  Wahlstadt  (1241)  the  Mongol  empire  ex- 
tended from  the  northern  provinces  of  China 
to  the  frontiers  of  Poland  and  Germany.  The 
Khalkha  Mongols,  under  Kublai  Khan,  con- 
quered all  China,  and  held  it  for  a century. 
During  the  thirteenth  century  this  vast  em- 
pire gradually  split  into  several  independent 
sovereignties,  till  it  was  once  more  united, 
and  even  considerably  enlarged  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Hindostan,  by  the  famous  Tamerlane, 
after  whose  brilliant  career  (1335-1405)  the 
Mongol  empire  slowly  dissolved.  In  1519  a 
lineal  descendant  from  Tamerlane,  Zehireddin 
Mohammed  Baber,  founded  a new  monarchy 
in  Hindostan,  erroneously  called  the  Mogul 
empire. 

MONK,  George,  Duke  of  Albemarle,  was 
born  in  Devonshire  in  1608.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen,  he  served  under  his  relation,  Sir 
Richard  Grenville,  in  an  expedition  against 


Spain;  and,  in  1630  he  went  as  an  ensign 
to  the  Low  Countries,  where  he  obtained  a 
captain’s  commission.  In  1639  he  attended 
Charles  I.  to  Scotland,  and  was  made  lieu- 
tenant colonel ; afterward  he  went  to  Ireland, 
and,  for  his  services  in  the  rebellion,  was 
appointed  governor  of  Dublin.  On  his  re- 
turn to  England  with  his  regiment,  in  1643, 
he  was  made  major-general  in  the  Irish  bri- 
gade, then  employed  in  the  siege  of  Nant- 
wich,  in  Cheshire,  where  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner, and  sent  to  the  Tower.  After  remaining 
in  confinement  about  three  years,  he  was 
induced  to  accept  a commission  under  the 
parliament  against  the  Irish  rebels  ; in  which 
service  he  performed  several  great  exploits, 
but  at  last  fell  under  censure,  for  concluding 
a treaty  with  O’Neil.  Upon  this  he  gave  up 
the  command,  and  retired  to  his  estate  ; but 
was  soon  called  to  serve  with  Cromwell  in 
Scotland,  where  he  bore  a part  in  the  battle 
of  Dunbar ; after  which  he  was  left  in  the 
command  of  the  English  forces  in  that  king- 
dom. 

In  1653  he  was  joined  with  Blake  and 
Dean  in  the  naval  service  against  the  Dutch 
fleet,  commanded  by  Van  Tromp,  with  wThom 
two  desperate  battles  were  fought  that  year, 
in  both  of  which  the  English  were  victorious. 
Peace  being  soon  after  concluded,  Monk  re- 
turned to  the  command  in  Scotland,  where 
he  remained  during  the  protectorate  of  Crom- 
well, who  regarded  him  with  jealousy,  and 
even  imparted  to  him  in  a letter,  the  suspi- 
cions which  he  entertained  of  his  design  to 
restore  the  king.  Monk  took  no  notice  of 
this,  but  watched  his  opportunity ; and  when 
the  authority  of  Richard  Cromwell  declined, 
he  began  his  movements,  and  concluded  them 
with  so  much  judgment  as  to  bring  about 
that  important  event  without  bloodshed  or 
confusion.  After  this  he  was  created  Duke 
of  Albemarle,  and  knight  of  the  garter.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  not  spent  inactively  ; 
for  when  hostilities  broke  out  with  the  Dutch, 
he  again  commanded  the  fleet,  and  fought 
De  Ruyter  and  Van  Tromp  in  a tremendous 
battle,  which  lasted  three  days.  The  duke 
had  scarcely  returned  into  port  before  he  was 
called  to  London,  in  consequence  of  the  dread- 
ful fire  which  laid  the  greatest  part  of  the 
capital  in  ashes ; and  so  acceptable  was  he  to 
the  people,  that  when  he  passed  along,  they 


MON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


553 


cried  out,  If  his  grace  had  been  there,  the 
city  would  not  have  been  burned.”  He  died 
Jan.  3d,  1670,  and  was  buried  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey.  By  his  duchess,  who  survived 
him  but  a few  months,  he  had  one  son, 
Christopher,  who  died  governor  of  Jamaica, 
without  issue,  in  1688. 

MONMOUTH,  Battle  of.  During  Sir 
Henry  Clinton’s  march  to  New  York  through 
New  Jersey  in  1778,  after  evacuating  Phila- 
delphia, Washington  hovered  upon  his  rear. 
An  engagement  took  place  at  Monmouth 
court-house,  the  28th  of  June.  The  retreat 
of  Gen.  Lee,  who  commanded  the  American 
advance,  embarrassed  Washington’s  plans, 
but  after  a severely  contested  day  the  advan- 
tage rested  with  the  patriots ; and  during  the 
night  the  British  hurried  away.  The  day  was 
very  hot,  and  both  sides  suffered  intensely 
from  thirst. 

MONMOUTH,  James,  Duke  of.  Charles 
II.,  of  England,  while  a wanderer  on  the  conti- 
nent, fell  in  at  the  Hague  with  Lucy  Walters, 
a Welsh  girl  of  great  beauty,  but  of  weak 
understanding  and  dissolute  manners.  She 
became  his  mistress,  and  presented  him  with 
a son.  A suspicious  lover  might  have  had 
his  doubts ; for  the  lady  had  several  admirers, 
and  was  not  supposed  to  be  cruel  to  any. 
Charles,  however,  readily  took  her  word,  and 
poured  forth  on  little  James  Crofts,  as  the 
boy  was  then  called,  an  overflowing  fondness, 
such  as  seemed  hardly  to  belong  to  that  easy, 
but  cool  and  careless  nature.  Soon  after  the 
restoration,  the  young  favorite,  who  had 
learned  in  France  the  exercises  then  consid- 
ered necessary  to  a fine  gentleman,  made  his 
appearance  at  Whitehall.  He  was  lodged  in 
the  palace,  attended  by  pages,  and  permitted 
to  enjoy  several  distinctions  which  had  till 
then  been  confined  to  princes  of  the  blood 
royal.  He  was  married,  while  still  in  tender 
youth,  to  Anne  Scott,  heiress  of  the  noble 
house  of  Buccleuch.  He  took  her  name,  and 
received  with  her  hand  possession  of  her 
ample  domains.  Titles,  and  favors  more  sub- 
stantial than  titles,  were  lavished  on  him. 
Nor  did  he  appear  to  the  public  unworthy  of 
his  high  fortunes.  His  countenance  was  em- 
inently handsome  and  engaging,  his  temper 
sweet,  his  manners  polite  and  affable. 

When  Charles  II.  and  Louis  XIY.  united 
their  forces  against  Holland,  Monmouth  com- 


manded the  English  auxiliaries  who  were 
sent  to  the  continent,  and  approved  himself  a 
gallant  soldier  and  a not  unintelligent  officer. 
On  his  return  he  found  himself  the  most  pop- 
ular man  in  the  kingdom.  Nothing  was 
withheld  from  him  but  the  crown ; nor  did 
even  the  crown  seem  to  be  absolutely  beyond 
his  reach.  The  distinction  which  had  most 
injudiciously  been  made  between  him  and 
the  highest  nobles  had  produced  evil  conse- 
quences. When  a boy,  he  had  been  invited 
to  put  on  his  hat  in  the  presence  chamber, 
while  Howards  and  Seymours  stood  uncov- 
ered round  him.  When  foreign  princes 
died,  he  had  mourned  for  them  in  the  long 
purple  cloak,  which  no  other  subject,  except 
the  Duke  of  York  and  Prince  Rupert,  was 
permitted  to  wear.  It  was  natural  that  these 
things  should  lead  him  to  regard  himself  as  a 
legitimate  prince  of  the  house  of  Stuart. 
Charles,  even  at  a ripe  age,  was  devoted  to 
his  pleasures  and  regardless  of  his  dignity. 
It  could  hardly  be  thought  incredible  that  he 
should  at  twenty  have  gone  through  the  form 
of  espousing  a woman  whose  beauty  had  fas- 
cinated him,  and  who  was  not  to  be  won  on 
easier  terms.  While  Monmouth  was  still  a 
child,  and  while  the  Duke  of  York  still  passed 
for  a Protestant,  it  was  rumored  throughout 
the  country,  and  even  in  circles  which  ought 
to  have  been  well  informed,  that  the  king 
had  made  Lucy  Walters  his  wife,  and  that, 
if  every  one  had  his  right,  her  son  would  be 
Prince  of  Wales.  When  Monmouth  returned 
from  the  Low  Countries  with  a high  charac- 
ter for  valor  and  conduct,  and  when  the  Duke 
of  York  was  known  to  be  a member  of  a 
church  detested  by  the  great  majority  of  the 
nation,  this  idle  story  became  important. 
For  it  there  was  not  the  slightest  evidence. 
Against  it  there  was  the  solemn  asseveration 
of  the  king,  made  before  his  council,  and  by 
his  order  communicated  to  his  people;  but 
the  multitude,  always  fond  of  romantic  adven- 
tures, drank  in  eagerly  the  tale  of  secret 
espousals. 

Some  chiefs  of  the  party  opposed  to  the 
court,  countenanced  a story  which  they  must 
have  despised.  The  interest  which  the  pop- 
ulace took  in  him  whom  they  regarded  as  the 
champion  of  the  true  religion,  and  the  right- 
ful heir  of  the  British  throne,  was  kept  up  by 
every  artifice.  When  Monmouth  arrived  in 


MON 


554 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


London  at  midnight,  the  watchmen  were 
ordered  by  the  magistrates  to  proclaim  the 
joyful  event  through  the  streets  of  the  city ; 
the  people  left  their  beds ; bonfires  were 
lighted;  the  windows  were  illuminated;  the 
churches  were  opened ; and  a merry  peal  rose 
from  all  the  steeples.  When  he  traveled,  he 
was  everywhere  received  with  not  less  pomp, 
and  with  far  more  enthusiasm,  than  had  been 
displayed  when  kings  had  made  progresses 
through  the  realm.  He  was  escorted  from 
mansion  to  mansion  by  long  cavalcades  of 
armed  gentlemen  and  yeomen.  Cities  poured 
forth  their  whole  population  to  receive  him. 
Electors  thronged  round  him,  to  assure  him 
that  their  votes  were  at  his  disposal.  To 
such  a height  were  his  pretensions  carried, 
that  he  not  only  exhibited  on  his  escutcheon 
the  lions  of  England  and  the  lilies  of  France 
without  the  baton  sinister  under  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  heraldry,  they  were 
debruised  in  token  of  his  illegitimate  birth, 
but  ventured  to  touch  for  the  king’s-evil. 
At  the  same  time,  he  neglected  no  art  of 
condescension  by  which  the  love  of  the  mul- 
titude could  be  conciliated.  He  stood  god- 
father to  the  children  of  the  peasantry, 
mingled  in  every  rustic  sport,  wrestled, 
played  at  quarter-staff,  and  won  foot-races  in 
his  boots  against  fleet  runners  in  shoes. 

In  the  projects  that  cost  Russell  and  Sid- 
ney their  lives,  Monmouth  was  implicated  ; 
and  though  forgiven  by  his  easy  father,  he 
soon  gave  new  cause  of  offense,  and  thought 
it  prudent  to  go  into  voluntary  exile  in  Hol- 
land. He  was  accompanied  by  Lady  Went- 
worth, a damsel  of  high  rank  and  ample 
fortune,  who  loved  him  passionately,  who 
sacrificed  for  his  sake  her  maiden  honor  and 
the  hope  of  a splendid  alliance,  and  whom 
he  declared  to  be  his  true  wife,  rather  than 
her  to  whom  he  had  been  wedded  while  only 
a child.  After  the  death  of  his  father,  and 
the  development  of  the  tyrannous  schemes 
of  James,  desperate  men  sought  Monmouth 
in  his  banishment,  with  tempting  plans  for 
raising  him  to  the  throne.  The  ambition 
and  love  of  Lady  Wentworth  seconded  their 
solicitations,  and  she  placed  all  her  means  at 
his  disposal.  Monmouth  yielded.  He  re- 
membered his  popularity,  and  success  seemed 
certain.  With  a small  force,  he  landed  on 
the  coast  of  Somersetshire,  in  June,  1685. 


The  people  flocked  to  the  standard  of  the 
good  duke,  the  Protestant  duke,  the  rightful 
heir  whom  a vile  conspiracy  kept  from  his 
own.  At  Taunton  he-was  proclaimed  king. 
But  in  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor  on  the  6th 
of  July,  the  royal  armies  commanded  by 
Feversham  and  Churchill  were  completely 
victorious  over  the  colliers  and  ploughmen 
who  composed  the  insurgent  force.  The 
rebellion  was  broken ; its  retribution  followed 
in  the  death  and  terror  with  which  the  infa- 
mous Jeffreys  soon  darkened  the  land  in  the 
bloody  assizes. 

The  fugitive  and  miserable  Monmouth  was 
captured  after  lurking  in  the  fields  a few  days. 
His  fortitude  failed  him,  and  he  sunk  into 
pusillanimity.  His  royal  uncle  cruelly  ad- 
mitted him  to  an  interview.  Monmouth 
threw  himself  on  the  ground,  and  crawled  to 
the  king’s  feet.  He  wept.  He  tried  to  em- 
brace his  uncle’s  knees  with  his  pinioned 
arms.  He  begged  for  life,  only  life,  life  at 
any  price.  He  owned  that  he  had  been 
guilty  of  a great  crime,  but  tried  to  throw 
the  blame  on  others.  By  the  ties  of  kindred, 
by  the  memory  of  the  late  king,  who  had 
been  the  best  and  truest  of  brothers,  the 
unhappy  man  adjured  James  to  show  some 
mercy.  James  gravely  replied  that  this  re- 
pentance was  of  the  latest ; that  he  was  sorry 
for  the  misery  which  the  prisoner  had  brought 
on  himself,  but  that  the  case  was  not  one  for 
lenity.  A declaration,  filled  with  atrocious 
calumnies,  had  been  put  forth.  The  regal 
title  had  been  assumed.  For  treason  so 
aggravated  there  could  be  no  pardon  on  this 
side  of  the  grave.  The  poor  terrified  duke 
vowed  that  he  had  never  wished  to  take  the 
crown,  but  had  been  led  into  that  fatal  error 
by  others.  As  to  the  declaration,  he  had  not 
written  it.  He  had  not  read  it.  He  had 
signed  it  without  looking  at  it.  “Do  you 
expect  me  to  believe,”  said  James,  with  con- 
tempt but  too  well  merited,  “that  you  set 
your  hand  to  a paper  of  such  moment  without 
knowing  what  it  contained?”  One  depth  of 
infamy  alone  remained,  and  even  to  that  the 
prisoner  descended.  He  was  pre-eminently 
the  champion  of  the  Protestant  religion. 
The  interest  of  that  religion  had  been  his 
plea  for  conspiring  against  the  government 
of  his  father,  and  for  bringing  on  his  country 
the  miseries  of  civil  war;  yet  he  was  not 


MON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


555 


ashamed  to  hint  that  he  was  inclined  to  be 
reconciled  to  the  church  of  Rome.  The  king 
eagerly  offered  him  spiritual  assistance,  but 
said  nothing  of  pardomor  respite.  “ Is  there, 
then,  no  hope  s'”  asked  Monmouth.  James 
turned  away  in  silence.  Then  Monmouth 
strove  to  rally  his  courage,  rose  from  his 
knees,  and  retired  with  a firmness  which  he 
had  not  shown  since  his  overthrow. 

Soon  after  Monmouth  had  been  lodged  in 
the  Tower,  he  was  informed  that  his  wife  had, 
by  the  royal  command,  been  sent  to  see  him. 
She  was  accompanied  by  the  Earl  of  Claren- 
don. Her  husband  received  her  very  coldly, 
and  addressed  almost  all  his  discourse  to 
Clarendon,  whose  intercession  he  earnestly 
implored.  Clarendon  held  out  no  hopes ; and 
that  same  evening  two  prelates,  Turner, 
Bishop  of  Ely,  and  Ken,  Bishop  of  Bath  and 
Wells,  arrived  at  the  Tower  with  a solemn 
message  from  the  king.  It  was  Monday 
night.  On  Wednesday  morning  Monmouth 
was  to  die.  He  was  greatly  agitated.  The 
blood  left  his  cheeks ; and  it  was  some  time 
before  he  could  speak.  Most  of  the  short 
time  which  remained  to  him  he  wasted  in 
vain  attempts  to  obtain,  if  not  a pardon,  at 
least  a respite.  He  wrote  piteous  letters  to 
the  king  and  to  several  courtiers,  but  in  vain. 
Some  Catholic  divines  were  sent  to  him  from 
court ; but  they  soon  discovered  that,  though 
he  would  gladly  have  purchased  his  life  by 
renouncing  the  religion  of  which  he  had  pro- 
fessed himself  in  an  especial  manner  the 
defender,  yet,  if  he  was  to  die,  he  would  as 
soon  die  without  their  absolution  as  with  it. 

Wednesday  came ; the  hour  drew  near ; all 
hope  was  over ; and  Monmouth  had  passed 
from  pusillanimous  fear  to  the  apathy  of  de- 
spair. His  children  were  brought  to  his 
room  that  he  might  take  leave  of  them,  and 
were  followed  by  his  wife.  He  spoke  to  her 
kindly,  but  without  emotion.  Though  she 
was  a woman  of  great  strength  of  mind,  and 
had  little  cause  to  love  him,  her  misery  was 
such  that  none  of  the  bystanders  could  refrain 
from  weeping.  He  alone  was  unmoved. 

It  was  ten  o’clock : the  coach  of  the  lieu- 
tenant of  the  Tower  was  ready.  Monmouth 
requested  his  spiritual  advisers,  Turner  and 
Ken,  to  accompany  him  to  the  scaffold,  and 
they  consented ; but  they  told  him  that,  in 
their  judgment,  he  was  about  to  die  in  a per- 


ilous state  of  mind,  and  that,  if  they  attended 
him,  it  would  be  their  duty  to  exhort  him  to 
the  last.  As  he  passed  along  the  ranks  of 
the  guards  he  saluted  them  with  a smile, 
and  mounted  the  scaffold  with  a firm  tread. 
Tower  Hill  was  covered  up  to  the  chimney 
tops  with  an  innumerable  multitude  of  gazers, 
who,  in  awful  silence,  broken  only  by  sighs 
and  the  noise  of  weeping,  listened  for  the  last 
accents  of  the  darling  of  the  peopie.  “I 
shall  say  little,”  he  began.  “ I come  here  not 
to  speak  but  to  die.  I die  a Protestant  of  the 
Church  of  England.”  The  bishops  inter- 
rupted him,  and  told  him  that,  unless  he 
acknowledged  resistance  to  the  king  to  be 
sinful,  he  was  no  member  of  their  church. 
He  went  on  to  speak  of  his  Henrietta.  She 
was,  he  said,  a young  lady  of  virtue  and 
honor.  He  loved  her  to  the  last,  and  he 
could  not  .die  without  giving  utterance  to  his 
feelings.  The  bishops  again  interfered,  and 
begged  him  not  to  use  such  language.  Their 
general  arguments  against  resistance  had  no 
effect  on  him  ; but  when  they  reminded  him 
of  the  ruin  he  had  brought  on  his  brave  and 
loving  followers,  of  the  blood  which  had  been 
shed,  of  the  souls  which  had  been  sent  un- 
prepared to  the  great  account,  he  was  touched, 
and  said,  in  a softened  voice,  “I  do  own  that. 
I am  sorry  that  it  ever  happened.”  They 
prayed  with  him  long  and  fervently  ; and  he 
joined  in  their  petitions  till  they  invoked  a 
blessing  on  the  king.  He  remained  silent. 
“ Sir,”  said  one  of  the  assistants,  “ do  you  not 
pray  for  the  king  with  us?”  Monmouth 
paused  some  time,  and  after  an  internal 
struggle,  exclaimed  “Amen.”  But  it  was  in 
vain  that  the  prelates  implored  him  to  ad- 
dress to  the  soldiers  and  to  the  people  a few 
words  on  the  duty  of  obedience  to  the  gov- 
ernment. “I  will  make  no  speeches,”  he 
exclaimed.  “ Only  ten  words,  my  lord.”  He 
turned  away,  called  his  servant,  and  put  into 
the  man’s  hand  a toothpick-case,  the  last 
token  of  ill-starred  love.  “ Give  it,”  he  said, 
“to  that  person.”  He  then  accosted  John 
Ketch,  the  executioner,  a wretch  who  had 
butchered  many  brave  and  noble  victims,  and 
whose  name  has,  during  a century  and  a 
half,  been  vulgarly  given  to  all  who  have 
succeeded  him  in  his  odious  office.  “ Here,” 
said  the  duke,  “ are  six  guineas  for  you.  Do 
not  hack  me  as  you  did  my  Lord  Russell. 


MON 


556 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


I have  heard  that  you  struck  him  three  or 
four  times.  My  servant  will  give  you  some 
more  gold  if  you  do  the  work  well.”  He 
then  undressed,  felt  the  edge  of  the  axe, 
expressed  some  fear  that  it  was  not  sharp 
enough,  and  laid  his  head  on  the  block.  The 
divines  in  the  mean  time  continued  to  ejacu- 
late with  great  energy,  “God  accept  your 
repentance ; God  accept  your  imperfect  re- 
pentance.” 

The  hangman  addressed  himself  to  his 
office ; but  he  had  been  disconcerted  by  what 
the  duke  had  said.  The  first  blow  inflicted 
only  a slight  wound.  The  duke  struggled, 
rose  from  the  block,  and  looked  reproachfully 
at  the  executioner.  The  head  sank  down 
once  more.  The  stroke  was  repeated  again 
and  again ; but  still  the  neck  was  not  sev- 
ered, and  the  body  continued  to  move.  Yells 
of  rage  and  horror  rose  from  the  crowd. 
Ketch  flung  down  the  axe  with  a curse.  “ I 
can  not  do  it,”  he  said ; “ my  heart  fails  me.” 
“ Take  up  the  axe,  man,”  cried  the  sheriff. 
“ Fling  him  over  the  rails,”  roared  the  mob. 
At  length  the  axe  was  taken  up.  Two  more 
blows  extinguished  the  last  remains  of  life  ; 
but  a knife  was  used  to  separate  the  head 
from  the  shoulders.  The  crowd  was  wrought 
up  to  such  an  ecstacy  of  rage  that  the  execu- 
tioner was  in  danger  of  being  torn  in  pieces, 
and  was  conveyed  away  under  a strong 
guard.  In  the  mean  time  many  handkerchiefs 
were  dipped  in  the  duke’s  blood,  for  by  a 
large  part  of  the  multitude  he  was  regarded 
as  a martyr  who  had  died  for  the  Protestant 
religion.  The  head  and  body  were  placed  in 
a coffin  covered  with  black  velvet,  and  were 
laid  privately  under  the  communion-table  of 
St.  Peter’s  chapel  in  the  Tower. 

Yet  a few  months,  and  the  quiet  village  of 
Toddington,  in  Bedfordshire,  witnessed  a 
still  sadder  funeral.  Near  that  village  stood 
an  ancient  and  stately  hall,  the  seat  of  the 
Wentworths.  The  transept  of  the  parish 
church  had  long  been  their  burial-place.  To 
that  burial-place,  in  the  spring  which  followed 
the  death  of  Monmouth,  was  borne  the  coffin 
of  the  young  Baroness  Wentworth  of  Nettle- 
stede.  Her  family  reared  a sumptuous  mau- 
soleum over  her  remains ; but  a less  costly 
memorial  of  her  was  long  contemplated  with 
far  deeper  interest.  Her  name,  carved  by  the 
hand  of  him  whom  she  loved  too  well,  was, 


a few  years  ago,  still  discernible  on  a tree  in 
the  adjoining  park. 

It  was  not  by  Lady  Wentworth  alone  that 
the  memory  of  Monmouth  was  cherished  with 
idolatrous  fondness.  His  hold  on  the  hearts 
of  the  people  lasted  till  the  generation  which 
had  seen  him  had  passed  away.  Ribbons, 
buckles,  and  other  trifling  articles  of  apparel 
which  he  had  worn  were  treasured  up  as  pre- 
cious relics  by  those  who  had  fought  under 
him  at  Sedgemoor.  Old  men  who  long  sur- 
vived him  desired,  when  they  were  dying, 
that  these  trinkets  might  be  buried  with 
them.  Nay,  such  was  the  devotion  of  the 
people  to  their  unhappy  favorite,  that,  in  the 
face  of  the  strongest  evidence  by  which  the 
fact  of  a death  was  ever  verified,  many  con- 
tinued to  cherish  a hope  that  he  was  still 
living,  and  that  he  would  again  appear  in 
arms.  A person,  it  was  said,  who  was  re- 
markably like  Monmouth,  had  sacrificed  him- 
self to  save  the  Protestant  hero.  The  vulgar 
long  continued,  at  every  important  crisis,  to 
whisper  that  the  time  was  at  hand,  and  that 
King  Monmouth  would  soon  show  himself. 
In  1686  a knave  who  had  pretended  to  be 
the  duke,  and  had  levied  contributions  in 
several  villages  of  Wiltshire,  was  apprehended 
and  whipped  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn.  In 
1698,  when  England  had  long  enjoyed  con- 
stitutional freedom  under  a new  dynasty,  the 
son  of  an  innkeeper  passed  himself  on  the 
yeomanry  of  Sussex  as  their  beloved  Mon- 
mouth, and  defrauded  many  who  were  by  no 
means  of  the  lowest  class.  Five  hundred 
pounds  were  collected  for  him.  The  farmers 
provided  him  with  a horse.  Their  wives  sent 
him  baskets  of  chickens  and  ducks.  When 
this  impostor  was  thrown  into  prison  for 
his  frauds,  his  followers  maintained  him  in 
luxury.  Several  of  them  appeared  at  the 
bar  to  countenance  him  when  he  was  tried. 
So  long  did  this  delusion  last,  that,  when 
George  III.  had  been  some  years  on  the 
English  throne,  Voltaire  thought  it  necessary 
gravely  to  confute  the  hypothesis  that  the  man 
in  the  iron  mask  was  the  Duke  of  Monmouth. 

MONRO,  Alexander,  entitled  the  father 
of  the  medical  school  of  Edinburgh,  died  1767, 
aged  seventy. 

MONROE,  James,  the  fifth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  descended  from  one  of  the 
most  ancient  and  honorable  families  in  the 


MON 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


557 


Old  Dominion,  and  born  in  the  county  of  West- 
moreland, April  2d,  1759.  It  is  remarkable 
that  the  tide-water  section  of  Virginia  pro- 
duced four  out  of  the  first  five  presidents; 
Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Monroe 
having  been  born  therein,  and  within  a few 
miles  of  each  other.  In  his  eighteenth  year, 
Monroe  left  his  studies  at  the  college  of  Wil- 
liam and  Mary,  to  battle  for  freedom.  He 
fought  at  Harlem  Heights  and  White  Plains, 
was  wounded  at  Trenton,  and  for  his  gal- 
lantry received  the  command  of  an  infantry 
company.  During  the  campaigns  of  1777 
and  1778  he  acted  as  aid  to  Lord  Stirling, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  Brandywine, 
Germantown,  and  Monmouth.  From  1783 
to  1786  he  represented  his  state  in  the  con- 
tinental congress.  Mr.  Monroe  was  a member 
of  the  Virginia  convention  of  1788,  called  to 
decide  upon  the  adoption  of  the  federal  con- 
stitution which  had  been  framed.  Although 
he  had  been  convinced  of  the  inefficiency  of 
the  existing  confederation,  and  had  been 
earnest  for* a radical  change  in  the  form  of 
government,  he  was  not  willing  to  adopt  the 
instrument  that  had  been  framed,  without 
several  alterations.  He  acted  with  Patrick 
Henry  and  other  leading  men  in  opposition 
to  Madison,  Edmund  Randolph,  John  Mar- 
shall, and  others.  The  convention  finally 
assented  to  the  constitution  as  it  was,  but 
recommended,  at  the  same  time,  certain 
amendments.  Monroe  voted  nay.  Anti- 
Federalist  senators  were  chosen,  and  when 
Mr.  Grayson’s  time  expired  in  1790,  Mr. 
Monroe  succeeded  to  his  seat  in  the  senate. 
In  this  station  he  continued  till  1794,  when  he 
was  appointed  to  succeed  Gouverneur  Morris 
as  minister  to  France.  His  course  did  not 
coincide  with  the  views  of  Washington,  who 
therefore  recalled  him  in  1796,  appointing 
Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney  to  the  post. 
He  was  governor  of  Virginia  for  three  years 
succeeding  1799 ; in  1803  was  selected  by 
Jefferson  as  envoy  to  France,  and  minister  to 
Spain,  to  take  part  in  the  negotiations  for 
the  purchase  of  Louisiana;  he  succeeded 
Rufus  King  as  minister  to  the  court  of  St. 
James,  and  returned  home  in  1807.  Mr. 
Madison  appointed  him  secretary  of  state  in 
1811,  and  he  continued  in  that  department 
till  the  close  of  the  administration.  After 
the  capture  of  Washington  by  the  British, 


and  the  resignation  of  Gen.  Armstrong,  Mr. 
Monroe  assumed  the  burden  of  the  war  de- 
partment, without,  however,  relinquishing 
his  previous  position  in  the  cabinet.  His 
energy  was  of  great  avail.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  year  1814  his  attention  was  urgently 
called  to  the  danger  menacing  New  Orleans, 
against  which  the  enemy  had  dispatched  a 
powerful  fleet  and  army.  The  resources  of 
the  government  were  at  a low  ebb,  and  Mr. 
Monroe  wras  compelled  to  pledge  his  own 
credit.  He  was  thus  able  to  furnish  the 
needed  supplies,  New  Orleans  was  saved,  and 
the  war  brilliantly  closed  with  the  defeat  of 
Packenham. 

In  1817  Mr.  Monroe  succeeded  Madison  as 
chief  magistrate  of  the  country.  Among  the 
measures  which  marked  his  administration 
was  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  by  which 
Florida  was  added  to  the  United  States.  In 
1820  he  was  re-elected  with  more  unanimity 
than  any  president  except  Washington,  re- 
ceiving every  vote  of  the  electoral  college 
but  one.  At  the  close  of  his  second  term, 
in  1828,  he  retired  to  his  residence  in  Lou- 
don county,  Virginia,  where  he  was  shortly 
after  appointed  county  magistrate,  the  duties 
of  which  office  he  continued  to  discharge 
until  his  departure  for  the  city  df  New  York. 
Having  been  elected  in  1830,  to  the  conven. 
tion  called  for  a revision  of  the  state  consti- 
tution, he  was  chosen  to  preside  over  its 
deliberations ; severe  indisposition  forced  him 
to  retire.  The  next  summer  he  repaired 
to  New  York  to  reside  with  his  son-in-law, 
Mr.  Gouverneur.  There  his  career  on  earth 
ceased,  July  4th,  1831,  in  the  seventy-second 
year  of  his  age. 

Mr.  Monroe  was  not  a man  of  superior 
talents,  but  diligent  and  industrious  in  all 
the  duties  that  were  laid  upon  him,  and  of 
great  honesty  and  firmness  of  purpose. 

MONTAGUE,  Edward,  Earl  of  Sandwich, 
was  the  son  of  Sir  Sidney  Montague,  and 
born  in  1625.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
raised  a regiment  in  the  service  of  parliament, 
and  was  present  in  several  battles ; but  in 
the  Dutch  war  he  left  the  army  for  the  navy, 
and  was  associated  with  Blake  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Afterward  he  commanded  the  fleet 
in  the  North  Sea,  but  at  his  return  was 
deprived  of  it  on  suspicion  of  being  in  the 
royal  interest.  Monk,  however,  procured 


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COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


him  to  be  replaced;  and  he  conveyed  the 
king  to  England ; after  which  he  was  created 
Earl  of  Sandwich.  In  the  war  of  1664  he 
commanded  under  the  Duke  of  York,  and 
had  a principal  share  in  the  great  battle  of 
June  3d,  1665.  Soon  after  this  he  went  to 
Spain,  where  he  negotiated  a peace  between 
that  country  and  Portugal.  On  the  renewal 
of  the  Dutch  war  in  1672,  he  commanded  a 
squadron  under  the  Duke  of  York ; but  his 
ship  taking  fire,  he  jumped  overboard,  and 
was  drowned. 

MONTAIGNE,  Michael  de,  the  French 
essayist,  was  born  in  1533  and  died  in  1592. 
He  resided  almost  constantly  at  his  chateau 
in  Perigord,  and  his  essays  were  the  fruit  of 
his  reading  and  musing.  In  the  British 
Museum  there  is  preserved  one  of  the  ear- 
liest English  translations  of  Montaigne,  which 
has  the  autograph  of  Shakespeare  on  a fly- 
leaf. 

MONTCALM,  Louis  Joseph  de,  killed  on 
the  plains  of  Abraham,  1759;  he  was  com- 
mander of  the  French  army.  [See  Wolfe.] 

MONTECUCULI,  Raymond  de,  a great 
Italian  general,  died  in  1681,  aged  seventy- 
three. 

MONTEREAU,  Battle  of,  between  the 
allied  army  and  the  French,  Feb.  8th,  1814, 
was  one  of  the  last  victories  of  Napoleon. 

MONTEREY.  The  American  army  under 
Gen.  Taylor,  4,700  strong,  on  the  21st  of 
September,  1846,  assaulted  the  city  of  Mon- 
terey, which  was  held  by  Gen.  Ampudia 
with  10,000  Mexicans.  On  the  morning  of 
the  22d,  Gen.  Worth’s  division  stormed  the 
height  above  the  bishop’s  palace,  and  in  the 
afternoon  the  palace  itself  was  taken,  and  its 
guns  turned  upon  the  city.  The  next  eve- 
ning Ampudia,  who  had  concentrated  his 
forces  in  the  citadel  and  plaza,  sent  in  propo- 
sitions for  surrender.  The  American  loss, 
in  the  capture  of  Monterey,  was  120  killed 
and  368  wounded.  That  of  the  Mexicans 
was  much  greater. 

MONTESQUIEU,  Charles,  Baron  de, 
author  of  the  “Spirit  of  Laws,”  born  in 
France,  1689,  died  in  1755. 

MONTEZUMA,  the  monarch  of  Mexico 
at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Spaniards. 
At  a short  distance  from  the  city  of  Mexico, 
they  were  met  by  Montezuma  at  the  head 
of  his  nobles,  and  surrounded  by  his  guards 


and  courtiers.  Cortez  was  received  by  the 
emperor  with  hospitality  and  confidence 
which  he  soon  forfeited ; for  having  learned 
that  a traditionary  prophecy  was  current 
that  a powerful  nation,  children  of  the  sun, 
would  chastise  the  country,  as  a punishment 
for  their  sins,  he  readily  turned  the  idea  to 
his  own  advantage.  Cortez  came  to  the  de- 
termination of  seizing  Montezuma  in  his 
palace,  which  he  entered  with  ten  officers 
and  soldiers.  He  requested  Montezuma  to 
take  up  a temporary  residence  wTith  the 
Spaniards,  to  which  demand  the  monarch 
reluctantly  consented.  Here  he  suffered 
every  indignity ; and  Cortez,  on  a frivolous 
pretext  that  the  monarch  was  the  instigator 
of  some  tumults,  ordered  him  to  be  fettered 
and  thrown  into  prison. 

Montezuma  remained  a prisoner  six  months, 
during  which  period  Cortez  was  actively  em- 
ployed in  furthering  his  own  views.  The 
former  now  acknowledged  himself  in  form  a 
vassal  of  the  Spanish  king,  and  a tumult 
arising,  Cortez  placed  him  in  View  of  his 
enraged  subjects,  but  in  vain.  The  forlorn 
monarch  was  pierced  by  an  arrow,  and  died 
broken-hearted  and  despairing,  in  1520. 

MONTGOMERY,  Richard,  a brave  major- 
general  in  the  Revolutionary  army,  born  in 
Ireland,  in  1737.  He  settled  in  this  country, 
after  serving  under  Wolfe,  and  having  em- 
braced the  American  cause,  was  killed  in  an 
attack  upon  Quebec,  Dec.  31st,  1775. 

MONTGOMERY,  Gabriel,  Count,  a French 
nobleman,  who,  in  1559,  had  the  misfortune 
to  kill  Henry  II.  by  accidentally  striking  him 
in  the  eye  at  a tournament.  He  then  quitted 
France ; but  returned  during  the  civil  wars, 
and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Pro- 
testants. After  many  vicissitudes  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  beheaded  at  Paris  in 
1574. 

MONTROSE,  James  Graham,  Marquis  of, 
one  of  the  most  chivalrous  partisans  of 
Charles  I.,  who,  after  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts 
appeared  to  be  hopeless,  persevered  in  excit- 
ing insurrections  in  Scotland;  but  being 
taken  he  was  brought  to  Edinburgh,  tried, 
and  executed  on  a gibbet  forty  feet  high,  on 
the  23d  of  September,  1650. 

MOORE,  Sir  John,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in 
1761.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  John  Moore,  a 
well  known  physician,  the  author  of  “ Zeluco  ” 


MOO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


559 


and  other  works.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  obtained  an  ensigncy  in  the  fifty-first 
regiment  of  foot;  of  which,  in  1790,  he  be- 
came lieutenant  colonel,  and  served  with  his 
corps  in  Corsica,  where  he  was  wounded  in 
storming  the  Mozello  fort  at  the  siege  of  Calvi. 
In  1796  he  went  out  as  a brigadier-general  to 
the  West  Indies,  under  Sir  Ralph  Aber- 
crombie, who  appointed  him  to  the  govern- 
ment of  St.  Lucie,  in  the  capture  of  which 
he  had  a principal  share. 

On  his  return  home,  in  1797,  he  was  em- 
ployed in  Ireland  during  the  rebellion,  and 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  In 
1799  he  went  on  the  expedition  to  Holland, 
where  he  was  again  wounded  severely ; 
notwithstanding  which,  he  soon  afterward 
went  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  at  the  battle 
of  Alexandria  received  a cut  from  a sabre  on 
the  breast,  and  a shot  in  the  thigh.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  was  made  a knight  of 
the  bath ; and  in  1808  he  was  appointed  to 
command  an  army  in  Spain,  where,  after  a 
signal  retreat  before  Soult’s  superior  force, 
he  fell,  under  the  walls  of  Corunna,  Jan. 
16th,  1809. 

The  description  of  the  battle  of  Corunna, 
and  of  the  death  of  Sir  John  Moore,  is  thus 
briefly  given  by  Bisset.  The  British  army 
reached  Corunna  on  the  12th  of  January, 
1809,  having  lost  one-fourth  of  its  numbers. 
Their  situation  was  so  disadvantageous  that 
some  officers  suggested  the  proposal  of  terms 
to  Soult,  on  condition  that  he  should  permit 
the  troops  to  embark  unmolested.  Sir  John 
Moore  rejected  the  advice,  and  declared  his 
resolution  to  accept  no  terms  which  should 
be  in  the  least  dishonorable  to  the  army  or 
to  his  country.  In  the  evening  of  the  14th 
the  transports  from  the  Vigo  hove  in  sight. 
After  the  embarkation  of  the  troops  on  the 
16th,  orders  were  issued  that,  if  the  French 
did  not  move,  the  embarkation  of  the  reserve 
should  commence  at  four  in  the  afternoon. 

At  mid-day,  the  general  received  informa- 
tion that  the  enemy  were  getting  under 
arms.  Two  columns  of  the  enemy  directed 
their  march  on  the  right  wing  of  the  British, 
which  was  disadvantageously  posted.  Sir 
John  Moore  hastened  to  this  part  of  the  field, 
when  the  fourth  regiment  on  the  right  flank 
was  menaced  by  a body  of  the  enemy  who 
were  hastening  up  the  valley  to  turn  it.  He 


proceeded  to  direct  the  movements  of  the 
other  regiments  in  this  division,  and  was  in 
the  act  of  ordering  up  the  guards  to  support 
the  forty-second  Highlanders,  when  he  was 
struck  from  his  horse  by  a cannon-ball,  which 
carried  away  his  left  shoulder  and  part  of  the 
collar-bone,  leaving  the  arm  hanging  by  the 
flesh.  He  was  borne  away  by  six  soldiers 
of  the  forty-second. 

The  troops  continued  to  fight  bravely 
under  Sir  John  Hope,  on  whom  the  command 
devolved,  and  at  nightfall  remained  masters 
of  the  field.  This  victory  was  obtained  un- 
der great  disadvantages ; the  French  force 
exceeded  20,000  men,  well  appointed  and 
provided  with  cannon.  The  British  scarcely 
amounted  to  15,000,  exhausted  by  harassing 
marches,  and  discouraged  by  the  loss  of  their 
military  chest,  their  stores,  their  baggage, 
their  horses,  their  sick,  their  wounded,  their 
wives  and  children. 

General  Moore  lived  to  hear  that  the  battle 
was  won,  and  in  his  last  moments,  after  an 
affecting  reminiscence  of  his  mother,  ex- 
pressed a hope  that  his  country  would  do 
him  justice.  His  body  was  removed  after 
midnight  to  the  citadel  of  Corunna,  wrapped 
in  a military  cloak  and  blankets,  and  buried 
in  a grave  dug  in  the  ramparts. 

MOORE,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Dublin,  May 
28th,  1780,  of  Roman  Catholic  parents,  to 
whose  faith  he  continued  an  adherent  through 
life.  After  studying  at  the  university  of 
Dublin,- he  proceeded  to  London  to  enter  as 
a student  of  law  in  the  Middle  Temple.  He 
published  a translation  of  Anacreon,  and 
“ Poems  of  Thomas  Little,”  whose  looseness 
he  repented  in  after  years.  The  j ust  severity 
with  which  these,  and  another  miscellaneous 
volume  of  his,  were  cut  up  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review , produced  an-  abortive  duel  between 
Moore  and  Jeffrey.  In  1803  he  obtained  a 
place  under  government,  a registrarship  in 
Bermuda.  He  went  out  and  entered  upon 
its  duties,  but  soon  tired  of  the  “still  vexed 
Bermoothes,”  and  leaving  a deputy  in  charge 
of  the  office,  returned  to  England,  having 
first  visited  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
where  he  composed  the  popular  Boat-Song. 

His  career  was  now  that  of  a man  of  let- 
ters, much  courted  in  high  society.  His 
“Irish  Melodies,”  lyrics  which  he  wedded  to 
the  ancient  airs  of  Erin,  brought  him  both 


MOO 


560 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


fame  and  gold.  He  had  determined  to  write 
an  eastern  tale  in  verse,  and  in  1812  the 
Longmans  covenanted  to  pay  him  three 
thousand  guineas  fjr  a poem  of  which  he  had 
not  then  written  a line,  nor  even  settled  the 
subject.  He  retired  to  a cottage  in  Derby- 
shire, and  there  buried  himself  in  oriental 
studies  and  scenes.  He  read  every  work  of 
authority  that  treated  of  the  topography,  cli- 
mate, zoology,  ornithology,  entomology,  flori- 
culture, horticulture,  agriculture,  manners, 
customs, religious  ceremonies,  and  languages  of 
the  East.  But  this  was  not  all.  The  task  was 
his  to  conjure  about  him  an  oriental  atmos- 
phere, and  amid  the  snows  of  bleak  Derby- 
shire winters  sun  himself  in  the  brightest 
scenes  of  the  fervid  clime  of  the  East.  This 
romance  of  “Lalla  Rookli,”  his  most  elabor- 
ate poem,  was  published  in  1817,  and  won 
great  popularity.  The  patient  research  of 
the  poet  had  been  eminentty  successful.  His 
oriental  reading  was  pronounced  by  a great 
Eastern  traveler,  “ as  good  as  riding  on  the 
back  of  a camel.”  The  accuracy  of  the  poem 
in  all  its  details,  and  its  local  fidelity,  were 
complete.  For  recreation  after  his  task,  he 
visited  the  continent  with  Rogers.  The  next 
year  he  made  another  continental  tour  with 
Lord  John  Russell,  in  the  course  of  which 
he  visited  his  friend  Lord  Byron  at  Venice, 
and  was  intrilsted  with  the  autobiography 
that  was  afterward  burnt. 

Upon  his  return  from  this  journey,  Moore 
took  up  his  abode  in  Paris,  where  he  remained 
till  near  the  close  of  the  year  1822.  His 
deputy  in  Bermuda  had  proved  a defaulter 
to  the  amount  of  £6,000.  Moore’s  friends 
pressed  upon  him  offers  of  assistance ; among 
others,  Jeffrey,  his  former  antagonist,  with 
whom  he  was  now  Cordially  intimate, 
proffered  generous  help ; but  he  declined  all 
assistance.  The  claim  was  finally  compro- 
mised for  a thousand  guineas,  toward  which 
an  uncle  of  the  delinquent  deputy  contri- 
buted £300.  The  remaining  £750  were 
defrayed  by  the  poet  from  his  earnings ; out 
of  which,  notwithstanding  this  drain,  he  con- 
tinued to  make  a liberal  allowance  to  his 
parents.  Fortune  smiled  upon  him,  and  in 
1823,  the  June  following,  his  publishers’ 
account  footed  pleasantly.  He  was  credited 
with  £1,000  for  “Loves  of  the  Angels,”  and 
£500  for  “Fables  of  the  Holy  Alliance.” 


These  were  halcyon  days  for  poets.  There 
was  truth  as  well  as  jest  in  Sir  Walter  Scott’s 
remark  a few  years  afterward,  in  reply  to 
Moore’s  observation  that  “ hardly  a maga- 
zine is  now  published  but  contains  verses 
which  would  once  have  made  a reputation.” 
“Ecod!”  exclaimed  Sir  Walter,  “we  were 
very  lucky  to  come  before  these  fellows.” 

A year  or  two  after  this,  Moore  took  up 
his  abode  at  Sloperton  Cottage  in  Wiltshire, 
about  two  miles  from  Devizes.  It  was  here 
that  he  wrote  the  biographies  of  Lord  Ed- 
ward Fitzgerald,  Lord  Byron,  and  Richard 
Brinley  Sheridan.  In  1824,  five  years  before 
the  passing  of  the  act  for  Catholic  relief, 
Moore  published  “The  Memoirs  of  Captain 
Rock,  written  by  Himself,”  a bitter  commen- 
tary upon  English  rule  in  Ireland.  The  next 
considerable  work  of  Moore’s — for  his  light 
Parthian  warfare  in  the  politics  of  the  hour 
continued  as  usual,  and  with  about  the  same 
success  as  in  his  younger  days — was  “ The 
Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a 
Religion,”  an  earnest  defense  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith.  His  last  work,  and  the  most 
successful,  so  far  as  a great  sale  constitutes 
success,  was  the  prose  romance  of  “ The  Epi- 
curean,” published  in  1827. 

In  the  latter  years  of  life  Moore  labored 
under  a softening  of  the  brain  which  removed 
him  from  the  arena  of  literature  and  society. 
He  died  early  in  1852. 

MORAVIA.  The  population  of  this  prov- 
ince of  the  Austrian  empire,  is  1,800,000.  It 
was  anciently  named  Q-uadia,  and  was  part  of 
the  territory  of  the  Quadi  and  Marcomanni, 
who  were  for  several  centuries  the  terror 
of  the  Roman  frontier.  Notwithstanding  the 
many  checks  they  received  from  the  Romans 
and  their  barbarian  neighbors,  these  tribes 
maintained  their  independence  till  they  were 
overpowered  b}'"  Attila  in  the  fifth  century. 
The  Sclavonians  next  founded  a republic 
here,  and  maintained  a precarious  indepen- 
dence, till  Swiatopluk  united  the  whole  of 
the  Sclavonic  republics,  and  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Moravia,  which  comprehended 
Bohemia,  Lusatia,  Brandenburg,  Pomerania, 
Silesia,  Dalmatia,  &c. 

On  the  death  of  this  prince,  in  894,  his 
possessions  were  divided  among  his  three 
sons,  but  dissensions  "arising  among  them, 
the  Boii,  or  ancestors  of  the  Bohemians, 


MOR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


561 


conquered  part  of  them,  and  threatened  the 
rest.  The  Magyars,  or  invaders  of  Hungary, 
completely  defeated  the  Moravians  in  907, 
and  thus  crushed  their  independence.  This 
fertile  country,  after  being  almost  reduced  to 
a desert,  was  seized  on  by  the  Dukes  of  Bohe- 
mia, who  kept  it  till  1182,  when  it  again 
became  a separate  government,  and  was 
erected  into  a marquisate.  Moravia  next  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Hungarians,  but  their 
internal  troubles  soon  obliged  them  to  relin- 
quish the  valuable  acquisition. 

Moravia  for  a time  resumed  its  indepen- 
dence, but  after  various  changes,  became 
again  subject  to  the  kings  of  Bohemia;  in 
1527  it  was  added  to  the  possessions  of 
the  house  of  Austria,  and  has  since  been 
subject  to  the  same  sovereign. 

MORE,  Hannah,  was  born  at  Stapleton, 
in  Gloucestershire,  in  1745.  She  was  one 
of  the  five  daughters  of  a village  schoolmas- 
ter, whose  means  were  not  sufficient  to  give 
his  children  many  of  the  advantages  of  edu- 
cation ; but  this  deficiency  was  supplied  by 
their  own  talents  and  perseverance.  The 
literary  abilities  of  Hannah  early  attracted 
notice,  and  a subscription  was  formed  for 
establishing  her  and  her  sisters  in  a school 
of  their  own. 

Her  first  literary  production,  “The  Search 
after  Happiness,”  a pastoral  drama,  was 
written  when  she  was  only  eighteen  years 
of  age.  By  the  encouragement  of  her  warm 
friend,  Mr.  Garrick,  she  tried  her  strength 
in  tragic  composition,  and  wrote  “ The  Inflexi- 
ble Captive,  a Tragedy,”  which  was  printed 
in  1764.  Her  tragedy  of  “Percy,”  the  most 
popular  of  her  dramatic  compositions,  was 
brought  out  in  1778,  and  ran  seventeen 
nights  successively;  and  her  last  tragedy, 
“The  Fatal  Falsehood,”  was  produced  in 
1779.  Shortly  after,  her  opinions  on  public 
theatres  underwent  a change,  and  she  “did 
not  consider  the  stage,  in  its  present  state, 
as  becoming  the  appearance  or  countenance 
of  a Christian.”  Early  in  life  she  attracted 
general  notice  by  a brilliant  display  of  liter- 
ary talent,  and  was  honored  by  the  intimate 
acquaintance  of  Johnson  and  Burke,  of  Rey- 
nolds and  Garrick,  and  of  many  other  highly 
eminent  individuals,  who  equally  appreciated 
her  amiable  qualities  and  her  superior  intel- 
lect. But,  under  a deep  conviction  that  to 

36 


live  to  the  glory  of  God,  and  to  the  good  of 
our  fellow-creatures,  is  the  great  object  of 
human  existence,  and  the  only  one  which 
can  bring  peace  at  the  last,  she  left,  in  the 
prime  of  her  days,  the  bright  circles  of 
fashion  and  literature,  and,  retiring  into  the 
neighborhood  of  Bristol,  devoted  herself  to  a 
life*  of  active  Christian  benevolence,  and  to 
the  composition  of  various  works,  having  for 
their  object  the  religious  improvement  of 
mankind.  Her  practical  conduct  beautifully 
exemplified  the  moral  energy  of  her  Christian 
principles. 

Her  first  prose  publication  was  “Thoughts 
on  the  Manners  of  the  Great,”  printed  in 
1788;  followed  in  1791  by  her  “Estimate 
of  the  Religion  of  the  Fashionable  World.” 
In  1795  she  commenced  at  Bath,  in  monthly 
numbers,  “The  Cheap  Repository,”  a series 
of  admirable  tales  for  the  common  people, 
one  of  which  is  the  well  known  “ Shepherd 
of  Salisbury  Plain.”  The  success  of  this 
seasonable  publication  was  extraordinary, 
and  within  a year  the  sale  reached  the  num- 
ber of  a million  copies.  Her  “Strictures  on 
the  Modern  System  of  Female  Education” 
appeared  in  1799;  “Hints  towards  Forming 
the  Character  of  a Young  Princess,”  in 
1805  ; “ Ccelebs  in  search  of  a Wife,”  in  1809 
(which  passed  through  at  least  ten  editions 
in  a year);  “Practical  Piety,”  in  1811; 
“Christian  Morals,”  in  1812;  “Essay  on 
the  Character  and  Writings  of  St.  Paul,”  in 
1815,  and  “Moral  Sketches  of  the  Prevailing 
Opinions  and  Manners,  Foreign  and  Domes- 
tic, with  Reflections  on  Prayer.”  The 
collection  of  her  works  comprises  eleven 
volumes  octavo. 

Near  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
Mrs.  More  left  Bath  and  retired  to  Barley 
Wood,  a cottage  delightfully  situated  in  the 
village  of  Wrington,  the  native  place  of  John 
Locke.  In  1819  she  lost  her  last  surviving 
sister  Martha,  and  some  years  after,  being 
confined  to  her  room,  she  quitted  Barley 
Wood  for  Clifton,  where,  and  at  Bristol,  she 
had  some  valuable  friends,  though  not  a sin- 
gle relation  of  whom  she  had  any  knowledge 
in  the  world.  She  is  said  to  have  realized 
upward  of  £30,000  by  her  writings;  and  her 
charitable  bequests  exceeded  £10,000.  She 
died  at  Windsor  Terrace,  Clifton,  Sept.  7th, 
1833,  aged  eighty-eight. 


MOR 


* 


562 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


MORE,  Sir  Thomas,  chancellor  of  England, 
was  the  son  of  Sir  John  More,  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  king’s  bench,  and  was  born  in 
London,  in  1480.  Pie  was  educated  in  the 
family  of  Cardinal  Morton,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury ; and  at  the  age  of  twenty -one, 
he  obtained  a seat  in  parliament,  where  he 
opposed  a subsidy  demanded  by  Henry  VII. 
with  such  spirit  as  to  incur  the  resent- 
ment of  the  king,  who  avenged  himself  on 
the  judge  his  father,  by  causing  him  to  be 
fined  and  imprisoned.  When  admitted  to 
the  bar,  More  delivered  a lecture  in  the  church 
of  St.  Lawrence,  Jewry,  on  part  of  St.  Au- 
gustin’s works,  and  the  reputation  he  thereby 
acquired  procured  him  to  be  chosen  law- 
reader  in  Furnival’s  Inn.  In  1508  he  was 
made  judge  of  the  sheriff’s  court,  and  jus- 
tice of  peace. 

Henry  VIII.  delighted  in  the  conversation 
©f  More,  and  conferred  upon  him  the  honor 
of  knighthood ; besides  which  he  made  him 
treasurer  of  the  exchequer.  Sir  Thomas 
assisted  the  monarch  in  his  book  against 
Luther,  and  he  afterward  defended  it  in  a 
very  able  treatise.  In  1523  he  was  chosen 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons ; and  in 
1530  he  succeeded  Cardinal  Wolsey  as 
chancellor,  being  the  first  layman  to  sit  upon 
the  woolsack.  He  had  in  the  mean  time 
published,  among  other  works,  his  curious 
history  of  Richard  III.,  and  his  Utopia, 
which,  derived  from  the  Greek  for  happy 
land , has  given  a proverbial  expression  to 
our  language. 

When  Henry  began  those  attacks  on  the 
papal  supremacy  which,  however  sad  his 
motive  might  be,  were  instrumental  in  pro- 
curing the  refortnation,  Sir  Thomas  at  once 
took  up  the  position  which  conscience  dic- 
tated to  him  as  a supporter  of  the  old 
system,  and  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
king  as  the  head  of  the  church.  Henry 
marked  him  out  for  vengeance  as  an  opponent 
of  his  matrimonial  views.  He  endeavored 
to  shield  himself  by  an  early  resignation 
of  office.  He  was  requested  to  take  oath  to 
maintain  the  lawfulness  of  the  marriage  with 
Anne  Boleyn.  Though  it  was  known  that 
he  would  be  the  last  man  to  disturb  the  suc- 
cession, he  refused  to  take  the  oath.  This 
was  construed  into  high  treason,  and  he  was 
committed  to  the  Tower.  After  an  imprison- 


ment of  fifteen  months,  he  was  brought  to 
his  trial  in  the  court  of  king’s  bench,  where, 
notwithstanding  his  eloquent  defense,  he  was 
found  guilty  of  treason,  and  sentenced  to  be 
beheaded.  His  behavior,  in  the  interval, 
corresponded  with  the  uniform  tenor  of  his 
life ; and,  July  6th,  1535,  he  ascended  the 
scaffold,  with  his  characteristic  pleasantry, 
saying  to  the  lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  “I 
pray  you  see  me  safe  up ; and  as  for  my 
coming  down,  you  may  let  me  shift  for 
myself.”  In  the  same  spirit,  when  he  laid 
his  head  on  the  block,  he  told  the  execu- 
tioner to  wait  till  he  had  removed  his  beard, 
“For  that,”  said  he,  “hath  committed  no 
treason.”  Thus  fell  this  illustrious  English- 
man, whose  learning  and  virtue  entitled  him 
to  a better  fate. 

This  unworldly  and  extraordinary  man  was 
at  all  times  a devout  Catholic,  insomuch  that 
at  one  time  he  was  with  difficulty  restrained 
from  becoming  a monk.  The  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk, coming  one  day  to  dine  with  him, 
found  him  in  Chelsea  church,  singing  in  the 
choir  with  his  surplice  on.  “ What ! what ! ” ^ 
exclaimed  the  abject  noble, — “what,  what, 
my  lord  chancellor  a parish  clerk!  You 
dishonor  the  king  and  his  office.”  How  ex- 
quisite his  reply ! “Nay,  you  may  net  think 
your  master  and  mine  will  be  offended  with  me 
for  serving  God  his  master,  or  thereby  count 
his  office  dishonored.”  It  must*  have  been 
a rare  sight  to  see  the  chancellor  of  England 
sitting  with  the  choir ; and  yet  there  was  a 
fair  share  of  pomp  in  the  manner  of  his  ser- 
vitor bowing  at  his  lady’s  pew,  when  mass 
was  ended,  and  saying,  “My  lord  is  gone 
before .”  But  the  day  after  he  resigned  the 
great  seal  (of  which  Dame  Alice  knew  noth- 
ing), Sir  Thomas  presented  himself  at  the 
pew-door,  and,  after  the  fashion  of  his  servi- 
tor, quaintly  said,  “ Madam,  my  lord  is  gone.” 
The  vain  woman  could  not  comprehend  his 
meaning;  and  when  he  fully  explained  it, 
during  their  short  walk  home,  “she  was 
greatly  pained  thereby,  lamenting  it  with 
exceeding  bitterness  of  spirit.” 

MOREAU,  Jean  Victor,  one  of  the  great- 
est generals  of  the  French  republic,  was  born 
at  Morlaix  in  1763.  After  signalizing  him- 
self in  many  celebrated  victories,  and  in  many 
masterly  and  successful  military  operations 
on  the  frontiers  of  Italy  and  Germany  in  the 


MOR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


563 


campaigns  of  1796  and  1799,  he  invaded 
Germany  in  1800.  Here,  in  co-operation  with 
Bonaparte,  he  resumed  an  offensive  cam- 
paigm  He  took  possession  of  Munich,  and 
laid  the  Bavarian  territories  and  the  duchy 
of  Wurtemburg  under  heavy  contributions. 
The  Emperor  of  Austria  judged  it  expedient 
to  sue  for  an  armistice,  which  Moreau  granted 
on  the  14th  of  July.  The  armistice  expired 
in  the  November  following ; and  Moreau,  on 
the  3d  of  December,  gained  the  decisive  vic- 
tory of  Hohenlinden. 

By  a turn  of  circumstances  Moreau  is  found 
in  1813  in  alliance  with  Bernadotte,  his  early 
companion  in  arms,  who  commanded  the 
army  of  the  north  in  Germany  against  the 
soldiers  of  France.  On  the  27th  of  August, 
Napoleon  came  out  of  Dresden  with  130,000 
men  to  attack  the  allies,  having  detached  a 
force,  under  Yandamme,  to  seize  the  passes 
in  their  rear.  In  the  assault  on  the  preceding 
day,  Napoleon  observed  Moreau  conversing 
writh  the  Emperor  Alexander  and  some  other 
officers.  Turning  to  a cannoneer,  and  point- 
ing out  the  object  of  his  displeasure,  he  said, 
“ Send  a dozen  balls  upon  that  man ! ” The 
officers  obeyed.  A ball  struck  Moreau,  shat- 
tering both  his  legs  and  tearing  open  the 
belly  of  his  horse.  He  bore  the  amputation 
of  both  limbs  with  great  firmness,  and  was 
carried  in  a litter,  formed  by  the  lances  of  the 
Cossacks,  to  Toplitz,  where  he  expired. 

MORGAN,  Daniel,  a Revolutionary  officer, 
was  born  in  New  Jersey,  but  removed  to 
Virginia  in  1755.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  His  riflemen  rendered 
themselves  formidable  to  the  British  through- 
out the  struggle.  Morgan  died  in  1802. 

MORGAN,  John,  a learned  physician,  born 
at  Philadelphia,  in  1735.  In  prosecuting  his 
professional  studies,  he  visited  many  of  the 
most  eminent  universities  of  Europe,  and 
while  there,  though  very  young,  was  so  dis- 
tinguished as  to  be  elected  a fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  was  active  in  establish- 
ing the  American  Philosophical  Society  in 
1769,  was  director-general  of  hospitals  in  the 
army  of  the  United  States,  and  died  Oct. 
15th,  1789. 

MORMONS.  [See  Smith,  Joseph.] 

MOROCCO  is  the  largest  of  the  Barbary 
states.  Its  political  and  social  condition  is 
rude  and  degraded,  and  in  the  matter  of 


emperors  it  has  been  cursed  by  very  many 
blood-thirsty  tyrants.  The  most  important 
manufacture  is  that  of  the  leather  which 
bears  the  name  of  the  country.  This  the 
Moors  brought  from  Spain.  Woolens  are 
also  largely  made,  as  they  form  the  dress  of 
the  people.  The  population  of  Morocco  is 

8.500.000,  made  up  of  Berbers,  Shelluhs, 
Arabs,  and  negroes,  and  the  area  is  274,000 
square  miles.  Morocco,  the  capital,  on  an 
extensive  and  fruitful  plain,  surrounded  by 
beautiful  gardens,  and  diversified  with  the 
towers  of  many  mosques,  has  100,000  in- 
habitants. Fez,  in  the  more  northerly  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  long  ranked  as  the 
splendid  and  enlightened  metropolis  of  Wes- 
tern Africa.  It  was  founded  in  793  by 
Prince  Edris,  and  rose  to  such  magnitude 
that  it  contained  many  hundred  mosques,  of 
which  fifty  were  magnificent  and  adorned 
with  marble  pillars.  Its  schools  and  its 
baths  were  also  very  celebrated.  At  present 
its  ancient  splendor  is  mingled  with  modern 
decay ; though  it  is  the  most  industrious  and 
commercial  town  in  the  empire ; population, 

50.000.  The  seaports  of  Morocco  have  lost 
the  business  that  piracy  gave  them.  Sallee, 
once  the  home  of  the  merciless  rover,  is  now 
quiet.  Mogadore  is  the  chief  seat  of  Euro- 
pean commerce.  Tangiers,  once  a British 
colony,  has  some  trade  in  provisions  with 
Gibraltar. 

Morocco,  formerly  called  Mauritania,  was 
possessed  by  the  Romans  b.c.  25,  and  reduced 
by  them  to  a province  in  the  year  50.  It 
afterward  yielded  to  the  Saracens;  and,  in 
the  eleventh  century,  a chief  of  Lamituna 
assumed  the  character  of  a reformer  of  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  and  assembled  all  the 
neighboring  tribes  under  his  standard.  His 
followers,  called  Almoravides,  conquered 
Morocco,  and  even  Barbary  and  Spain,  thus 
establishing  a vast  empire  entitled  that  of 
Mohgreb,  or  the  AVest.  The  second  monarch 
of  this  race  founded  the  city  of  Morocco. 
About  1116,  Abdallah,  the  leader  of  a sect  of 
Mahometans,  founded  the  dynasty  of  Almah- 
ides,  which  ended  in  the  last  sovereign’s  total 
defeat  in  Spain,  1312.  At  this  period  Fez  and 
Tremecen,  then  provinces  of  the  empire,  shook 
off  their  dependence.  Morocco  was  afterward 
seized  by  the  King  of  Fez ; but  about  1550, 
an  Arabian  chief,  who  claimed  to  be  a de- 


MOR 


564 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


scendant  of  Mahomet,  subdued  and  united 
again  tiie  three  kingdoms,  and  formed  what 
is  at  present  the  empire  of  Morocco. 

MORRIS,  Gouvekneur,  was  born  at  Mor- 
risania  in  New  York,  Jan.  31st,  1752.  He 
graduated  at  the  college  in  the  city  of  Newr 
York  in  iiis  sixteenth  year,  and  immediately 
commenced  the  study  of  law.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen  he  commenced  his  career  as  a polit- 
ical writer.  Mr.  Morris  was  chosen  a member 
of  the  first  provincial  congress.  He  was  twice 
elected  a member  of  Congress  by  the  legisla- 
ture of  New  York.  In  1780  he  established 
himself  in  Philadelphia  in  the  practice  of  the 
law.  In  this  year,  he  wras  thrown  from  his 
carriage,  and  his  leg  was  so  severely  injured 
that  it  was  necessary  to  perform  amputation, 
an  operation  which  he  bore  with  great  forti- 
tude. In  1781  he  was  appointed  assistant 
financier  to  Robert  Morris,  and  performed  the 
duties  of  his  office  w ith  ability  for  three  years. 
He  w'as  a member  of  the  convention  which 
met  in  1787  for  the  purpose  of  framing  a con- 
stitution for  the  United  States.  He  was  min- 
ister at  the  French  court  from  1792  to  1796, 
and  returned  to  America  in  1798.  Here  he 
served  some  years  in  the  senate  of  the  United 
States.  He  married,  in  1809,  a daughter  of 
Thomas  Randolph  of  Virginia,  and  died  Nov. 
Cth,  1816,  aged  sixty -five. 

His  acute  powers  of  mind,  a thorough  con- 
sciousness of  his  own  strength,  and  his  quick 
sense  of  the  ridiculous,  joined  to  a lofty  inde=- 
pendence  of  thought,  often  betrayed  him  into 
a forwardness  of  manner,  a license  of  expres- 
sion, and  an  indulgence  of  his  humor,  little 
suited  to  soothe  the  pride,  or  flatter  the  vanity, 
or  foster  the  self-love  of  those  about  him.  He 
might  dazzle  by  his  genius,  surprise  by  his 
novel  flights  of  fancy,  amuse  by  his  wit,  and 
confound  by  his  arguments,  and  thus  extort 
the  tribute  of  admiration,  but  fail  in  gaining 
the  willing  applause  of  love.  No  man  was 
better  acquainted  with  the  forms  and  etiquette 
of  society ; none  had  moved  more  widely  in 
the  circles  of  fashion  and  rank,  or  examined 
with  a keoner  scrutiny  the  deep  fountains  of 
the  human  passions,  or  knew  better  howr  to 
touch  the  springs  of  men’s  motives ; yet  this 
rare  intuition,  this  more  rare  experience,  and 
this  great  knowledge  did  little  toward  modi- 
fying the  tendencies  of  his  nature,  or  diverting 
the  first  bent  of  his  mind.  He  was  sometimes 


overbearing  in  conversation.  At  any  rate, 
wrhen  he  spoke  he  expected  to  be  heard. 
There  is  an  anecdote  illustrative  of  this  point. 
At  a breakfast-table,  he  wras  in  close  conver- 
sation with  a gentleman,  to  wffiose  harangue 
he  had  listened  patiently,  till  it  was  his  turn 
to  reply.  He  began  accordingly,  but  the 
gentleman  wTas  inattentive,  and  a bad  listener. 
“ Sir,”  said  Mr.  Morr  is,  “ if  you  will  not  listen 
to  my  argument,  I will  address  myself  to  the 
teapot,”  and  went  on  with  much  animation  of 
tone  and  gesture,  till  he  had  finished  his  rep- 
lication. But  this  defect,  after  all,  was  only 
a spot  on  the  surface.  Justice,  truth,  charity, 
honor,  held  an  uncontrolled  empire  in  his 
soul,  and  never  lost  their  influence  or  author- 
ity.— Sparlcs. 

MORRIS,  Lewis,  a signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  a brother  of  Gouver- 
neur,  and  born  at  Morrisania,  Westchester 
county,  N.  Y.,  in  1726.  After  receiving  a 
liberal  education  at  Yale  College,  he  adopted 
the  pursuit  of  his  father,  agriculture,  at  Mor- 
risania. He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1775, 
and  retained  his  seat  two  years,  wdien  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Gouverneur.  He 
died  Jan.  22d,  1798. 

There  were  two  other  brothers  of  this  fam- 
ily : Staats,  an  officer  of  the  British  army, 
and  a member  of  parliament ; and  Riciiaud, 
judge  of  the  vice-admiralty  court  at  New 
York,  and  subsequently  chief-justice  and 
governor. 

MORRIS,  Robert,  a signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  in  Lancashire, 
England,  January,  1733  or  1734,  came  to 
America  wffiile  yet  a boy  of  thirteen,  and  en- 
tered the  counting-house  of  Charles  Willing, 
an  eminent  merchant  of  Philadelphia;  on 
whose  death  he  founded  a copartnership  with 
the  son,  Thomas  Willing,  and  carried  on  a 
large  commerce  for  thirty-nine  years.  He 
was  a member  of  the  continental  congress 
from  1776  to  1778.  During  the  critical  strug- 
gle which  ensued,  Robert  Morris  was  the 
chief  financial  supporter  of  the  cause.  In 
1781  he  was  made  superintendent  of  finance, 
and  by  his  extensive  credit  and  commercial 
skill  rendered  immense  benefit  to  his  adopted 
country.  For  the  public  credit  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  sacrifice  his  private  resources.  He 
sustained  the  credit  of  the  United  States,  and 
established  the  first  bank  in  Philadelphia,  the 


MOR 


HISTORY  A N J 

Bank  of  North  America,  1781,  which  lent  for 
the  public  service  of  the  government,  within 
the  first  six  months  after  its  organization, 
$480,000.  Without  the  financial  talents  and 
services  of  this  distinguished  man,  all  the 
physical  force  of  the  country  might  have 
proved  unavailing  to  establish  the  independ- 
ence of  the  United  States.  When  the  paper 
of  the  Congress  of  United  America  was  worth 
nothing,  the  paper  of  Robert  Morris  supplied 
the  deficiency ; his  personal  credit  was  decid- 
edly better  than  the  credit  of  the  United 
States  government.  He  was  one  of  the  con- 
vention which  framed  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  represented  Pennsylvania 
in  the  senate  from  1789  to  1795.  Hjs  most 
intimate  friends  were  Washington,  Hamilton, 
and  Gouverneur  Morris.  When  offered  the 
appointment  of  first  secretary  of  the  treasury 
by  Washington,  he  declined,  but  proposed 
his  friend  Alexander  Hamilton.  His  immense 
fortune  had  been  reduced  by  his  patriotic 
generosity,  and  unfortunate  land  speculations 
imbittered  his  old  age,  which  ought  to  have 
been  surrounded  with  all  the  ease  and  happi- 
ness that  earthly  gratitude  could  bestow.  To 
the  shame  of  the  republic,  the  old  man  was 
confined  in  prison  for  debt!  He  died  May 
8th,  1806. 

MORRISON,  Robert,  LL.D.,  a Scot  by 
birth,  entered  in  1807  upon  the  Chinese  mis- 
sion, and  died  Aug.  1st,  1834,  aged  fifty-two. 
He  translated  portions  of  the  Scriptures  into 
Chinese,  and  was  the  author  of  a Chinese 
grammar  and  dictionary. 

MORTIER,  Edmund  Adolph  Casemir  Jo- 
seph, born  in  1768,  joined  the  army  of  the 
republic,  and  served  under  Kleber,  Marceau, 
Pichegru,  and.  Moreau.  In  1804  Napoleon 
made  him  marshal  of  France,  and  afterward 
Duke  of  Treviso.  In  conjunction  with  Mar- 
mont,  Mortier  defended  Paris  against  the  allies 
in  1814.  He  was  riding  by  the  side  of  Louis 
Philippe  at  a review,  July  28th,  1835,  when 
Fieschi’s  infernal  machine  exploded,  killing 
him  among  others. 

MORTON.  The  Earl  of  Morton  was  a 
chief  actor  in  the  transactions  of  the  reign  of 
Mary,  and  in  the  minority  of  James  VI.  of 
Scotland.  He  joined  in  the  murder  of  Rizzio, 
and,  after  the  death  of  Darnley,  assisted  to 
expel  Mary  from  the  throne.  In  1572  he  was 


BIOGRAPHY.  565 

elected  regent,  and  in  1581  he  was  beheaded 
at  Edinburgh. 

MORTON,  John,  a signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  of  Swedish  parent- 
age at  Ridley,  Penn.,  in  1724.  Morton  was 
a member  of  the  colonial  congress  that  con- 
vened at  New  York  in  1765,  in  consequence 
of  the  passage  of  the  stamp  act.  He  filled 
various  civil  offices  in  Pennsylvania ; was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  1774  to  1777 ; gave 
the  casting  vote  in  the  Penns}dvania  delega- 
tion for  the  Declaration  of  Independence; 
was  one  of  the  committee  that  reported  the 
articles  of  confederation,  and  died  soon  after 
that,  in  April,  1777. 

MOSCOW,  an  extensive  city  of  Russia  in 
Europe,  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Population,  400,000.  In  1382  it 
was  besieged  by  Tamerlane,  and  it  soon  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Tartars,  who  again  at- 
tacked it  in  1571.  They  burnt  the  city  ; but 
it  was  afterward  rebuilt,  and  was  for  a century 
and  a half  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and  the 
residence  of  the  court  till  1760. 

In  September,  1812,  the  memorable  confla- 
gration took  place,  by  which  three-fourths  of 
the  city  was  consumed.  The  general  plan  of 
the  Russians  in  the  war  with  the  French  was 
to  abandon  and  destroy ; and  in  August  and 
September,  when  the  French  continued  to 
advance,  and  it  was  thought  impossible  to 
check  their  progress,  Count  Rostopchin  fore- 
warned the  inhabitants  of  the  sacrifices  they 
would  be  called  on  to  make.  The  churches 
and  the  treasury  were  stripped  of  their  orna- 
ments ; the  persons  belonging  to  the  public 
establishments  were  removed  to  Kasan  ; and 
barks,  laden  with  corn,  were  sunk  in  the 
Moskwa,  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  The  decisive  battle  of 
Borodino  was  fought  on  the  8th  of  September, 
about  seventy  miles  from  Moscow,  and  the 
hospitals  were  soon  filled  with  wounded.  On 
the  news  of  the  retreat  of  the  -Russian  army, 
a general  movement  took  place  in  Moscow. 

On  the  13th  of  September  the  enemy  drew 
near,  and  the  mass  of  the  population  of  Mos- 
cow fled  into  the  surrounding  country.  On 
the  14th  the  French  entered  the  city,  and  that 
night  a fire  broke  out,  which  was  soon  got 
under.  On  the  15th  fires  burst  forth  from 
the  shops ; and  on  the  following  night  a gen- 


566 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


eral  conflagration  took  place.  Explosions  in 
different  places,  and  fagots  thrown  from  tow- 
ers, showed  that  means  were  employed  to 
spread  destruction  in  every  quarter.  During 
the  next  day  smoke  rolled  in  thick  clouds 
over  the  town,  and  at  night  a vast  globe  of 
flame  illuminated  the  atmosphere  several 
leagues  round.  The  conflagration  was  rapidly 
spread  by  a violent  wind,  the  buildings  fell  in 
with  a tremendous  crash,  and  the  immense 
stones,  calcined  and  blackened,  only  remained 
to  denote  their  site.  The  French  sentinels 
were,  however,  unable  to  detect  the  incendia- 
ries : several  stragglers  were  arrested,  tried, 
and  shot ; but  all  the  men  taken  in  attempting 
to  spread  the  flames,  declared  they  had  acted 
under  the  direction  of  Rostopchin  and  the 
director  of  police.  The  French  officers,  on  find 
ing  it  impracticable  to  extinguish  the  flames, 
authorized  a systematic  pillage.  The  pi  under 
was  immense;  but  the  greater  part  was  aban- 
doned in  the  disastrous . retreat.  The  fire 
raged  till  the  19th.  Bonaparte  now  remained 
at  Moscow  a month,  in  the  hope  of  prevailing 
on  the  Russians  to  conclude  a peace.  Baffled 
in  this  attempt,  he  quitted  the  city  on  the  18th 
of  October.  The  young  guard,  which  formed 
the  garrison  left  by  Bonaparte,  intrenched  it- 
self in  the  Kremlin  ; and,  having  undermined 
part  of  the  walls  and  interior  buildings,  blew 
them  up  on  the  23d  of  October,  the  day  of  the 
final  evacuation.  The  rebuilding  of  the  city 
proceeded  but  slowly  till  1814,  when  the 
greatest  exertions  were  made ; by  the  begin- 
ning of  1818  the  new  city  seemed  to  have 
risen  from  the  ruins,  and  by  the  end  of  that 
year  the  whole  was  completed. 

MOULTRIE,  William,  a major-general  in 
our  Revolution,  came  to  South  Carolina  from 
England  at  an  early  age.  He  served  against 
the  Indians  prior  to  1775,  and,  during  the 
Revolution  distinguished  himself  at  Charles- 
ton, Beaufort,  and  Sullivan’s  Island,  the  fort 
on  which  was  named  after  him.  He  was  sev- 
eral times  governor  of  South  Carolina.  He 
died  at  Charleston,  Sept.  27th,  1805,  aged 
seventy-five. 

MOZART,  Johann  Chrysostomus  Wolf- 
gang Gottlieb,  wras  born  at  Salzburg,  Jan. 
25th,  1756.  He  evinced  the  most  precocious 
genius  for  music,  and  it  was  strengthened  by 
instruction  and  culture.  When  at  Rome  in 
1770,  during  passion  week,  he  heard  the 


“ Miserere  ” at  the  Sistine  chapel.  This  piece 
was  prohibited  to  be  copied,  or  in  any  manner 
published,  on  pain  of  excommunication.  Mo- 
zart went  a second  time  to  hear,  having  a 
manuscript  copy  that  he  had  made  from  mem- 
ory, concealed  in  his  hat  for  the  opportunity 
of  noting  corrections.  It  was  considered  a 
great  feat  to  thus  obtain  this  difficult  music. 
The  last  years  of  Mozart’s  life  were  spent  at 
Vienna  in  the  service  of  the  emperor.  There 
he  died  Dec.  5th,  1792,  leaving  compositions 
that  are  immortal. 

MURAT,  Joachim,  the  son  of  a pastry- 
cook, was  born  at  Achers  in  1771.  At  a 
very  early  age  he  was  a fine  horseman,  and 
fond  of  military  exercises.  It  is  not  surpris- 
ing, therefore,  that  he  escaped  from  the 
convent  where  he  wras  placed  to  study  theol- 
ogy, and  enlisted  in  a regiment  of  dragoons. 
His  merit  raised  him  from  the  ranks,  and  he 
fought  brilliantly  under  Napoleon  throughout 
his  career.  Murat  married  Caroline,  Napo- 
leon’s youngest  sister,  and  wras  created  mar- 
shal of  the  empire  and  Grand  Duke  of  Berg 
and  Cleves.  On  the  elevation  of  Joseph  to 
the  Spanish  throne,  in  1809,  Bonaparte  trans- 
ferred the  crown  of  Naples  to  his  brother- 
in-law.  In  December,  1812,  Murat  was 
appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  French 
army  at  Wilna,  after  their  memorable  but 
ill-fated  retreat  from  Moscow.  In  1814  Mu- 
rat basely  joined  the  alliance  against  France 
by  opening  the  Neapolitan  ports  to  the  Eng- 
lish, and  engaging  to  assist  Austria  with  an 
army  of  30,000  men. 

When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  Mu- 
rat once  more  took  up  his  cause,  and,  by  an 
enterprise  against  the  Austrians  in  Italy,  lost 
the  crown  of  Naples.  When  the  expedition 
from  Elba  reached  France,  he  had  assembled 
his  cabinet,  and  declared  his  resolution  to 
support  the  allies ; but  on  learning  that  Bo- 
naparte had  entered  Lyons,  he  demanded 
leave  of  the  pope  to  march  a force  through 
his  territories.  Pius  VII.  refused ; on  w7hich 
two  Neapolitan  divisions  penetrated  to  Rome, 
and  his  holiness,  hastily  retiring,  placed 
himself  under  the  protection  of  the  English 
at  Genoa.  Murat  himself  advanced  to  An- 
cona, and  his  army  marched  in  four  columns 
on  the  routes  of  Bologna,  Modena,  Reggio, 
and  Ferrara,  while  a fifth  division  drove  the 
Austrian  garrisons  from  Cesena  and  Rimini. 


MUR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


567 


Harassed  on  all  sides  by  the  British  and 
Austrian  forces,  and  having  in  vain  solicited 
an  armistice,  he  attacked  Bianchi,  near  To- 
lentino,  in  which  contest  his  army  was  totally 
ruined.  After  a disastrous  retreat  of  ten 
days,  he  found,  on  approaching  Naples,  that 
the  inhabitants  had  declared  for  the  King  of 
Sicily  wherever  the  Austrians  appeared ; that 
Colonel  Church  was  raising  against  him 
an  army  of  his  late  subjects ; and  that 
everything,  in  short,  was  going  against  him. 
Leaving  his  followers,  who  were  now  reduced 
to  4,000  men,  he  hastened  to  Naples,  and 
arrived  at  the  palace  exhausted  with  fatigue. 
He  escaped  in  disguise  with  a few  adherents 
to  the  isle  of  Ischia,  and  embarking  thence  for 
France,  landed  on  the  25th  of  May  at  Cannes. 

Murat,  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  made 
his  retreat  in  an  open  boat  to  Corsica.  In 
September,  proposals  were  made  to  Joachim, 
that  he  should  assume  the  name  of  a private 
person ; that  he  should  choose  his  abode  either 
in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  or  Upper  Austria ; and 
that  he  should  engage  not  to  quit  those 
states  without  the  consent  of  the  emperor. 
He  rejected  this  overture,  and  undertook,  in 
imitation  of  Bonaparte,  an  expedition  for 
the  recovery  of  hfs  kingdom.  When  he 
landed  at  Pizzo  on  the  8th  of  October,  he 
could  only  muster  about  thirty  officers. 
Thus  disappointed  he  proceeded  to  Monte- 
leone.  He  was  overtaken  half-way  by  a very 
strong  party,  and  after  fighting  desperately, 
broke  through  his  pursuers,  and  hastened  to 
the  beach,  where  he  was  seized  and  conveyed 
before  GeneralNanziante,  the  commandant  of 
Calabria.  On  the  15th,  pursuant  to  orders 
from  Naples,  he  was  tried  by  court-martial, 
and  shot  in  half  an  hour. 

MURILLO,  Bartholome  Esteban,  was 
born  at  Seville,  Jan.  1st,  1618.  After  some 
education,  he  was  placed  with  Juan  del  Cas- 
tillo, a kinsman,  to  learn  painting,  for  which 
he  had  shown  a decided  ability.  Velasquez, 
then  the  greatest  painter  of  Spain,  who 
was  Murillo’s  fellow-townsman,  very  kindly 
aided  him  in  his  studies  at  Madrid.  In 
1645  Murillo  returned  to  Seville,  and  there 
his  life  was  spent  in  the  pursuit  of  his  art. 
He  married,  in  1648,  a wealthy  lady  of  Pilas, 
and  his  house  became  the  resort  of  people  of 
taste  and  fashion.  The  academy  of  Seville 
was  established  by  him.  In  his  latter  years  he 


changed  both  his  style  and  his  subjects.  His 
earlier  pictures,  which  are  painted  in  a forci- 
ble manner,  are  chiefly  illustrative  of  humble 
life : his  latter  works,  with  equal  truth,  are 
in  a more  elevated  and  chaste  style,  and  are 
almost  exclusively  scriptural  or  religious  in 
their  subjects.  He  occasionally  painted  land- 
scapes. His  favorite  masters  were  Spagno- 
letto,  Vandyck,  and  Velasquez.  The  last 
work  of  Murillo  was  the  large  altar-piece  of 
St.  Catharine,  painted  at  Cadiz  for  the  church 
of  the  Capuchins ; a picture  never  completed, 
for  a fall  from  the  scaffolding  while  engaged 
upon  it,  forced  his  return  to  Seville,  where 
he  died  not  long  afterward,  April  3d,  1682. 

MURRAY,  Alexander,  was  born  at  Ches- 
tertown,  Maryland,  in  1755.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  commanded  a merchant-vessel. 
At  twenty-one  he  was  appointed  a lieutenant 
in  the  navy,  but  fought  on  shore  until  he 
could  obtain  a vessel.  He  commanded 
several  letters-of-marque  during  the  Revolu- 
tionary struggle,  and  served  some  time  under 
Barry.  When  in  command  of  the  Constella- 
tion, he  beat  off  some  Tripolitan  gunboats 
with  great  spirit  and  success.  His  last  ap- 
pointment was  to  the  post  of  commandant  of 
the  navy -yard  at  Philadelphia.  He  died  Oct. 
6th,  1821. 

MURRAY,  James  Stuart,  Earl  of,  was  the 
natural  son  of  James  V-,  King  of  Scotland, 
and  the  unnatural  brother  of  Queen  Mary. 
He  was  a powerful  supporter  of  the  refor- 
mation. After  the  return  of  Mary  from 
France,  he  administered  her  affairs  until  her 
marriage  with  Darnley,  which  he  opposed  by 
force  of  arms,  and  was  obliged  to  flee  into 
England.  After  the  murder  of  Rizzio,  he 
was  again  restored  to  favor.  He  went  abroad 
to  France  on  the  murder  of  Darnley  in  1556, 
and  returned  on  being  elected  regent  by  his 
party.  This  election  was  confirmed  by  parlia- 
ment, and  he  soon  established  his  authority. 
Mary,  escaping  from  Lochleven  Castle,  col- 
lected her  friends,  who  were  defeated  at  Lang- 
side,  near  Glasgow,  and  she  was  compelled  to 
flee  into  England  in  1568.  Murray  was  sup- 
ported by  the  alliance  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
In  1569  he  was  murdered  by  Hamilton, 
whose  wife  he  had  seduced. 

MURRAY,  Lindley,  a noted  grammarian, 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1745,  and  died 
in  England  in  1826. 


MUR 


568 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


MURRAY,  William  Vans,  was  born  in 
Maryland  1761,  died  1803,  aged  forty-two. 
He  was  a distinguished  and  eloquent  member 
of  Congress;  minister  to  the  Batavian  re- 
public; and  with  Chief-Justice  Ellsworth 
and  Mr.  Davie  as  envoys  extraordinary,  he 
assisted  in  negotiating  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
in  1800. 

MUSCAT,  a state  on  the  east  coast  of 
Arabia.  During  the  present  century  the 
Imaum  of  Muscat  has  so  extended  his  terri- 
tories, naval  power,  and  commercial  import- 
ance, as  to  rank  among  the  greatest  of.the 
independent  countries  of  Asia.  The  town 
of  Muscat  has  about  60,000  inhabitants. 

MUSIC.  According  to  the  Mosaic  records, 
Jubal,  the  son  of  Lamech,  played  on  musical 
instruments  even  before  the  deluge.  At  a 
later  period,  we  find  mention  made  of  the 
harp,  the  trumpet,  and  the  drum.  The  oldest 
song  is  that  which  Miriam  sang  after  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea.  Music  reached  its 
highest  perfection  among  the  Hebrews,  at  the 
time  of  David  and  Solomon. 

The  Greeks  are  said  to  have  received  the 
art  of  music  from  Lydia  and  Arcadia.  But 
it  was  not  till  the  sixth  century  that  much 
of  the  science  of  music  was  understood. 
Labus,  a Greek,  who  lived  about  546  b.c., 
wrote  something  on  the  theory  of  music. 
In  the  time  of  Pericles,  Damon  is  said  to  have 
been  a distinguished  teacher  of  music. 

In  the  time  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  many 
improvements  in  music  were  made;  these 
philosophers  considering  music  useful  as  a 
means  of  education.  At  the  time  of  Alexan- 
der, Aristoxenus  distinguished  himself  as  a 
writer  on  music.  He  composed  many  trea- 
tises, and  made  many  great  changes  and 
improvements.  He  introduced  the  chromatic 
scale.  We  have  on  the  whole  but  little 
light  on  the  subject  of  the  music  of  the  an- 
cients, as  the  existing  writings  are  very 
obscure  and  unintelligible. 

The  Romans  seem  to  have  received  their 
sacred  music  from  the  Etruscans,  and  their 
warlike  music  from  the  Greeks.  Stringed 
instruments  were  introduced  into  Rome,  186 
b.c.  Under  Nero,  music  was  cultivated  as  a 
luxury.  After  his  death,  five  hundred  sing- 
ers and  musicians  were  dismissed. 

In  the  middle  ages,  the  progress  of  music 


was  promoted  by  its  being  consecrated  to  the 
service  of  religion,  and  education  was  not 
thought  complete  without  some  knowledge 
of  music.  Guido,  of  Arezzo,  made  great  im- 
provements in  the  manner  of  writing  the 
notes  in  music,  and  in  the  fifteenth  century 
still  farther  improvement  was  made  by  Jo- 
hannes de  Muris. 

At  the  same  period,  music  was  treated 
scientifically  in  the  Netherlands,  France,  and 
Spain.  The  invention  of  the  opera  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  has  chiefly  contributed  to 
the  splendor  and  variety  of  modern  vocal 
music,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  there 
were  immense  improvements  made  in  musical 
instruments.  • 

The  merit  of  the  advancement  of  vocal 
music  is  claimed  by  the  Italians ; that  in 
instrumental  music  by  the  Germans  and 
French.  Musical  notes  as  now  used  were 
invented  in  1338. 

MUTIUS  SCiEVOLA  (the  left-handed). 
When  Porsenna,  King  of  Etruria,  had  be- 
sieged Rome  to  reinstate  Tarquin  in  all  his 
rights  and  privileges,  Caius  Mutius  Cordus 
determined  to  deliver  his  country  from  so 
dangerous  an  enemy.  He  disguised  himself 
in  the  habit  of  a Tuscan,  and  as  he  could  speak 
the  language  fluently,  he  gained  an  easy  intro- 
duction into  the  camp,  and  soon  into  the  royal 
tent.  Porsenna  sat  alone  with  his  secretary 
when  Mutius  entered.  The  Roman  rushed 
upon  the  secretary  and  stabbed  him  to  the 
heart,  mistaking  him  for  his  royal  master. 
This  occasioned  a noise,  and  Mutius,  unable 
to  escape,  was  seized  and  brought  before  the 
king.  He  gave  no  answer  to  the  inquiries  of 
the  courtiers,  and  only  told  them  that  he  was 
a Roman ; to  give  them  a proof  of  his  for- 
titude he  laid  his  right  hand  on  an  altar  of 
burning  coals,  and  sternly  looking  at  the 
king,  and  without  uttering  a groan,  he  boldly 
told  him,  that  three  hundred  young  Romans 
like  himself  had  conspired  against  his  life,  and 
entered  the  camp  in  disguise,  determined 
either  to  destroy  him  or  perish  in  the  attempt. 
This  extraordinary  confession  astonished 
Porsenna ; he  made  peace  with  the  Romans 
and  retired  from  their  city.  Mutius  obtained 
the  surname  of  Sccevola,  because  he  had  lost 
the  use  of  his  right  hand  by  burning  it  in  the 
presence  of  the  Etrurian  king. 


MUT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


569 


NAMUR.  [See  Belgium.] 

NANTES,  a seaport  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  the  Lower  Loire,  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  Loire  thirty  miles  from  the  At- 
lantic; population,  91,000.  Its  manufactures 
are  extensive,  and  its  public  institutions  im- 
portant. In  history  it  is  celebrated  for  the 
act  called  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  granted  by 
Henry  IV.,  by  which  Protestants  enjoyed 
toleration  in  France,  April  30th,  1598.  It 
was  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.,  Oct.  24th,  1685  ; 
by  which  bad  policy  thousands  of  industrious 
Huguenots  were  obliged  to  seek  refuge  in 
England,  Holland,  and  different  parts  of  Ger- 
many, where  they  established  various  manu- 
factures, much  to  the  injury  of  France. 

NAPIER,  Sir  Charles  James,  a distin- 
guished lieutenant-general  in  the  British 
army,  born  in  1782,  fought  desperately  under 
Moore  and  Wellington  in  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula, but  won  his  laurels  as  an  administrator 
and  conqueror  in  Afghanistan.  He  died 
Aug.  29th,  1855. 

NAPIER,  John,  Baron  of  Merchiston,  the 
inventor  of  logarithms,  born  in  Scotland, 
1550,  died  in  1617. 

NAPLES,  the  Kingdom  of,  is  the  name 
commonly  given  to  the  continental  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  [See  Sic- 
ily.] It  comprises  the  southern  half  of  Italy. 
A portion  we  have  already  described  under 
Abruzzo.  Although  the  climate  is  singu- 
larly genial,  and  the  soil  corresponds  in  fer- 
tility, the  ignorance  and  laziness  of  the 
peasantry,  and  the  miserable  rule  under 
which  they  live,  turn  these  blessings  into  a 
curse.  The  kingdom  was  brutally  misgov- 
erned by  its  Bourbon  rulers,  but  was  an- 
nexed to  the  kingdom  of  Itaty  in  1860,  Fran- 
cis II.  absconding  to  Rome,  Nov.  7th  of  that 
year.  The  population  of  the  whole  kingdom 
is  8,705,000. 

The  city  of  Naples,  the  capital  and  royal 
residence  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  containing 
450,000  inhabitants,  is  charmingly  situated 
on  the  brink  of  the  most  beautiful  bay  in  the 
world,  whioh  is  thus  eloquently  described  by 
a traveler. 


It  is  evening,  and  scarcely  a breeze  ruffles 
the  bosom  of  the  beautiful  bay,  which  resem- 
bles a mirror,  reflecting  on  its  glassy  surface 
the  bright  sky  and  the  thousand  glittering 
stars  with  which  it  is  studded.  Naples,  with 
its  white  colonnades,  seen  amidst  the  dark 
foliage  of  its  terraced  gardens,  rises  like  an 
amphitheatre ; lights  stream  from  the  win- 
dows, and  fall  over  the  sea  beneath  like 
columns  of  gold.  The  castle  of  St.  Elmo 
crowning  the  centre;  Vesuvius,  like  a sleep- 
ing giant  in  grim  repose,  whose  awaking  all 
dread,  is  to  the  left ; and  to  the  right  are  the 
vine-crowned  heights  of  beautiful  Varmero, 
with  their  palaces  and  villas  peeping  forth 
from  the  groves  that  surround  them  ; while 
rising  above  it,  the  convent  of  Camaldoli  lifts 
its  head  to  the  skies.  Resina,  Portici,  Castel- 
a-Mare,  and  the  lovely  shores  of  Sorrento, 
reach  out  from  Vesuvius,  as  if  they  tried  to 
embrace  the  isle  of  Capri,  which  forms  the 
central  object;  and  Pausilippo  and  Misenum, 
which  in  the  distance  seemed  joined  to  Pro- 
cida  and  Ischia,  advance  to  meet  the  beauti- 
ful island  on  the  right.  The  air  as  it  leaves 
the  shore  is  laden  with  fragrance  from  the 
orange-trees  and  jessamine,  so  abundant  round 
Naples ; and  the  soft  music  of  the  guitar,  or 
lively  sound  of  the  tambourine,  marking  the 
brisk  movements  of  the  tarentella,  steals  on 
the  ear.  " . 

The  climate  of  Naples  is  delightful,  and 
such  of  the  lazzaroni  as  are  unable  to  procure 
shelter  experience  no  painful  results  from 
sleeping  in  the  open  air.  The  nobles  are 
opulent  and  luxurious,  and  a love  of  pleasure 
pervades  alike  all  classes.  The  necessaries 
of  life  are  easily  obtained,  and  the  lazzaroni 
live  from  day  to  day  on  their  casual  earnings 
and  beggings.  A shirt  and  pair  of  loose 
trowsers  are  costume  enough  for  them. 

Naples,  or  Neapolis  (that  is,  ‘ new  city  ’), 
was  colonized  at  some  unknown  time  by 
Greeks  from  Cumae.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire  Naples  was  subject  to  the 
Goths,  and  afterward  to  the  Lombards.  In 
the  ninth  century  it  became  tributary  to  the 
Duke  of  Beneventum.  During  the  govern- 


570 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


ment  of  Pandulph  II.,  as  Prince  of  Benevento, 
a.d.  1003,  the  Normans  first  arrived  in  Italy, 
and  established  themselves  in  this  country. 
Landulph  V.,  the  son  of  Pandulph,  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  government  by  Richard  I., 
the  Norman  Count  of  Aversa,  who  caused 
himself  to  be  proclaimed  Prince  of  Benevento. 
Thus  the  dominion  of  the  Lombards  in  this 
principality  terminated,  a.d.  1059.  Richard 
was  succeeded  in  the  government  of  Bene- 
vento by  Jordanus,  Richard  II.,  Robert, 
Richard  III.,  Jordanus  II.,  Robert  II.,  and 
Roger,  who  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and 
obtained  the  investiture  of  the  dukedom  of 
Naples.  Some  years  after,  Roger,  having 
taken  Pope  Innocent  prisoner,  obliged  his 
holiness  to  confirm  to  him  the  title  of  king. 

To  him  succeeded  William  in  1154;  Wil- 
liam II.  in  1166;  Tancred,  Count  of  Lecce, 
in  1190  ; Frederick  in  1208,  who  enlarged 
and  embellished  the  city  of  Naples,  which  he 
made  the  chief  place  of  his  residence ; and 
Conrad  in  1250.  Four  years  after,  Conrad 
die'd,  and  was  succeeded  by  Conradin,  whose 
army  was  attacked  and  dispersed  by  Manfred. 
In  1253  Manfred  assumed  the  crown  of  Sic- 
ily; and  in  1266  he  was  defeated  and  slain 
by  the  army  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  on  whom 
Pope  Urban  had  conferred  the  title  of  king. 
Soon  after,  Conradin  laid  claim  to  Sicily,  and 
marched  with  an  army  into  Italy,  but  was 
entirely  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by 
Charles,  who  caused  him  and  the  Duke  of 
Austria  to  be  publicly  beheaded  upon  the 
scaffold  in  the  market-place  of  Naples,  a.d. 
1269. 

Charles,  by  his  arbitrary  and  oppressive 
government,  so  entirely  lost  the  affections  of 
the  Sicilians,  that  they  offered  their  allegiance 
to  Peter,  King  of  Arragon,  who  was  soon 
after  crowned  at  Palermo,  and  from  this 
period  the  history  of  Naples  is  an  unvaried 
and  uninteresting  detail  of  scenes  of  war  and 
invasion,  during  nearly  two  hundred  years. 

At  length,  in  1442,  after  a long  separation, 
Alphonso  of  Arragon  united  both  Sicily  and, 
Naples  under  his  dominion.  Upon  the  death 
of  Ferdinand,  the  Emperor  Charles  Y.  suc- 
ceeded to  Naples,  as  well  as  to  the  rest  of  the 
Spanish  monarchy.  During  his  reign,  and 
that  of  his  successors,  Philip  II.,  Philip  III., 
and  Philip  IV.,  this  country  was  governed 
by  the  viceroys  of  Spain,  and  suffered  greatly 


from  their  oppression.  On  the  death  of 
Philip  IV.,  a.d.  1664,  Charles  II.  succeeded 
to  the  crown  of  Spain,  and  adopted  Philip  of 
Anjou,  afterward  Philip  V.,  as  the  heir  of  all 
his  dominions. 

In  1700  Philip  succeeded  to  the  crown  of 
Naples  and  Sicily ; but  his  title  was  opposed 
by  the  house  of  Austria,  and  a conspiracy 
procured  the  government  of  Naples  for  Charles 
II.,  son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold.  However, 
by  the  conditions  of  the  general  peace,  Na- 
ples again  owned  the  sway  of  Philip  in  1719  ; 
but  Sicily  was  given  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 
Some  years  after,  the  Emperor  Charles  VI. 
again  seized  upon  Naples,  and  by  cession 
obtained  also  Sicily.  He  continued  to  reign 
over  them  for  several  years,  till  Don  Carlos 
of  Spain,  being  vested  with  the  rights  of  his 
father,  who  was  yet  alive,  conquered  these 
two  kingdoms  in  1734,  and  fixed  the  seat  of 
his  government  among  his  subjects.  Don 
Carlos  changed  the  face  of  his  kingdoms, 
which,  on  his  taking  possession  of  the  crown 
of  Spain,  he  left  in  a flourishing  condition 
to  his  son  Ferdinand  IV.,  in  1759. 

In  1767  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from 
Naples,  and  were  all  conveyed  into  the  pope’s 
dominions,  the  vicinity  of  whose  territories 
rendered  every  scheme  of  opposition  fruitless. 
During  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  French, 
after  some  immaterial  hostilities,  a suspen- 
sion of  arms  was  agreed  to  between  the  King 
of  Naples  and  the  republican  commander  in 
1796  ; and  soon  after,  a peace  was  concluded 
between  the  two  powers,  Naples  being  re- 
quired to  pay  a sum  of  eight  millions,  either 
in  money  or  in  naval  stores. 

In  1798  the  King  of  Naples  commenced 
hostilities  against  the  French,  attacked  the 
new  Roman  republic,  and  entered  Rome  in 
triumph  ; but  in  the  year  following,  he  was 
obliged  to  conclude  an  armistice  with  the 
enemy  on  very  hard  conditions.  Naples  was 
reduced  under  the  power  of  the  French  in 
1799,  who  constituted  it  a republic,  and  estab- 
lished a provisionary  government.  However, 
a few  months  afterward  the  great  successes 
of  the  Austro-Russian  army  forced  the  French 
to  evacuate  Naples ; and,  by  the  aid  of  the 
English,  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  who  had 
hoisted  his  flag  on  board  the  Foudroyant,  the 
English  admiral’s  ship,  was  enabled  to  return 
once  more  to  his  capital.  But  the  victory  of 


NAP 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


571 


Bonaparte  at  Marengo,  and  the  conditions  of 
the  treaty  of  Lunev ille,  gave  the  French  a 
great  ascendency  in  Italy. 

In  1805  Bonaparte  issued  a proclamation, 
declaring  that  the  Neapolitan  dynasty  had 
ceased  to  reign,  and  ordered  his  troops  to 
subject  the  whole  of  Italy  to  his  laws  or  those 
of  his  allies.  In  consequence  of  this,  a 
French  army,  under  the  command  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  entered  Naples,  and  occupied  all 
the  principal  fortresses  in  the  kingdom.  The 
king  and  the  royal  family  were  obliged  to 
seek  an  asylum  in  Sicily.  Under  the  Prince 
of  Hesse,  Gaeta  made  a long  and  memorable 
defense  against  the  French  troops,  and  was 
taken  only  in  consequence  of  that  commander 
being  badly  wounded,  and  some  of  his  offi- 
cers proving  treacherous.  On  the  translation 
of  Joseph  Bonaparte  to  the  throne  of  Spain, 
in  1808,  Joachim  Murat,  who  had  married  a 
sister  of  Napoleon,  was  nominated  to  the  king- 
dom of  Naples. 

After  an  extraordinary  career,  in  which 
some  of  the  martial  talent  and  vigor  of  Murat 
was  displayed,  but  was  ill  seconded  by  his 
troops,  Naples  was  invested  by  land,  w'hilst 
an  English  naval  force  entered  i.ts  port,  and 
compelled  a surrender  of  the  ships  and 
arsenal.  The  Neapolitan  commanders,  and 
those  of  Austria  and  England,  signed  a con- 
vention, of  which  the  prominent  feature  w'as 
the  abdication  of  Joachim.  Naples  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  allies,  who  were  joined  by  an 
armament  of  English  and  Sicilians ; and  Fer- 
dinand IV.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  after  an 
absence  of  nine  years,  was  restored  in  1815. 

NAPOLI  DI  ROMANIA,  or  Nauplia,  a 
port  and  city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Morea,  on  the  Gulf  of  Nauplia,  or  Argolis, 
containing  about  5,000  inhabitants.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Greeks  during  their  revolution, 
and  in  1824  became  for  a time  the  seat  of 
government. 

In  1205  it  was  taken  by  the  French  and 
Venetians;  and  a little  after,  King  Gianno- 
viza  seized  and  plundered  it.  The  Venetians 
bought  it  of  Peter  Cornaro’s  widow  in  1383, 
made  it  their  chief  settlement  in  the  Morea, 
and  defended  it  gallantly  against  Mahomet 
II.  in  1460,  obliging  him  to  raise  the  siege. 
Sultan  Solyman  took  it  from  them  in  1637. 

NARVA,  Battle  of.  Peter  the  Great, 
with  70,000  Russians,  was  badly  defeated  by 


Charles  XII.  with  on  y 20,000  Swedes,  Nov. 
30th,  1700.  The  ‘madman  of  the  north,’ 
then  only  nineteen  years  of  age,  attacked  the 
Russians  in  their  intrenchments.  He  had 
several  horses  shot  under  him,  and  as  he 
mounted  a fresh  one,  he  said,  “ These  fellows 
seem  disposed  to  give  me  exercise.” 

NASEBY,  a village  of  Northamptonshire, 
England,  famous  for  the  decisive  and  well 
disputed  battle  fought  there,  June  14th,  1645, 
between  the  army  of  Charles  I.  and  the  par- 
liamentary troops,  with  nearly  equal  forces 
on  both  sides.  The  king  commanded  in 
person,  and  displayed  all  the  conduct  of  a 
prudent  general  and  stout  soldier.  Fairfax 
and  Skippon  were  his  opponents ; and  Crom- 
well behaved  with  his  usual  prudence  and 
gallantry.  The  royal  infantry  were  entirely 
discomfited;  and  though  the  king  cried 
aloud  to  the  cavalry,  “ One  charge  more  and 
we  recover  the  day ! ” they  could  not  be  pre- 
vailed on  to  renew  the  combat,  and  the  king 
was  obliged  to  quit  the  field,  losing  all  his 
cannon  and  baggage,  and  5,000  prisoners. 
The  slain  on  the  side  of  the  parliament,  how- 
ever, exceeded  those  of  the  king.  Among 
the  spoils  was  found  the  king’s  cabinet,  with 
copies  of  his  letters  to  the  queen. 

NASH,  Francis,  a brigadier-general  in  the 
American  Revolution,  killed  at  Germantown 
in  1777.  He  was  a citizen  of  North  Carolina. 

NASH,  Richard,  commonly  called  Beau 
Nash,  was  a native  of  Swansea  in  "Wales, 
1674.  After  a brief  life  at  the  bar  and  in  the 
army,  he  made  pleasure  and  fashion  his  busi- 
ness, and  in  1704  was  appointed  master  of 
ceremonies  at  Bath,  then  the  great  watering- 
place  of  England.  Here  he  bore  arbitrary 
sway  more  than  fifty  years.  When  his  health 
failed,  and  his  vivacity  and  taste  fled,  his 
fickle  position  gave  way,  and  he  expired  in 
indigence  and  neglect  in  1761. 

NASSAU,  a small  duchy  of  Germany,  with 
an  area  of  1,736  square  miles,  and  a popula- 
tion of  432,039.  The  boast  of  Nassau  is  its 
wine, — its  hock,  and  the  wines  of  Riidesheim 
and  Johannisberg.  Wiesbaden  is  the  chief 
town.  Otho,  brother  of  Conrad  I.,  in  the 
tenth  century,  is  considered  the  founder  of 
the  house  of  Nassau,  which  after  the  death 
of  Henry  II.  divided  into  two  branches. 
The  dukes  of  Nassau  are  descended  from 
the  elder  branch,  and  the  house  of  Orange- 


NAS 


672 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


Nassau,  the  royal  family  of  Holland,  from 
the  younger. 

NAVAL  BATTLES  in  modern  history. 
The  most  important  engagements  at  sea  are 
described  separately,  as  Lepanto,  Aboukir, 
or  the  Nile,  Trafalgar,  St.  Vincent,  Navarino, 
Sinope,  &c. 

897.  Fight  between  English  and  the  Danes, 
when  Alfred  defeated  120  ships  off  the 
coast  of  Dorsetshire. 

1389.  Eighty  French  ships  taken  by  the  English. 
1416.  The  Duke  of  Bedford  took  500  French  and 
3 Genoese  vessels. 

1459.  The  French  fleet  taken  by  the  Earl  of 
Warwick  in  the  Downs. 

1571.  Between  the  Christian  powers  and  the 
Turks,  in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  Oct. 
7th. 

1588-  Between  the  English  fleet  and  the  Spanish 
Armada,  July  19th. 

1653-  Between  Blake  and  Van  Tromp,  July  29th. 

The  Dutch  lost  30  men-of-war,  and  Ad- 
miral Van  Tromp  was  killed. 

1664-  The  Duke  of  York  took  130  of  the  Bor- 
deaux fleet,  Dec.  4th. 

1692-  The  French  fleet  entirely  defeated,  and 
twenty-one  large  men-of-war  destroyed 
by  the  English  and  Dutch,  off  Cape  La 
Hogue,  May  19th. 

1702.  The  Vigo  fleet  taken  by  the  Dutch  and 
English,  Oct.  12th. 

1704.  The  French  are  beaten  by  the  English,  off 
Malaga,  and  entirely  relinquish  to  them 
.the  dominion  of  the  sea,  Aug.  24th. 
1779.  Paul  Jones  captured  the  British  frigate 
Serapis,  Sept.  23d. 

1782.  Admiral  Rodney  defeated  the  French  go- 
ing to  attack  Jamaica,  April  12th. 

1794.  Lord  Howe  totally  defeated  the  French 
fleet  off  Ushant,  June  1st. 

1797.  The  Spanish  fleet  defeated  off  Cape  St. 

Vincent,  by  Sir  J.  Jervis,  Feb.  14th. 

The  Dutch  fleet  defeated  by  Admiral  Dun- 
can on  the  coast  of  Holland,  at  Cam- 
perdown,  Oct.  11th. 

1798.  The  famous  battle  of  Aboukir,  or  the  Nile, 

The  French  fleet  of  17  ships  totally 
defeated  by  Nelson,  Aug.  1st. 

1801.  The  Danish  fleet  of  23  sail  taken  by  Lord 
Nelson  off  Copenhagen,  April  2d. 

1804.  Stephen  Decatur  succeeded  in  obtaining 

possession  of  the  frigate  Philadelphia 
from  the  harbor  of  Tripoli.  He  then  set 
fire  to  her;  twenty  of  the  enemy  were 
destroyed.  Lieutenant  Decatur  did  not 
lose  a man.  The  same  year  in  August 
and  September,  Commodore  Preble 
made  several  famous  attacks  upon  the 
town,  fortress,  and  naval  forces  of 
Tripoli. 

1805.  French  and  Spanish  fleets  totally  defeated 

off  Cape  Trafalgar,  and  Lord  Nelson 
was  killed  in  the  action,  Oct.  21st. 

1811.  Rencontre  between  the  British  sloop  of 
war  Little  Belt,  and  the  United  States 


frigate  President,  Commodore  Rodgers, 
May  16  th. 

1812.  The  British  sloop  of  war  Alert  taken  by 

the  United  States  frigate  Essex,  Cap- 
tain Porter,  Aug.  13th. 

The  British  frigate  Guerriere  taken  by  the 
United  States  frigate  Constitution, 
Captain  Hull,  Aug.  19th. 

The  British  brig  Frolic,  by  the  United 
States  sloop  Wasp,  Captain  Jones; 
same  day,  the  Wasp  and  Frolic  were 
captured  by  the  British  74  Poictiers, 
Captain  Beresford,  Oct.  18th. 

British  frigate  Macedonian  captured  by 
the  frigate  United  States,  Commodore 
Decatur,  Oct.  25th. 

British  frigate  Java  captured  by  the 
United  States  frigate  Constitution,  Cap- 
tain Bainbridge,  Dec.  29th. 

1813.  Peacock,  British  sloop  of  war,  captured  by 

the  United  States  sloop  of  war  Hornet; 
the  Peacock  sunk  with  part  of  her 
crew ; Feb.  24th. 

United  States  frigate  Chesapeake  captured 
by  the  British  frigate  Shannon ; the  gal- 
lant commander  of  the  Chesapeake, 
James  Lawrence,  fell;  June  1st. 

United  States  armed  vessels  Growler  and 
Eagle  taken,  after  a smart  action,  by 
the  British  gun-boats,  June  3d. 

United  States  sloop  of  war  Argus  taken 
by  the  British  sloop  of  war  Pelican, 
Aug.  14th. 

British  brig  Boxer  taken  by  the  United 
States  brig  Enterprise,  Sept.  4th. 

Commodore  Oliver  H.  Perry,  in  a gallant 
action  of  the  United  States  squadron 
under  his  command,  captured  the  British 
fleet  on  Lake  Erie,  Sept.  13th. 

1814.  The  United  States  frigate  Essex  taken  by 

the  British  frigate  Phoebe  and  sloop  of 
war  Cherub,  after  a desperate  and  san- 
guinary defense,  March  28th. 

United  States  sloop  of  war  Frolic  taken 
by  a British  squadron,  April  21st. 

British  brig  Epervier  taken  by  the  United 
States  brig  Peacock,  April  29th. 

British  sloop  of  war  Reindeer  taken  by  the 
U.  S.  sloop  of  war  Wasp,  June  28th. 

McDonough’s  victory  over  the  British 
squadron  on  Lake  Champlain,  Aug. 
11th. 

1815.  United  States  frigate  President,  Decatur 

commander,  captured  by  a British 
squadron,  consisting  of  the  Endymion, 
Tenedos,  and  Pomona  frigates,  and  the 
Majestic  razee ; Decatur,  after  being 
captured,  refused  indignantly  to  deliver 
his  sword  to  any  other  than  the  com- 
mander of  the  squadron  ; Jan.  15. 

The  British  ships Cyane  and  Levant  taken 
bv  the  United  States  frigate  Constitu- 
tion, Feb.  20. 

The  United  States  ship  Hornet  captures 
the  British  ship  Penguin,  March  23d. 

1831-4.  (For  the  principal  naval  actions  of  the 
rebellion,  see  Chronology,  end  book.) 


NAV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


573 


NAVARINO,  or  Neocastro,  a small  town 
and  fortress  on  the  south-west  coast  of  the 
Morea,  with  a large  harbor.  In  1715  it  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  who  fortified  it 
against  the  Turks.  Here,  Oct.  20th,  1827, 
the  combined  Russian,  French,  and  English 
fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral  Coarington, 
defeated  the  Turco-Egyptian  fleet  after  a 
warm  engagement.  The  battle  of  Navarino 
caused  the  independence  of  Greece,  but  almost 
annihilated  the  naval  power  of  Turkey. 

NAXOS,  now  Naxia,  in  very  ancient  times 
Dia  and  Strovgyle , the  largest  island  of  the 
Cyclades,  contains  169  square  miles,  and 

20.000  inhabitants.  The  Naxians  were  an- 
ciently governed  by  kings,  but  they  after- 
ward exchanged  this  form  of  government  for 
a republic,  and  enjoyed  their  liberty  till  the 
age  of  Pisistratus,  who  appointed  a tyrant 
over  them.  During  the  Peloponnesian  war> 
they  supported  the  interest  ot  Athens.  The 
capital  was  also  called  Naxos ; and  near  it, 
n.  c 377,  the  Lacedaemonians  were  defeated 
by  Chabrias. 

N AYLER,  James,  an  enthusiastic  and  ex- 
travagant convert  to  Quakerism,  born  in 
1616.  lie  was  sentenced  by  parliament  to 
be  whipped,  branded,  and  bored  in  the 
tongue  with  a hot  iron,  and  imprisoned  for 
life  for  blasphemy,  lie  died  in  1G66. 

NEANDER,  Joiiann  Augustus,  the  cel- 
ebrated church  historian,  and  famous  Protes- 
tant theologian,  was  born  at  Gottingen, 
Jan.  13th,  1789,  and  died  at  Berlin,  July 
13th,  1850.  lie  was  of  Jewish  descent,  but 
embraced  the  Christian  religion,  was  publicly 
baptized,  and  assumed  the  name  Neander, 
from  two  Greek  words  signifying  “a  new 
man.”  After  a course  of  study  he  was  made 
the  chief  professor  of  theology  at  the  royal 
university  of  Berlin,  which  post  he  held  to 
the  time  of  his  death. 

NEBRASKA.  Nebraska  has  an  area  of 

76.000  square  miles.  It  became  one  of  the 
United  States  March  1st,  1867,  and  in  1870 
contained  a population  of  122,993.  The 
country  consists  chiefly  of  elevated  prairies, 
which  are  moderately  undulating,  being  high- 
est in  the  western  portion  of  the  state,  and 
sloping  gradually  eastward  toward  the  Mis- 
souri river.  The  resources  of  the  State  are 
chiefly  agricultural  and  the  soil  is  well  adapt- 
ed to  the  raising  of  corn  and  wheat,  large 


quantities  of  each  being  brought  into  the 
market  every  year. 

Lincoln  is  the  capital  of  the  state  and  con- 
tains 2,441  inhabitants.  The  chief  towns, 
with  the  population  of  each,  are  as  follows : 
Plattsmoutli,  2-, 448 ; Omaha,  16,083;  Ne- 
braska, 6,050,  and  Brownsville,  2,386. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR  I.,  or  Nabuchodo- 
nosar,  King  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon.  He 
is  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  Nabopolas- 
sar,  governor  of  Babylon,  who  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Nineveh.  Hesent  Holophernes 
against  Judea,  who  was  slain  by  Judith. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR  II.,  King  of  As- 
syria and  Babylon,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  son  of  the  preceding.  He  invaded  Judea, 
took  Jerusalem,  and  carried  the  treasures 
of  the  temple,  and  a number  of  captives,  to 
Babylon.  After  this  he  set  up  a golden  statue 
in  the  plain  of  Dura,  which  he  commanded 
all  his  subjects  to  adore,  on  pain  of  being 
cast  into  a fiery  furnace.  Three  young 
Jews,  named  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abed- 
nego,  refused  to  submit  to  this  idolatry,  and 
the  sentence  was  executed  upon  them ; but 
they  were  preserved  amidst  the  flames. 
Having  lost  his  senses,  he  became  an  outcast 
from  the  society  of  men,  and  lived  among 
wild  beasts  in  the  forest ; but  on  recovering 
his  reason,  he  again  ascended  the  throne,  and 
died,  b.c.  562,  after  reigning  forty-three  years. 

NECHO,  King  of  Egypt,  called  in  Scrip- 
ture, Pharaoh  Necho,  succeeded  his  father, 
Psammeticus,  b.c.  616.  He  undertook  to 
make  a canal  from  the  Nile  to  the  Arabian 
gulf,  which  undertaking  he  was  forced  to 
abandon,  after  it  had  cost  the  lives  of  120,000 
men.  Herodotus  says  that  the  ships  of  Necho 
sailed  from  the  Red  Sea,  around  the  coast 
of  Africa,  into  the  Mediterranean ; and  re- 
turned to  Egypt,  after  a voyage  of  three 
years.  This  monarch  invaded  Assyria,  and 
on  his  march  was  attacked  by  Josiah,  King 
of  Judah,  who  was  slain  in  the  battle.  The 
King  of  Egypt  was  defeated  in  his  turn  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  obliged  to  return  to 
his  own  country,  where  he  died,  b.c.  600. 

NECKER,  a famous  minister  of  finance  in 
France,  was  a native  of  Geneva.  He  foresaw 
the  storm  of  the  French  revolution,  and  in 
1790  retired  to  his  native  land,  where  he 
died  in  1804,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two.  He 
was  the  father  of  Madame  de  Stael. 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


674 


NELSON,  Horatio,  the  greatest  of  Eng- 
land’s admirals,  was  the  fourth  son  of  the 
rector  of  Burnham  Thorpe  in  Norfolk,  where 
he  was  born  Sept.  29th,  1758.  At  the  age 
of  twelve  years  he  was  taken  to  sea  by  his 
maternal  uncle,  Captain  Suckling,  of  the 
Kaisonable  man-of-war.  In  1773,  in  a voyage 
undertaken  for  the  discovery  of  a north-west 
passage,  the  young  midshipman  distinguished 
himself  by  his  skill,  courage,  and  prompti- 
tude. Soon  after  his  return  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  a station  in  the  Seahorse,  in  which 
he  sailed  to  the  East  Indies. 

He  passed  for  a lieutenant  in  1777,  and 
received  his  commission  as  second  of  the 
Lowestoff  frigate,  in  which  he  cruised  against 
the  Americans.  In  1779  he  obtained  the 
rank  of  post-captain,  and  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Hinchinbrooke,  with 
which  he  sailed  to  the  West  Indies,  and 
while  there  essentially  contributed  to  the 
taking  of  Fort  Juan  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
We  find  him  next  commanding  the  Boreas, 
stationed  in  the  West  Indies,  having  under 
him  the  Duke  of  Clarence  (afterward  Wil- 
liam IV.),  who  was  captain  of  the  Pegasus. 

While  thus  engaged  he  married  Mrs.  Nes- 
bit  (the  daughter  of  William  Woodward, 
judge  of  the  island  of  Nevis),  by  whom  he 
never  had  any  issue.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  with  France  he  was  nominated 
to  the  Agamemnon  of  sixty-four  guns,  on 
board  of  which  he  sailed  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  was  present  at  the  possession  of 
Toulon.  He  took  part  on  shore  in  the  at- 
tempt to  wrest  Corsica  from  the  French, 
and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Bastia,  where 
•he  served  at  the  batteries  with  a body  of 
seamen ; as  he  afterward  did  at  Calvi,  and 
while  employed  before  that  place  he  lost  an 
eye.  He.  was  so  active  on  that  station  that 
his  name  was  dreaded  throughout  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

He  was  with  Admiral  Hotham  in  the  ac- 
tion with  the  French  fleet,  March  15th, 
1795  ; and  the  same  year  he  took  the  island 
of  Elba.  In  1796  he  was  appointed  commo- 
dore on  board  La  Minerve,  in  which  frigate 
he  captured  La  Sabine,  a ship  of  forty  guns. 
Soon  after  this  he  descried  the  Spanish  fleet, 
and  steered  with  the  intelligence  to  Sir  John 
Jervis  off  St.  Vincent.  He  had  scarcely 
communicated  the  news,  and  shifted  his  flag 


on  board  the  Captain,  seventy-four  guns, 
when  the  enemy  hove  in  sight.  A close 
action  ensued,  which  terminated  in  a com- 
plete victory  on  the  side  of  the  British,  who 
were  inferior  in  numbers.  On  this  occasion 
Commodore  Nelson  attacked  the  Santissima 
Trinidada,  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  guns; 
and  afterward  he  boarded  and  took  the  San 
Nicholas,  eighty  guns ; whence  he  proceeded 
in  the  same  manner  to  the  San  Josef,  one 
hundred  and  twelve  guns ; both  of  which 
surrendered  to  him.  For  his  share  in  this 
glorious  victory,  the  commodore  was  honored 
with  the  order  of  the  Bath  ; and  having  soon 
afterward  hoisted  his  flag  as  rear-admiral 
of  the  blue,  he  was  appointed  to  command 
the  inner  squadron  at  the  blockade  of  Ca- 
diz. He  there  made  a bold  but  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  bombard  the  city,  heading  his  men 
himself. 

The  next  exploit  in  which  he  was  engaged 
was  an  attempt  to  get  possession  of  Teneriffe, 
which  was  beaten  off,  the  British  sustaining 
severe  loss.  Admiral  Nelson  lost  his  right 
arm  by  a cannon  shot,  and  was  carried  off  to 
the  boat  on  the  back  of  his  son-in-law,  Cap- 
tain Nesbit.  Some  years  before  Nelson  had 
become  intimate  with  a person  on  board  ship 
who  was  officially  engaged  in  writing,  which 
he  accomplished  with  his  left  hand.  Captain 
Nelson,  attentively  observing  him  one  day 
while  thus  occupied,  said,  “Parnell,  I can 
not  think  how  you  manage  to  write  with 
your  left  hand.”  The  result  of  this  remark 
was  that  Nelson  was  taught  to  perform  the 
task  which  had  excited  his  wonder;  little 
dreaming  that  the  disastrous  loss  of  his  arm 
at  Teneriffe  would  leave  him  no  other  alter- 
native in  committing  his  ideas  to  paper  than 
to  write  with  the  left  hand. 

The  hero  now  returned  to  England  for  the 
recovery  of  his  health,  and  received  the  grant 
of  a pension  of  £1,000  a j7ear.  He  did  not, 
however,  long  remain  inactive:  in  1798  he 
rejoined  Earl  St.  Vincent  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, who,  on  receiving  intelligence  of  the 
sailing  of  Bonaparte  from  Toulon,  detached 
him  with  a squadron  in  pursuit. 

After  exploring  the  coast  of  Italy,  the  inde- 
fatigable commander  steered  for  Alexandria, 
where  to  his  great  mortification  not  a French 
ship  was  to  be  seen.  He  then  sailed  to  Sicily, 
and  having  taken  in  a fresh  supply  of  water, 


NEL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


575 


and  obtained  more  correct  information,  re- 
turned to  Alexandria,  which  he  descried 
Aug.  1st,  1798,  at  noon.  The  enemy  were 
discovered  in  Aboukir  Bay,  lying  at  anchor 
in  line  of  battle;  and  supported  by  strong 
batteries  on  an  island,  and  strengthened  by 
gun-boats.  Notwithstanding  this  formidable 
appearance,  the  British  admiral  made  the 
signal  for  battle ; and,  by  a masterly  and 
bold  maneuvre,  gave  directions  for  part  of  his 
fleet  to  lead  inside  the  enemy,  who  were  thus 
exposed  between  two  fires.  The  contest  was 
hot  and  bloody.  Several  of  the  French  ships 
were  soon  dismasted;  and,  at  last  the  admi- 
ral’s ship  L’ Orient,  one  hundred  and  twenty 
guns,  took  fire,  and  blew  up.  The  firing, 
however,  continued,  but  by  the  dawn  of  day 
only  two  sail  of  the  line  were  discovered  with 
their  colors  flying,  all  the  rest  having  struck. 
For  this  victory  he  received  a peerage,  by 
the  title  of  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile. 

Soon  after  this  he  sailed  for  Sicily,  and 
from  thence  to  Naples,  where  he  quelled  a 
rebellion,  and  restored  the  king.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  he  formed  his  unhappy 
intimacy  with  Lady  Hamilton.  Upon  return- 
ing to  England,  he  was  received  with  enthu- 
siastic joy.  A confederacy  of  the  northern 
powers  having  alarmed  the  government,  a 
fleet  was  fitted  out,  the  command  of  which 
was  given  to  Admiral  Sir  Hyde  Parker, 
assisted  by  Lord  Nelson.  On  their  arrival 
off  the  Cattegat,  and  being  refused  a passage, 
Lord  Nelson  offered  his  services  for  conduct- 
ing the  attack  on  the  Danish  force  which 
was  stationed  to  oppose  an  entrance.  This 
being  accepted,  he  shifted  his  flag  to  the  Ele- 
phant, and  passed  the  Sound  with  little  loss. 
On  the  2d  of  April  the  action  commenced  at 
ten  o’clock,  and  after  a sharp  conflict  -seven- 
teen sail  of  the  Danes  were  sunk,  burnt,  or 
taken.  A negotiation  was  then  entered  into 
between  his  lordship  and  the  crown  prince ; 
in  consequence  of  which  the  admiral  went 
ashore,  and  an  armistice  was  settled. 

He  returned  to  England,  and  was  created 
a viscount.  In  August,  1801,  he  bombarded 
the  enemy’s  flotilla  of  gun-boats  at  Boulogne, 
but  without  any  material  effect.  A treaty 
suddenly  taking  place,  his  lordship  retired, 
but  hostilities  recommencing  he  sailed  for 
the  Mediterranean,  and  in  March,  1803,  took 
the  command  of  that  station  on  board  the 


Victory.  Notwithstanding  all  his  vigilance, 
the  French  fleet  escaped  from  Toulon,  and 
was  joined  by  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cadiz ; 
of  which  being  apprised,  he  pursued  them 
to  the  West  Indies  with  a far  inferior  force, 
in  unremitting  but  unsuccessful  chase.  The 
combined  squadrons,  struck  with  terror,  re- 
turned without  effecting  anything;  and,  after 
a partial  action  with  Sir  Robert  Calder  off 
Ferrol,  re-entered  Cadiz.  Admiral  Nelson 
returned  to  England,  but  soon  set  sail  to  join 
his  fleet  off  Cadiz. 

The  French  under  Admiral  Villeneuve,  and 
the  Spaniards  under  Gravina,  ventured  out 
with  a number  of  troops  on  board,  Oct.  19th, 
1805,  and  on  the  21st,  about  noon,  the  great 
action  began  off  Cape  Trafalgar.  Nelson’s  sig- 
nal to  his  fleet  just  before  the  fight  began,  was 
the  sentence,  “England  expects  every  man 
to  do  his  duty.”  He  ordered  his  ship  the 
Victory  to  be  carried  alongside  his  old  antago- 
nist, the  Santissima  Trinidada,  where  he  was 
exposed  to  a severe  fire  of  musketry ; and, 
not  having  the  precaution  to  cover  his  coat, 
which  was  decorated  with  his  star,  and  other 
badges  of  distinction,  he  became  an  object 
for  the  riflemen  placed  purposely  in  the  tops 
of  the  Bucentaur,  which  lay  on  his  quarter. 
A shot  from  one  of  these  entered  just  below 
his  shoulder,  of  which  he  died  in  about  two 
hours.  He  survived  long  enough  that  victory 
was  completely  won,  and  his  last  words  were, 
“ Thank  God,  I have  done  my  duty.”  In 
this  action  the  enemy’s  force  consisted  of 
thirty-three  ships  of  the  line,  several  of  ex- 
traordinary magnitude,  and  seven  frigates ; 
while  the  British  only  had  twenty-seven,  and 
five  frigates.  After  the  fall  of  Lord  Nelson* 
the  command  devolved  on  Admiral  Colling- 
wood,  by  whose  bravery  and  skill  a complete 
victory  was  obtained.  The  remains  of  Lord 
Nelson  were  interred  with  great  pomp  in  St. 
Paul’s  cathedral,  the  9th  of  January  follow- 
ing. 

NELSON,  Thomas,  Jr.,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born 
at  York,  Va.,  Dec.  26th,  1738.  He  was  sent 
to  England  at  an  early  age,  and  completed 
an  excellent  education  at  the  university  of 
Cambridge.  Returning  to  Virginia  in  1761, 
he  soon  entered  into  political  life,  and  in 
1775  was  chosen  a member  of  Congress;  a 
post  w^iich  his  delicate  health  compelled  him 


NEL 


576 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


to  resign  in  1777.  He  was  chosen  for  1779 
and  1780,  and  in  1781  succeeded  Jefferson  as 
governor  of  Virginia,  He  held  a commission 
as  brigadier-general  in  the  Virginia  militia, 
was  active  in  the  taking  of  Cornwallis,  and 
his  services  were  particularly  noticed  by 
Washington  in  the  general  orders  issued  after 
the  capture  of  Yorktown.  He  died  Jan.  4th, 
1789. 

NEPOS,  Cornelius,  a Latin  historian,  who 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar. 

NEPTUNE,  in  ancient  mythology,  the  god 
of  the  sea,  the  brother  of  Jupiter,  from  whom 
he  derived  his  sovereignty.  He  was  gener- 
ally represented  as  a bearded  old  gentleman, 
with  a trident  in  his  hand,  seated  in  a huge 
marine  shell  which  was  drawn  over  the  wa- 
ters by  sea-horses. 

NERO,  Lucius  Domitius  Ahenobarbus, 
after  his  adoption  called  Claudius  Drusus, 
the  son  of  Caius  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  and 
Agrippina,  the  daughter  of  Germanicus,  was 
born  at  Antium,  a.d.  37.  After  the  marriage 
of  his  mother  with  her  uncle,  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  he  was  adopted  by  the  emperor, 
a.d.  50,  wedded  his  daughter  Octavia,  and 
four  years  after  succeeded  him  on  the  throne, 
Agrippina  poisoning  her  husband  to  make 
room  for  him.  The  beginning  of  his  reign 
was  marked  by  acts  of  the  greatest  kindness 
and  condescension,  by  affability,  complais- 
ance, and  popularity.  The  object  of  his 
administration  seemed  to  be  the  good  of  his 
people ; and  when  he  was  desired  to  sign  his 
name  to  a list  of  malefactors  that  were  to  be 
executed,  he  exclaimed,  “ I wish  to  heaven  I 
could  not  write.”  He  was  a professed  enemy 
•to  flattery,  and  when  the  senate  had  liberally 
commended  the  wisdom  of  government,  Nero 
desired  them  to  keep  their  praises  till  he 
deserved  them.  These  promising  virtues 
were  soon  discovered  to  be  artificial,  and 
Nero  displayed  the  propensities  of  his  nature. 
He  delivered  himself  from  the  sway  of  his 
wretched  mother,  and  at  last  ordered  her  to 
be  assassinated. 

This  unnatural  act  of  barbarity  might  as- 
tonish some  of  the  Romans,  but  Nero  had  his 
devoted  adherents ; and  when  he  declared 
that  he  had  taken  away  his  mother’s  life  to 
save  himself  from  ruin,  the  senate  applauded 
his  measures,  and  the  people  signified  their 
approbation.  Many  of  his  courtiers  shared 


the  unhappy  fate  of  Agrippina,  and  Nero 
sacrificed  to  his  fury  or  caprice  all  such  as 
obstructed  his  pleasure.  He  sacrificed  to 
his  wantonness  his  wife  Octavia,  and  the 
celebrated  writers,  Seneca,  Lucan,  Petro- 
nius,  &c.  The  Christians  also  did  not  escape 
his  barbarity. 

He  had  heard  of  the  burning  of  Troy,  and 
as  he  wished  to  renew  that  dismal  scene,  he 
caused  Rome  to  be  set  on  fire  in  different 
places.  The  conflagration  became  soon  uni- 
versal, and  during  nine  successive  days  the 
fire  was  unextinguished.  All  was  desola- 
tion ; nothing  was  heard  but  the  lamentations 
of  mothers  whose  children  had  perished  in 
the  flames,  the  groans  of  the  dying,  and  the 
continual  fall  of  palaces  and  buildings.  Nero 
was  the  only  one  who  enjoyed  the  general 
consternation.  He  placed  himself  on  the  top 
of  a high  tower,  and  he  sang  on  his  lyre  the 
destruction  of  Troy,  a dreadful  scene  which 
his  barbarity  had  realized  before  his  eyes. 
He  attempted  to  avert  the  public  odium  from 
his  head,  by  a feigned  commiseration  of  the 
miseries  of  his  subjects,  and  attributing  the 
incendiarism  to  the  Christians.  He  began  to 
repair  the  streets  and  the  public  buildings  at 
his  own  expense.  He  built  himself  a cele- 
brated palace,  which  was  profusely  adorned 
with  gold,  and  precious  stones,  and  with 
whatever  was  rare  and  exquisite.  The  en- 
trance of  this  edifice  could  admit  a large 
colossus  of  the  emperor  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  high ; the  galleries  were  each  a 
mile  long ; and  the  whole  was  covered  with 
gold.  The  roofs  of  the  dining-halls  repre- 
sented the  firmament  in  motion  as  well  as  in 
figure,  and  continually  turned  round  night 
and  day,  showering  down  all  sorts  of  per- 
fumes and  sweet  waters.  When  this  grand 
edifice,  which  occupied  a great  part  of  the 
city,  was  finished,  Nero  said  that  now  he 
could  lodge  like  a man.  His  profusion  was 
not  less  remarkable  in  all  his  other  actions. 
When  he  went  a fishing,  his  nets  were  made 
with  gold  and  silk.  He  never  appeared  twice 
in  the  same  garment,  and  when  he  undertook 
a voyage,  there  were  thousands  of  servants 
to  take  care  of  his  wardrobe. 

This  continuation  of  debauchery  and  ex- 
travagance at  last  roused  the  resentment  of 
the  people.  Many  conspiracies  were  formed 
against  the  emperor,  but  they  were  generally 


NER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


577 


discovered,  and  such  as  were  accessory  suf- 
fered the  greatest  punishments.  The  most 
dangerpus  conspiracy  against  Nero’s  life,  was 
that  of  Piso,  from  which  he  was  delivered 
by  the  confession  of  a slave.  The  conspiracy 
of  Galba  proved  more  successful ; and  the 
conspirator,  when  he  was  informed  that  his 
plot  was  known  to  Nero,  declared  himself 
emperor.  The  unpopularity  of  Nero  favored 
his  cause ; he  was  acknowledged  by  all  the 
Roman  empire,  and  the  senate  condemned  the 
tjrrant  that  sat  on  the  throne  to  be  dragged 
naked  through  the  streets  of  Rome,  and 
whipped  to  death,  and  afterward  to  be  thrown 
down  from  the  Tarpeian  rock  like  the  mean- 
est malefactor.  This,  however,  was  not  done, 
Nero,  by  a voluntary  death,  having  prevented 
the  execution  of  the  sentence.  He  killed 
himself,  a.d.  68,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of 
his  age,  after  a reign  of  thirteen  years  and 
eight  months. 

Rome  was  filled  with  acclamations  at  the 
intelligence,  and  the  citizens,  more  strongly 
to  indicate  their  joy,  wore  such  caps  as  were 
generally  used  by  slaves  who  had  received 
their  freedom.  Their  vengeance  was  not  only 
exercised  against  the  statues  of  the  deceased 
tyrant,  but  his  friends  were  the  objects  of  the 
public  resentment,  and  many  were  crushed  to 
pieces  in  such  a violent  manner,  that  one  of 
the  senators,  amid  the  universal  joy,  said  that 
he  was  afraid  they  should  soon  have  cause  to 
wish  for  Nero.  Though  his  death  seemed  to 
be  the  source  of  universal  gladness,  yet  many 
of  his  favorites  lamented  his  fall,  and  were 
grieved  to  see  that  their  pleasures  and  amuse- 
ments were  stopped  by  the  death  of  the  patron 
of  debauchery  and  extravagance.  Even  the 
Parthian  king  sent  ambassadors  to  Rome  to 
condole  with  the  Romans,  and  to  beg  that  they 
would  honor  and  revere  the  memory  of  Nero. 
His  statues  were  also  crowned  with  garlands 
of  flowers,  and  many  believed  that  he  was  not 
dead,  but  that  he  would  soon  make  his  ap- 
pearance, and  take  a due  vengeance  upon  his 
enemies. 

NERO,  Claudius,  a Roman  general  sent 
into  Spain  to  succeed  the  two  Scipios.  He 
suffered  himself  to  be  imposed  upon  by  As- 
drubal,  and  was  soon  after  succeeded  by  young 
Scipio.  He  was  afterward  made  consul,  and 
intercepted  Asdrubal,  who  was  passing  from 
Spain  into  Italy  with  a large  re-enforcement 

37 


for  his  brother  Annibal.  An  engagement 
was  fought  near  the  river  Metaurus,  in  which 
56,000  of  the  Carthaginians  were  left  on  the 
field  of  battle,  and  great  numbers  taken  pris- 
oners, 207  b.c. 

NERVA  COCCEIUS,  a Roman  emperor 
after  the  death  of  Domitian,  a.d.  96.  He 
rendered  himself  popular  by  his  mildness,  his 
generosity,  and  the  active  part  he  took  in  the 
management  of  affairs.  He  suffered  no  stat- 
ues to  be  raised  to  his  honor,  and  he  applied 
to  the  use  of  the  government  all  the  gold  and 
silver  statues  which  flattery  had  erected  to 
his  predecessor.  In  his  civil  character  he 
was  the  pattern  of  good  manners,  of  sobriety, 
and  temperance.  He  made  a solemn  declara- 
tion that  no  senator  should  suffer  death  during 
his  reign ; and  this  he  observed  with  such 
sanctity  that  when  two  members  of  the  senate 
had  conspired  against  his  life,  he  was  satisfied 
to  tell  them  that  he  was  informed  of  their 
wicked  machinations.  He  also  conducted 
them  to  the  public  spectacles,  and  seated  him- 
self between  them,  and,  when  a sword  was 
offered  to  him,  according  to  the  usual  custom, 
he  desired  the  conspirators  to  try  it  upon  his 
body.  Such  goodness  of  heart,  such  confi- 
dence in  the  self-conviction  of  the  human 
mind,  and  such  reliance  upon  the  consequence 
of  his  lenity  and  indulgence,  conciliated  the 
affection  of  all  his  subjects.  Yet,  as  envy  and 
danger  are  the  constant  companions  of  great- 
ness, the  praetorian  guards  at  last  mutinied, 
and  Nerva  nearly  yielded  to  their  fury.  He 
uncovered  his  aged  neck  in  the  presence  of 
the  incensed  soldiery,  and  bade  them  wreak 
their  vengeance  upon  him,  provided  they 
spared  the  life  of  those  to  whom  he  was  in-  r 
debted  for  the  empire,  tind  whom  his  honor 
commanded  him  to  defend.  His  seeming  sub- 
mission was  unavailing,  and  he  was  at  last 
obliged  to  surrender  to  the  fury  of  his  soldiers, 
some  of  his  friends  and  supporters.  The  in- 
firmities of  his  age,  and  his  natural  timidity, 
at  last  obliged  him  to  provide  himself  against 
any  future  mutiny  or  tumult,  by  choosing  a 
worthy  successor.  He  had  many  friends  and 
relations,  but  he  did  not  consider  the  aggran- 
dizement of  his  family,  and  he  chose  Trajan, 
a man  of  whose  virtues  and  greatness  of  mind 
he  was  fully  convinced.  This  voluntary 
choice  was  approved  by  the  acclamations  of 
the  people;  and  the  wisdom  and  prudence 


NER 


> 


578 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


which  marked  the  reign  of  Trajan  showed  how 
discerning  was  the  judgment  and  how  affec- 
tionate were  the  intentions  of  Nerva  for  the 
good  of  Rome.  He  died  a.d.  98,  in  his  sev- 
enty-second year,  and  his  successor  showed 
his  respect  for  his  merit  and  his  character  by 
raising  him  altars  and  temples  in  Rome  and 
in  the  provinces,  and  by  ranking  him  in  the 
number  of  the  gods.  Nerva  was  the  first 
Roman  emperor  who  was  of  foreign  extraction, 
his  father  being  a native  of  Crete. 

NETHERLANDS,  the  kingdom  of  the,  often 
called  Holland,  consists  of  the  territory  of  the 
former  republic  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces, 
the  duchy  of  Limburg,  and  the  grand-duchy 
of  Luxemburg,  which  the  King  of  the  Nether- 
lands possesses,  with  the  title  of  grand-duke, 
as  a part  of  the  German  confederation.  The 
area  of  the  entire  kingdom  is  18,558  square 
miles,  and  it  has  3,618,459  inhabitants.  The 
Dutch  have  also  extensive  colonies  in  the  East 
Indies,  and  some  possessions  in  the  West 
Indies.  This  country,  fitly  called  the  Low- 
lands, has  by  untiring  labor  been  rescued  from 
the  sea,  against  whose  inroads  it  is  guarded 
by  immense  dikes.  Large  tracts  once  arid 
deserts,  and  others  once  slimy  marshes,  have 
been  transformed  into  fertile  pastures  and 
productive  fields.  Canals  traverse  the  coun- 
try in  every  direction.  The  reclaimed  lands 
are  called  ‘polders,’  and  are  often  much  below 
the  level  of  the  sea,  or  the  adjacent  rivers. 
They  are  first  diked  about,  and  then  drained 
by  pumps  worked  by  windmills  or  steam-en- 
gines, lifting  the  water  to  the  nearest  river  or 
canal.  It  is  a strange  sight  to  see  luxuriant 
corn  and  rich  grass  growing,  and  fat  cattle 
grazing,  and  fine  sheep  pastured,  where  water 
would  naturally  lie ; while  the  large  sails  of 
the  canal  barges  glide  by  high  above  dikes, 
houses,  and  trees. 

The  principal  manufactures  are  linen,  wool- 
ens, silks,  leather,  refined  sugar,  .tobacco- 
pipes,  gin  (distilled  in  vast  quantities  at 
Schiedam  and  Delft),  cottons,  and  jewelry. 
In  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
Holland  was  the  first  commercial  state  and 
the  greatest  maritime  power  in  the  world. 
Of  late  its  commerce  has  revived,  though  not 
to  the  former  magnitude.  Calvinism  is  the 
established  religion,  but  there  are  many  Cath- 
olics. Education  is  very  generally  diffused 
throughout  the  kingdom.  The  great  univer- 


sities are  those  of  Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  Gro- 
ningen. The  government  is  a hereditary 
male  monarchy.  The  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  the  king,  and  the  states-general,  a 
body  consisting  of  two  chambers ; the  mem- 
bers of  the  first  of  which  are  appointed  for  life 
by  the  king ; those  of  the  second  are  chosen 
by  the  assemblies  of  the  provinces.  The 
kingdom  is  divided  into  the  provinces  of  North 
Brabant,  Guelderland,  North  Holland,  South 
Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Over- 
yssel,  Groningen,  Drenthe,  and  Limburg. 

The  Hague  (’«  Gravenhage ),  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom,  is  situated  near  the  coast,  a 
stately  town,  stirred  by  no  commerce  or  man- 
ufactures; population,  64,000.  Amsterdam, 
once  the  commercial  mistress  of  the  world,  at 
the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  century 
was  nothing  more  than  an  insignificant  fishing 
village.  It  was  formerly  called  Amstelre- 
damme,  the  dam  or  dike  of  the  Amstel.  It  is 
situated  at  the  Amstel’s  influx  into  the  arm 
of  the  sea  called  the  Y,  forming  a capacious 
port,  two  leagues  from'  the  Zuyder  Zee.  The 
city  stands  upon  a marshy  soil,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  buildings  are  supported  on  oaken 
piles ; wThence  the  jest  of  Erasmus,  who  said 
that  in  his  country  the  people  lived  on  the 
tops  of  trees. 

In  1490  Mary  of  Burgundy  encompassed 
the  city  writh  a brick  wall,  to  protect  it  from 
the  incursions  of  the  inhabitants  of  Utrecht, 
who  were  frequently  involved  in  quarrels  with 
the  Hollanders.  Soon  after  the  erection  of 
this  wall,  the  city  was  burnt  to  the  ground. 
In  1512  it  was  besieged  by  the  people  of 
Guelderland,  who,  finding  themselves  baffled 
in  their  attempt  to  take  the  city,  fired  the 
vessels  in  the  harbor.  The  scene  presented 
by  the  burning  ships  was  awfully  grand ; the 
waters  appeared  like  a sea  of  molten  gold,  over 
which  a thousand  volcanoes  poured  their  vol- 
umes of  fire,  while  the  roaring  of  the  confla- 
gration was  like  the  voice  of  a tempest.  The 
Anabaptists,  in  1512  and  1525,  filled  the  city 
with  commotion  and  bloodshed.  An  insur- 
gent chief,  Van  Geelen,  headed  a conspiracy 
which  had  for  its  object  the  subversion  of  the 
magistracy  of  Amsterda  m,  and  the  assumption 
of  power  by  the  rebels.  Van  Geelen  fixed 
his  head-quarters  in  the  town  house,  where 
his  fanatical  troops  displayed  their  banners, 
and  gave  every  evidence  that  they  considered 


NET 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


579 


their  victory  certain.  But  the  burghers  at- 
tacked them  with  great  spirit  and  resolution, 
and  the  fanatics  being  surrounded,  were  put 
to  death  to  a man. 

In  1578  Amsterdam,  after  a siege  of  ten 
months,  capitulated  to  the  Hollanders,  stipu- 
lating that  the  Roman  Catholics  should  be 
allowed  the  free  observance  of  their  religious 
rites.  The  Protestants,  however,  did  not 
maintain  the  agreement,  but  drove  the  Cath- 
olics from  the  city,  destroying  the  altars  and 
the  images.  From  that  time,  persons  of  all 
sects  and  nations  came  to  the  city,  raising  it 
to  a high  rank,  and  rendering  it  famous  for 
ODulence  and  industry.  It  snatched  the  com- 
merce of  Antwerp ; its  merchants  conquered 
kingdoms  and  islands  in  Asia;  the  costly 
spices  of  the  East  were  dealt  to  Europe  from 
its  warehouses,  and  left  the  fragrance  of 
wealth;  the  gold,  the  pearls,  and  the  dia- 
monds of  the  Indies  floated  hither;  Amster- 
dam became  the  centre  of  the  exchanges, 
funds,  and  banking  transactions  of  the  world ; 
till  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  its 
unparalleled  prosperity  received  a death-blow 
through  the  French  revolution,  and  London 
bore  away  the  palm.  Amsterdam  has  still 
important  manufactures  and  trade,  but  it  is 
now  surpassed  by  Rotterdam. 

The  aspect  of  Amsterdam  has  not  changed 
in  a century.  It  is  intersected  by  numerous 
canals,  which  divide  the  city  into  islands,  be- 
tween which  are  built  numerous  bridges,  of 
stone  or  wood.  Of  great  commercial  impor- 
tance, these  canals  give  the  streets  through 
which  they  pass  a picturesque  and  pleasant 
appearance,  filling  the  air  with  freshness,  and 
mirroring  the  long  rows  of  trees  and  houses 
which  line  their  banks.  Complaints,  however, 
are  made  of  the  effluvia  arising  from  them  in 
calm  and  warm  weather.  Another  singular 
feature  in  the  scenery  of  Amsterdam  is  the 
inclosure  of  the  city  on  the  side  of  the  haven, 
by  means  of  piles,  which  are  driven  into  the 
ground,  and  connected  with  immense  horizon- 
tal beams,  affording  openings  sufficiently  am- 
ple for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  ships.  These 
are  closed  every  evening.  The  port  is  a mile 
and  a half  long,  and  towering  masts  attract 
the  eye,  and  give  a lively  appearance  to  the 
scene.  The  new  canal  from  Amsterdam  to 
Niewdiep,  opposite  the  Texel,  is  an  immense 
Work.  The  canal  is  fifty  miles  and  a half  long, 


and  so  broad  as  to  admit  of  one  frigate  passing 
another.  This  has  removed  the  necessity  of 
unloading  large  vessels,  which  must  be  done 
before  they  can  pass  through  the  harbor. 

The  streets  of  Amsterdam,  although  narrow, 
are  well  paved,  and  exhibit  that  neatness 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  Dutch,  and  which  is 
equally  conspicuous  in  their  walks  and  in 
their  smart  brick  or  stone  buildings.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  more  than  212,000 
persons. 

The  New  Church,  dedicated  to  St.  Catha- 
rine, is  said  to  have  been  begun  in  1408,  or 
1414,  and  to  have  occupied  a century  in  its 
erection.  The  interior  is  adorned  with  sculp- 
ture, and  the  paintings  on  the  glass  windows 
are  of  the  richest  description.  The  superb 
organ  has  been  celebrated  throughout  the 
world.  The  church  contains  a marble  monu- 
ment, erected  to  the  memory  of  Admiral  de 
Ruyter.  The  Stadthouse,  now  a royal  palace, 
is  a beautiful  building,  erected  in  1648.  The 
whole  of  this  imposing  edifice  exhibits  proofs 
of  the  characteristic  neatness  and  industry  of 
the  Dutch.  It  is  said  to  have  a foundation  of 
13,695  piles.  The  Beurs,  or  Exchange,  which 
is  built  of  free-stone,  stands  upon  five  arches 
over  the  Amstel;  the  interior  galleries  rest 
upon  twenty-six  marble  columns.  The  prin- 
cipal houses  of  correction  are  the  Rasphuis 
and  the  Spinhuis.  In  the  former  offenders 
were,  in  old  times,  employed  sawing  and  rasp- 
ing Brazil-wood.  Those  who  obstinately  re- 
fused to  work  were  carried  into  a cellar  into 
which  water  was  flowing,  and,  unless  they 
worked  briskly  at  the  pump,  they  were  in 
danger  of  drowning.  In  the  spin-house  women 
were  compelled  to  spin  wool,  flax,  and  hemp. 

Rotterdam,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maas, 
about  twenty  miles  from  its  mouth,  is  now 
the  most  commercial  town  in  Holland ; popu- 
lation 90,000.  Haarlem,  or  Haerlem,  on  the 
river  Spaaren,  about  four  miles  from  the  sea, 
contains  many  fine  public  edifices  and  some 
scientific  institutions,  is  a thriving  place,  and 
has  24,000  inhabitants.  The  organ  of  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Bavon  at  Haarlem,  the  largest 
church  in  Holland,  is  famous  for  its  size.  In 
the  southern  suburb  of  Haarlem  are  the  flow- 
er-gardens whence,  when  tulips  and  hyacinths 
were  the  rage,  all  Europe  was  supplied. 

The  earliest  accounts  of  the  Netherlands 
are  from  the  Romans,  by  whom  all  the  south- 


NET 


5S0 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ern  and  central  part  (called  Belgia)  was  kept 
in  subjection  till  the  decline  of  their  empire  in 
the  fifth  century.  North  of  the  Rhine  dwelt 
the  Batavi,  who  were  also  subjugated  by 
Rome.  The  country  was  incorporated  with 
the  duchy  of  Burgundy  at  the  close  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Mary  of  Burgundy,  the 
only  daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
the  last  duke,  married  Maximilian,  and  the 
Netherlands  came  under  the  dominion  of  the 
house  of  Austria.  Charles  V.  united  the  sev- 
enteen provinces  with  Spain ; but  the  bigotry 
of  his  son  Philip  II.  produced  the  separation 
of  the  Dutch  provinces,  and  great  dissension 
and  distress  in  the  others.  The  Spanish  tyr- 
anny being  insupportable,  the  seven  provinces- 
revolted,  and  formed  the  republic  called  the 
United  Provinces,  by  the  union  of  Utrecht, 
1579.  These  were  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht, 
Guelderland,  Friesland,  Overyssel,  and  Gro- 
ningen. The  others  remained  subject  to 
Spain. 

The  ten  southern  provinces  remained  under 
the  Spanish  crown  until  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  when  arduous  exertions 
were  made  by  Conde  and  Turenne  to  add 
them  to  the  dominions  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
quadruple  alliance,  concluded  at  the  Hague 
in  1668,  however,  put  a stop  to  their  prog- 
ress, but  the  wars  from  1672  to  1679,  and 
1689  to  1697,  were  prosecuted  chiefly  for  the 
Netherlands.  At  length,  in  1702,  Louis  ob- 
tained them,  but  the  French  being  defeated 
by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  at  the  battle  of 
Ramillies,  in  1706,  the  southern  provinces 
were  brought  under  the  power  of  the  allies, 
and  assigned  to  Austria  at  the  peace  of 
Utrecht.  A peace  ensued,  until  the  war  of 
1741  was  transferred  to  the  Netherlands,  and 
the  French  under  Marshal  Saxe  recovered 
them.  Bergen-op-Zoom  was  captured  by  the 
French  in  September,  1747,  and  Maestricht  in 
the  following  year,  when  the  successes  of  the 
British  navy,  and  the  persevering  aspect  of 
the  coalition,  led  to  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  in  1748,  and  the  southern  Netherlands 
thus  became  restored  to  Austria.  By  the 
treachery  of  Austria  in  1756  they  were  once 
more  nearly  ceded  to  France,  but  the  scheme 
was  not  carried  into  effect.  In  the  campaign 
of  1792,  Austria  again  lost  the  Netherlands, 
and  though  recovered  in  1793,  they  again 
passed  ovor  to  France  in  1794.  The  hope  of 


recovering  them  was  the  cause  of  the  coali- 
tions of  1799  and  1805,  both  baffled  in  their 
object.  The  disasters  of  the  French  army  in 
Russia  in  1812,  at  length  opened  the  long 
wished  for  prospect.  In  1813  Germany 
occupied  all  the  exertions  of  the  allies,  but  in 
1814  the  Netherlands  were  detached  by  a 
consequence  of  the  revolution  by  which  the 
Bourbons  was  restored. 

Meantime  the  republic  of  Holland,  or  the 
United  Provinces,  attained  great  maritime 
power,  contended  with  England,  and  partici- 
pated in  the  wars  against  Louis  XIV.  Re- 
publican jealousy  of  the  desire  of  the  house 
of  Orange  to  increase  its  might,  often  con- 
vulsed the  land  with  intestine  struggles.  In 
1747  the  house  of  Orange  triumphed,  and 
the  office  of  stadtholder,  or  captain-general 
of  all  the  provinces,  was  made  a hereditary 
dignity  in  it.  In  1794  the  republican  party, 
cheered  by  the  approach  of  the  victorious 
armies  of  France,  rose  against  the  stadtholder. 
Pichegru  aided  them,  and  the  stadtholder 
fled.  The  provinces  were  organized  as  the 
Batavian  republic.  England,  at  that  time, 
played  the  part  of  Don  Quixote,  ready  to 
break  a lance  in  behalf  of  all  princes  kicked 
from  their  thrones.  The  commerce  of  Hol- 
land was  sadly  shattered  in  the  war,  and  for 
a time  she  lost  her  colonies.  Napoleon  made 
his  brother  Louis  her  king.  This  moody 
scholar  studied  the  welfare  of  the  country  till 
he  abdicated.  Holland  was  then  incorporated 
with  the  French  empire.  In  1813  the  Dutch, 
encouraged  by  the  disasters  of  Napoleon, 
revolted,  and  recalled  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
The  British  cabinet  accomplished  the  union 
of  all  the  seventeen  provinces  after  a separa- 
tion of  two  hundred  years,  and  their  erec- 
tion into  an  independent  state,  under  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  in  1815.  The  prince, 
therefore,  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  Grand-Duke  of  Luxem- 
burg. In  1830  the  Belgians  broke  from  his 
rule  and  became  an  independent  state.  [See 
Belgium.] 

KINGS  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS. 

1815.  William,  Prince  of  Orange;  abdicated  in 
favor  of  his  son,  Oct.  7th,  1840;  died 
Dec.  1 2th,  1843. 

1840.  William  II.,  born  Dec.  6th,  1792;  died 
March  17  th,  1849. 

1849.  William  III.,  born  Feb.  19th,  1817. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


581 


NEVADA.  Nevada  has  an  area  of  112,- 
600  square  miles,  and  had  in  1870  a popula- 
tion of  42,491.  It  lies  in  a mountainous 
portion  of  the  United  States,  being  bounded 
by  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  on  the  west 
and  the  Humboldt  on  the  east.  In  its  east- 
ern portion  is  the  great  Interior  Basin  which 
extends  into  Utah.  Gold  and  silver  are 
found  in  large  quantities  throughout  the  state, 
and  its  mineral  resources  are  extensive. 

The  governor  of  the  state  is  elected  for 
four  years.  The  members  of  the  legislature 
are  chosdh,  the  senators  for  four  and  the 
representatives  for  two  years.  Suffrage  is 
bestowed  upon  all  male  citizens  of  the  United 
States  twenty-one  years  of  age,  after  six 
months  residence.  The  judicial  power  of 
the  state  is  vested  in  the  supreme  court,  dis- 
trict courts,  justices  of  the  peace ; and  the 
legislature  may  establish  courts  in  incorpo- 
rated towns  and  cities  for  municipal  purposes 
only.  The  supreme  court  has  three  justices 
who  hold  office  for  six  years.  The  state 
has  a uniform  system  of  public  schools  and  a 
superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

Nevada  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1864, 
Its  capital  is  Carson  City,  which  has  a popu- 
lation of  8,042.  The  principal  towns  are 
Austin,  Reno,  Gold  Hill,  and  Virginia. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK.,  a British  province 
of  North  America;  population  319,398.  In 
the  interior  of  the  country  the  soil  is  good, 
and  the  uplands  are  well  timbered.  Grass 
and.  grain  are  the  principal  agricultural  pro- 
ductions, and  the  main  exports  are  timber  and 
fish.  The  river  St.  Johns  is  the  principal 
str  eam.  Frederickton,  the  capital,  has  6,000 


that  of  the  parliament  under  Essex.  A sec- 
ond, equally  dubious  in  result,  was  fought 
here,  Oct.  27th,  1644. 

NEWFOUNDLAND,  a large  island  in 
the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  discovered  by  Sebas- 
tian Cabot  in  1497.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  about  130,000.  The  face  of  the 
country  is  rugged  and  the  climate  is  cold  and 
dreary.  The  fisheries  off  the  banks  employ 
more  than  100,000  men.  St.  John’s,  the  cap- 
ital, contains  about  30,000  inhabitants. 

NEW  GRENADA,  formerly  a viceroyalty 
of  South  America,  and  more  recently  a por- 
tion of  Colombia,  is  now  a separate  repub- 
lic. Together  with  Venezuela,  it  was  for- 
merly called  Terra  Firma.  It  has  an  area  of 

380.000  square  miles,  and  a population  of 

9.363.000  souls.  The  mountains  are  rich  in 
the  precious  metals. 

Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  is  the  capital.  The 
population  has  been  variously  estimated  at 
from  30,000  to  60,000.  It  lies  on  an  elevated 
plain  to  the  east  of  the  Andes,  8,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  contains,  besides  a superb 
cathedral,  many  fine  buildings.  The  lands 
in  the  environs  yield  two  harvests  annually. 
Bogota  was  founded  in  1538.  In  the  vicinity 
is  the  cataract  of  Tequendama,  formed  by  the 
river  Bogota,  as  it  descends  from  its  native 
plain  to  mingle  with  the  current  of  the  Mag- 
delena.  Here,  too,  is  the  bridge  of  Icon- 
onzo,  a natural  arch  over  a chasm  360  feet 
deep,  at  the  bottom  of  which  flows  a rapid 
torrent,  which  would  otherwise  have  been  im- 
passable. The  bridge  appears  to  have  been 
formed  by  three  masses  of  rock  detached  from 


inhabitants.  St.  John,  the  principal  town,  has  j their  original  bed,  and  thrown  together  by  an 
a population  of  35,000.  The  province  was  1 earthquake, 
set  off  from  Nova  Scotia  in  1785.  Several  forty  broad, 
thousand  British  soldiers  settled  here,  after 


It  is  about  fifty  feet  long,  and 


the  close  of  the  American  Revolution.  In 


The  ancient  route  across  the  isthmus  be- 
tween the  oceans,  was  from  Panama  to  Porto 


October,  1825,  a tract 


extending 


above  a Bello.  These  places  bore  a great  name  in  the 


hundred  miles  along  the  Miramichi  River,  was  days  when  the  treasure  of  Peru  passed  this 


swept  by  a great  conflagration  ; a violent  way  to  Spain.  But  when  the  wealth  of  the 
wind  drove  the  flames  through  the  forest ; ! mines  diminished,  and  the  bullion  was  borne 
the  towns  of  Douglas  and  Newcastle  were  ; around  Cape  Horn,  their  consequence  declined 


wholly  consumed,  many  lives  were  lost,  and 
a vast  amount  of  property  was  destroyed. 

NEWBURY,  Battle  of,  fought  despe- 
rately, but  uncertain  in  its  issue,  Sept.  20th, 
1643,  between  the  army  of  Charles  I.,  and 


When  the  gold  seekers  began  to  hurry  over 
the  isthmus  on  their  way  to  California,  Pan- 
ama revived ; it  became  a depot  for  steamers ; 
a railway  connects  it  with  the  Atlantic  shore 
at  Aspinwall  on  Navy  Bay. 


NEW. 


582 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE  is  one  of  the  New 
England  states,  having  an  area  of  8,030 
square  mii.es,  and  a population  in  1870  of 
318,300.  It  has  a sea-coast  of  only  eighteen 
miles,  behind  which  there  is  a narrow,  level 
tract  of  twenty -five  or  thirty  miles  in  width : 
beyond,  the  hills  increase  in  height  until 
they  swell  into  the  lofty  grandeur  of  the 
White  Mountains,  whose  snow-white  sum- 
mits have  been  seen  in  a clear  day  more  than 
fifty  miles  out  at  sea,  skirting  the  horizon 
like  a silvery  cloud.  The  highest  is  Mt. 
Washington,  6,428  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  New  Hampshire  is  well  watered ; 
the  Connecticut  washes  its  western  border; 
and  fine  mill  streams  abound.  There  are 
quite  a number  of  lakes,  of  which  the  pic- 
turesque and  pellucid  Winnipiseogee  (‘  Smile 
of  the  Great  Spirit  ’),  studded  with  more  than 
three  hundred  isles,  is  the  greatest.  The  bulk 
of  the  population  of  New  Hampshire  reside  in 
the  southern  part  "much  of  the  north  being  un- 
improved, and  a large  portion  of  it  too  sterile 
and  rugged  for  cultivation.  The  occupation 
of  the  people  is  chiefly  agricultural,  and 
though  their  hilly  farms  can  not  vie  with  the 
virgin  soil  of  the  West,  intelligent  industry 
wrests  from  them  subsistence  and  comfort. 
There  are  many  valuable  pastures,  and  the 
grazing  interest  is  very  considerable.  The 
source  of  wealth  is  found  in  the  inexhausti- 
ble quarries  which  have  given  the  common- 
wealth the  name  of  the  Granite  State.  Busy 
manufactures  fill  with  thrift  such  towns  as 
Manchester,  Nashua,  and  Doyer.  In  the 


cotton  manufacture  New  Hampshire  stands 
next  to  Massachusetts. 

John  Smith  visited  New  Hampshire  in 
1614,  but  its  name  was  bestowed  by  John 
Mason,  to  whom  and  Sir  Ferdinand  Gorges 
grants  of  land  were  made  by  the  crown  in 
1622.  The  country  was  thence  popularly 
termed  the  Hampshire  Grants.  The  first 
settlements  were  made  in  1623  at  Hover  and 
Portsmouth.  From  1641  to  1679,  the  settle- 
ments formed  a portion  of  Massachusetts. 
Charles  II.  separated  them.  It  was  afterward 
reunited  to  Massachusetts,  but  finally  separ- 
ated in  1741.  In  1775  the  provincial  conven- 
tion declared  the  royal  government  dissolved. 

New  Hampshire  bore  its  part  in  the  strug- 
gle for  independence,  and  was  one  of  the  first 
colonies  to  shake  off  the  royal  governor.  By 
its  present  constitution  the  legislative  power 
is  vested  in  a senate  and  house  of  representa- 
tives, which  together  are  styled  the  general 
court.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
governor  and  council.  The  governor,  coun- 
cil, and  general  court  are  chosen  by  the 
people  annually.  Every  male  inhabitant  pf 
twenty-one  years  of  age  (except  paupers,  and 
persons  excused  from  paying  taxes  at  their 
own  request)  has  the  right  of  suffrage.  The 
governor  is  styled  ‘ his  excellency,’  and,  with 
the  members  of  the  council,  and  of  both 
branches  of  the  legislature,  must  be  “of  the 
Protestant  religion.”  The  judiciary  consists 
of  a supreme  court  and  other  lesser  tribu- 
nals. The  judges  are  appointed  by  the 
governor  and  council,  and  hold  office  during 


NEW 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


583 


good  behavior,  though  not  beyond  the  age  of 
seventy.  In  the  matter  of  common  schools, 
New  Hampshire  is  outdone  by  few  states. 
Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover,  is  an  institu- 
tion of  high  repute. 

Concord  is  the  capital  of  the  state,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Merrimack ; it  is  the  termi- 
nus of  several  railways,  and  is  steadily  in- 
creasing in  prosperity;  population  in  1870, 
12,241.  Manchester,  lower  down  the  Merri- 
mack, just  below  the  Amoskeag  falls,  is  the 
seat  of  extensive  cotton  manufactures,  to 


which  it  owes  its  growth  and  life : it  has 
sprung  up  since  1838,  and  in  1870  had  23,536 
inhabitants.  Portsmouth  is  the  only  port 
of  the  state ; ship-building  is  largely  engaged 
in;  here  is  located  an  United  States  navy- 
yard;  population  in  1870,  9,211.  On  Bad- 
ger’s Island,  in  the  harbor  of  Portsmouth, 
during  the  Revolution,  there  was  built  the 
North  America,  the  first  line-of-battle  ship 
launched  in  the  western  hemisphere.  Dover 
and  Nashua  are  thriving  manufacturing 
towns. 


NEW  JERSEY  has  an  area  of  6,851  square 
miles;  population  in  1870,  906,096.  The 
northern  part  is  hilly,  being  traversed  by  the 
prolongation  of  several  mountain  ridges  from 
Pennsylvania,  which  nowhere*  reach  a great 
height,  yet  abound  in  bold  and  varied  sce- 
nery, interspersed  with  fertile  and  pleasant 
valleys,  comprising  some  of  the  best  land  in 
the  state.  The  southern  part,  from  Raritan 
Bay  and  Trenton  to  Cape  May,  is  a great 
sandy  plain.  From  Sandy  Hook  to  Cape 
May,  the  Atlantic  coast  consists  of  a long 
line  of  sandy  beaches,  sometimes  interrupted 
by  inlets,  and  enclosing  narrow,  shallow 
lagoons,  behind  which  for  several  miles  in- 
land is  a low  marshy  tract.  This  coast  is  the 
scene  of  many  and  dangerous  shipwrecks. 
A number  of  small  rivers,  such  as  the  Hack- 
ensack, Passaic,  and  Raritan,  water  the  state. 
It  has  the  noble  Delaware  River  and  Bay  on 
its  western  border,  and  the  Hudson  on  the 
north-east.  Valuable  iron,  zinc,  and  copper 


ores  are  mined,  the  pines  that  cover  the 
sandy  tracts  furnishing  fuel  for  the  smelting- 
furnaces.  The  middle  district  of  the  state  is 
the  most  highly  tilled,  and  fruits  and  vegeta- 
bles are  there  raised  for  the  markets  of  New 
York  and  Philadelphia.  The  northern  coun- 
ties contain  much  good  pasture  land,  and 
numerous  handsome  farms.  The  apples  and 
cider  of  the  north  are  as  noted  for  their  excel-  w 
lence  as  are  the  peaches  of  the  south.  There 
are  large  manufactures  of  iron,  glass,  cottons, 
and  woolens.  Carriages,  harnesses,  and 
leather  are  also  largely  produced. 

Settlements  were  made  by  the  Swedes,  at 
an  early  period,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state,  near  Salem,  where  some  of  their  de- 
scendants are  still  found,  and  some  names  of 
places  given  by  them  still  retained.  The 
Dutch  occupied  the  north-east,  which  was 
included  in  New  Netherlands.  The  whole 
country  was  comprised  in  the  grant  macle  to 
the  Duke  of  York,  and  a settlement  was  made 


NEW 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


684 


at  Elizabethtown  in  1GG4.  In  1676  the  coun- 
try was  divided  by  the  Duke  of  York  into 
East  and  West  Jersey,  which  were  separate 
proprietary  governments,  and  not  united 
until  1702,  at  which  time  the  name  of  New 
Jersey  was  given  to  the  colony.  In  the 
measures  of  our  Revolution  this  state  was 
ever  active  and  forward,  and  she  suffered 
severely  from  the  war. 

The  legislature  is  styled  “ the  senate  and 
general  assembly  of  the  state  of  New  Jersey.” 
The  senators  are  elected  for  three  years,  one- 
third  annually ; the  assemblymen  are  elected 
annually.  The  governor  is  chosen  by  the 
people  once  in  three  years.  The  right  of 
suffrage  is  exercised  by  every  male  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  who  has  resided  in  the 
State  one  year,  paupers,  idiots,  lunatics,  and 
criminals  excepted.  The  judiciary  consists 
of  a court  of  errors  and  appeals,  a court  of 
chancery,  a supreme  court,  and  courts  of  com- 
mon pleas.  The  judges  of  the  higher  courts 
are  appointed  by  the  governor,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  senate.  A superintendent  of 
public  schools  is  chosen  by  the  people  bien- 
nially. The  college  at  Princeton  is  a venera- 
ble and  excellent  institution. 

Trenton,  on  the  Delaware,  is  the  capital ; 
population  in  1870,  22,874.  [ See  Trenton, 

Princeton.]  New  Brunswick,  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  Raritan,  is  a handsome 
city.  Population  in  1870,  15,058.  Here  is 
Rutger’s  College,  founded  in  1770  under  the 
name  of  Queen’s.  Newark,  the  largest  and 
most  important  town  of  the  state,  is  situated 
on  the  Passaic,  three  miles  from  Newark  Bay ; 
population  in  1870,  105,059.  Its  streets 
are  broad  and  straight,  and  ornamented  with 
lofty  elms  and  spacious  public  squares.  It 
* is  very  largely  busied  in  producing  shoes, 
boots,  saddlss,  harnesses,  hats  and  caps, 
vehicles,  cutlery,  and  jewelry.  Newark  was 
settled  in  1666  by  thirty  families  from  Guil- 
ford, Branford,  Milford,  and  New  Haven,  in 
Connecticut.  Paterson  on  the  Passaic,  near 
the  falls,  has  stolen  the  wild  grandeur  of  the 
cascade,  and  by  the  immense  water-power 
thus  purloined  from  nature,  has  become  the 
seat  of  great  manufactures.  In  1870  it  had 
33,579  inhabitants. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  Battle  of.  Early  in 
December,  1814,  a,  large  British  force  entered 
Lake  Pontchar train,  near  New  Orleans,  de- 


feating after  an  obstinate  conflict,  the  small 
American  naval  force  stationed  there.  The 
British  forces  were  commanded  by  Gen. 
Packenham ; the  American  by  Gen.  Jackson. 
Several  skirmishes  took  place  in  which  the 
British  suffered* severely.  On  Sunday  morn- 
ing early,  Jan.  8th,  a grand  attack  was  made 
by  the  British  on  the  American  troops  in 
their  intrenchments.  After  an  engagement 
of  upward  of  an  hour,  the  enemy  were  cut  to 
pieces  to  a degree  almost  beyond  example, 
and  fled  in  confusion,  leaving  their  dead  and 
wounded  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  loss  of 
the  British  was  293  killed,  1,267  wounded, 
and  484  taken  prisoners,  making  a total  of 
2, 600.  The  American  loss  in  the  engagement 
was  13  killed,  and  39  wounded.  Sir  Edward 
Packenham  and  Major  General  Gibbs  were 
among  the  slain.  The  attack  was  not  re- 
newed, and  in  a short  time  the  British  left 
the  coast,  news  arriving  that  peace  had  been 
concluded  before  the  conflict. 

NEWTON,  Sir  Isaac,  justly  called  the 
creator  of  natural  philosophy,  was  born  at 
Woolsthorpe,  in  Lincolnshire,  Dec.  25th  (o.s.), 
1G42.  He  evinced,  in  early  youth,  a great 
fondness  for  mechanical  pursuits,  and  a re- 
markable aptitude  for  drawing,  and  con- 
structing machinery,  being  his  own  instructor 
in  all  his  pursuits.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Here 
his  fondness  for  mathematical  studies  enabled 
him  to  make  a great  proficiency  in  them,  and 
before  completing  his  twenty-third  year,  he 
made  some  great  discoveries  in  the  science 
to  which  ha  was  attached.  The  fall  of  an 
apple  led  him  to  a train  of  reflections  which 
resulted  in  his  elucidation  of  the  principles 
of  gravitation  which  he  proved  to  affect  vast 
orbs  on  high  not  less  than  the  smallest  thing 
on  earth.  He  was  the  first  to  divide  light 
into  rays  of  seven  colors,  differently  refran- 
gible. It  is  impossible  for  us  to  follow  him 
through  his  scientific  career,  tracing  out  the 
brilliant  discoveries  he  made  in  optics,  chem- 
istry, natural  philosophy,  and  mathematics. 
In  1688  Newton  was  elected  by  his  univer- 
sity to  the  convention  parliament  In  1695 
he  was  made  warden  of  the  mint.  In  1703 
he  was  chosen  president  of  the  royal  society, 
and  in  1705  was  knighted  by  Queen  Anne. 
He  died  March  20th,  1727,  and  was  interred 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 


NEW 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


585 


The  following  is  Pope’s  epitaph  on  this 
great  man : — 

Isaacus  Newton  hic  jacet, 

QUEM  IMMORTALEM  CCELI,  NATURA, 

Tempus  OSTENDUNT,. 

Mortaleh  hoc  marmor  fatetur. 

Nature  and  all  her  works  lay  hid  in  night : 

God  said,  let  Newton  be— and  all  was  light. 

This  great  man  was  mild  and  good-natured 
in  his  private  life.  He  had  constructed  a 
small  laboratory  for  prosecuting  his  chemical 
investigations,  and  seems,  after  his  publication 
of  his  “ Principia,”  to  have  devoted  almost  all 
his  time  to  them.  One  morning  (1692),  he 
had  accidentally  shut  up  his  little  pet  dog 
Diamond  in  his  room,  and,  on  returning,  found 
that  the  animal,  by  upsetting  a candle  on  his 
desk,  had  destroyed  the  labors  of  several  years. 
On  perceiving  his  loss,  he  only  exclaimed, 
“Oh,  Diamond!  Diamond!  thou  little  know- 
est  the  mischief  thou  hast  done ! ” The  mis- 
chief done  was  so  great  as  for  a time  to  unset- 
tle his  powerful  mind,  injured  already  by  ex- 
cessive study,  and  he  never  recovered  his  full 
vigor  of  intellect,  although  enough  remained 
for  an  ordinary  mortal. 

Newton’s  modesty  was  equal  to  his  merit. 
While  he  was  aware  of  the  value  of  his  dis- 
coveries, he  knew  also  how  vast  a region  lay 


unexplored  beyond.  A short  time  before  his 
death  he  uttered  this  memorable  sentiment: 
“ I do  not  know  what  I may  appear  to  the 
world ; but  to  myself  I seem  to  have  been  only 
like  a boy  playing  on  the  seashore,  and  divert- 
ing myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a smoother 
pebble  or  a prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  wdiile 
the  great  ocean  of  truth  lay  all  undiscovered 
before  me.”  The  Latin  epitaph  on  his  monu- 
ment may  be  thus  translated:  “Here  lies 
Isaac  Newton,  knight,  who,  by  a vigor  of  mind 
almost  supernatural,  first  demonstrated  the 
motions  and  figures  of  the  planets,  the  paths 
of  the  comets,  and  the  tides  of  the  ocean.  He 
discovered,  what  before  his  time  no  one  had 
even  suspected,  that  rays  of  light  are  differ- 
ently refrangible,  and  that  this  is  the  cause  of 
colors.  An  assiduous,  sagacious,  and  faithful 
interpreter  of  nature,  antiquity,  and  the  holy 
Scriptures,  he  asserted  in  his  philosophy  the 
majesty  of  God,  and  exhibited  in  his  conduct 
the  simplicity  of  the  gospel.  Let  mortals  re- 
joice that  there  has  existed  such  and  so  great 
an  ornament  of  human  nature.”  His  greatest 
work  is  entitled  “ Philosophise  Naturalis  Prin- 
cipia Mathematica.” 

NEWTON,  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Bristol,  au- 
thor of  “Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies,” 
born  in  1704,  died  in  1782. 


NEW  YORK  has  a territory  of  46,000 
square  miles;  population  in  1870,  4,382,759. 
It  forms  a portion  of  the  elevated  table-land 
which  runs  parallel  with  the  Atlantic  coast, 
broken  in  some  places  by  prolongations  of 
the  Alleghanies,  mountainous  ridges  of  con- 


siderable elevation,  and  containing  some  re- 
markable depressions,  which  form  the  basins 
of  lakes  or  channels  for  rivers.  Through  the 
fertile  intervales  flow  large  rivers,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  Hudson,  Mo- 
hawk, St.  Lawrence,  Delaware,  Susquehanna, 


NEW 


5S6 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Tioga,  Alleghany,  Genesee,  Oswego,  and  the 
Niagara,  with  its  stupendous  cataract.  The 
picturesque  beauty  of  the  Hudson,  and  the 
legendary  and  historic  interest  clusteringalong 
its  banks,  render  it  the  Rhine  of  America. 
The  inland  seas  of  Erie  and  Ontario  bathe  the 
north-western  borders  of  New  York ; in  the 
north-east  Lake  Champlain  divides  her  from 
Vermont,  and  the  bright  waters  of  Lake 
George  nestle  among  lofty  hills,  and  about  its 
islets ; and  in  the  centre  of  the  state  is  a row 
of  lakes,  that  fortunately  retain  the  names  of 
the  tribes  which  once  dwelt  on  their  shores, 
Canandaigua,  Seneca,  Cayuga,  Onondaga, 
Oneida,  and  lesser  sheets.  The  lakes  and 
rivers  are  linked  together  by  a magnificent 
system  of  canals,  connecting  the  great  central 
basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  seas  it 
drains,  with  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Iron  ore  of  good  quality  and  great  quantity 
is  found  in  the  north-eastern  part,  and  occurs 
also  in  some  of  the  central,  eastern,  and  south- 
western counties.  Gypsum,  limestone,  mar- 
ble, and  slate  are  procured.  St.  Lawrence 
county  is  rich  in  lead.  The  salt  springs  about 
Syracuse  yield  large  quantities  of  salt  annu- 
ally. Most  of  the  soil  in  the  state  is  of  a use- 
ful quality,  and  much  of  it  is  highly  fertile. 
Wheat  is  the  great  agricultural  staple,  and 
flour  and  provisions  are  largely  exported. 
About  one-third  of  all  the  buckwheat,  two- 
thirds  of  the  barley,  one-fourth  of  the  rye, 
one-sixth  of  the  oats,  and  one-eighth  of  the 
wheat  grown  in  the  United  States,  are  raised 
in  New  York.  In  manufactures  New  York 
occupies  a proportional  rank,  having  her  share 
of  factories,  mills,  foundries,  and  workshops, 
with  intelligent  and  thrifty  mechanics.  Her 
commerce  is  on  a great  scale,  far  exceeding 
that  of  any  other  state ; since,  in  addition  to 
her  own  wants  and  productions,  she  imports 
and  exports  for  all  the  Union  through  her 
great  commercial  metropolis.  Her  foreign 
commerce  is  surpassed  by  her  inland  and 
coasting  trade. 

New  York  was  visited  by  Henry  Hudson, 
an  English  navigator,  in  1609.  He  sailed  up 
the  river  which  bears  his  name,  to  the  dis- 
tance of  150  miles,  and  on  his  return  to  Eu- 
rope communicated  the  results  of  his  enter- 
prise to  his  employers,  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company.  Dutch  trading  establishments 
were  immediately  formed  at  different  places. 


The  earliest  establishment  of  the  kind  was 
Fort  Orange,  founded  in  1613,  on  the  site  of 
the  city  of  Albany.  New  Amsterdam  (now 
the  city  of  New  York)  was  formed  a few  years 
later.  The  East  India  Company,  having  ob- 
tained from  the  government  of  Holland  a grant 
of  the  exclusive  right  to  trade  in  America, 
called  the  country  which  they  settled,  New 
Netherlands.  In  1664  Charles  II.  of  England 
granted  to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York  and 
Albany,  an  extensive  territory  which  included 
the  colony  of  New  Netherlands.  A small 
armament  was  fitted  out  in  England  to  act 
against  the  Dutch  in  America,  who,  however, 
speedily  submitted  to  the  English.  The  latter 
changed  the  name  of  New  Amsterdam  to 
New  York,  and  Fort  Orange  to  Albany. 
While  Canada  was  held  by  the  French,  New 
York  was  the  theatre  of  bloody  struggles  with 
them  and  their  Indian  allies.  In  1775  the 
inhabitants  of  New  York  asserted  their  inde- 
pendence, and  through  the  Revolutionary 
war  took  a distinguished  part. 

The  governor  is  chosen  for  two  years.  The 
legislature  meets  annually  ; half  the  senators 
are  chosen  each  year.  Every  male  citizen,  21 
years  of  age,  who  has  resided  in  the  state 
one  year,  has  the  right  of  suffrage.  No  per- 
son except  a citizen  ot  the  United  States 
is  eligible  to  the  office  of  Governor  and  every 
candidate  must  be  thirty  years  of  age  and  a 
resident  of  the  state  five  years  next  preceding 
his  nomination.  The  governor  is  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  military  and  naval  forces  and 
has  power  to  convene  the  legislature  on  extra- 
ordinary occasion.  The  judiciary  consists 
of  the  court  of  appeals,  the  supreme  and 
circuit  courts,  county  courts,  and  the  criminal 
courts,  of  sessions,  and  oyer  and  terminer. 
Judges,  clerks,  attorneys,  &c.,  are  chosen  by 
the  people.  Education  is  liberally  provided 
for,  and  beside  a system  of  public  schools,  aid 
is  extended  to  academies  and  colleges.  There 
is  a normal  school  at  Albany,  a lunatic  asylum 
at  Utica,  an  as)dum  for  idiots  at  Syracuse, 
and  indigent  deaf-mute  youth  are  sustained 
by  the  state  at  the  institution  in  New  York. 
The  military  academy  at  West  Point,  under 
the  direction  of  the  national  government,  is 
an  admirable  institution.  The  annual  expend- 
iture made  for  the  common  schools  exceeds 
$3,500,000. 

Albany,  the  capital,  is  pleasantly  seated  on 


NEW 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


587 


an  eminence  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson, 
144  miles  above  New  York  city ; population 
in  1870,  76,217.  The  river  is  navigable  to 
Albany,  for  steamers.  The  Erie  and  Cham- 
plain canals  unite  above  the  city,  and  are 
connected  with  a basin  at  Albany.  The 
facility  of  communication  which  it  possesses, 
renders  it  a great  thoroughfare.  The  Dutch 
settled  Albany  in  1614,  calling  it  Fort  Orange. 
After  it  came  into  English  hands,  it  was 
named  in  honor  of  James  II.,  then  Duke  of 
York  and  Albany.  It  was  built  up  with  the 
disregard  to  elegance  so  common  among  the 
Dutch,  but  its  modern  buildings,  both  private 
and  public,  are  beautiful  and  tasteful. 

Brooklyn,  on  Long  Island,  is  separated  from 
the  city  of  New  York  by  the  East  River.  In 
1870  it  had  396,099  inhabitants.  The  houses 
of  recent  date  are  spacious  and  elegant,  and 
the  heights  which  overhang  the  river  and 
command  a view  of  New  York,  are  studded 
with  neat  and  pretty  dwellings,  embowered 
in  shrubbery  and  flowers.  The  healthiness 
of  Brooklyn,  and  its  contiguity  to  New  York, 
have  tended  to  increase  its  population  largely 
within  a few  years.  Its  many  houses  of  wor- 
ship have  given  it  the  name  of  the  City  of 
Churches.  The  first  settlement  of  Brooklyn 
was  made  at  the  Wallabout  Bay,  by  George 
Jansen  Rapelje,  in  1625.  The  earliest  deed 
for  lands  on  record  is  to  Thomas  Besker,  in 
1639.  Oct.  18th,  1667,  Governor  Nicholls 
granted  a patent  “to  certain  inhabitants  of 
the  town  Breukelen,  for  and  in  behalf  of  them- 
selves and  their  associates,  the  freeholders 
and  inhabitants,  for  all  the  lands  in  the  town 
not  taken  up  in  severalty.”  This  patent  was 
confirmed  by  Governor  Dongan  in  1686.  In 
1670  license  was  given  by  Governor  Lovelace 
to  the  inhabitants  to  purchase  the  Indian  title. 

The  city  of  Buffalo  lies  on  the  outlet  of  Lake 
Erie  at  the  head  of  Niagara  River,  and  on 
Buffalo  Creek,  which  constitutes  its  harbor, 
288  miles  west  of  Albany,  or  363  by  the  Erie 
Canal.  It  was  originally  laid  out  by  the  Hol- 
land Land  Company  in  1801.  It  was  entirely 
burned  by  the  British  in  1813,  excepting  two 
buildings.  The  commencement  of  the  rapid 
growth  and  great  importance  of  this  place 
may  be  dated  from  the  opening  of  the  Erie 
Canal.  The  city  is  laid  out  in  broad  and  reg- 
ular streets.  The  land  rises,  by  a very  gentle 
ascent,  two  miles  from  the  water,  to  an  exten- 


sive plain,  and  from  the  elevated  parts  of  the 
city  are  fine  views  of  the  lake,  of  Niagara 
River,  of  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  Canada 
shore.  There  are  three  public  squares  which 
add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  city.  The 
harbor  of  Buffalo  is  spacious  and  safe,  having 
twelve  or  fourteen  feet  of  water  a mile  from 
its  entrance  into  the  lake.  Buffalo  stands  as 
a great  gate  between  the  East  and  the  West, 
through  which  much  of  their  commerce  must 
pass ; and  it  is  a great  depot  for  the  western 
country.  Population  in  1870,  117,714. 

NEW  YORK,  the  city  of,  the  largest,  most 
wealthy,  most  flourishing  of  the  cities  of  our 
continent,  and  the  commercial  metropolis  of 
America,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson,  on  Manhattan  Island.  In  the  bay 
that  opens  before  it  to  the  Atlantic,  navies 
might  lie  in  safety.  Toward  its  harbor 
throng  the  ships  of  all  nations,  freighted 
with  merchandise  and  emigrants  from  almost 
all  the  earth.  The  navigable  waters  of  the 
Hudson,  long  lines  of  canals,  and  a network 
of  rail-roads  give  it  the  amplest  facilities  for 
inland  trade.  In  1870  it  had  942,292  inhab- 
itants. This  does  not  include  Brooklyn,  Jer- 
sey City,  and  its  other  suburbs. 

The  first  settlement  made  on  Manhattan 
Island,  with  a view  to  permanent  occupancy, 
was  by  the  Dutch  in  1615.  In  1629,  being 
resolved  to  establish  a colony  at  New  Amster- 
dam, as  New  York  was  then  called,  they 
appointed  Walter  Yan  Twiller  governor,  who 
held  the  office  nine  years.  In  1635  the  gov- 
ernor erected  a substantial  fort;  and  in  1643 
a house  of  worship  was  built  in  the  south- 
east corner  of  the  fort.  In  1644  a city  hall 
or  stadthouse  was  erected,  which  was  on  the 
corner  of  Pearl  street  and  Coenties  Slip.  In 
1653  a wall  of  earth  and  stone  was  built  from 
Hudson  River  to  East  River,  designed  as  a 
defense  against  the  Indians,  immediately 
north  of  Wall  Street,  which  from  that  circum- 
stance received  its  name.  The  first  public 
wharf  was  built  in  1658,  where  Whitehall 
Street  now  is. 

The  administration  of  Governor  Stuyve- 
sant,  the  last  of  the  Dutch  governors,  ter- 
minated, after  a continuance  of  seventeen 
years,  with  the  capture  of  the  colony  by  the 
English  in  1664,  when  the  city  was  named 
New  York  in  honor  of  James,  Duke  of  York. 
The  property  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Trad- 


NEW 


588 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ing  Company  was  all  confiscated.  The  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  was  then  about  3,000. 

* In  1073  the  Dutch  took  the  city  from  the 
English,  it  having  been  surrendered  by  Cap- 
tain Manning  without  firing  a gun.  It  was 
restored  to  the  English  the  next  year ; and 
Manning  was  tried  for  cowardice  and  treach- 
ery, and  sentenced  to  have  his  sword  broken 
over  his  head.  The  inhabitants  were  all  then 
required  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
English  government.  As  descriptive  of  the 
commercial  condition  of  the  city  at  that  period, 
Governor  Andros,  in  his  report  to  the  govern- 
ment in  England,  in  1678,  says:  “Our  princi- 
pal places  of  trade  are  New  York  and  Kingston, 
except  Albany  for  the  Indians.  Our  buildings 
most  wood,  some  lately  stone  and  brick  ; good 
country  houses,  and  strong  of  their  severall 
kindes.  A merchant  worth  £1,000,  or  £500, 
is  accompted  a good  substantiall  merchant, 
and  a planter  worthe  half  that  in  moveables  is 
accompted  rich  ; all  estates  may  be  valued  att 
about  £150,000  ; there  may  lately  have  traded 
to  ye  colony,  in  a yeare,  from  10  to  15  ships 
or  vessells  of  about  togeather  100  tunns  each, 
English,  New  England,  and  oure  own  built, 
of  which  five  small  shipps,  and  a ketch  now 
belonging  to  New  Yorke,  foure  of  them  built 
there.” 

In  1686  James  II.  abolished  the  represent- 
ative system,  and  prohibited  the  use  of  print- 
ing-presses. A meeting  of  commissioners, 
denominated  a congress  of  the  several  colo- 
nies, was  this  year  assembled  at  New  York. 
A regulation  for  lighting  the  city  was  estab- 
lished in  1697,  requiring  that  lights  be  put 
in  the  windows  of  the  houses  fronting  on  the 
streets,  on  a penalty  of  ninepence  for  every 
night’s  omission ; and  that  a lighted  lantern 
be  hung  out  upon  a pole  at  every  seventh 
house,  the  expense  to  be  borne  equally  by 
the  seven  intervening  houses.  In  1703  Wall 
Street  was  paved  from  William  Street  to  the 
English  (Trinity)  Church.  The  Presbyterian 
ministers  were  prohibited  from  preaching  by 
Governor  Cornbury,  in  1707,  and  two  of 
their  number  were  arrested  and  tried  for 
violating  this  prohibition  ; but  they  were  dis- 
charged on  their  paying  $220  costs.  In 
1719  a Presbyterian  Church  was  built  in 
Wall  Street.  In  1725  the  Neto  York  Gazette, 
a weekly  newspaper,  was  established.  The 


first  stage  began  to  run  between  New  York 
and  Boston  in  1732.  It  made  its  trips  once 
a month,  and  took  two  weeks  for  the  journey. 
In  1745  Lady  Murray  owned  the  only  coach 
in  town.  The  following  year  there  were 
1,834  houses  and  11,717  inhabitants,  all 
below  the  Park.  This  was  an  increase  of 
about  a thousand  people  in  nine  years.  A 
theatre  was  opened  in  1750.  During  the 
next  quarter  of  a century  streets  were  laid 
out  and  built  upon  more  or  less  as  far  north 
as  Murray  Street. 

After  the  disastrous  battle  of  Long  Island 
in  August,  1776,  the  British  entered  the 
city,  and  remained  its  masters  till  the  con- 
clusion of  peace.  They  evacuated  it  on  the 
25th  of  November,  1783,  and  the  same  day 
Gen.  Washington  marched  in  at  the  head  of 
the  American  army.  A t this  time  there  were 
23,614  inhabitants,  an  increase  of  2,000  in 
fifteen  years.  In  1785  the  first  congress 
held  after  the  war  met  in  the  city  hall,  where 
the  custom-house  now  stands  ; and  here,  four 
years  after,  when  the  federal  constitution  had 
been  adopted,  Washington  was  inaugurated 
president  of  the  United  States. 

For  a place  of  such  magnitude,  New  York 
can  not  be  considered  unhealthy.  It  has 
enjoyed  as  great  an  exemption  as  cities  of 
this  class  in  most  countries  from  the  ravages 
of  epidemic  diseases.  It  has  been  four  times 
visited  by  yellow  fever,  viz.,  in  1742,  in  1798, 
in  1805,  and  in  1822.  The  disease  was  the 
most  fatal  in  1798,  when  it  prevailed  from 
July  to  November.  The  city,  with  other 
cities  large  and  small,  suffered  severely  from 
Asiatic  cholera  in  the  years  1832,  1834,  and 
1849. 

The  most  extensive  and  destructive  fire 
which  has  ever  occurred  in  New  York  was 
that  of  the  16th  of  December,  1835,  which 
swept  over  between  thirty  and  forty  acres  of 
the  most  valuable  part  of  the  city,  densely 
occupied  with  stores  and  filled  with  the 
richest  merchandise.  About  674  buildings 
were  consumed,  and  the  amount  of  property 
destroyed  was  estimated,  by  a committee 
appointed  to  ascertain  the  loss,  at  nearly 
$20,000,000.  Under  this  heavy  calamity, 
the  wealth  and  recuperative  energies  of  the 
city  were  in  a wonderful  manner  demon- 
strated, as  in  an  incredibly  short  time  the 


4 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


589 


whole  burned  district  was  covered  again  with 
stores  and  with  public  edifices,  more  costly, 
convenient  and  elegant  than  before. 

NEY,  Michael,  Duke  of  Elchingen,  Prince 
of  Moscow,  marshal,  and  peer  of  France, 
grand-cross  of  the  legion  of  honor,  knight  of 
St.  Louis,  &c.,  was  bora  in  Alsace,  in  1769. 
He  rose  from  the  ranks  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  armies,  but  was  more  distinguished  for 
his  bravery  than  his  tactics.  He  opposed 
Wellington  in  Spain,  and  pursued  the  British 
army  to  the  lines  of  Torres  Yedras.  He  after- 
ward served  under  Napoleon  in  Russia,  and 
at  the  great  battle  of  the  Moskwa  acquired 
the  name  of  “ the  bravest  of  the  brave.”  His 
bravery  was  signal  in  the  terrible  retreat 
from  Moscow.  He  commanded  the  rear- 
guard of  the  army.  At  one  point  he  was 
attacked  by  an  overwhelming  force  of  Rus- 
sians, and  summoned  to  surrender.  “ A mar- 
shal of  France  never  surrenders,”  was  his 
heroic  answer,  and  by  strategy  and  hard 
fighting  he  reached  the  wreck  of  the  main 
army,  with  a handful  of  his  original  corps. 
Napoleon  welcomed  him  with  joy,  for  he  had 
given  up  all  hope  of  him,  as  captive  or  slain. 
The  retreat  continued,  and  with  indomitable 
courage  and  energy  Ney  still  covered  the 
rear.  With  only  thirty  men  he  defended  the 
gate  of  Kowno,  the  last  Russian  town  in  the 
march  of  the  French,  while  his  comrades 
escaped  at  the  other  end.  He  was  the  last 
man  to  leave  the  soil  of  Russia.  On  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  Ney  promised  to 
Support  the  Bourbons.  At  the  return  of  Na- 
poleon from  Elba,  the  command  of  the  royal- 
ist army  was  confided  to  him,  but  when  Na- 
poleon summoned  him  to  his  standard  as  the 
bravest  of  the  brave,  he  could  not  resist,  and 
went  over  to  the  emperor.  He  was  second  in 
command  at  Waterloo,  where  he  fought  with 
desperate  tenacity,  till  night  and  defeat  com- 
pelled him  to  flee.  Five  horses  were  shot 
under  him,  and  his  clothes  were  torn  with 
bullets.  Contrary  to  the  general  amnesty 
that  was  decreed,  the  Bourbons  ordered  his 
arrest : he  was  condemned  to  die,  and  was 
shot  Aug.  16th,  1815. 

NICARAGUA,  a republic  of  Central  Amer- 
ica, bounded  north  by  Honduras  ; east  by  the 
Caribbean  Sea;  south  by  Costa  Rica,  and 
west  by  the  Pacific.  The  country  is  fertile, 
and  rich  in  forests.  The  population  is  400, 000, 


and  the.  area  44,000  square  miles.  Through 
the  river  San  Juan  and  Lake  Nicaragua,  a 
route  was  opened,  communicating  on  each 
coast  by  steamers  with  the  Atlantic  cities 
and  California.  Civil  contentions  and  filibust- 
ering expeditions  of  piratical  vagabonds  from 
the  United  States  have  retarded  the  progress 
of  this  unhappy  country. 

NICHOLAS,  Czar  of  Russia.  [ See  Ro- 

manoff.] 

NICHOLS,  Charlotte  Bronte,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Rev.  Patrick  Bronte,  a Yorkshire  cler- 
gyman, was  born  April  21st,  1816.  There 
is  but  little  incident  in  her  life,  which  was 
mostly  passed  at  Haworth,  a rough  village 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  In  1847 
the  reading  world  was  startled  by  three 
novels,  “Jane  Eyre,”  “ Wuthering  Heights,” 
and  “Alice  Gray,”  whose  title-pages  bore 
respectively  the  names  of  Currer  Bell,  Ellis 
Bell,  and  Acton  Bell.  The  secret  of  their 
authorship  was  kept  well  and  long,  notwith- 
standing the  eagerness  of  the  public  to  dis- 
cover it.  The  brother  Patrick  died,  then 
Emily,  then  Anne,  and  Charlotte  Bronte  was 
left  alone  with  her  father  in  1849.  In  1854, 
she  wedded  Mr.  Bronte’s  curate,  Rev.  Arthur 
Bell  Nichols.  Then,  after  the  nine  happiest 
months  of  her  life,  the  knell  from  Haworth 
church  early  on  Saturday  morning,  March 
31st,  1855,  told  the  villagers  that  Charlotte 
Bronte  was  no  more.  She  had  written  two 
novels  after  “Jane  E}rre,” — “Shirley”  and 
“ Villette.”  She  is  the  most  remarkable  writer 
of  all  the  women  of  English  literature.  Her 
novels  display  a startling  vigor. 

NICHOLSON,  James,  an  Americal  naval 
officer,  born  at  Charlestown,  Maryland,  in 
1737.  Throughout  the  Revolutionary  war, 
he  served  with  distinction  in  our  infant  navy. 
June  2d,  1780,  Nicholson,  with  the  Trumbull, 
a frigate  of  thirty-two  guns,  manned  with  only 
199  men,  fought  a severe  action  with  the 
British  frigate  Wyatt.  This  engagement 
lasted  three  hours,  at  the  expiration  of  which 
the  disabled  state  of  the  Trumbull’s  masts 
compelled  Nicholson  to  withdraw,  with  a 
loss  of  nine  men  killed,  and  twenty-one 
wounded.  In  1781  Captain  Nicholson  in  the 
Trumbull  was  captured  by  the  Iris  and  Gen- 
eral Monk,  after  a severe  engagement  at 
night.  He  was  carried  to  England,  and  not 
released  till  peace  was  concluded. 


NIC 


590 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


NIEBUHR,  Barthold  George,  an  eminent 
historian,  diplomatist,  and  philologist,  was 
born  at  Copenhagen,  1776;  entered  the  civil 
service  of  Prussia  in  1806;  was  successively 
professor  of  history  in  the  universities  of 
Berlin  and  Bonn  ; and  died  at  Bonn  in  1831. 
He  was  the  master  of  twenty  languages. 

NINEVEH,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian 
empire,  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most  pop- 
ulous cities  of  the  ancient  world.  It  stood 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  the 
modern  town  of  Mosul.  After  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Assyrian  monarchy  by  the 
Medes,  it  fell  into  decay,  and  even  its  site 
became  a matter  of  conjecture.  Within  a 
few  years  the  researches  of  M.  Botta  and  Mr. 
Layard  have  brought  to  light  the  long  buried 
city.  The  curious  sculptures  and  vessels 
which  have  been  exhumed  are  full  of  interest. 
Modern  science  finds  in  the  long  cuneiform 
inscriptions  the  records  of  the  wars,  customs, 
life,  and  manners  of  one  of  the  greatest 
nations  of  antiquity. 

NINES,  a son  of  Belus,  who  built  a city  to 
which  he  gave  his  own  name,  and  founded 
the  Assyrian  monarchy,  of  which  he  was  the 
first  sovereign,  b.c.  2059.  He  was  very  war- 
like, and  extended  his  conquests  from  Egypt 
to  the  extremities  of  India  and  Bactriana. 
Ninus  reigned  fifty-two  years,  and  at  his 
death  he  left  his  kingdom  to  the  care  of  his 
wife  Semiramis,  by  whom  he  had  a son.  The 
history  of  Ninus  is  very  obscure,  and  even 
fabulous  according  to  the  opinion  of  some. 
Ninus  after  death  received  divine  honors,  and 
became  the  Jupiter  of  the  Assyrians  and 
the  Hercules  of  the  Chaldeans. 

NOAH,  Mordecai  Manasseh,  an  American 
journalist  and  an  active  politician,  was  born 
at  Philadelphia,  July  19th,  1784;  died  in 
New  York,  March  28th,  1851.  He  was  con- 
sul to  Tunis  in  1813.  About  1829  he  con- 
ceived the  project  of  collecting  his  brethren 
the.  Jews,  and  rebuilding  Jerusalem.  He 
issued  a singular  proclamation,  appointing 
Grand  Island,  near  Niagara  Falls,  as  the 
place  of  rendezvous,  and  summoned  the  scat- 
tered tribes  to  transmit  their  contributions. 
The  scheme  came  to  nothing. 

NORMANDY,  an  ancient  province  in  the 
north  of  France,  now  divided  into  five  depart- 
ments. In  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury the  Northmen,  led  by  Kollo,  settled 


here,  and  were  governed  by  their  own  dukes ; 
the  most  renowned  of  whom  was  William, 
who  achieved  the  conquest  of  England  in 
1066.  Normandy  was  lost  to  England  by  the 
weakness  of  King  John.  The  English  still 
retain,  however,  the  islands  on  the  coast, 
Jersey,  Guernsey,  &c.  In  1346  Normandy 
was  overrun  by  Edward  III. ; and  in  1418  it 
was  held  by  Henry  V.,  who  conquered  the 
whole  province,  and  obtained  its  formal  ces- 
sion to  England  by  the  peace  of  1420.  It 
was  wrested  from  the  English  in  1449 ; and 
from  that  time  Normandy  was  exempt  from 
the  evils  of  war  until  the  religious  contests 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  escaped  the 
revolution,  though,  in  1794,  a Yendean  army 
entered  its  western  frontier,  for  they  were 
soon  put  to  flight.  Normandy  had,  until  the 
revolution,  its  separate  parliaments,  which 
sat  at  Rouen ; and  its  provincial  laws  and 
usages  were  preserved  under  the  name  of 
Coutumier  d^formmMie.  , . 

NORRIS,  Sta  ^ofewf  second  son  of  Henry, 
the  first  Lord  Norris,  famous  for  his  valor, 
was  first  trained  up  in  military  exercises  un- 
der Admiral  Coligni  in  the  civil  wars  of 
France;  next  in  Ireland,  under  Walter,  Earl 
of  Essex;  then  served  in  the  Netherlands 
under  Matthias,  Archduke  of  Austria,  in 
1579  ; afterward  under  the  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
1582;  next  under  William  of  Nassau;  and, 
in  the  twenty-seventh  year  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth’s reign  he  was  constituted  colonel- 
general  of  all  the  horse  and  foot  sent  out 
of  England  to  the  relief  of  Antwerp,  then 
besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  and  empowered 
to  treat  with  the  states-general  for  the  enter- 
taining of  the  English  foot  appointed  to  serve 
in  those  parts.  In  the  30th  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, being  then  president  of  the  council  in 
the  province  of  Munster,  in  Ireland,  he  had  a 
commission  giving  him  power  to  constitute 
such  principal  officers  as  well  by  sea  and 
land,  as  he  thought  fit  for  the  defense  of  the 
kingdom.  In  the  33d  of  Queen  Elizabeth  he 
was  constituted  captain-general  of  those  Eng- 
lish auxiliaries  that  were  sent  to  King  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  against  his  rebellious  subjects 
in  Bretagne.  Having  deported  himself  with 
great  prudence  and  courage  in  all  these  emi- 
nent employments,  to  the  great  honor  of  the 
English  nation  as  well  as  of  his  own  name, 
he  expected  that  upon  the  recalling  of  Sir 


NOR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


591 


William  Russell,  knight,  afterward  Lord  Rus- 
sell, he  should  have  been  deputy  of  Ireland; 
but,  finding  that  Thomas,  Lord  Borough,  was 
preferred  to  that  command,  and  himself  re- 
quired to  continue  still  in  Munster,  he  became 
so  highly  discontented,  as  to  occasion  his 
premature  death. 

NORTH,  Frederick,  second  Earl  of  Guil- 
ford, better  known  as  Lord  North,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Francis,  the  first  earl,  and  was 
born  in  1732.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
at  Trinity  College,  Oxford ; after  which  he  j 
went  to  Leipsic.  On  his  return  home  he  was 


elected  into  parliament,  and  in  1759  he  be- 
came a commissioner  of  the  treasury.  In 
1767  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer, and  in  1770  first  lord  of  the  treasury, 
both  which  offices  he  held  during  the  Ameri- 
can war,  till  1782.  Not  long  after  this,  the 
same  statesmen  who  had  repeatedly  threat- 
ened his  lordship  with  an  impeachment, 
formed  a coalition  with  him;  but  this  motley 
administration  lasted  a very  few  months.  In 
1790  Lord  North  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
earldom,  and  died  in  1792,  having  been  blind 
some  years. 


NORTH  CAROLINA  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Virginia,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean,  on  the  south  by  South  Carolina, 
and  on  the  west  by  Tennessee.  It  is  of  con- 
siderable extent,  comprising  45,500  square 
miles,  with  a population,  in  1870  of  1,071,361 
souls,  of  whom  678,1*70  were  whites,  and  391,- 
650  colored.  The  state  is  divided  into  seventy- 
nine  counties,  and  Raleigh  is  the  seat  of 
government.  This  place  is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated, and  laid  out  with  great  regularity.  The 
state-house,  built  upon  the  model  of  the  Par- 
thenon, is  celebrated  for  the  completeness 
and  beauty  of  its  architecture.  Raleigh  has 
7,790  inhabitants.  A senate  and  house  of 
commons  are  the  legislative  branches  of  gov- 
ernment. Elections  are  biennial.  There  is 
a common-school  system  which  is  rapidly 
growing  in  usefulness ; besides,  there  are 
several  respectable  academies  at  various 
places,  and,  at  Chapel  Hill,  an  institution 


styled  the  University  of  North  Carolina, 
which  is  well  endowed  and  in  high  repute. 
The  face  of  the  country  is  extremely  diver- 
sified ; a wide  belt,  skirting  the  sea,  is 
perfectly  level,  while  in  other  parts  the 
surface  is  broken  and  rough,  presenting  in 
some  places  considerable  elevations.  One  of 
these,  Black  Mountain,  6,476  feet  high,  is  said 
to  be  the  highest  peak  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Pilot  Mountain,  or  Ararat,  wThich 
is  of  a pj^ramidal  form,  rises  1,550  feet  from 
a wide  and  level  area,  commanding  a most 
imposing  view  of  the  surrounding  country. 

The  coast  of  North  Carolina  is  made  dan- 
gerous by  its  capes  and  shoals,  the  names  of 
some  of  which  indicate  the  terror  they  excite. 
This  state  contains  a portion  of  that  swamp 
which  is  justly  called  the  Great  Dismal 
Swamp,  a marshy  tract  whose  low  brush- 
wood, in  many  parts  impenetrable,  covers  a 
space  of  nearly  thirty  miles  in  extent.  Parts 


NOR 


592 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


of  the  soil  of  North  Carolina  are  extremely 
productive,  and  the  earth  has  been  found  to 
possess  a treasure  in  gold  mines  of  considera- 
ble extent  and  value.  The  commerce  of  this 
state  is  not  extensive,  but  many  of  the  plant- 
ers are  very  wealthy.  The  pine  forests  yield 
not  only  lumber,  but  great  quantities  of  tur- 
pentine, rosin,  tar,  and  pitch. 

The  first  colony  within  the  limits  of  North 
Carolina  was  English,  and  settled  on  Roanoke 
Island,  (since  the  scene  of  Burnside’s  vic- 
tory,) in  1587.  It  soon  perished,  however, 
for  it  was  never  heard  from.  Some  Virgi- 
nians made  a permanent  settlement  near  Al- 
bemarle sound  in  1650. 

North  Carolina  joined  the  South  in  the 
rebellion,  and  seceded  May  20,  1861,  after  a 
good  deal  of  adjourning  and  delaying.  The 
IT.  S.  forts  in  the  state  had  been  seized 
in  January.  The  state  did  not  suffer  much 
during  most  of  the  war,  being  covered  by 
land  and  coast;  but  a good  deal  of  dam- 
age was  done  during  Sherman’s  last  great 
march  from  Savannah,  and  the  North  Caro- 
lina campaign  against  Bragg  and  Johnston. 
Gen.  Butler  and  Commodore  Stringham  took 
the  forts  at  Ilatteras,  in  August,  1861,  and 
Burnside’s  expedition,  in  Feb.,  1862,  took 
Roanoke  Island,  and  on  March  14th  succeed- 
ing captured  Newbern.  From  that  time  the 
Union  forces  held  the  sea  approaches,  except 
Wilmington,  which  it  was  found  impossible 
to  close  to  blockade  runners,  until  the  glori- 
ous bombardment  and  storming  of  Fort 
Fisher,  Jan.  15,  1865,  soon  followed  by  the 
fall  of  Wilmington.  The  state  soon  after 
returned  formally  into  the  Union. 

NORTH-WEST  PASSAGE.  The  belief 
in  a passage  to  China  and  the  Indies  through 
the  Arctic  seas  followed  close  upon  the  dis- 
covery of  the  western  continent.  Cortereal, 
a Portuguese,  sought  the  north-west  passage 
in  1500.  England  made  the  essay  in  1553, 
at  the  instance  of  Sebastian  Cabot.  In  May 
of  that  year,  Hakluyt  has  chronicled,  gallant 
Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  took  his  departure  on 
his  fatal  voyage  for  discovering  the  north-east 
passage  to  China.  He  sailed  with  great  pomp 
by  Greenwich,  where  the  court  then  resided. 
Mutual  honors  were  paid  on  both  sides.  The 
council  and  courtiers  appeared  at  the  win- 
dows, and  the  people  covered  the  shores. 


The  young  king,  Edward  VI.,  alone  lost  the 
noble  and  novel  sight,  for  he  then  lay  on  his 
death-bed ; so  that  the  principal  object  of  the 
parade  was  disappointed.  The  three  vessels 
separated:  Sir  Hugh  with  his  crew  perished 
on  the  coast  of  Lapland ; but  Chancellor  en- 
tered the  White  Sea,  a discovery  of  impor- 
tance, inasmuch  as  it  led  to  the  establishment 
of  a trade  between  England  and  Archangel, 
and  to  the  design  of  carrying  on  commerce 
with  India  by  means  of  the  Volga  and  the 
Caspian  Sea,  which  project  so  engrossed  the 
attention  of  the  merchants  of  London  that  all 
farther  attempts  at  discovering  the  North- 
East  Passage  were  abandoned.  The  Dutch 
merchants  afterward  resolved  to  try  if  the 
East  Indies  could  be  reached  in  this  direction. 
William  Barents  made  two  voyages  (1594- 
1596),  but  was  unable  to  proceed  east  of  Nova 
Zembla  on  account  of  the  ice. 

Frobisher  tried  the  North-West  Passage  in 
1576.  The  project  was  greatly  encouraged 
by  Elizabeth  in  1585,  and  a company  formed 
called  the  “Fellowship  for  the  Discovery  of 
the  North-West  Passage.”  In  that  and  the  two 
following  years  John  Davis  made  three  voy- 
ages, discovering  the  well-known  straits  which 
ever  since  have  borne  his  name.  He  retained 
full  faith,  and  would  have  sailed  again,  had 
not  the  Spanish  armada  interrupted.  From 
1607  to  1610  Hudson  made  several  voyages, 
some  for  English  merchants  and  one  in  the 
service  of  the  Dutch ; during  which  he  dis- 
covered the  noble  river  and  the  broad  bay 
now  known  by  his  name.  In  1616  Baffin 
discovered  and  in  great  part  traced  the  ex- 
tensive bay  called  after  him.  A number  of 
enterprises  undertaken  by  various  countries 
followed.  From  1745  to  1818  there  was  a 
standing  offer  of  £20,000  from  the  British 
government  for  the  discovery  of  the  north- 
west passage.  Samuel  Hearne,  an  agent  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  company,  undertook  a land 
expedition  in  1769.  Seven  years  later  the 
celebrated  Captain  Cook  tried  to  solve  the 
mystery.  He  sailed  to  the  Pacific,  discovered 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  early  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1778  reached  Behring’s  Strait.  He 
was  able  to  penetrate  no  farther  than  lat. 
70°  44'.  On  his  return  he  lost  his  life. 
Mackenzie,  in  1789,  headed  an  overland  ex- 
pedition, traced  the  great  river  named  after 


NOR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


.593 


him,  and  reached  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  latitude 
69°.  Hearne  had  gained  it  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Coppermine  eighteen  years  before. 

In  1818  the  attention  of  the  English  gov- 
ernment was  turned  anew  to  the  possibility 
of  finding  a north-west  passage  to  the  Pacific 
seas,  and  the  standing  reward  was  modified 
by  proposing  that  £5,000  should  be  paid 
whenever  either  110°,  120 J,  or  130°  W\  long, 
should  be  passed.  Two  expeditions  were 
dispatched,  that  of  Buchan  and  Fra  iklin, 
and  that  of  Ross  and  Parry.  Many  others 
have  followed. 

Capt.  Buchan  and  Lieut.  Franklir’s  expedition 
in  the  Dorothea  and  Trent,  1818. 

Capt.  Ross  and  Lieut.  Parry,  in  the  Isabella  and 
Alexander,  1818. 

Lieutenants  Parry  and  Liddon,  in  the  Hecla  and 
Griper,  May  4th,  1819.  They  crossed  the 
meridian  of  110 D long.  W.,  and  were  entitled 
to  the  reward  of  £5,000.  They  returned  to 
Leith,  Nov.  3d,  1820. 

Captains  Parrv  and  Lyon,  in  the  Fury  and  Ilecla, 
May  8th,  1521. 

Captain  Parry’s  third  expedition  with  the  Hecla, 
May  8th,  1824. 

Captains  Franklin  and  Lyon,  after  having  at- 
tempted a land  expedition,  again  sailed  from 
Liverpool,  Feb.  16th,  1825. 

Captain  Parry,  again  in  the  Hecla,  sails  from 
Deptford,  March  25th,  1827.  And  returns, 
Oct.  6th,  1827. 

Capt.  Ross  arrived  at  Hull,  on  his  return  from 
his  Arctic  expedition,  after  an  absence  of  four 
years,  and  when  all  hope  of  his  return  had 
been  nearly  abandoned,  Oct.  18th,  1833. 

Capt.  Back  and  his  companions  arrived  at  Liver- 
pool from  their  perilous  Arctic  Land  Expedi- 
tion, after  having  visited  the  Great  Fish  River, 
and  examined  its  course  to  the  Polar  Seas,  Sept. 
8th,  1835. 

Capt.  Back  sailed  from  Chatham  in  command  of 
his  majesty’s  ship  Terror,  on  an  exploring  ad- 
venture to  Wager  River,  June  21st,  1836. 

Sir  John  Franklin  and  Captains  Crozier  and  Fitz- 
james,  in  the  ships  Erebus  and  Terror,  leave 
England,  May  24th,  1845. 

Commanders  Collinson  and  M‘Clure,  in  the  Enter- 
prise and  Investigator,’  sailed  eastward  in 
search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  Jan.  20th,  1850. 
North-West  Passage  discovered  by  M‘Clure, 
Oct.  26th,  1850. 

The  anxiety  felt  as  to  the  fate  of  Sir  John 
Franklin  and  his  comrades  led  to  many  expe- 
ditions to  the  polar  seas.  Sir  John,  with 
Captains  Crozier  and  Fitzjames,  in  H.M. 
ships  Erebus  and  Terror  (carrying  in  all  138 
persons),  sailed  on  an  Arctic  expedition 
of  discovery  and  survey,  from  Greenhithe, 
May  24th,  1845.  Their  last  dispatches  were 

38 


from  the  Whalefish  Islands,  dated  July  12th, 
1845.  On  the  26th  of  July,  they  were  seen 
by  a passing  whaler  moored  to  an  iceberg 
near  the  centre  of  Baffin’s  Bay.  Since  that 
time  no  certain  intelligence  of  their  fate  has 
been  received.  Franklin  contemplated  an 
absence  of  three  years,  so  that,  although 
nothing  was  heard  of  the  expedition,  no  anx- 
iety was  felt  for  its  safety  until  1848.  Then 
the  protracted  absence  began  to  cause  in- 
tense anxiety  throughout  Europe,  and  numer- 
ous expeditions  were  sent  from  England 
and  elsewhere  to  various  parts  of  the  polar 
regions  in  search.  Quantities  of  coals,  pro- 
visions, clothing,  and  other  comforts  were 
deposited  in  such  places  in  the  Arctic  seas  as 
the  crews  of  the  Erebus  and  Terror  might 
visit,  so  as  to  afford  them  immediate  relief, 
by  the  British  and  American  governments, 
by  Lady  Franklin,  and  by  numerous  private 
persons.  The  Truelove,  Capt.  Parker,  which 
arrived  at  Hull  Oct.  4th,  1849,  from  Davis’s 
Straits,  brought  intelligence  (not  afterward 
confirmed)  that  the  natives  had  seen  Sir 
John  Franklin’s  ships  as  late  as  the  previous 
March,  ‘beset  or  frozen  up  by  the  ice  in  Prince 
Regent’s  Inlet.  Other  like  accounts  were 
equally  illusory.  Her  majesty’s  government, 
March  7th,  1850,  offered  a reward  of  £20,000 
to  any  party,  of  any  country,  that  should 
render  efficient  assistance  to  the  crews  of  the 
missing  ships.  Sir  John’s  first  winter  quar- 
ters were  found  at  Beechey  Island  by  Cap- 
tains Ommanney  and  Penny.  The  following 
expeditions  were  sent  out  in  search. 

H.  M.  S.  Plover,  Capt.  Moore  (afterward  under 
Capt.  Maguire),  sailed  from  Sheerness  to  Beh- 
ring’s Straits,  Jan.  1st,  1848. 

Land  expedition  under  Sir  John  Richardson,  and 
Dr.  Rae  of  the  Hudson’s  Bay  Company,  left 
England,  March  25th,  1848.  Sir  John  Rich- 
ardson returned  to  England  in  1849,  and  Dr. 
Rae  continued  his  search  till  1851. 

Sir  James  Ross,  with  the  Enterprise  and  Investi- 
gator (June  12th,  1848),  having  also  sailed  in 
search  to  Barrow’s  Strait,  returned  to  England, 
Nov.  3d,  1849. 

The  Enterprise,  Capt.  Collinson,  and  Investigator, 
Commander  M‘Clure,  sailed  from  Plymouth  for 
Behring’s  Straits,  Jan.  20th,  1850.  Both  of 
these  ships  proceeded  through  to  the  eastward, 
and  the  North-West  Passage  was  discovered  by 
M‘Clure,  Oct.  26th,  1850.  M‘Clure  returned 
to  England  in  October,  1854,  and  Collinson  in 
May,  1855. 

Capt.  Austin’s  expedition  (Resolute,  Capt.  Austin,  • 
C.  B. ; Assistance,  Capt.  Ommanney ; Intrepid, 


NOR 


59i 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Com.  Bertie  Cator ; and  Pioneer,  Com.  Sherard 
Osborne)  sailed  from  England  for  Barrow’s 
Straits,  April  25th,  1850,  and  returned  in 
September,  1851. 

The  Lady  Franklin,  Capt.  Penny,  and  Sophia, 
Capt.  Stewart,  sailed  from  Aberdeen  for  Bar- 
row’s Straits,  April  13th,  1850,  and  returned 
home  in  September,  1851. 

The  first  American  expedition,  in  the  Advance 
and  Rescue,  under  Lieut.  De  Haven  and  Dr. 
Kane,  toward  which  Mr.  Grinnell  gave  $30,000, 
sailed  for  Lancaster  Sound  and  Barrow’s 
Straits,  May  25th,  1850.  After  drifting  in  the 
pack  down  Baffin’s-  Bay,  the  ships  were  re- 
leased in  1851  uninjured. 

The  Felix,  Sir  John  Ross,  fitted  out  chiefly  by 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  sailed  to  the  same, 
locality,  May  22d,  1850,  and  returned  in  1851. 

H.M.S.  North  Star,  Commander  Saunders,  which 
had  sailed  from  England  in  1849,  wintered  in 
Wolstenholme  Sound,  and  returned  to  Spit- 
head,  Sept.  28th,  1850. 

H.M.S.  Herald,  Capt.  Kellett,  C.B.,  which  had 
sailed  in  1848,  made  three  voyages  to  Beh- 
ring’s Straits,  and  returned  in  1851. 

Lieut.  Pirn  went  to  St.  Petersburg  in  November, 

1851.  with  the  intention  of  traveling  through 
Siberia  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Kolyma;  but 
he  was  dissuaded  from  proceeding  by  the  Rus- 
sian government. 

Sir  Edward  Belcher’s  expedition  (Assistance,  Sir 
Edward  Belcher,  C.B. ; Resolute,  Capt.  Kel- 
lett, C.B. ; North  Star,  Capt.  Pullen’;  Intre- 
pid, Capt.  M‘Clintoek;  Pioneer,  Capt.  Sherard 
Osborne)  sailed  from  Woolwich,  April  15th, 

1852. 

Lady  Franklin,  from  her  own  resources, 

aided  by  a few  friends  (and  by  the  “ Tasma- 
nian Tribute  of  £1,500),  equipped  four  sepa- 
rate private  expeditions. 

The  Prince  Albert,  Capt.  Forsyth,  sailed  from 
Aberdeen  to  Barrow’s  Straits,  June  5th,  1850; 
returned  Oct.  1st,  1850. 

The  Prince  Albert,  Mr.  Kennedy,  accompanied 
by  Lieut.  Bellot  of  the  French  navy  and  John 
Hepburne,  sailed  from  Stromness  to  Prince 
Regent’s  Inlet,  June  4th,  1851  ; returned  in 
October,  1852. 

The  Isabel,  Commander  Inglefield,  sailed  for  the 
head  of  Baffin’s  Bay,  Jones’s  Sound  and  the 
Wellington  Channel,  July  6th,  and  returned  in 
November,  1852. 

Mr.  Kennedy  sailed  again  in  the  Isabel  on  a re- 
newed search  to  Behring’s  Strait,  1853. 

H.M.S.  Rattlesnake,  Commander  Trollope,  dis- 
patched to  assist  the  Plover,  Capt.  Maguire 
(who  succeeded  Capt.  Moore)  at  Point  Barrow 
in  April,  met  with  it  in  August,  1853. 

The  second  American  expedition,  the  Advance, 
under  Dr.  Kane,  early  in  June,  1853. 

The  Phoenix  (with  the  Breadalbane  transport), 
Commander  Inglefield,  accompanied  by  Lieut. 
Bellot,  sailed  in  May,  and  returned  in  October, 

1853. 

The  Phoenix,  North  Star,  and  Talbot,  under  the 


command  of  Captain  Inglefield,  sailed  in  May, 
and  returned  in  October,  1854. 

The  third  American  expedition,  in  search  of  Dr. 
Kane,  consisted  of  the  Release  and  the  steamer 
Arctic,  the  barque  Eringo,  and  another  vessel, 
under  the  command  of  Lieut.  H.  J.  Hartstene, 
accompanied  by  a brother  of  Dr.  Kane  as  sur- 
geon, May  31st,  1855.  On  the  17th  of  May, 
1855,  Dr.  Kane  and  his  party  left  the  Advance, 
and  journeyed  over  the  ice,  1,300  miles,  to  the 
Danish  settlement.  On  their  way  home  in  a 
Danish  vessel,  they  fell  in  with  Lieut.  Hart- 
stene, Sept.  18th,  and  arrived  with  him  at 
New  York,  Oct.  11th,  1855.  [See  Kane.] 

The  eighteenth  British  expedition  (equipped  by 
Lady  Franklin  and  her  friends,  the  govern- 
ment having  declined),  consisting  of  the  screw 
steamer  Fox,  Captain  M^Clintock,  R.  N.,  sailed 
from  Aberdeen,  July  1st,  1857. 

In  the  spring  of  1853,  Dr.  Rae  again  pro- 
ceeded toward  the  magnetic  pole,  and  in  July, 
1854,  he  reported  to  the  Admiralty  that  he 
had  purchased  from  a party  of  Esquimaux  a 
number  of  articles,  which  had  belonged  to 
Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  party,  namely,  Sir 
John’s  star  or  order,  part  of  a watch,  silver 
spoons,  and  forks  with  crests,  &c.  He  also 
reported  the  statement  of  the  natives,  that 
they  had  met  with  a party  of  white  men  about 
four  winters  previous  and  had  sold  them  a 
seal,  and  that  four  months  later,  in  the  same 
season,  they  had  found  the  bodies  of  thirty 
men  (some  buried)  who  had  evidently  per- 
ished by  starvation  ; the*  place  appears,  from 
the  description,  to  have  been  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Great  Fish  River  of  Back.  Dr. 
Rae  arrived  in  England  in  Oct.  22d,  1854, 
with  the  melancholy  relics,  which  have  since 
been  deposited  in  Greenwich  Hospital.  Dr. 
Rae  and  his  companions  received  the  reward 
of  £10,000  for  discovering  these  remains,  as 
the  first  clue. 

All  the  ships  of  Sir  Edward  Belcher’s 
expedition  were  finally  abandoned.  Capt. 
Kellett’s  vessel,  the  Resolute,  was  found 
adrift  a thousand  miles  from  where  she  was 
left,  by  a New  London  whaler,  and  'was 
brought  home.  It  was  bought  by  order  of 
Congress,  thoroughly  repaired  and  equipped, 
and  intrusted  to  Capt.  H.  J.  Hartstene  to  be 
presented  to  Queen  Victoria,  It  arrived  at 
Southampton,  Dec.  12th,  1856,  and  was  vis- 
ited by  her  majesty  on  the  16th. 

The  honor  of  completing  the  north-west 
passage  is  due  to  Capt.  M‘Clure,  who  sailed 
in  the  Investigator  in  company  with  Com. 


NOR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  595 


Collinson  in  the  Enterprise,  in  search  of  Sir 
John  Franklin,  Jan.  20th,  1850.  On  Sept. 
6th  he  discovered  high  land  which  he  named 
Baring’s  land ; on  the  9th,  other  land  which 
he  named  after  Prince  Albert;  on  the  30th 
the  ship  was  frozen  in.  Entertaining  a strong 
conviction  that  the  waters  in  which  the 
Investigator  then  lay  communicated  with 
Barrow’s  Strait,  he  set  out  on  Oct.  21st  with 
a few  men  in  a sledge,  to  test  his  views. 
On  Oct.  26th,  he  reached  Point  Russell  (73-° 
31'  N.  lat.,  114°  14'  W.  long.),  where  from 
an  elevation  of  600  feet  he  saw  Parry  or  Mel- 
ville Sound  beneath  them.  The  strait  con- 
necting the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  Oceans  he 
named  after  the  Prince  of  Wales.  The  In- 
vestigator was  the  first  ship  which  traversed 
the  Polar  Sea  from  Behring’s  Straits  to  Baring 
Island.  Intelligence  of  this  discovery  was 
brought  to  England  by  Com.  Inglefield,  and 
the  admiralty  chart  was  published  Oct.  14th, 
1853.  Capt.  McClure  returned  to  England 
in  September,  1854.  Fie  was  knighted  for 
his  discovery.  In  1855  parliament  ordered 
£5,000  to  be  paid  to  Captain  M‘Clure,  and 
£5,000  to  be  distributed  between  the  officers 
and  crew. 

NORWAY,  an  extensive  kingdom  of  the 
north  of  Europe.  Its  area  is  122,711  square 
miles,  and  its  population  1,490,000.  The 
face  of  the  country  is  broken  by  mountain 
ridges,  the  summits  of  which  are  covered 
with  snow  and  ice.  The  climate  presents  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  a great 
proportion  of  the  soil  is  barren.  In  fact,  the 
wealth  of  Norway  consists  in  timber,  cattle, 
fisheries,  and  minerals.  The  chief  towns  are 
Bergen,  Christiana,  Drontheim,  Konigsberg, 
Christiansand,  and  Fredericshall.  Norway 
was  divided  into  petty  principalities  until  the 
nirith  century,  and  was  little  known  except 
for  piracies.  In  1029  Norway  was  conquer- 
ed by  Canute  the  Great,  King  of  Denmark, 
and  was  governed  by  Sueno,  as  regent.  On 
the  death  of  Canute,  Norway  recovered  its 
independence.  In  1397  it  was  incorporated 
with  Denmark.  Their  peaceful  union  con- 
tinued till  1814,  when  it  was  interrupted  by 
the  treaty  which  the  King  of  Denmark  was 
compelled  to  make  with  Great  Britain,  re- 
signing the  sovereignty  of  Norway  to  the 
King  of  Sweden,  to  which  Norway  was 
forced  to  submit;  but  as  an  integral  state, 


and  with  the  preservation  of  its  constitution 
and  laws. 

NOYA  SCOTIA,  a British  province  of 
North  America,  a peninsula,  jutting  out  into 
the  Atlantic,  containing  about  18,660.  square 
miles.  It  is  about  280  miles  in  length,  and 
partially  separated  from  New  Brunswick  by 
the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  country  is  somewhat 
rough,  but  the  soil  in  the  interior  is  good. 
The  exports  consist  principally  of  fish,  tim- 
ber, and  plaster  of  Paris.  Estimated  pop. 
in  1870,  389,343.  Nova  Scotia  was  discov- 
ered by  John  Cabot  in  1497.  The  French, 
who  gave  it  the  name  of  Acadia,  were  the 
first  settlers.  Sir  William  Alexander  received 
a grant  of  the  peninsula,  under  the  name  of 
Nova  Scotia,  in  1621,  but  it  was  surrendered 
to  the  French  by  Charles  I.  on  the  family 
alliance  between  him  and  that  court  in  1632. 

It  was  recovered  by  Major  Sedgwick,  under 
Cromwell,  in  1654;  delivered  again  to  the 
French  by  Charles  II.  in  1667 ; recovered  by 
Sir  William  Phipps  in  1690;  ceded  to  France 
at  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697;  but  con- 
quered again  by  the  English  in  1710,  and 
continued  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
in  1714.  Afterward,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Indians,  the  French  gave  great  disturbance 
to  the  English  settlers  in  this  country ; but 
their  possession  was  again  confirmed  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  Many  loy- 
alists from  the  United  States  settled  here  at 
the  close  of  the  Revolution. 

Halifax,  the  capital  and  chief  port  of  the 
province,  on  Chebucto  Bay,  has  one  of  the 
finest  harbors  in  the  world.  It  was  founded 
in  1749  by  Gen.  Cornwallis.  It  is  the  chief 
naval  station  in  British  America,  and  has  a * 
large  dockyard  and  a fine  naval  arsenal. 
There  are  about  32,000  inhabitants. 

NOVGOROD,  an  ancient  city  of  European 
Russia,  containing  now  only  7,000  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  the  capital  of  a government  of  the 
same  name,  and  formerly  enjoyed  many  priv- 
ileges under  an  independent  prince.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  it  had  400,000  inhabitants, 
and  was  once  so  rich  and  powerful,  that  a 
common  proverb  was,  “Yfho  can  oppose 
God,  or  the  great  city  of  Novgorod  ? ” Vithold, 
Great  Duke  of  Lithuania,  was  the  first  who, 
in  1427,  obliged  the  city  to  pay  a tribute  of 
200,000  crowns.  Ivan  Wassiliewitsch  I., 
tyrant  of  Muscovy,  made  himself  master  if 


NOY 


596 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


it  in  1477,  and  placed  a governor  in  it;  and, 
some  time  after,  came  in  person  and  plun- 
dered the  city,  carrying  away  with  him  to 
Moscow,  300  wagons  loaded  with  gold,  silver, 
and  precious  stones,  and  other  rich  goods 
and  furniture ; to  which  place  also  he  trans- 
ported the  inhabitants  of  Novgorod,  send- 
ing Muscovites  to  inhabit  their  city.  Ivan 
Basilowitz,  Great  Duke  of  Muscovy,  in  1569, 
upon  a groundless  suspicion  of  their  design- 
ing to  revolt,  slew  many  of  its  inhabitants, 
besides  a vast  number  that  were  trodden  to 
death  by  a party  of  his  horse,  let  in  upon 
them.  After  having  plundered  the  rich 
church  of  Sancta  Sophia,  and  all  the  treas- 
ures of  the  other  churches,  he  also  pillaged 
the  archbishopric,  and  then  commanded  the 
archbishop  to  ride  upon  a white  horse,  with 
a fiddle  tied  about  his  neck,  and  a flute  in  his 
hand ; and  in  this  posture  conducted  him  to 
Moscow.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  Swedes 
in  1611,  and  restored  to  the  Russians  in 
1634.  In  1664  it  was  populous,  and  a place 
of  good  trade,  encompassed  with  a timber 
wall,  well  stored  with  ammunition  and  brass 
ordnance,  and  defended  by  a castle.  The 
building  of  St.  Petersburg  struck  the  final 
blow  to  Novgorod.  This  duchy,  once  the 
greatest  in  Russia,  was  assigned  by  lot  to 
Ruruk  Varegus,  their  first  duke,  whose  pos- 
terity have  enlarged  their  dominions  as  far  as 
the  Greek  empire  on  one  side,  and  Norway 
on  the  other. 

N.UMA  POMPILIUS,  a Sabine,  the  second 
king  of  Rome,  reigned  from  714  to  672  b.c. 
At  the  death  of  Romulus,  the  Romans  fixed 
upon  him  to  be  their  new  king ; and  two  sen- 
* ators  were  sent  to  acquaint  him  with  the 
decision  of  the  senate,  and  of  the  people. 
Numa  refused  their  offer ; and  it  was  only 
at  the  repeated  solicitations  and  prayers  of 
his  friends,  that  he  was  prevailed  upon  to 
accept  the  royalty.  The  beginning  of  his 
reign  was  popular,  and  he  dismissed  the  300 
body  guards  which  his  predecessor  had  kept 


around  his  person  ; observing,  that  he  did 
not  distrust  a people  who  had  compelled  him 
to  reign  over  them.  He  was  not,  like  Romu- 
lus, fond  of  war  and  military  expeditions ; 
but  he  applied  himself  to  tame  the  ferocity 
of  his  subjects,  to  inculcate  in  their  minds  a 
reverence  for  the  Deity,  and  to  quell  their 
dissentions,  by  dividing  all  the  citizens  into 
different  classes. 

NUMANTIA,  a town  of  the  Celtiberi  in 
Spain,  near  the  sources  of  the  river  Durius 
(Duero),  celebrated  for  the  war  of  fourteen 
years,  which,  though  unprotected  by  walls 
and  towers,  it  bravely  maintained  against  the 
Romans.  The  inhabitants  obtained  some 
advantages  over  the  Roman  forces,  till  Scipio 
Africanus  was  empowered  to  finish  the  war, 
and  to  see  the  destruction  of  Numantia.  He 
began  the  siege  with  an  army  of  60,000  men, 
and  was  bravely  opposed  by  the  besieged, 
who  were  no  more  than  4,000  men  able  to 
bear  arms.  Both  armies  behaved  with  un- 
common valor,  and  the  courage  of  the  Nu- 
mantines  was  soon  changed  into  despair  and 
fury.  Their  provisions  began  to  fail,  and 
they  fed  upon  the  flesh  of  their  horses,  and 
afterward  of  that  of  their  dead  companions, 
and  at  last  were  necessitated  to  draw  lots  to 
kill  and  devour  one  another.  The  melancholy 
situation  of  their  affairs  obliged  some  to 
surrender  to  the  Roman  general.  Scipio  de- 
manded them  to  deliver  themselves  upon  the 
morrow;  they  refused,  and  when  a longer 
time  had  been  granted  to  their  petitions,  they 
retired  and  set  fire  to  their  houses,  and  all 
destroyed  themselves,  b.c.  133,  so  that  not 
even  one  remained  to  adorn  the  triumph  of 
the  conqueror.  Some  historians,  however, 
deny  that,  and  maintain  that  a number  of 
Numantines  delivered  themselves  into  Scipio’ s 
hands,  and  that  fifty  of  them  were  drawn  in 
triumph  at  Rome,  and  the  rest  sold  as  slaves. 
The  fall  of  Numantia  was  more  glorious  than 
that  of  Carthage  or  Corinth. 


NUM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


597 


0. 

OATES,  Titus,  was  born  about  1619.  He 
was  the  son  of  an  Anabaptist  preacher,  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  afterward  took 
orders.  Dismissed  from  his  chaplaincy  in 
disgrace,  in  1677,  he  turned  Roman  Catholic, 
and  was  admitted  into  the  society  of  Jesuits. 
On  his  return  to  England,  in  1678,  however, 
he  declared  himself  a Protestant,  and  in  con- 
junction with  one  Dr.  Ezrael  Tongue,  gave 
information  of  a pretended  popish  plot ; 
which  met  with  too  ready  a belief,  and  caused 
the  execution  and  imprisonment  of  many 
innocent  men.  Oates  was  rewarded  with  a 
pension  of  £1,200  a year,  but  when  James 
II.  came  to  the  throne,  he  was  found  guilty 
of  perjury.  He  was  sentenced  to  be  stripped 
of  his  clerical  habit,  to  be  pilloried  in  Palace 
Yard,  to  be  led  round  Westminster  Hall  with 
an  inscription  declaring  his  infamy  over  his 
head,  to  be  pilloried  again  in  front  of  the 
Royal  Exchange,  to  be  whipped  from  Aldgate 
to  Newgate,  and,  after  an  interval  of  two 
days,  to  be  whipped  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn. 

If,  against  all  probability,  he'  should  happen 
to  survive  this  horrible  infliction,  he  was  to 
be  kept  a close  prisoner  during  life.  Five 
times  every  year  he  was  to  be  brought  forth 
from  his  dungeon  and  exposed  on  the  pillory 
in  different  parts  of  the  capital.  The  wretch 
barely  survived  his  terrible  flogging.  In  the 
reign  of  William  III.  he  obtained  his  liberty, 
and  a pension  of  £400  a year.  He  died  in 
1705. 

OBERLIN,  John  Frederic,  was  born  at 
Strasburg,  August  1st,  1740.  Under  the 
training  of  devout  parents  and  a beloved  pas- 
tor, the  boy  early  cherished  the  wish  to  give 
his  life  to  the  ministry,  and  for  that  he  was 
educated.  He  obtained  a curacy  in  the  Ban 
de  la  Roche,  or  Steinthal,  a wild,  mountainous 
district  in  Alsace.  His  field  was  an  exten- 
sive valley,  lying  in  the  primeval  roughness 
of  nature,  and  divided  into  two  parishes,  of 
which  the  Waldbach  was  one,  and  comprising 
nearly  a hundred  families.  Completely  se- 
questered from  the  world,  the  people  were 
little  better  than  savages,  ignorant,  filthy,  and 
lazy.  They  knew  nothing  of  the  Bible,  ex- 


come  from  God.  In  this  neglected  nook,  was 
the  opportunity  for  the  labor  of  good  that 
Oberlin  sought,  and  here  he  passed  his  days. 
He  bestirred  himself  for  the  physical  and 
social  welfare  of  his  children,  as  he  called  his 
parishioners,  as  well  as  their  spiritual,  and 
he  was  rewarded  by  awaking  them  from  the 
stupor  of  barbarism  to  intelligence  and  indus- 
try. Roads  took  the  place  of  the  rude  foot- 
paths ; bridges  were  built  where  before  were 
only  stepping  stones,  under  water  three- 
quarters  of  the  year ; agricultural  imple- 
ments were  introduced;  the  youth  were 
taught  useful  trades ; neat  cottages  were 
reared  in  place  of.  wretched  cabins  of  turf ; 
till  Oberlin’s  cure  was  no  longer  a dreary 
waste.  He  wrought  a similar  betterment  in 
the  moral  condition  of  the  people.  Schools 
and  libraries  were  established,  and  aided  him 
in  his  simple,  earnest,  evangelical  teachings. 
His  people  grew  to  number  three  thousand. 
During  the  terrors  of  the  French  revolution, 
when  elsewhere  all  worship  was  at  an  end, 
Oberlin  was  not  molested  in  his  work ; an 
immunity  *which  he  owed  both  to  the  obscure 
position  of  his  parish  and  to  his  own  excel- 
lence of  character.  He  died  in  1826,  aged 
eighty-six,  leaving  to  the  world  an  eminent 
example  of  a life  wholly  consecrated  to  the 
highest  benevolence,  and  illuminated  by 
fidelity  to  both  God  and  man. 

OCCUM,  Sampson,  a Mohegan  Indian,  con- 
verted to  Christianity ; a missionary  among 
the  Indians  of  New  York;  died  1792. 

O’CONNELL,  Daniel,  was  born  in  the 
county  of  Kerry,  Ireland,  August  6th,  1775. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  Omers  and  Douay  in 
France,  and  was  at  first  destined  for  the 
church,  but  the  relaxation  that  admitted  Ro- 
man Catholics  to  the  bar,  opened  for  him  a 
more  brilliant  career.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  Irish  bar  in  1798,  and  became  the  first 
advocate  of  the  day.  He  was  prominent  in 
the  movement  for  the  political  emancipation 
of  the  Catholics,  and  after  the  reform  bill  be- 
came conspicuous  as  the  head  of  a parliament- 
ary body,  acknowledging  his  leadership  and 
voting  together,  called  “O’Connell’s  Tail.” 
About  1840  he  commenced  agitating  the  re- 


ceDt  that  it  was  a large  book  said  to  have 

OCO 


598 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


peal  of  the  union,  and  in  January,  1844,  the 
British  government  procured  his  trial  for  trea- 
son. A conviction  was  obtained,  followed  by 
a sentence  of  imprisonment,  but  it  was  re- 
versed in  the  House  of  Lords.  O’Connell, 
however,  was  now  an  old  man : the  trial  shook 
his  nerves  and  his  position.  It  was  followed 
by  the  miseries’ of  the  potato  blight.  On  the 
15th  of  May,  1847,  he  died  during  a sojourn 
in  Italy,  which  was  called  a pilgrimage,  and 
supposed  to  partake  of  a penitential  or  relig- 
ious character. 

OCTAYIA,  a Roman  lady,  sister  to  the 
Emperor  Augustus,  and  celebrated  for  her 
beauty  and  virtues.  Her  marriage  with  An- 
tony was  a political  step  to  reconcile  her 
brother  and  her  husband.  Antony  proved 
for  some  time  attentive  to  her,  but  he  soon 
after  despised  her  for  Cleopatra.  After  the 
battle  of  Actium  and  the  death  of  Antony, 
Octavia,  forgetful  of  the  injuries -she  had  re- 
ceived, took  into  her  house  all  the  children  of 
her  husband,  and  treated  them  with  maternal 
tenderness.  The  death  of  her  son  Marcellus 
continually  preyed  upon  the  mind  of  Octavia, 
and  she  died  of  melancholy  about  ten  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  Her  brother  paid 
great  regard  to  her  memory,  by  pronouncing 
himself  her  funeral  oration.  The  Roman 
people  also  showed  their  respect  for  her  vir- 
tues, by  their  wish  to  pay  her  divine  honors. 

(EDIPUS,  son  of  Laius,  King  of  Boeotia, 
and  Jocasta.  Laius  was  induced  to  believe 
that  his  son  would  be  his  murderer,  and  the 
infant  was  accordingly  exposed  on  Mount 
Cithaeron.  He  was  educated  at  the  court  of 
Polybus,  king  of  Corinth.  Being  reproached 
by  a haughty  nobleman  with  not  being  the  son 
of  Polybus,  he  resolved  to  satisfy  himself  by 
making  inquiries  at  the  shrine  of  the  Delphic 
oracle.  The  answer  was  as  follows:  “Avoid 
thy  country  if  thou  wouldst  escape  the  sin  of 
murdering  thy  father  and  marrying  thy 
mother.”  (EJipus,  looking  on  Corinth  as  his 
country,  fled  thence  to  Thebes,  where  he 
killed  his  father,  without  knowing  him,  b.c. 
1276,  and  received  the  hand  of  his  mother 
Jocasta.  Discovering  the  horrible  calamity 
which  had  befallen  him,  (Edipus  put  out  his 
eyes,  and  died  far  from  the  scene  of  his  mis- 
fortunes. Jocasta  hanged  herself. 

OEIILENSCHLAEGER,  Adam,  the  great- 
est dramatic  poet  in  Scandinavian  literature, 


born  at  Copenhagen,  J777,  died  there  Jan. 
28th,  1850.  He  rewrote  many  of  his  works 
in  German,  and  thus  holds  a high  place  in 
German  letters. 

OGLETHORPE,  James  Edward,  an  English 
general,  was  born  in  London,  in  1G98.  He 
served  under  Prince  Eugene.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  colony  of  Georgia,  for  which 
he  obtained  the  royal  charter.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  eighty-seven.  His  private  life  was 
exceedingly  amiable,  and  he  has  been  etilo- 
gized  by  Thomson,  Pope,  and  Johnson. 

OHIO  comprises  39,964  square  miles.  In 
1870  it  contained  2,665,260  inhabitants.  A 
slightly  elevated  ridge  divides  the  waters  flow- 
ing into  Lake  Erie  from  those  feeding  the 
Ohio,  and  the  eastern  and  the  south-eastern 
parts  are  much  diversified  with  hill  and  valley, 
but  the  country  is  nowhere  mountainous. 
Swamps  and  morasses  occasionally  occur,  but 
nine-tenths  of  the  state  is  susceptible  of  culti- 
vation, and  three-fourths  eminently  produc- 
tive. The  river  bottoms  are  of  exuberant  rich- 
ness. In  the  centre  and  north-west  are  many 
prairies,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  country 
was  originally  covered  with  forests  of  gigantic 
trees.  The  chief  are  the  Ohio,  Muskingum, 
Hockhocking,  Scioto,  Miami,  Maumee,  San- 
dusky, and  Cuyahoga.  Ohio  is  amply  provi- 
ded with  the  most  useful  of  minerals,  iron  and 
coal,  and  lime.  Valuable  salt-springs  occur. 
The  fertile  soil  gives  abundant  crops  of  maize, 
wheat,  rye,  and  other  grains.  The  vintage  is 
becoming  an  important  harvest.  Droves  of 
fat  cattle  come  to  eastern  markets  from  the 
valleys  of  the  Scioto,  and  beef  is  largely  packed. 
Swine  are  a staple  production,  and  Cincinnati, 
where  their  flesh  is  largely  cured  and  packed, 
has  been  jocosely  called  Porkopolis. 

The  history  of  Ohio  belongs  almost  to  the 
present  century.  Its  growth  is  among  the 
marvels  of  our  country.  The  first  permanent 
settlement  in  its  limits  was  made  at  Marietta, 
April,  1788,  by  a party  of  emigrants  from 
New  England.  In  1791  a body  of  French 
emigrants  founded  Gallipolis.  In  1796  several 
towns  along  Lake  Erie  were  settled  by  bands 
from  New  England.  In  1799  the  first  territo- 
rial legislature  was  assembled  at  Cincinnati. 
In  1802  it  was  erected  into  an  independent 
state. 

The  general  assembly  and  state  officers  are 
chosen  biennially  by  the  people.  The  elective 


OHI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


599 


franchise  is  enjoyed  by  all  males  after! 
twenty-one  years  ot  age  who  shall  have  been 
a resident  of  the  state  one  year.  The  judi- 
cial power  is  vested  in  a supreme  court, 
district  court,  courts  of  common  pleas, 
courts  of  probate,  justices  of  the  peace,  and 
such  tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme 
court  as  the  general  assembly  may  estab- 
lish. The  judges  and  justices  are  chosen 
by  the  people.  The  constitution  provides  that 
there  shall  be  a thorough  and  efficient  system 
of  common  schools  established  throughout  the 
state.  An  asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  is 
sustained  at  Columbus,  and  an  institution  for 
the  blind. 

Columbus,  the  capital,  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  the  Scioto,  in  a rich  and  beautiful  district. 
It  is  built  on  a regular  plan,  with  a pretty 
square  in  the  centre,  about  which  stand  some 
of  the  principal  public  buildings.  In  1870  it 
had  31,274  inhabitants.  The  largest  city  of 
Ohio,  and  the  metropolis  of  the  West,  is  Cin- 
cinnati, on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ohio  River, 
116  miles  south-west  from  Columbus.  Pop- 
ulation in  1870,  216,239.  It  has  grown  with 
great  rapidity,  and  now  ranks  as  the  third 
place  in  population  in  the  United  States.  It 
is  an  extensive  manufacturing  place ; although 
destitute  of  water  power,  yet  this  destitution 
has  been  extensively  compensated  by  the  em- 
ployment of  steam.  From  the  position  Cin- 
cinnati holds  as  the  great  emporium  of  the 
West,  it  must  continue  to  increase  with  the 
growth  of  the  rapidly  rising  country  with 
which  it  is  connected.  Seventy  years  ago 
Cincinnati  was  a mere  military  outpost. 


On  the  28th  of  December,  1788,  a band  of 
emigrants  from  New  England  and  New  Jersey 
landed  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ohio,  oppo- 
site the  mouth  of  Licking  River,  to  commence 
the  settlement  of  a town.  Their  first  log 
cabin  was  built  on  a spot  which  is  now  on 
Front  Street,  a little  east  of  Main  Street.  In 
January,  1789,  they  proceeded  to  lay  off'  their 
town,  which  was  then  covered  with  a dense 
forest;  the  lower  bottom  bearing  huge  syca- 
more and  sugar  maple  trees,  and  the  upper, 
beech  and  oak.  The  streets  were  run,  and 
the  corners  marked  upon  the  trees.  To  their 
projected  city  they  gave  the  name  of  Losanti- 
ville,  which  was  afterward  changed  to  Cincin- 
nati. In  1802  it  was  incorporated  as  a town, 
with  a population  of  less  than  1,000  inhabit- 
ants. Thus  recent  is  the  origin,  and  thus 
rapid  has  been  the  growth,  of  this  beautiful 
city,  which  long  since  obtained  the  name  of 
the  Queen  City  of  the  West. 

Cleveland  is  the  most  important  port  of  the 
state  on  Lake  Erie.  Its  trade  is  great  and 
growing,  and  in  1870  it  had  92.829  inhabit- 
ants. It  derives  its  name  from  General  Moses 
Cleveland,  an  agent  of  the  Connecticut  land 
company,  who  accompanied  the  first  surveying 
party  to  the  Connecticut  Reserve,  and  under 
whose  direction  the  town  was  first  surveyed 
in  1796.  Cleveland  was  incorporated  as  a 
village  in  1814,  and  as  a city  in  1836.  Pop- 
ulation in  1796,  three;  in  If 58,  60,000. 

OLDCASTLE,  Sir  John,  also  known  as 
Lord  Cobham,  was  an  adherent  of  Wickliffe, 
the  head  of  the  Lollards,  and  esteemed  by 
Henry  IV.  and  Henry  V.  The  latter  monarch 


OLD 


600 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


at  the  instance  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury expostulated  with  him,  and  endeavored 
to  reconcile  him  to  the  Catholic  faith.  But 
Cobham  persevered  in  his  opinion,  and  was 
at  length  condemned  to  the  flames  for  his 
religious  tenets.  Cobham  escaped  from  the 
Tower  and  four  years  afterward  was  retaken. 
He  was  hung  by  the  waist  in  chains  from  a 
gallows,  his  legs  having  been  previously 
broken,  and  was  thus  roasted  and  consumed, 
1417. 

OLDENBURG,  a grand-duchy  in  the  north 
of  Germany,  containing  2,470  square  miles, 
and  287,000  inhabitants.  The  house  of  Old- 
enburg is  one  of  the  most  illustrious  in  Eu- 
rope ; the  Emperor  of  Russia,  the  King  of 
Denmark,  and  the  late  royal  family  of  Swe- 
den are  descended  from  it. 

OLYMPIAS,  a celebrated  woman,  who 
was  daughter  of  a king  of  Epirius,  and  who 
married  Philip,  King  of  Macedonia,  by  whom 
he  had  Alexander  the  Great.  Her  haughti- 
ness, and  more  probably  her  infidelity, 
obliged  Philip  to  repudiate  her,  and  to  marry 
Cleopatra,  the  niece  of  King  Attalus.  Olym- 
pias was  sensible  of  this  injury,  and  Alexan- 
der showed  his  disapprobation  of  his  father’s 
measures  by  retiring  from  the  court  to  his 
mother.  The  murder  of  Philip,  which  soon 
followed  this  disgrace,  and  which  some  have 
attributed  to  the  intrigues  of  Olympias,  was 
productive  of  the  greatest  extravagances. 
The  queen  paid  the  highest  honor  to  her  hus- 
band’s murderer.  She  gathered  his  mangled 
limbs,  placed  a crown  of  gold  on  his  head, 
and  laid  his  ashes  near  those  of  Philip. 

When  Alexander  was  dead,  Olympias 
seized  the  government  of  Macedonia;  and, 
to  establish  her  usurpation,  she  cruelly  put 
to  death  Aradseus,  son  of  Philip,  with  his 
wife  Eurydice,  as  also  Nicanor,  the  brother 
of  Cassander,  with  a hundred  leading  men 
of  Macedon,  who  were  inimical  to  her  inter- 
est. Such  barbarities  did  not  long  remain 
unpunished;  Cassander  besieged  her  in 
Pydna,  where  she  had  retired  with  the 
remains  of  her  family,  and  she  was  obliged 
to  surrender  after  an  obstinate  siege.  The 
conqueror  ordered  her  to  be  put  to  death.  A 
body  of  two  hundred  soldiers  were  directed 
to  put  the  bloody  command  into  execution, 
but  the  splendor  and  majesty  of  the  queen 


disarmed  their  courage,  and  she  wae  at  last 
massacred  by  those  whom  she  had  cruelly 
deprived  of  their  children,  about  816  b.c. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES  were  celebrated  by 
the  ancient  Greeks  in  honor  of  Jupiter  Olym- 
pius,  on  the  banks  of  the  Alpheius,  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  They  occurred  once  in  every 
four  years,  and  the  Greeks  computed  time 
from  them.  The  competitors  contended  for 
glory  only,  and  the  prize  was  a wreath  from 
the  sacred  olive-tree  near  Olympia,  and  the 
honor  of  being  proclaimed  victor.  No 
females,  except  the  priestesses  of  Ceres, 
were  permitted  to  witness  them,  death  being 
denounced  to  the  woman  who  should  oe 
present.  The  competitors  prepared  *' '.em- 
selves  by  ten  months’  exercise  in  the  0ymna- 
sium  at  Elis.  The  games  consisted  of  races 
on  horseback  and  on  foot,  leaping,  throwing 
the  discus,  wrestling,  boxing,  musical  and 
poetical  contests. 

Racing  was  considered  in  Greece  a matter 
of  the  highest  national  importance;  had  it 
not  been  so,.  Sophocles  would  have  been 
guilty  of  a great  fault  in  his  Electra,  where 
he  puts  into  the  mouth  of  the  messenger  who 
comes  to  recount  the  death  of  Orestes,  a long 
description  of  this  sport.  Of  the  training  and 
management  of  the  Olympic  race-horse  we 
are  unfortunately  left  in  ignorance : all  that 
can  be  inferred  being  the  fact  that  the  eques- 
trian candidates  were  required  to  enter  their 
names  and  send  their  horses  to  Elis  at  least 
thirty  days  before  the  celebration  of  the 
games  commenced,  and  that  the  charioteers 
and  riders,  whether  owners  or  proxies,  went 
through  a prescribed  course  of  exercises 
during  the  ensuing  month.  They  had  their 
course  for  full  aged  horses,  and  their  course 
for  colts,  and  their  prize  for  which  mares 
only  started,  resembling  in  these  respects  our 
degenerate  selves.  It  is  true  that  the  race 
with  riding-horses  was  neither  so  magnificent 
nor  so  expensive,  and  consequently  not  con- 
sidered so  royal,  as  the  race  with  chariots 
yet  they  had  their  gentlemen-jockeys  in  those 
days,  and  noted  ones  too,  for  among  the 
number  were  Philip,  King  of  Macedon,  and 
Hiero,  King  of  Syracuse.  The  -want  of  stir- 
rups alone  must  have  been  a terrible  defi- 
ciency. But  horsemanship  was  an  art  in 
which  the  Greeks  excelled.  Homer,  although 


OLY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


601 


he  mentions  only  chariots  in  his  account  of 
the  siege  of  Troy,  speaks  of  riding  so  famil- 
iarly in  some  parts  of  his  Iliad  and  Odyssey, 
that  it  must  have  been  practiced  among  the 
Greeks  before  the  composition  of  either  of 
these  poems.  In  the  fifteenth  book  of  the 
Iliad,  he  represents  the  strength  and  activity 
of  Ajax,  when  he  fought  in  defense  of  the 
Grecian  ships  of  war  that  were  attacked  by 
the  Trojans,  and  leaped  from  one  ship  to 
another,  by  the  readiness  and  address  with 
which  a skillful  horseman  would  vault  from 
the  back  of  one  horse  to  that  of  another ; and 
his  ability  to  defend  many  ships  at  once  by 
that  of  an  accomplished  rider,  who  is  capa- 
ble of  managing  and  controlling  several  horses 
at  the  same  time. 

High  on  the  decks,  with  vast  gigantic  stride, 

The  god-like  hero  stalks  from  side  to  side. 

So  when  a horseman  from  the  watery  mead 
(Skilled  in  the  manage  of  the  bounding  steed,) 
Drives  lour  fair  coursers,  practiced  to  obey, 

To  some  great  city  through  the  public  way  ; 

Safe  in  his  art,  as  side  by  side  they  run, 

He  shifts  his  seat,  and  vaults  from  one  to  one, 
And  now  to  this,  and  now  to  that  he  flies ; 
Admiring  numbers  follow  with  their  eyes. 

Pope's  Homer. 

The  Olympiad  from  which  the  Greeks  be- 
gan to  reckon,  was,  according  to  Petavius, 
777 ; according  to  Usher,  772  ; and  accord- 
ing to  Calvisius,  774  b.c.  Gatterer  and  most 
of  the  moderns  call  it  776.  An  Olympiad 
was  a period  of  four  years. 

OMAR  I.,  the  second  caliph,  or  successor 
of  Mahomet.  He  was  raised  to  this  dignity 
after  the  death  of  Abubeker  in  634.  Soon 
after  his  entering  upon  the  government,  he 
carried  on  wars  with  Ali,  who  was  the  lawful 
successor  of  Mahomet,  and  who  had  retired 
into  Arabia.  Omar  having  defeated  Ali, 
taken  the  city  Bosra,  and  many  other  places 
of  Arabia,  turned  his  arms  against  the  Chris- 
tians, and  entered  Syria,  where  he  gained  a 
victory  over  Theodorus  Bogarius,  brother  to 
the  Emperor  Heraclius,  and  afterward  re- 
turned victorious  into  Arabia.  The  emperor, 
who  was  then  at  Jerusalem,  desirous  to  pro- 
vide for  his  own  safety,  took  the  relics  and 
most  precious  ornaments  of  the  temple ; and 
leaving  Theodorus  with  Bahamus,  retired  to 
Constantinople.  In  635  Omar  gathered  his 
forces,  and  marched  against  Damascus,  which 
he  took  the  year  following,  and  afterward  all 


Phoenicia,  and  committed  a thousand  vio- 
lences to  force  people  to  embrace  his  religion. 
A part  of  his  army  subdued  Alexandria, 
burning  the  great  library,  and  not  long  after 
all  Egypt.  In  the  mean  time,  Omar  went 
in  person  to  attack  Jerusalem,  and  after  two 
years’  siege  entered  it  victoriously  in  638. 
Omar  thus  reduced  all  Judqp,  to  his  obedience, 
and  Jerusalem  was,  from  that  time,  possessed 
by  infidels  till  the  conquest  of  it  by  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon  in  1099.  In  639  he  subdued  all 
Mesopotamia,  and  at  the  same  time  built  the 
city  of  Cairo,  near  the  ruins  of  Memphis,  in 
Egypt.  And  lastly,  in  643,  he  made  himself 
master  of  Persia.  From  the  time  of  his  tak- 
ing Jerusalem  he  made  his  ordinary  residence 
in  that  city,  and  built  a magnificent  temple 
there  in  honor  of  Mahomet ; and,  after  having 
reigned  ten  years,  he  was  killed  by  a Persian, 
one  of  his  domestics,  and  buried  at  Medina 
in  644. 

OMAR  II.,  the  tenth  caliph,  or  successor 
of  Mahomet,  was  chosen  after  the  death  of  his 
cousin,  Solyman  Hascoin,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  year  721,  at  the  time  Constantinople 
was  besieged.  He  collected  all  his  forces,,  and 
attacked  that  city ; but  the  besieged  made  so 
stout  a resistance,  and  so  good  use  of  their 
fire-works,  that  he  was  forced  to  raise  it. 
And  scarcely  was  Marvan,  or  Masalma,  the 
general  of  the  army,  safe  out  of  the  channel 
of  Constantinople,  when  a dreadful  tempest 
destroyed  most  of  his  ships,  and  many  others 
were  consumed  by  fire  ; so  that  of  300  ships 
only  fifteen  escaped,  five  of  which  were  taken 
by  the  Christians,  and  the  other  ten  pro- 
ceeded with  the  news  of  this  defeat  to  the 
caliph,  who,  imagining  that  God  was  angry 
with  him  for  permitting  Christians  the  exer- 
cise of  their  religion  in  his  dominions,  made 
all  those  whose  fathers  or  mothers  were  Mo- 
hammedans, embrace  Mohammedanism  on 
pain  of  death,  and  upon  great  penalties  for- 
bade the  eating  of  swine’s  flesh,  and  the  use 
of  wine.  He  discharged  all  Christians  that 
turned  Mohammedans  from  paying  taxes 
and  customs,  and  cruelly  persecuted  the 
others ; and  pushed  on  by  a false  zeal,  he 
sent  letters  to  Leo  Isauricus,  the  emperor  at 
Constantinople,  to  embrace  Mohammedanism, 
and  sent  a renegade  to  instruct  him  in  the 
way  of  it ; but  he  died  soon  after,  having 
reigned  two  years. 


OMA 


602 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


OPIE,  Amelia,  was  the  daughter  of  Dr. 
Alderson,  of  Norwich,  England,  and  the 
spouse  of  John  Opie,  the  eminent  historical 
painter,  whom  she  survived  nearly  half  a 
centnry.  She  was  the  authoress  of  many 
moral  tales,  of  which  “ Illustrations  of  Ly- 
ing” was  considered  the  best  The  last 
twenty -five  years' of  her  life  she  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  society  of  Friends,  and  lived  in  the 
strictest  retirement  at  Norwich,  where  she 
died  in  1853,  over  eighty  years  of  age. 

ORACLES  were  impostures  of  the  ancient 
priesthood,  supported  by  the  policy  of  gov- 
ernments, and  apparently  credited  by  habit 
and  education ; but  constantly  used  to  im- 
pose on  the  soldiery  and  ignorant  multitudes. 
No  institutions  were  more  famous  than  the 
ancient  oracles  of 'Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome. 
They  were  impudently  said  to  be  the  will  of 
the  gods  themselves,  and  were  consulted,  not 
only  upon  every  important  matter,  but  even 
in  the  affairs  of  private  life.  To  make  peace 
or  war,  to  introduce  a change  of  government, 
to  plant  a colony,  to  enact  laws,  to  raise 
an  edifice,  or  to  marry,  were  all  sufficient 
reasons  to  consult  the  pretended  will  of  the 
gods. 

The  small  province  of  Boeotia  could  once 
boast  of  twenty-five  oracles,  and  the  Pelopon- 
nesus of  the  same  number.  Not  only  the 
chief  of  the  gods  gave  oracles,  but  in  process 
of  time  heroes  were  admitted  to  enjoy  the 
same  privileges  ; and  the  oracles  of  a Tropho- 
nius  and  an  Antinoiis  were  soon  able  to 
rival  the  fame  of  those  of  Apollo  and  Jupiter. 
The  temple  of  Delphi  seemed  to  claim  a supe- 
riority over  the  other  temples  ; its  fame  was 
once  so  extended,  and  its  riches  were  so  great, 
that  not  only  private  persons,  but  even  kings 
and  numerous  armies,  made  it  an  object  of 
plunder  and  of  rapine. 

The  manner  of  delivering  oracles  was  differ- 
ent. A priestess  at  Delphi  was  permitted  to 
pronounce  the  oracles  of  the  god,  and  her 
delivery  of  the  answers  was  alwrays  attended 
with  acts  of  apparent  madness  and  desperate 
fury.  Not  only  women,  but  even  doves, 
were  the  ministers  of  the  temple  of  Dodona ; 
and  the  suppliant  votary  was  often  startled 
to  hear  his  questions  readily  answered  by  the 
decayed  trunk  or  the  spreading  branches  of 
a neighboring  oak.  Ammon  conveyed  his 
answers  in  a plain  and  open  manner;  but 


Amphiaraus  required  many  ablutions  and 
preparatory  ceremonies,  and  he  generally 
communicated  his  oracles  to  his  suppliants  in 
dreams  and  visions.  Sometimes  the  first 
words  that  were  heard,  after  issuing  from  the 
temple,  were  deemed  the  answers  of  the 
oracles,  and  sometimes  the  nodding  or  shak- 
ing of  the  head  of  the  statue,  the  motions  of 
fishes  in  a neighboring  lake,  or  their  reluct- 
ance in  accepting  the  food  which  was  offered 
to  them,  were  as  strong  and  valid  as  the  most 
express  and  most  minute  explanations. 

Some  have  believed  that  all  the  oracles  of 
the  earth  ceased  at  the  birth  of  Christ.  It 
was,  indeed,  the  beginning  of  their  decline ; 
but  they  remained  in  repute,  and  were  con- 
sulted, though  perhaps  not  so  frequently,  till 
the  fourth  century,  when  Christianity  began 
to  triumph  over  paganism.  The  oracles  often 
suffered  themselves  to  be  bribed.  Alexander 
did  it ; but  it  is  well  known  that  Lysander 
failed  in  the  attempt.  Herodotus,  who  first 
mentioned  the  corruption  which  often  pre- 
vailed in  the  oracular  temples  of  Greece  and 
Egypt,  has  been  severely  treated  for  his 
remarks  by  the  historian  Plutarch.  Demos- 
thenes is  also  a witness  of  the  corruption  ; 
and  he  observed,  that  the  oracles  of  Greece 
were  servilely  subservient  to  the  will  and 
pleasure  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  as  he 
beautifully  expresses  it  by  the  word  Philip- 
pized. 

When  in  a state  of  inspiration,  the  eyes  of 
the  priestess  at  Delphi  suddenly  sparkled, 
her  hair  stood  on  end,  and  a shivering  ran 
over  all  her  body.  In  this  convulsive  state 
she  spoke  the  oracles  of  the  god,  often  with 
loud  howlings  and  cries,  and  her  articulations 
were  taken  down  by  the  priest,  and  set  in 
order.  Sometimes  the  spirit  of  inspiration 
was  more  gentle,  and  not  always  violent; 
yet  Plutarch  mentions  one  of  the  priestesses 
who  was  thrown  into  such  an  excessive  fury, 
that  not  only  those  that  consulted  the  oracle, 
but  also  the  priests  that  conducted  her  to  the 
sacred  tripod,  and  attended  her  during  the 
inspiration,  were  terrified,  and  forsook  the 
temple ; and  so  violent  was  the  fit,  that  she 
continued  for  some  days  in  the  most  agoniz- 
ing situation,  and  at  last  died. 

At  Delphos,  the  Pythia,  before  she  placed 
herself  on  the  tripod,  used  to  wash  her  whole 
body,  and  particularly  her  hair,  in  the  waters 


ORA 


HISTORY  A^D  BIOGRAPHY.  603 


of  the  fountain  Castalia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Parnassus.  She  also  shook  a laurel-tree  that 
grew  near  the  place,  and  sometimes  ate  the 
leaves,  with  which  she  crowned  herself. 

The  priestesses  of  Delphi  always  appeared 
in  the  garments  of  virgins,  to  intimate  their 
purity  and  modesty ; and  they  were  solemnly- 
bound  to  observe  the  strictest  laws  of  tem- 
perance and  chastity,  that  neither  fantastical 
dresses  nor  lascivious  behavior  might  bring 
the  office,  the  religion,  or  the  sanctity  of  the 
place,  into  contempt.  There  was  originally 
but  one  Pythia,  besides  subordinate  priests ; 
but  afterward  two  were  chosen,  and  some- 
times more.  The  most  celebrated  of  all  these 
is  Phemonoe,  who  is  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  the  first  who  gave  oracles  at 
Delphi.  The  oracles  were  delivered  in  hex- 
ameter verse,  a custom  which  was  some  time 
after  discontinued.  The  Pythia  was  con- 
sulted only  one  month  in  the  year,  about  the 
spring.  It  was  always  required  that  those 
who  consulted  the  oracle  should  make  large 
presents  to  Apollo,  and  from  thence  arose  the 
opulence,  splendor,  and  magnificence  of  the 
celebrated  temple  of  Delphi.  Sacrifices  were 
also  offered  to  the  divinity ; and,  if  the  omens 
proved  unfavorable,  the  priestess  refused  to 
give  an  answer.  There  were  generally  five 
priests  who  assisted  at  the  offering  of  the 
sacrifices ; and  there  was  also  another  who 
attended  the  Pythia,  and  assisted  her  in 
receiving  the  oracle. 

The  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  oracles 
were  Delphos,  Delos,  Ammon,  Dodona,  the 
Roman  Augurs,  and  the  Sibylline  Books.  W e 
give  an  account  derived  from  the  credulous 
descriptions  of  antiquity. 

Delphos,  now  called  Castri , the  capital 
of  Phocis,  in  Greece,  was  anciently  much 
celebrated  for  its  temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo. 
It  was  also  called  Pytho  by  the  poets,  from 
the  serpent  Python,  which  Apollo  killed  in 
this  place.  Pausanias,  however,  says  that 
this  name  Pytho  was  given  to  the  city  of 
Delphos  b}r  Pythis,  son  of  Delphus,  and 
grandson  of  Lycorus.  The  Greek  historians 
gave  to  this  city  the  name  of  Delphos,  which 
some  suppose  to  have  been  so  called  from 
adelphoi , ‘brethren,’  because  Apollo  and  his 
brother  Bacchus  were  both  worshiped  there ; 
and  others,  with  greater  probability,  derive 
the  name  from  delphos , single  or  solitary, 


referring  to  the  retired  situation  of  the  city 
among  the  mountains. 

Justin  questions  which  was  the  most 
worthy  of  admiration,  the  fortification  of  the 
place,  or  the  majesty  of  the  god  who  here 
delivered  his  oracles.  The  temple  of  Apollo 
occupied  a large  space,  and  many  streets 
opened  to  it.  The  first  discovery  which  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  extraordinary  venera- 
tion in  which  the  oracle  of  Delphos  was  held, 
and  of  the  riches  accumulated  in  the  temple, 
is  said  to  have  been  occasioned  by  some  goats 
which  were  feeding  on  Mount  Parnassus,  near 
a deep  and  large  cavern  with  a narrow  en- 
trance. These  goats  having  been  observed 
by  the  goatherd,  Coretas,  to  leap  and  frisk 
after  a strange  manner,  and  to  utter  unusual 
sounds  immediately  upon  their  approach  to 
the  mouth  of  the  cavern,  he  had  the  curiosity 
to  view  it,  and  found  himself  seized  with  the 
like  fit  of  madness,  skipping,  dancing,  and 
foretelling  things  to  come. 

At  the  news  of  this  discovery  multitudes 
flocked  thither,  many  of  whom  were  possessed 
with  such  frantic  enthusiasm,  that  they  threw 
themselves  headlong  into  the  opening  of  th.e 
cavern,  insomuch  that  it  was  necessary  to 
issue  an  edict,  forbidding  all  persons  to 
approach  it.  This  surprising  place  was 
treated  with  singular  veneration,  and  was 
soon  covered  with  a kind  of  chapel,  which 
was  originally  made  of  laurel  boughs,  and 
resembled  a large  hut.  This,  according  to 
the  Phocian  tradition,  was  surrounded  by 
one  of  wax,  raised  up  by  bees ; after  this  a 
third  was  built  of  solid  copper,  said  to  have 
been  the  workmanship  of  Vulcan. 

This  last  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
or  (according  to  some  authors)  by  fire,  which 
melted  the  copper;  and  then  a sumptuous 
temple,  altogether  of  stone,  wTas  erected  by 
two  excellent  architects,  Trophimus  and  Ag- 
amedes.  This  edifice  was  destroyed  by  fire 
in  the  58th  Olympiad,  or  548  b.c.  The  Am- 
phictyons  proposed  to  be  at  the  charge  of 
building  another ; but  the  Alcmeonides,  a 
rich  family  of  Athens,  came  to  Delphos,  ob- 
tained the  honor  of  executing  the  building, 
and  made  it  more  magnificent  than  they  had 
at  first  proposed.  The  riches  of  this  temple, 
amassed  by  the  donations  of  those  wrho  fre- 
quented it  and  consulted  the  oracle,  exposed 
it  to  various  depredations.  At  length  the 


ORA 


604 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


Gauls,  under  the  conduct  of  Brennus,  came 
hither  for  the  same  purpose,  about  278  b.c.  ; 
but  they  were  repulsed,  with  great  slaugh- 
ter. Last  of  all,  Nero  robbed  it  of  five 
hundred  of  its  most  precious  brazen  and 
golden  statues. 

It  has  not  been  ascertained  at  what  time  this 
oracle  was  founded.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  Apollo  was  not  the  first  who  was  con- 
sulted here.  JEschylus,  in  his  tragedy  of 
“ Eumenides,”  says  Terra  was  the  first  who 
issued  oracles  at  Delphi ; after  her,  Themis ; 
then  Phoebe,  another  daughter  of  Terra,  and, 
as  it  is  said,  mother  of  Latona,  and  grand- 
mother to  Apollo.  Pausanias  says,  that  be- 
fore T^hemis,  Terra  and  Neptune  had  delivered 
oracles  in  this  place,  and  some  say  that  Sat- 
urn had  also  been  consulted  here.  At  length 
the  oracle  of  Apollo  became  established  and 
permanent ; and  such  was  its  reputation,  and 
such  were  the  multitudes  from  all  parts  that 
came  to  consult  it,  that  the  riches  which  were 
thus  brought  into  the*  temple  and  city,  be- 
came so  considerable  as  to  be  compared  with 
those  of  the  Persian  kings. 

About  the  time  when  this  oracle  was  first 
discovered,  the  whole  mystery  requisite  for 
obtaining  the  prophetic  gift,  is  said  to  have 
been  merely  to  approach  the  cavern  and  inhale 
the  vapor  that  issued  from  it,  and  then  the 
god  inspired  all  persons  indiscriminately ; 
but  at  length,  several  enthusiasts,  in  the  ex- 
cess of  their  fury,  having  thrown  themselves 
headlong  into  the  cavern,  it  was  thought 
expedient  to  contrive  a prevention  of  this 
accident,  which  frequently  occurred.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  priests  placed  over  the  hole, 
whence  the  vapor  issued,  a machine  which 
they  called  a tripod,  because  it  had  three  feet, 
and  commissioned  a woman  to  seat  herself  in 
it,  where  she  might  inhale  the  vapor  without 
danger,  because  the  three  feet  of  the  machine 
stood  firmly  upon  the  rock.  This  priestess 
was  named  Pythia,  from  the  serpent  Python, 
slain  by  Apollo,  or  from  the  Greek  puthes- 
thai , signifying  to  inquire,  because  people 
came  to  Delphi  to  consult  this  deity.  The 
females  first  employed  were  virgins,  selected 
with  great  precaution  ; but  the  only  qualifi- 
cation necessary  was  to  be  able  to  speak  and 
repeat  what  the  god  dictated. 

This  was  done  by  placing  her  ear  close  to 
one  of  the  horns  of  the  altar,  and  listening  to 


the  voice  of  one  of  Apollo’s  priests,  to  whom 
the  question  had  been  communicated.  This 
priest,  who  stood  near  the  altar,  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  temple,  having  been  assisted  by 
his  brethren  in  the  necessary  devotions  and 
sacrifices,  opened  the  Book  of  Fate,  which 
was  deposited  in  the  temple,  and  after  many 
prayers  worked  the  required  problems.  The 
answer,  which  from  the  nature  of  the  case  in 
hand,  was  often  conditional,  being  communi- 
cated to  the  priestess  on  the  tripod,  was, 
after  various  ceremonies,  delivered  to  the 
inquiring  multitude,  or  to  the  individual  who 
came  privately  to  consult  the  oracle. 

The  custom  of  choosing  young  virgins 
continued  for  a long  time,  till  one  of  them, 
who  was  extremely  beautiful,  was  dishonored 
by  a young  Thessalian.  An  express  law  was 
then  enacted,  that  none  should  be  chosen  but 
women  above  fifty  years  old.  At  first  there 
was  only  one  priestess,  but  afterward  there 
were  two  or  three.  The  oracles  were  not 
delivered  every  day : but  gifts  and  sacrifices 
were  in  some  cases  presented  for  a long  time, 
and  even  for  a whole  year ; and  it  was  only 
once  a year,  in  the  beginning  of  spring,  that 
Apollo  inspired  the  priestess.  Except  at  this 
time  she  was  forbidden,  under  pain  of  death, 
to  go  into  the  sanctuary  to  consult  Apollo. 

Alexander,  before  his  expedition  into  Asia, 
came  to  Delphi  on  one  of  those  days  w'hen 
the  sanctuary  was  shut,  and  entreated  the 
priestess  to  mount  the  tripod ; which  she 
steadily  refused,  alleging  the  law  which  for- 
bade her.  The  prince  became  impatient,  and 
drew  the  priestess  by  force  from  her  cell,  and 
whilst  he  was  conducting  her  to  the  sanc- 
tuary, she  took  occasion  to  exclaim,  u My 
son,  thou  art  invincible ! /”  As  soon  as 
these  words  were  pronounced,  Alexander 
cried  out  that  he  was  satisfied,  and  would 
have  no  other  oracle. 

It  is  here  to  be  observed,  however,  that 
great  but  unnecessary  preparations  were 
often  made,  for  giving  mysteriousness  to  the 
oracle,  and  for  commanding  the  respect  that 
was  paid  to  it.  Among  other  circumstances 
relating  to  the  sacrifices  that  were  offered, 
the  priestess  herself  fasted  three  days,  and 
before  she  ascended  the  tripod,  she  bathed 
herself  in  the  fountain  Castalia.  She  drank 
water  from  that  fountain,  and  chewed  laurel- 
leaves  gathered  near  it.  She  was  then  led 


ORA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


605 


into  the  sanctuary  by  the  priests,  who  placed 
her  upon  the  tripod. 

As  soon  as  she  began  to  be  agitated  by  the 
divine  exhalation,  said  to  arise  from  the  cav- 
ern, but  which  was  merely  the  vapor  of  in- 
cense burnt  there,  in  order  to  give  more 
mystery  to  the  affair,  her  hair  stood  on  end, 
her  aspect  became  wild  and  ghastly,  her 
mouth  began  to  foam,  and  her  whole  body 
was  suddenly  seized  with  violent  tremblings. 
In  this  condition  she  attempted  to  escape 
from  the  priests,  who  detained  her  by  force, 
while  her  shrieks  and  howlings  made  the 
wrhole  temple  resound,  and  filled  the  bystand- 
ers with  a sacred  horror. 

At  length,  unable  to  resist  the  impulse  of 
the  god,  she  surrendered  herself  up  to  him, 
and  at  certain  intervals  uttered  from  the 
bottom  of  her  stomach,  by  the  faculty  or 
power  of  ventriloquism,  some  unconnected 
wordsj  which  the  priests  ranged  in  order, 
and  put  in  form  of  verse,  giving  them  a con- 
nection which  they  had  not  when  they  were 
delivered  by  the  priestess.  The  oracle  being 
pronounced,  the  priestess  was  taken  off  the 
tripod,  and  conducted  back  to  her  cell,  where 
she  continued  several  days,  to  recover  her- 
self. Lucan  tells  us,  that  speedy  death  was 
frequently  the  consequence  of  her  enthusi- 
asm. The  oracles  pronounced  by  the  priest- 
ess being  generally  delivered  to  the  poets, 
who  attended  on  the  occasion,  and  being  put 
by  them  into  wretched  verse,  gave  occasion 
to  the  raillery  that  “ Apollo,  the  prince  of 
the  muses,  was  the  worst  of  poets.”  The 
priests  and  priestesses,  to  whose  conduct  the 
responses  of  the  oracle  were  committed,  were, 
however,  frequently  guilty  of  fraud  and  im- 
posture. And  many  instances  might  be 
mentioned,  in  which  the  Delphic  priestess 
was  not  superior  to  corruption.  Hence  she 
persuaded  the  Lacedaemonians  to  assist  the 
people  of  Athens  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
thirty  tyrants.  Hence,  also,  she  caused 
Demaratus  to  be  divested  of  the  royal  dignity 
to  make  way  for  Cleomenes ; and  supported 
the  impostor  Lysander,  when  he  endeavored 
to  change  the  succession  to  the  throne  of 
Sparta.  It  is  not  improbable,  that  Themis- 
tocles,  who  well  knew  the  importance  of 
acting  against  the  Persians  by  sea,  inspired 
the  god  with  the  answer  he  gave,  “to  defend 
themselves  with  walls  of  wrood.” 


The  answers  were  likewise,  on  many  occa- 
sions, equivocal.  Thus,  when  Croesus  was 
about  to  invade  the  Medes,  he  consulted  this 
oracle  upon  the  success  of  the  war,  and  re- 
ceived for  answer,  that  by  passing  the  river 
Halys,  he  should  ruin  a great  empire.  But 
he  was  left  to  conjecture,  or  to  determine  by 
the  event,  whether  this  empire  was  his  own  or 
that  of  his  enemies.  Such  was  also  the  same 
oracle’s  answer  to  Pyrrhus, — ‘ Aio  te,  sEaci- 
de,  Romanos  vincere  posse,' — which  meant, 
“I  say,  0 son  of  HLacus,  that  thou  canst 
overcome  the  Romans,”  or,  “ I say,  0 son 
of  iEacus,  that  the  Romans  can  overcome 
thee.” 

The  oracle  of  Apollo,  in  Delos,  was  6ne  of 
the  most  famous  oracles  in  the  world,  not 
only  for  its  antiquity,  but  for  the  richness 
of  the  sacred  presents  dedicated  to  the  god, 
and  the  numbers  of  persons  that  resorted 
hither  from  all  parts  for  advice;  in  which 
respect  it  surpassed  not  only  all  the  oracles 
of  other  gods,  but  even  others  of  Apollo 
himself, — that  of  Delphos  alone  excepted. 
Some  writers  say  that  the  island  had  the 
name  of  Delos  from  the  clear  and  simple 
terms  in  which  the  answers  were  here  given 
by  the  oracle,  contrary  to  the  ambiguity  ob- 
served in  other  places ; but  it  was  consulted 
only  while  Apollo  made  Delos  his  summer 
residence,  for  his  winter  abode  was  at  Patara, 
a city  of  Lycia.  The  presents  offered  by  the 
votaries  to  Apollo,  were  laid  on  the  altar, 
which  some  said  was  erected  by  Apollo  him- 
self, wrhen  he  wras  only  four  3'ears  old,  and 
formed  of  the  horns  of  goats,  killed  by  Diana 
on  Mount  Cynthus.  It  was  preserved  pure 
from  blood  and  every  kind  of  pollution,  as 
offensive  to  Apollo.  The  whole  island  was 
an  asylum,  which  extended  to  all  living 
creatures,  dogs  excepted,  which  were  not 
suffered  to  be  brought  on  shore. 

The  native  deities,  Apollo  and  Diana,  had 
three  very  magnificent  temples  erected  for 
them  in  this  island.  That  of  Apollo  was, 
according  to  Strabo  (lib.  x.),  begun  by  Erysi- 
apthus,  the  son  of  Cecrops,  v/ho  is  said  to 
have  possessed  this  island  1558  b.c.  ; but  it 
was  afterward  much  enlarged  and  embellished 
at  the  general  charge  of  all  the  Grecian  states, 
but  Plutarch  says  that  it  was  one  of  the 
most  stately  buildings  in  the  universe,  and 
describes  its  altar  as  deserving  a place  among 


ORA 


606 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPAEDIA  OF 


the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  The  in- 
scription in  this  temple,  as  Aristotle  informs 
us  (Ethic.,  1.  i.,  c.  9),  was  as  follows:  “Of  all 
things  the  most  beautiful  is  justice;  the  most 
useful  is  health ; and  the  most  agreeable  is 
the  possession  of  the  beloved  object.”  Round 
the  temple  were  magnificent  porticoes,  built 
at  the  charge  of  various  princes,  as  appears 
from  the  still  legible  inscriptions.  To  this 
temple  the  neighboring  islands  sent  yearly  a 
company  of  virgins  to  celebrate  with  dancing 
the  festival  of  Apollo  and  his  sister  Diana, 
and  to  make  offerings  in  the  name  of  their 
respective  cities.  Delos  was  held  in  such 
reverence  by  most  nations,  that  even  the 
Persians,  after  having  laid  waste  the  other 
islands,  and  everywhere  destroyed  the  tem- 
ples of  the  gods,  spared  Delos ; and  Datis, 
the  Persian  admiral,  forebore  to  anchor  in  the 
harbor. 

The  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  was  in  the 
deserts  of  Libya,  nine  days’  journey  from 
Alexandria.  It  had  a famous  oracle,  which, 
according  to  ancient  tradition,  was  established 
about  eighteen  centuries  before  the  time  of 
Augustus,  by  two  doves  which  flew  away 
from  Thebais  in  Egypt,  and  came,  one  to 
Dodona,  and  the  other  to  Libya,  where  the 
people  were  soon  informed  of  their  divine 1 
mission.  The  oracle  of  Ammon  was  con- 
sulted by  Hercules,  Perseus,  and  others ; but 
when  it  pronounced  "Alexander  to  be  the  son 
of  Jupiter,  such  flattery  used  up  its  long 
established  reputation,  and  in  the  age  of  Plu- 
tarch it  was  scarcely  known.  The  situation 
of  the  temple  was  pleasant ; and  there  was 
near  it  a fountain  whose  waters  were  cold  at 
noon  and  midnight,  and  warm  in  the  morning 
and  evening.  There  were  above  100  priests 
in  the  temple,  but  the  elders  only  delivered 
oracles.  There  was  also  an  oracle  of  Jupiter 
Ammon  in  ^Ethiopia. 

Dodona  was  a town  of  Thesprotia  in  Epirus. 
There  was  in  its  neighborhood,  upon  a small 
hill  called  Tmarus,  a celebrated  oracle  of 
Jupiter.  The  town  and  temple  of  the  god 
were  first  built  by  Deucalion,  after  the  uni- 
versal deluge.  It  was  supposed  to  be  the 
most  ancient  oracle  of  all  Greece,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  traditions  of  the  Egyptians  men- 
tioned by  Herodotus,  it  was  founded  by  a 
dove.  Two  black  doves,  as  he  relates,  took 
their  flight  from  the  city  of  Thebes  in  Egypt, 


one  of  which  flew  to  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Ammon,  and  the  other  to  Dodona,  where 
with  a humap  voice  they  acquainted  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  that  Jupiter  had 
consecrated  the  ground,  which  in  future 
would  give  oracles.  The  extensive  grove 
which  surrounded  Jupiter’s  temple  was  en- 
dowed with  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  oracles 
were  frequently  delivered  by  the  sacred  oaks, 
and  the  doves  which  inhabited  the  place. 
This  fabulous  tradition  of  the  oracular  power 
of  the  doves  is  explained  by  Herodotus,  who 
observes  that  some  Phoenicians  carried  away 
two  priestesses  from  Egypt,  one  of  whom 
went  to  fix  her  residence  at  Dodona,  where 
the  oracle  was  established.  It  may  further 
be  observed,  that  the  fable  might  have  been 
founded  upon  the  double  meaning  of  the  word 
pcleiai , which  signifies  doves  in  most  parts 
of  Greece,  while  in  the  dialect  of  the  Epirots, 
it  implies  old  women.  In  ancient  times  the 
oracles  were  delivered  by  the  murmuring  of 
a neighboring  fountain,  but  the  custom  was 
afterward  changed.  Large  kettles  were  sus- 
pended in  the  air  near  a brazen  statue, 
which  held  a lash  in  its  hand.  When  the 
wind  blew  strong,  the  statue  was  agitated 
and  struck  against  one  of  the  kettles,  which 
communicated  the  motion  to  all  the  rest,  and 
raised  that  clattering  and  discordant  din 
which  continued  for  a while,  and  from  which 
the  priests  drew  their  predictions.  Some 
suppose  that  the  noise  was  occasioned  by  the 
shaking  of  the  leaves  and  boughs  of  an  old 
oak,  which  the  people  frequently  consulted, 
and  from  which  they  pretended  to  receive 
the  oracles.  It  may  be  observed  with  more 
probability  that  the  oracles  were  delivered  by 
the  priests,  who,  by  concealing  themselves 
behind  the  oaks,  gave  occasion  to  the  multi- 
tude to  believe  that  the  trees  were  endowed 
with  the  power  of  prophecy.  As  the  ship 
Argo  was  built  with  some  of  the  oaks  of  the 
forest  of  Dodona,  there  were  some  beams  in 
the  vessel  which  gave  oracles  to  the  Argo- 
nauts, and  warned  them  against  the  approach 
of  calamity.  Within  the  forest  of  Dodona 
there  was  a stream  with  a fountain  of  cool 
water,  which  had  the  power  of  lighting  a 
torch  as  soon  as  it  touched  it.  This  fountain 
was  totally  dry  at  noon-day,  and  was  restored 
to  its  full  course  at  midnight,  from  which 
time  till  the  following  noon  it  began  to  de- 


ORA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


607 


crease,  and  at  the  usual  hour  was  again 
deprived  of  its  waters.  The  oracles  of  Do- 
dona  were  originally  delivered  by  men,  but 
afterward  by  women. 

The  Roman  Augurs  were  certain  priests  at 
Rome  who  foretold  future  events,  and  took 
their  name,  ab  avium  garritu.  They  were 
first  created  by  Romulus  to  the  number  of 
three.  Servius  Tullius  added  a fourth ; the 
tribunes  of  the  people,  a.u.c.  454,  increased 
the  number  to  nine ; and  Sylla  added  six  more 
during  his  dictatorship.  They  had  a particu- 
lar college,  and  the  chief  amongst  them  was 
called  magister  collegii.  Their  office  was 
honorable ; and  if  any  one  of  them  was  con- 
victed of  any  crime,  he  could  not  be  deprived 
of  his  privilege ; an  indulgence  granted  to  no 
other  sacerdotal  body  at  Rome.  The  augur 
generally  sat  on  a high  tower,  to  make  his 
observations.  His  face  was  turned  toward 
the  east,  and  he  had  the  north  to  his'  left,  and 
the  south  at  his  right.  'With  a crooked  staff 
he  divided  the  face  of  the  heavens  into  four 
different  parts,  and  afterward  sacrificed  to  the 
gods,  covering  his  head  with  his  vestment. 
There  were  generally  five  things  from  which 
the  augurs  drew  omens : the  first  consisted  in 
observing  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  such 
as  thunder,  lightning,  comets,  &c.  The  second 
kind  of  omen  was  drawn  from  the  chirping  or 
flying  of  birds.  The  third  was  from  the  sa- 
cred chickens,  whose  eagerness  or  indifference 
in  eating  the  bread  which  was  thrown  to  them, 
was  looked  upon  as  lucky  or  unlucky.  The 
fourth  was  from  quadrupeds,  from  their  cross- 
ing or  appearing  in  some  unaccustomed  place. 
The  fifth  was  from  different  casualties,  which 
were  called  dira , such  as  spilling  salt  upon  a 
table,  or  wine  upon  one’s  clothes,  hearing 
strange  noises,  stumbling  or  sneezing,  meeting 
a wolf,  hare,  fox,  or  pregnant  bitch.  Thus 
did  the  Romans  draw  their  prophecies ; the 
sight  of  birds  on  the  left  hand  was  always 
deemed  a lucky  object,  and  the  words  sinister 
et  Icevus.  though  generally  supposed  to  be 
terms  of  ill  luck,  were  always  used  by  the 
augurs  in  an  auspicious  sense. 

A strange  old  woman  came  once  to  Tarquin- 
ius  Superbus,  king  of  Rome,  with  nine  books, 
which  she  said  were  the  Oracles  of  the  Sibyls, 
and  proffered  to  sell  them.  But  the  king 
making  some  scruple  about  the  price,  she  went 
away  and  burnt  three  of  them,  and  returning 


with  the  six,  asked  the  same  sum  as  before. 
Tarquin  only  laughed  at  the  humor;  upon 
which  the  old  lady  left  him  once  more,  and 
after  she  had  burnt  three  others,  came  again 
with  those  that  were  left,  but  still  kept*  to  her 
old  terms.  The  king  began  now  to  wonder 
at  her  obstinacy,  and  thinking  there  might  be 
something  more  than  ordinary  in  the  business, 
sent  for  the  augurs  to  consult  what  was  to  be 
done.  They,  when  their  divinations  were 
performed,  soon  acquainted  him  what  a piece 
of  impiety  he  had  been  guilty  of,  by  refusing 
a treasure  sent  to  him  from  heaven,  and  com- 
manded him  to  give  whatever  she  demanded 
for  the  books  that  remained.  The  woman  re- 
ceived her  money,  and  delivered  the  writings, 
and  only  charging  them  by  all  means  to  keep 
them  sacred,  immediately  vanished.  Two  of 
the  nobility  were  presently  after  chosen  to  be 
the  keepers  of  these  oracles,  which  were  laid 
up  with  all  imaginable  care  in  the  capitol,  in 
a chest  under  ground.  They  could  not  be 
consulted  without  a special  order  of  the  senate, 
which  was  never  granted,  unless  upon  the  re- 
ceiving some  notable  defeat,  upon  the  rising 
of  any  considerable  mutin)r  or  sedition  in  the 
state,  or  upon  some  other  extraordinary  occa- 
sion. The  number  of  priests  in  this,  as  in 
most  other  orders,  was  several  times  altered. 
The  duumviri  continued  till  about  the  year 
of  the  city  388,  when  the  tribunes  of  the  peo- 
ple preferred  a law,  that  there  should  be  ten 
men  elected  for  this  service,  part  out  of  the 
nobility,  and  part  out  of  the  commons.  We 
meet  with  the  decemviri  all  along  from  hence, 
till  about  the  time  of  Sylla  the  dictator,  when 
the  quindecemviri  occur.  It  were  needless 
to  give  any  further  account  of  the  Sibyls,  than 
that  they  are  generally  agreed  to  have  been 
ten  in  number ; for  which  we  have  the  author- 
ity of  Yarro,  though  some  make  them  nine, 
some  four,  some  three,  and  some  only  one. 
They  all  lived  in  different  ages  and  countries, 
were  all  prophets,  and,  according  to  common 
opinion,  foretold  the  coming  of  our  Saviour. 
As  to  the  writing,  Dempster  tells  us  it  was  on 
linen. 

Solinus  acquaints  us  that  the  books  which 
Tarquin  bought  were  burnt  in  the  conflagra* 
tion  of  the  capitol,  the  year  before  Sylla’s  dic- 
tatorship. Yet  there  were  others  of  their 
inspired  writings,  or  at  least  copies  or  extracts 
of  them,  gathered  up  in  Greece  and  other 


ORA 


608 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


parts,  upon  a special  search  made  by  order  of 
the  senate ; which  were  kept  with  the  same 
care  as  the  former,  till  about  the  time  of  The- 
odosius the  Great,  when  the  greatest  part  of 
the  senate  having  chosen  the  Christian  faith, 
they  began  to  grow  out  of  fashion ; till  at  last 
Stilicho  burnt  them  all  under  Honorius,  for 
which  he  is  severely  censured  by  the  poet 
Rutilius. 

ORDEAL.  In  the  dark  ages,  when  judicial 
proceedings  were  exceedingly  imperfect,  it 
was  believed  that  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
the  guilt  or  innocence  of  a suspected  person 
would  be  manifested  by  a direct  interposition 
of  the  Deity,  and  various  methods  were  re- 
sorted to,  to  procure  conviction  or  acquittal. 
These  were  termed  ordeals,  or  judgments  of 
God. 

The  ordeal  was  of  various  kinds  ; that  of 
fire,  that  of  red-liot  iron,  that  of  cold  water, 
that  of  judicial  pottage,  that  of  the  cross, 
and  that  of  dice  laid  on  relics  covered  with  a 
woolen  cloth.  There  were  particular  masses 
for  each  species  of  ordeal. 

Fire  ordeal  was  performed  either  by  taking 
•up  iu  the  hand,  unhurt,  a piece  of  red  hot 
iron,  of  one,  two,  or  three  pounds  weight; 
or  else  by  walking  barefoot  and  blindfold,  over 
nine  red-hot  ploughshares,  laid  lengthwise,  at 
unequal  distances ; and  if  the  party  escaped 
without  injury,  he  was  adjudged  innocent, 
but  if  otherwise,  as  without  collusion  it  gen- 
erally happened,  he  was  then  condemned  as 
guilty. 

The  ordeal  of  water  was  performed  either 
by  plunging  the  bare  arm  up  to  the  elbow  in 
boiling  water,  or  by  casting  the  suspected 
person  into  a river  or  pond  of  cold  water, 
and  if  he  floated  therein,  without  any  action 
of  swimming,  it  was  deemed  an  evidence  of 
his  guilt,  but  if  he  sunk  he  was  acquitted! 
The  latter  ordeal  was  adopted  with  regard 
to  witches  and  sorcerors,  and  was  thought 
infallible ! The  Chinese,  Africans,  Tartars, 
and  Hindoos  have  their  ordeals. 

OREGON.  Oregon  comprises  95,000 
miles.  In  1870  it  contained  90,923  inhabit- 
ants. Oregon  is  situated  in  the  extreme 
north-western  portion  of  the  United  States, 
and  its  western  shores  are  watered  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  state  is  traversed  by  the 
Cascade  Range  and  Blue  Mountains  and  is 


well  watered  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Colum- 
bia and  Oregon.  It  presents  many  varieties 
of  soil,  climate,  and  scenery,  and  between  the 
Cascade  Mountains  and  the  ocean  the  soil  is 
particularly  fertile.  The  climate  of  the  state 
is  also  milder  than  most  countries  in  the  same 
latitude.  The  mineral  resources  of  the  state 
are  great.  Oregon  was  admitted  to  the  Union 
on  the  14th  of  February,  1859.  The  gover- 
nor of  the  state  is  chosen  for  four  years  and 
cannot  hold  office  for  more  than  eight  in  a 
period  of  twelve  years.  Senators  hold  office 
for  four  years.  Representatives  are  chosen 
biennially.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  granted 
to  all  male  citizens  of  the  United  States 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  after  a residence  of 
six  months  within  the  state.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a supreme  court,  circuit 
and  county  courts,  which  are  courts  of  record, 
and  other  lesser  tribunals.  There  are  five  su- 
preme justices  who  hold  office  for  six  years. 
The  state  has  a superintendent  of  public 
instruction  and  possesses  a large  school  fund. 

Willamette,  the  capital,  contains  333  inhab- 
itants. The  principal  towns  are  Portland, 
having  a population  of  8,293,  Astoria  of  903, 
and  Oregon  City  of  1,382. 

ORIGEN,  surnamed  Adamantius,  was 
born  at  Alexandria  about  a.  d.  186.  His  fath- 
er was  a Christian  martyr.  Origen  early  be- 
came famous  as  a student  and  teacher  of 
Christianity.  lie  practiced  peculiar  austeri- 
ties, and  suffered  a strange  mutilation  agree- 
ably to  what  he  thought  the  meaning  of  Mat- 
thew xix.  12.  Through  his  life  he  was  in 
danger  from  the  rage  of  heathen  enemies 
and  the  jealousy  of  theological  opponents. 
He  died  at  Tyre,  in  the  year  253. 

ORKNEY  ISLANDS,  or  Orcades,  a clus- 
ter of  small  islands  north  of  Scotland,  about 
sixty-seven  in  number,  only  twenty-seven  of 
which  are  inhabited.  The  population  of  the 
group  is  31,500:  Pomona,  or  Mainland,  the 
principal  island,  sustains  about  half  this. 
Kirkwall,  on  Pomona,  is  the  chief  town,  hav- 
ing some  3,500  inhabitants.  These  islands 
are  scattered  over  a space  fifty  miles  long 
and  thirty  broad.  Little  of  the  soil  is  adapted 
for  agriculture,  although  it  affords  good  pas- 
turage. Game  is  abundant ; red  grouse, 
plovers,  and  snipe,  eagles,  wild  ducks,  geese, 
solan  geese  or  gannets,  swans,  &c.,  thronging 


ORK 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


609 


to  the  Orkneys.  They  are  mentioned  by 
several  Roman  writers,  and  were  visited  by 
the  fleets  of  Agricola,  sent  to  explore  the 
island.  The  first  inhabitants  were  the  Piets, 
but  they  were  subdued  by  the  Norwegians, 
or  Northmen,  at  the  time  that  that  enterpris- 
ing people  effected  conquests  through  almost 
every  part  of  Europe.  Orkney,  after  this, 
was  governed  by  a succession  of  warlike 
earls,  who  kept  up  a powerful  fleet,  with 
which  they  ravaged  the  coasts  of  England, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland ; in  the  latter  they 
conquered  several  of  the  northern  counties. 
The  black  raven,  which  was  the  flag  of  Ork- 
ney, continued  to  be  an  object  of  terror  till 
the  time  of  James  III.  of  Scotland,  in  1474, 
when  the  Orkneys  were  ceded  to  that  mon- 
arch as  part  of  the  marriage  portion  of  Mar- 
garet of  Denmark ; and  this  treaty  was 
afterward  confirmed  on  the  marriage  of 
James  VI.  with  Anne  of  Denmark.  The 
piratical  expeditions  were  then  suppressed, 
and  the  group  has  long  been  a well  regulated 
and  peaceable  portion  of  the  British  empire. 

ORLEANS,  an  ancient  dukedom  borne  by 
princes  of  the  blood  royal  in  France.  There 
are  two  distinct  lines.  The  first  commenced 
with  Louis,  second  son  of  Charles  V.,  who 
became  regent  in  consequence  of  the  mental 
incapacity  of  his  brother  Charles  VI.  in  1393, 
and  was  murdered  by  his  kinsman  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy  in  1407.  His  grandson  came 
to  the  throne  as  Louis  XII.  The  second  line 
began  with  Philip,  second  son  of  Louis  XIII., 
created  Duke  of  Orleans  in  1660.  His  son 
Philip  was  regent  during  the  minority  of 
Louis  XV.  His  great-gtandson,  Louis  Joseph 
Philip,  was  born  in  1747,  and  bore  the  title 
of  Duke  of  Chartres  until  his  father’s  death 
in  1787.  He  was  rich  and  handsome,  and, 
although  not  deficient  in  intelligence,  igno- 
rant, credulous,  selfish,  sensual,  and  de- 
bauched. In  the  revolution  he  took  part 
against  the  royal  family,  rendering  himself 
infamous  by  his  libels  on  Marie  Antoinette. 
After  the  death  of  the  king,  for  which  he 
voted,  the  Jacobins,  who  had  no  farther 
use  for  him,  procured  his  condemnation  by 
the  revolutionary  tribunal.  He  met  his  fate 
with  firmness,  Nov.  6th,  1793.  He  is  well 
known  by  his  assumed  name  of  Egalite , or 
Citizen  Equality.  He  was  the  father  of  the  late 
King  of  the  French.  [See  Louis  Philippe.] 

39 


ORLOFF,  Gregory,  a Russian  general  and 
political  intriguer,  instrumental  in  elevating 
his  mistress,  Catharine  II.,  to  the  throne. 
She  loaded  him  with  honors  and  titles.  Being 
disappointed  in  his  hope  of  sharing  the  crown 
with  her,  he  refused  a private  marriage, 
and  was  ordered  to  travel.  He  died  insane, 
1783.  He  had  one  son  by  the  empress, 
named  Bobrinski.  Alexis,  his  brother  and 
fellow-conspirator,  was  a man  of  gigantic 
stature  and  strength,  and  is  said  to  have 
strangled  the  emperor  Peter  with  his  own 
hands. 

ORONO,  a chief  of  the  Penobscot  tribe, 
labored  to  promote  Christianity,  died  at 
Oldtown,  Me.,  in  1801,  aged  113  years.  His 
wife  died  in  1809,  aged  115. 

ORPHEUS,'  an  ancient  Greek  poet  and 
musician,  flourished  before  Homer.  Many 
fables  are  related  of  him. 

ORTHEZ,  Battle  of,  Feb.  27th,  1814,  in 
which  the  Marquis  of  Wellington,  command- 
ing the  British  and  Spanish  armies,  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  French  under  Mar- 
shal Soult.  The  battle  of  Toulouse  soon  fol- 
lowed. 

OSSIAN,  a Gaelic  poet,  supposed  to  have 
flourished  in  the  third  century. 

OSSOLI,  Margaret  Fuller  d’,  was  born 
in  Massachusetts  in  1810.  In  1847,  while 
on  a tour  in  Italy,  she  became  the  wife  of  the 
Marquis  d’Ossoli.  She  was  at  Rome  during 
the  revolution,  and  took  deep  interest  in  the 
struggles  of  that  time.  On  returning  to 
America  in  1850,  she  perished  with  her  hus- 
band and  child,  by  shipwreck  on  the  beach 
of  Fire  Island,  July  19th.  She  was  remark- 
able for  her  thorough  intellectual  cultivation, 
the  vigor  of  her  mind,  her  conversational 
powers,  and  her  enthusiastic  devotion  to 
letters,  art,  and  progress. 

OSTEND,  a fortified  and  well-built  seaport 
in  the  Belgic  province  of  West  Flanders; 
population,  15,000.  It  is  noted  for  the  sieges 
which  it  has  withstood;  particularly  for  a 
terrible  siege  of  three  years,  from  July  5th, 
1601,  to  Sept.  22d,  1604,  against  the  armies 
of  Spain,  when  the  town  was  valiantly  de- 
fended by  the  troops  of  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
assisted  by  the  forces  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
under  the  command  of  Sir  Francis  Vere,  who 
was  chief  general  for  five  months.  The  loss 
of  the  Spaniards  was  immense,  being  little 


OST 


610 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


short  of  100,000  men;  and  although  they 
afterward  succeeded  in  taking  the  place,  it 
was  yet  at  such  an  expense  of  men  and  treas- 
ure, that  this  siege  is  justly  considered  as  one 
great  cause  of  the  ruin  of  their  affairs  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  of  the  establishment  of  the 
independence  of  the  United  Provinces.  On 
the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  the  French 
seized  Ostend : but  in  1706,  after  the  battle 
of  Ramillies,  it  was  retaken  by  the  allies. 
The  Emperor  Charles  VI.  established  an  East 
India  Company  here,  but  it  met  with  such 
a powerful  opposition  from  the  maritime 
powers,  that  after  many  negotiations  it  was 
abolished  in  1731.  Ostend  was  taken  by 
the  French  in  1745,  but  given  up  at  the 
peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748.  In  the 
war  of  1756  the  French  garrisoned  the  town 
for  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa.  The  Empe- 
ror Joseph  again  attempted  to  establish  an 
East  India  trade,  but  was  not  very  successful. 
In  1792  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  re- 
taken by  the  English  in  1793,  who  garri- 
soned it  for  the  Emperor  Francis  II.  When 
the  French  conquered  Belgium,  Ostend  fell 
into  their  hands.  In  the  course  of  the  war, 
a detachment  of  British  troops  landed,  and 
destroyed  the  sluices  of  the  canals  through 
which  the  French  were  collecting  a naval 
force.  The  detachment,  after  effecting  their 
object,  were  made  prisoners  of  war,  1798. 

OTHO,  Marcus  Salvius,  a Roman  empe- 
ror, descended  from  the  ancient  kings  of 
Etruria.  After  Nero’s  death  he  attached  him- 
self to  Galba ; but  that  emperor  having 
adopted  Piso  as  his  heir,  Otho  excited  an 
insurrection,  murdered  Galba  and  Piso,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  69.  He  was  acknowl- 
edged by  the  senate  and  the  Roman  people, 
but  the  sudden  revolt  ofVitellius,  in  Ger- 
many, rendered  his  situation  precarious,  and 
it  was  mutually  resolved  that  their  respective 
rights  to  the  empire  should  be  decided  by 
arms.  Otho  obtained  three  victories  over  his 
enemies,  but  in  a general  engagement  near 
Brixellum,  his  forces  were  defeated,  and  he 
stabbed  himself  when  all  hopes  of  success 
were  vanished,  having  reigned  three  months. 

OTHO  I.,  eldest  son  of  Henry  the  Fowler, 
Duke  of  Saxony,  elected  Emperor  of  Germany 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  936.  At  the  earnest 
solicitation  of  the  Italians,  Otho  repaired  in 
person  to  Rome,  where  he  was  solemnly 


crowned  emperor  of  the  Romans  in  962,  dig- 
nified with  the  appellation  of  Augustus,  and 
honored  with  the  homage  of  the  senate  and 
people.  He  died  in  973. 

OTHO  II.,  his  son,  surnamed  the  Sanguin- 
ary, succeeded  his  father  on  the  imperial 
throne : but  his  authority  was  warmly  dis- 
puted by  Henry,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  the 
commencement  of  his  reign  was  disturbed  by 
some  hostile  incursions  of  the  Danes  and 
Bohemians.  In  979  he  led  a numerous  body 
of  forces  into  Italy,  in  order  to  punish  a 
revolt  of  the  Romans.  He  died  in  983,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Otho  III.,  at  the 
age  of  twelve  years. 

OTIS,  James,  was  born  in  Massachusetts, 
Feb.  5th,  1725,  and  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College,  after  which  he  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Plymouth.  He 
removed  to  Boston  in  1750,  and  rose  rapidly 
in  his  profession.  His  speech  against  the 
“writs  of  assistance,”  in  1761,  was  the  first 
public  proof  which  Mr.  Otis  gave  of  his 
attachment  to  the  cause  of  liberty.  That 
spring  he  was  chosen  to  the  legislature, 
where  he  at  once  became  a leader  of  the 
popular  party.  He  was  a member  of  the 
congress  of  1765  in  New  York,  and  in  the 
same  year  published  a masterly  defense 
of  the  rights  of  the  colonies  in  opposition  to 
the  stamp  act.  In  1767  he  resigned  the 
office  of  judge  advocate,  and  declined  all 
other  employment  under  a government  that 
encroached  upon  the  liberties  of  his  country. 
His  severe  strictures  gained  him  strong  hate 
from  the  crown  officials  in  Boston.  Meeting 
John  Robinson,  one  of  the  commissioners  of 
customs,  at  a public  room,  one  evening  in 
1769,  an  affray  followed,  in  which  Mr.  Otis 
was  assaulted  and  beaten  on  the  head  by 
several  ruffians,  who  left  him  and  a friend 
who  interposed  in  his  defense,  covered  with 
wounds.  The  fine  mind  of  Mr.  Otis  was  laid 
in  ruins,  and  he  lingered  in  imbecility  through 
the  arduous  struggle  for  liberty  to  whose 
success  he  had  devoted  himself.  A stroke 
of  lightning  ended  his  life  at  Andover,  May 
23d,  1783.  It  has  been  well  said  of  him  that 
he  was  a man  of  powerful  genius  and  ardent 
temper,  with  wit  and  humor  that  never  failed ; 
as  an  orator,  he  was  bold,  argumentative, 
impetuous,  and  commanding,  with  an  elo- 
quence that  made  his  own  excitement  irresist- 


OTI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


611 


ibly  contagious ; as  a lawyer,  his  knowledge 
and  ability  placed  him  at  the  head  of  his 
profession ; as  a scholar,  he  was  rich  in  acqui- 
sition, and  governed  by  a classic  taste ; as  a 
statesman  and  civilian,  he  was  sound  and  just 
in  his  views ; as  a patriot,  he  resisted  all 
allurements  that  might  weaken  the  cause  of 
that  country  to  which  he  devoted  his  life,  and 
for  which  he  sacrificed  it. 

OTWAY,  Thomas,  was  born  March  3d, 
1651,  at  Trotting  in  Sussex,  the  son  of  a 
clergyman.  He  is  remembered  as  the  author 
of  “ The  Orphan ” and  “Venice  Preserved,” 
two  tragedies  of  great  power  and  pathos. 
Otway’s  life,  passed  either  in  excesses  or 
want,  closed  in  1685,  in  the  straitest  indi- 
gence. He  is  said  to  have  choked  in  hastily 
swallowing  a crust  after  long  fasting. 

OUDENARDE,  Battle  of,  July  11th,  1708, 
between  the  English  and  allies  under  Marlbo- 
rough and  Prince  Eugene,  and  the  French 
who  were  besieging  Oudenarde  in  Flanders. 
The  latter  were  routed  with  great  loss. 

OUDINOT,  Charles  Nicholas,  Duke  of 
Reggio,  and  one  of  Napoleon’s  marshals,  was 
the  son  of  a merchant,  and  born  in  1767. 
He  early  reached  the  rank  of  general,  and  was 
on  Massena’s  staff  in  the  expedition  to  Italy 
in  1799,  distinguishing  himself  in  the  defense 
of  Genoa.  At  Austerlitz  he  covered  himself 
with  glory.  After  the  battle  of  Wagram,  Na- 
poleon made  him  marshal  of  the  empire  and 
created  him  Duke  of  Reggio.  On  the  capit- 
ulation of  Paris  in  1814,  Oudinot  swore 
allegiance  to  the  restored  dynasty.  When 
Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  he  headed  the 


grenadiers.  Finding  it  impossible  to  secure 
their  fidelity  to  Louis  XVIII.,  he  retired  to 
his  seat  at  Montmorenci.  He  held  various 
posts  under  the  Bourbons,  in  1830  adhered 
to  the  new  dynasty,  and  in  1842  succeeded 
Marshal  Moncey  as  governor  of  the  Invalides. 
He  died  in  1847. 

OVID  (Publius  Ovidius  Naso),  the  love 
poet  of  the  Romans,  was  born  at  Sulmo  (now 
Sulmone),  a town  in  the  country  of  the  Pe- 
ligni,  about  ninety  miles  south-east  from 
Rome,  March  20th,  b.c.  45.  His  father  was  of 
an  old  equestrian  family,  and  the  future  poet 
was  the  second  son.  With  his  elder  brother 
he  was  educated  at  Rome  under  the  best  mas- 
ters, and,  as  was  usual,  repaired  to  Athens 
to  complete  his  studies.  Before  returning  to 
Rome,  he  visited  the  magnificent  cities  of 
Asia  Minor.  He  early  displayed  a high  poet- 
ical genius,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  muses.  Till  the  end  of  his 
fiftieth  year  his  life  had  been  happy  and 
quiet.  Falling  then,  for  some  unknown 
cause,  under  the  resentment  of  Augustus, 
whose  imperial  favor  he  had  hitherto  enjoyed, 
he  was  sent  into  exile.  He  died  in  banish- 
ment, in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age. 

OXENSTIERN,  Axel,  a Swedish  states- 
man, was  born  in  1583.  He  was  the  friend 
and  favorite  minister  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
after  whose  death  during  the  minority  of 
Christina,  he  conducted  the  affairs  of  the 
kingdom  with  equal  ability  and  integrity. 
Christina  continued  him  at  the  head  of 
affairs.  He  died  in  1654,  shortly  after  her 
abdication. 


OXE 


/ 


612 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


P. 

PACA,  William,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  born  at  Wyke 
Hill,  Md.,  Oct.  Blst,  1740.  After  graduating 
at  the  college  of  Philadelphia,  he  studied  law, 
and  commenced  practice  in  Annapolis.  From 
1774  to  1778  he  was  a member  of  Congress, 
and  vacated  his  seat  when  he  was  appointed 
chief-justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  his  state, 
of  which  he  was  chosen  governor  in  1782. 

In  1788  he  was  a member  of  the  Maryland 
convention  which  ratified  the  federal  consti- 
tution. In  1789  he  was  appointed  by  Wash- 
ington judge  of  the  district  court  of  the 
United  States  for  Maryland,  and  held  that 
important  post  until  his  death,  which  took 
place  ten  years  after,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of 
his  age. 

PAGANINI,  Nicolo,  a wonderful  violinist, 
was  born  at  Genoa  in  1784.  After  a wan- 
dering life  he  died  at  Nice  in  1840,  leaving 
great  wealth,  acquired  by  his  wizardry  of 
fiddling  and  his  avarice. 

PAGE,  John,  governor  of  the  colony  of 
Virginia,  an  ardent  patriot,  member  of  Con- 
gress after  the  adoption  of  the  federal 
constitution,  and  governor  of  the  state  of 
Virginia,  died  in  1808. 

PAINE,  Robert  Treat,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born 
at  Boston,  in  1731.  For  some  time  after 
graduating  from  Harvard  College,  he  kept  a 
public  school.  Having  studied  theology,  he 
became  a chaplain  in  the  provincial  forces  in 
1755,  but  soon  studied  law,  in  which  he  made 
great  proficiency,  and  settled  at  Taunton. 
After  having  served  at  the  general  representa- 
tive assembly,  he  was  chosen  member  of  the 
continental  congress  which  met  at  Philadel- 
phia in  1774.  He  was  several  )rears  in  Con- 
gress, and  was  an  active  member  of  the 
committee  that  framed  the  constitution  of 
Massachusetts.  He  held  the  office  of  attor- 
ney-general  for  several  years  ; after  which  he 
was  made  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  an 
office  which  he  held  until  1804.  He  died 
May  11th,  1814. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  was  a popular 
lyric  p<5et.  His  song  of  “Adams  and  Lib- 


erty” brought  him  the  handsome  sum  of 
$750.  He  died  in  1811,  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
eight. 

PAINE,  Thomas,  a political  and  deistical 
writer,  was  born  in  1737  at  Thetford  in  Nor- 
folk, where  he  was  brought  up  to  his  father’s 
business  of  a stay  maker.  He  afterward  be- 
came an  exciseman  at  Lewes ; but  being 
dismissed  for  keeping  a tobacconist’s  shop  at 
the  same  time,  he  went  to  America  in  1774 
at  the  instance  of  Dr.  Franklin,  became  editor 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette,  and  aided  on 
the  Revolution  by  a pamphlet  called  “ Com- 
mon Sense,”  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with 
£500  by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  also  appointed  clerk  to  the  commit- 
tee for  foreign  affairs.  He  afterward  wrote 
a series  of  pamphlets  called  “The  Crisis.” 
In  1780  he  wras  appointed  clerk  to  the  assem- 
bly of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1785  received 
$3,000  from  Congress,  and  500  acres  of  land 
from  the  state  of  New  York. 

In  1790  he  went  to  London  and  excited 
considerable  notice  by  his  “Rights  of  Man,” 
written  in  answer  to  Burke’s  “ Reflections  on 
the  French  Revolution.”  Advocacy  of  the 
rights  of  man  was  sedition  in  the  England  of 
that  day,  and  a prosecution  being  commenced 
against  him,  he  fled  to  France.  He  was 
chosen  a member  of  the  national  convention, 
but  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Jacobins 
for  recommending  a lenient  course  toward 
Louis  XVI.,  and  was  thrown  into  prison. 
Here  he  narrowly  escaped  death.  The  jailor, 
when  he  received  orders  for  a batch  of  pris- 
oners to  be  carried  to  execution,  was  in  the 
habit  of  marking  the  doors  of  their  cells 
with  chalk.  One  day,  Paine  had  left  his  cell 
to  visit  a fellow-prisoner,  and  the  door  stood 
wide  open.  The  drunken  jailor,  having  occa- 
sion to  single  out  some  victims,  chalked 
the  inside  of  Paine’s  door,  which  was  after- 
ward closed,  and  thus  he  escaped  notice 
wffien,  on  the  ensuing  day,  the  devoted  pris- 
oners were  delivered  up  to  the  proper  author- 
ities. By  the  publication  of  his  “Age  of 
Reason,”  a work  leveled  at  revelation,  he 
forfeited  the  esteem  of  many  Americans  who 


PAI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


613 


had  been  his  warm  friends.  He  fell  into  dis- 
repute when,  on  his  return  to  America,  he 
gave  himself  up  to  intemperate  habits.  He 
died  June  8th,  1809,  the  victim  of  his  ex- 
cesses, and  was  buried  on  his  own  farm, 
interment  on  their  ground  having  been  re- 
fused by  the  Society  of  Friends,  to  whom 
application  was  made.  Cobbett,  who  pro- 
fessed an  unbounded  admiration  for  Paine, 
dug  up  his  bones,  and  carried  them  to  Eng- 
land. While  reprobating  the  latter  life  of 
Paine,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
vigorous  paragraphs  of  “Common  Sense” 
and  “The  Crisis”  had  an  important  effect  in 
stirring  the  American  people  to  a determined 
struggle  for  independence. 

PAINTING.  The  earliest  account  we 
have  of  the  existence  of  painting  is  in  the 
reign  of  Ninus,  about  2,000  b.c.  Egypt  was 
decidedly  the  birthplace  of  the  arts  and 
sciences,  though  but  few  of  its  paintings 
remain,  and  their  date  is  uncertain.  The 
Greeks  were  very  little  advanced  in  the  art 
of  painting  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war. 
The  first  important  fact  in  the  history  of 
painting  is,  that  700  b.c.  a king  of  Lydia 
purchased  a picture  of  a Greek  artist,  and 
paid  him  its  weight  in  gold.  In  the  year 
400,  Zeuxis  introduced  a new  style  of  paint- 
ing into  Greece,  and  at  this  period  much 
progress  was  made  in  the  art.  About  the 
year  828  b.c.  Apelles  commenced  a new  era 
in  painting,  and  many  distinguished  painters 
were  his  contemporaries.  Before  Greece  was 
taken  by  the  Romans,  the  art  of  painting  had 
arrived  at  a high  degree  of  perfection,  but  at 
that  time  the  spirit  which  had  animated  her 
arts  had  departed,  and  with  her  liberty  her 
arts  perished. 

The  first  name  worthy  of  record  in  the 
annals  of  Italian  painting  is  Cimabue,  a na- 
tive of  Florence,  who  painted  in  fresco,  a.d. 
1300.  In  1452  Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  born 
at  Florence.  Many  subsequent  painters  are 
indebted  to  this  great  artist  for  his  im- 
provements in  the  art.  Michael  Angelo 
Buonarotti  was  born  in  the  year  1475.  He 
erected  an  academy  of  painting  and  sculpture 
at  Florence,  and  is  considered  as  the  founder 
of  the  Florentine  school.  Raphael,  born  1483, 
was  the  founder  of  the  Roman  school.  Titian, 
born  1477,  was  the  founder  of  the  Venetian 
school.  Correggio,  born  1494,  founded  the 


Lombard  school.  The  establishment  c/f  these 
four  schools  embraces  the  golden  age  of  paint- 
ing. 

Of  the  German  schools  there  are  three  dis- 
tinct ones,  the  German,  Flemish,  and  Dutch. 
The  Gothic  style  of  painting  originated  in 
Germany,  and  terminated  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  Albert  Durer,  born  in 
1471,  was  the  prince  of  German  artists,  and 
the  Da  Vinci  of  his  country.  The  head  of  the 
Flemish  school  was  Sir  Peter  Paul  Rubens, 
born  at  Antwerp  in  1577.  What  Rubens  did 
for  the  Flemish  school,  Rembrandt  did  for  the 
Dutch : he  gave  it  a character.  He  died  in 
1669.  » 

There  seems  to  have  been  noregularSpanish 
school  of  painting,  although  many  Spanish 
artists  distinguished  themselves,  particularly 
Velazquez  and  Murillo.  The  Spanish  style 
held  an  intermediate  rank  between  the  Vene- 
tian and  Flemish. 

It  is  difficult  to  assign  a decided  era  to  the 
beginning  of  painting  in  France.  The  first 
name  worthy  of  particular  mention,  is  Jacques 
Blanchard,  who  was  born  in  Paris,  a.d.  1600. 
His  paintings  were  very  popular,  and  one  of 
them  is  still  preserved  in  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame.  Poussin  flourished  about  the  same 
time,  and  painted  many  pictures  for  the  gal- 
lery of  the  Louvre.  At  this  period  also  Claude 
Lorraine  flourished.  Louis  XIII.  founded 
the  first  school  of  France.  Of  this,  the  great 
master  was  Le  Brun,  born  in  1690.  His  best 
performances  are  five  large  pictures  from  the 
life  of  Alexander.  In  the  eighteenth  century, 
French  painters  were  numerous,  but  the  art 
gradually  sunk  into  mediocrity.  The  name 
of  Vernet,  however,  deserves  to  be  mentioned. 
He  excelled  in  marine  pieces.  The  founder 
of  the  modern  school  of  painting  in  France 
was  David,  who  was  born  in  1750.  He  rem- 
edied many  of  the  defects  of  his  contempora- 
ries, and  produced  many  fine  pictures. 

Painting  did  not  begin  to  flourish  in  Eng- 
land till  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Before  that 
period,  nothing  like  genius  was  observable  in 
the  rude  productions  of  the  artists.  During 
this  reign,  Hans  Holbein,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  monarch,  settled  in  England  as  a por- 
trait painter.  During  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
a gallery  of  pictures  by  the  great  masters, 
was  established  at  Whitehall.  Vandyke 
flourished  at  this  time.  In  1697  Hogarth 


PAI 


614 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


was  b|  ra  His  style  was  one  in  which  he 
acquired  lasting  celebrity,  and  was  wholly 
his  own.  A royal  academy  was  planned  in 
England  in  1768,  of  which  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds was  made  president.  Gainsborough 
and  Wilson  laid  the  foundation  of  the  English 
school  of  landscapes.  Barry  was  a historical 
painter  of  great  eminence.  The  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  produced  many  names 
worthy  of  record.  Fuseli  was  made  keeper 
of  the  Royal  Academy.  Among  other  pic- 
tures, he  painted  forty-seven  pictures  from 
Milton’s  works,  in  the  year  1790.  Sir  Thomas 
Lawrence  was  considered  the  first  portrait 
painter  in  Europe.  He  was  president  of  the 
Royal  Academy  at  the  time  of  his  death  in 
1830.  The  celebrated  artist  John  Martin, 
was  born  in  1789.  Most  of  his  pictures  were 
engraved  by  himself.  Turner  is  another  illus- 
trious name  in  modern  British  art. 

The  United  States  has  produced  many  art- 
ists of  reputation ; among  others,  Sir  Benja- 
min West,  who  died  in  1820,  aged  eighty-two ; 
Gilbert  C.  Stuart,  born  1755,  who  was  one  of 
the  first  portrait  painters  of  his  time ; Allston, 
Copley,  Malbone,  Newton,  Leslie,  not  men- 
tioning living  men. 

PALESTINE  [see  Jews]  is  the  name  com- 
monly given  to  the  country  once  occupied  by 
the  Israelites.  It  extends  from  Ccelo-Syria  to 
Arabia  Petrea ; on  the  west  it  has  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  on  the  east  Arabia  Deserta. 
Before  the  conquest  by  Joshua  it  was  called 
Canaan.  The  country  is  mountainous,  and 
there  is  only  one  principal  river,  the  Jordan, 
which  rising  on  Mount  Hermon,  falls  into  the 
Lake  of  Gennesareth,  Sea  of  Tiberias,  or  Sea 
of  Galilee ; after  which  it  loses  itself  in  a more 
spacious  one,  the  Bituminous  Lake,  or  Dead 
Sea.  On  the  western  side  of  Jordan  were 
Judea  on  the  south,  Samaria  in  the  middle, 
and  Galilee  in  the  north ; on  the  eastern  side 
was  Gilead,  and  the  land  of  the  Moabites  and 
Ammonites.  The  Philistines  were  mostly  on 
the  coast  toward  Egypt.  In  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  stood  llierosolyma,  or  Jerusalem,  built 
on  several  hills,  the  largest  of  which  was 
Mount  Sion ; it  formed  the  southern  part  of 
the  city.  On  the  east  of  the  second,  or  lowen 
city,  was  Mount  Moriah.  Jerusalem,  when 
enlarged  and  beautified  by  David,  Solomon, 
&c.,  became  a most  renowned  city,  and  as  such 
is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  under  the  name  of 


Cadytis.  [See  Jerusalem.  It  subsists  at 
present,  but  in  a deplorable  condition,  inhab- 
ited by  a motley  group  of  Turks,  Jews,  and 
Christians.  A mosque  has  supplanted  the 
temple.  North-east  of  Mount  Moriah  was 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  beyond  the  brook  and 
valley  of  Kedron ; on  the  south  was  the  valley 
of  Hinnom,  and  on  the  notth  Mount  Calvary. 
Six  miles  to  the  south-east  was  Bethlehem. 
A rugged  mountainous  country  lay  between 
Jerusalem  and  Jericho,  famous  for  its  balm. 
For  this,  and  for  their  palm-trees,  both  Judea 
and  Idumea  were  celebrated.  Hebron,  a place 
of  high  antiquity,  was  the  sepulchre  of  Abra- 
ham and  his  family.  In  the  time  of  the  cru- 
sades it  bore  the  name  of  St.  Abraham ; and 
the  Arabs,  who  always  respect  their  primitive 
names,  call  it  Cabr  Ibrahim,  or  the  tomb  of 
Abraham.  Gaza  and  Ascalon,  on  the  coast, 
preserve  their  names,  as  also  Ekron.  Gath  is 
more  inland.  Azotus  was  the  ancient  Ashdod. 
Lydda,  in  the  interior,  has  the  name  of  Lud. 
South  of  it  is  Arimathea.  Toward  the  south 
lay  the  country  of  Idumea,  or  Edom:  the 
natives  were  subdued  by  the  Maccabees,  and 
incorporated  with  the  Jewish  nation.  In  Je- 
rome’s time  the  country  was  deserted,  the  few 
inhabitants  having  their  dwellings  in  caverns. 

PALEY,  William,  an  eminent  divine  of  the 
English  church,  author  of  “ A View  of  the 
Evidences  of  Christianity,”  and  otherexcellent 
works,  born  at  Peterborough  in  1743,  died 
May  25  th,  1805. 

PALMYRA,  the  ruins  of  a splendid  city  of 
Asia,  in  the  desert  of  Syria,  said  to  have  been 
destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  only 
brilliant  part  of  its  history  was  under  Odena- 
tus  and  his  queen  Zenobia.  [See  Zenobia.] 
It  afterward  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans, but  at  what  period  it  sank  into 
its  present  state  of  desolation  is  uncertain. 
By  some  Palmyra  is  supposed  to  be  the  Tad- 
mor  in  the  wilderness  which  Solomon  built. 
Its  ruins  are  of  white  marble. 

PALO  ALTO,  Battle  of,  May  8th,  1846, 
between  the  Americans  under  Gen.  Taylor, 
and  the  Mexicans ; the  former  were  victorious. 
This  was  the  first  of  the  battles  in  the  Mexican 
war. 

PAMPAS,  vast  level  plains  in  South 
America,  extending  from  the  La  Plata  nearly 
to  the  Andes,  a thousand  miles  long,  and  four 
hundred  and  fifty  broad.  Part  of  these  plains 


PAM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


615 


are  covered  with  grass,  part  with  thistles  and 
clover,  and  part  with  open  forests.  They 
contain  herds  of  wild  horses  and  cattle  and 
some  beasts  of  prey,  and  are  inhabited  by  the 
Guachos,  a race  of  men  of  Spanish  origin  who 
live  on  horseback  and  subsist  by  hunting,  and 
the  fierce  Indians  who  lead  the  life  of  the 
Guachos,  but  are  constantly  at  war  with  them. 
Sir  Francis  Head’s  “Hough  Notes  of  some 
rapid  journeys  across  the  Pampas,  and  among 
the  Andes,”  contain  the  best  and  most  amus- 
ing account  we  have  of  them. 

The  Guachos  make  use  of  the  lasso  in  hunt- 
ing. The  lasso,  so  called  from  the  Spanish 
lazo , or  noose,  consists  of  a rope  made  of 
twisted  strips  of  untanned  hide,  varying  in 
length  from  fifteen  to  twenty  yards,  and  is 
about  as  thick  as  the  little  finger.  It  has  a 
noose  or  running-knot  at  one  end,  the  other 
extremity  being  fastened  by  an  eye  and  button 
to  a ring  in  a strong  hide  belt  or  surcingle, 
bound  tightly  round  the  horse.  The  coil  is 
grasped  by  the  horseman’s  left  hand,  while 
the  noose,  which  is  held  in  the  right,  trails 
along  the  ground  except  when  in  use,  and  then 
it  is  whirled  round  the  head  with  considerable 
velocity,  during  which,  by  a peculiar  turn  of 
the  wrist,  it  is  made  to  assume  a circular  form ; 
so  that,  when  delivered  from  the  hand,  the 
noose  preserves  itself  open  until  it  falls  over 
the  object  at  which  it  has  been  aimed. 

The  unerring  precision  with  which  the  lasso 
is  thrown,  is  perfectly  astonishing,  and  to  one 
who  sees  it  for  the  first  time,  has  a very  mag- 
ical appearance.  Even  when  standing  still  it 
is  by  no  means  an  easy  thing  to  throw  the 
lasso ; but  the  difficulty  is  vastly  increased 
when  it  comes  to  be  thrown  from  horseback 
and  at  a gallop,  and  when,  in  addition,  the 
rider  is  obliged  to  pass  over  uneven  ground, 
and  to  leap  hedges  and  ditches  in  his  course. 
Yet  such  is  the  dexterity  of  the  Guachos,  that 
they  are  not  only  sure  of  catching  the  animal 
they  are  in  chase  of,  but  can  fix  the  lasso  on 
any  particular  part  they  please. 

Suppose  that  a wild  bull  is  to  be  caught, 
and  that  two  mounted  horsemen,  guassos,  as 
they  are  called  in  Chili,  or  guachos  on  the 
Pampas,  undertake  to  kill  him.  As  soon  as 
they  discover  their  prey,  they  remove  the  coil 
of  the  lasso  from  behind  them,  and,  grasping 
it  in  the  left  hand,  prepare  the  noose  in  the 
right,  and  dash  off,  at  full  gallop,  each  swing- 


ing his  lasso  round  his  head.  The  first  who 
comes  within  reach  aims  at  the  bull’s  horns, 
and  when  he  sees,  which  he  does  in  an  instant, 
that  the  lasso  which  he  has  thrown  will  take 
effect,  he  stops  his  horse  and  turns  him  half 
round,  the  bull  continuing  his  course  till  the 
whole  cord  has  run  out.  The  horse,  mean- 
while, knowing  by  experience  what  is  going 
to  happen,  leans  over  as  much  as  he  can  in 
the  opposite  direction  from  the  bull,  and 
stands  trembling  in  expectation  of  the  violent 
tug  which  is  to  be  given  him  by  the  bull 
when  brought  up  by  the  lasso.  So  great,  in- 
deed, is  the  jerk  which  takes  place  at  this 
moment,  that  were  the  horse  not  to  lean  over 
in  the  manner  described,  he  would  certainly 
be  overturned;  but  standing,  as  he  does, 
across  the  road,  with  his  feet  planted  firmly 
on  the  ground,  he  offers  sufficient  resistance 
to  stop  the  bull  as  instantaneously  as  if  he 
had  been  shot,  though,  the  instant  before,  he 
was  running  at  full  speed. 

If  the  intention  be  to  kill  the  animal  for  the 
sake  of  the  tallow  and  hide  alone,  as  is  often 
the  case,  one  of  the  Guachos  dismounts,  and 
running  in,  cuts  the  bull’s  hamstrings  with 
a long  knife  which  he  always  wears  in  his 
girdle,  and  instantly  dispatches  him  by  a 
dexterous  cut  across  the  back  of  the  neck. 
The  most  surprising  thing  is  the  manner  in 
which  the  horse,  after  being  left  by  his  rider, 
manages  to  preserve  the  lasso  always  tight ; 
this  would  be  less  difficult  if  the  bull  were  to 
remain  always  steady,  but  it  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  he  makes  violent  struggles  to  dis- 
entangle himself  from  the  lasso,  rushing  back- 
ward and  forward  in  a furious  manner.  The 
horse,  however,  with  wonderful  sagacity,  al- 
ters his  pace,  and  prances  about,  as  if  con- 
scious of  what  he  is  doing,  so  as  to  resist 
every  movement  of  the  bull,  and  never  to 
allow  the  lasso  to  be  relaxed  for  a moment. 

When  a wild  horse  is  to  be  taken,  the  lasso 
is  always  placed  round  the  two  hind  legs,  and, 
as  the  Guacho  rides  a little  on  one  side,  the 
jerk  pulls  the  entangled  feet  laterally,  so  as 
to  throw  him  on  his  side,  without  endangering 
his  knees  or  his  face.  Before  the  horse  can 
recover  the  shock,  the  rider  dismounts,  and 
snatching  the  poncho  or  cloak  from  his  shoul- 
ders, wraps  it  round  the  prostrate  animal’s 
head ; he  then  forces  into  his  mouth  one  of 
the  powerful  bits  of  the  country,  straps  a sad- 


PAM 


616 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


die  on  his  back,  and,  bestriding  him,  removes 
the  poncho ; upon  which  the  astonished  horse 
springs  on  his  legs,  and  endeav.ors,  by  a thou- 
sand vain  efforts,  to  disencumber  himself  of 
his  new  master,  who  sits  quite  composedly 
on  his  back,  and,  by  a discipline  which  never 
fails,  reduces  the  horse  to  such  complete  obe- 
dience that  he  is  soon  trained  to  lend  his 
speed  and  strength  in  the  capture  of  his  wild 
companions. 

The  equestrian  education  of  the  dwellers  on 
the  Pampas  commences  early.  At  the  age 
of  four  the  Guacho  is  mounted  on  horseback, 
and  assists  in  driving  the  cattle  to  the  inclos- 
ure. Even  then  he  is  adventurous,  and  can 
bring  back  by  force  those  horses  that  attempt 
to  escape.  As  his  years  increase,  he  becomes 
more  daring  and  manly,  and  spends  his  time 
in  galloping  after  the  ostrich,  the  gama,  the 
hare,  and  the  tiger. 

The  Pampas  Indians,  a daring  and  hardy 
race  of  men,  who  have  never  been  conquered, 
and  to  whom  the  great  changes  of  the  seasons 
appear  to  come  with  singularly  little  incon- 
venience, are  always  on  horseback,  whether 
beneath  the  burning  skies  of  summer,  or  the 
piercing  cold  of  winter ; and  they  are  at  all 
seasons  wholly  without  clothing.  They  are 
formed  into  tribes,  under  the  command  of 
caciques,  and  are  a warlike  people.  Mounted 
on  their  fleet  and  sure-footed  horses,  with 
their  spears  eighteen  feet  long,  which  they 
can  manage  with  great  power  and  dexterity, 
they  are  most  formidable.  On  foot  they  are 
almost  powerless;  as  their  habitual  riding 
deprives  them  of  the  faculty  of  walking. 
When  mounted,  however,  their  fleetness  is 
almost  incredible.  When  they  march  for  an 
attack,  they  collect  a great  troop  of  horses, 
and,  raising  their  war-cry,  set  off  at  a gallop. 
If  the  march  be  long,  they  change  horses 
several  times,  and  always  reserve  their  best 
ones  to  be  mounted  fresh  when  they  are  in 
sight  of  the  enemy.  The  horses  only  are  used 
for  riding,  but  they  drive  mares  along  with 
them  to  serve  as  food.  Their  onset  is  destruc- 
tive, and,  until  their  horses  are  worn  out  with 
fatigue,  to  resist  them  is  no  easy  matter. 

Riding  in  the  Pampas  is  rendered  dangerous 
by  the  numerous  holes  which  the  bisacho 
burrows  in  the  ground  like  a rabbit.  Their 
holes  frequently  cause  great  injury  to  the  feet 
of  the  horses,  but  custom  renders  the  horse 


cautious  amidst  these  dangers;  and,  as  for 
the  Guacho,  it  is  impossible  to  eject  him  from 
the  saddle,  unless  the  horse  shall  actually  fall. 
Sir  Francis  Head  tried  the  rapid  mode  of  trav- 
eling practiced  by  the  Guachos,  and  survived 
to  describe  it.  At  first  he  found  his  head  a 
little  confused  with  the  constant  galloping, 
and  when  he  dismounted  he  was  so  giddy  that 
he  could  not  stand ; but  he  in  time  got  accus- 
tomed to  it,  and  found  it  more  pleasant.  He 
found  the  young  men  the  worst  drivers  in 
point  of  speed.  The  children  had  no  fear, 
and  therefore  always  dashed  on  at  the  most 
rapid  rate,  and  the  old  men  made  up  in  skill, 
while  the  young  men  wanted  alike  the  daring 
forwardness  of  the  children,  and  the  experi- 
ence of  the  old  men.  Sir  Francis  (then  Cap- 
tain) Head  must  have  traveled  at  a prodigious 
rate.  From  Mendoza  he  determined  to  gallop 
to  Buenos  A}rres,  and,  attended  by  a single 
Guacho,  mounted  horse  to  recross  the  Pam- 
pas. It  was  now  that  the  captain  tried  the 
velocity  and  felt  the  pleasure  of  really  inde- 
pendent traveling  across  the  Pampas;  and 
his  speed  can  be  compared  to  nothing  upon 
record — even  that  of  the  Guacho  who  accom- 
panied him,  or  of  Mazeppa  as  he  was  bound 
to  the  wild  horse.  Starting  from  Mendoza 
before  daybreak,  he  found  himself  at  half  past 
seven  in  the  evening,  at  the  distance  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty -three  miles ; which,  as  he 
had  been  just  fourteen  hours  and  a half  on 
horseback,  was  nearly  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles 
an  hour.  He  was  fatigued,  and  could  get 
nothing  to  eat,  and  so,  taking  his  saddle  into 
a shed,  he  laid  down  his  head  on  it,  and  was 
asleep  in  an  instant.  The  voice  of  the  Guacho 
roused  him  an  hour  before  daylight,  and  he 
again  galloped  off  at  the  rate  of  the  preceding 
day.  It  is  needless  to  follow  the  course  of 
this  adventurous  traveler:  enough  has  been 
said  to  show  the  mode  of  life  and  traveling  in 
the  Pampas. 

PAPAL  STATES,  are  the  dominions  of 
which  the  pope  is  the  temporal  sovereign. 
They  occupy  a position  on  the  middle  of  the 
southwestern  coast  of  Italy,  and  are  only  one- 
fourth  as  large  as  before  the  year  1860,  when 
the  Romagna,  the  Marches  and  Umbria  were 
transferred  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  The  tem- 
poral dominions  of  the  pope  have  since  occu- 
pied only  4,502  square  miles,  and  contain  but 
690,000  inhabitants.  The  former  area  was 


PAP 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


617 


15,381  square  miles,  and  the  population 

3.000. 000.  On  the  2d  of  Oct.,  1870,  after 
the  conquest  by  the  Italians,  the  States  voted 
in  favor  of  a union  with  Italy,  133,681  to 
1,507.  [Nee  Popes,  Rome.] 

PAOLI,  Pascal  a native  of  Corsica,  bore 
a prominent  part  in  the  war  waged  tor  inde- 
pendence against  the  arbitrary  rule  of  the 
Genoese.  He  retired  to  England,  where  he 
died  in  1807,  at  the  age  of  eighty-one. 

PARAGUAY,  a state  of  South  America 
south  of  Brazil,  between  the  rivers  Parana 
and  Paraguay.  It  contains  74,000  square 
miles,  and  1,500,000  inhabitants.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526,  was  set- 
tled by  the  Spaniards  at  Assuncion  in  1535, 
and  in  1776  formed  a province  of  the  viceroy- 
alty of  Buenos  Ayres.  When  South  America 
generally  threw  off  the  rule  of  Spain,  Paraguay 
asserted  its  independence.  In  1814  Dr.  Fran- 
cia  was  made  dictator,  and  ruled  till  his  death 
in  1840.  He  adopted  a policy  as  exclusive  as 
that  of  Japan.  Paraguay  has  in  1865  made 
war  with  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Republic. 

PARIS,  the  capital  of  France,  lies  upon 
both  banks  and  two  islands  of  the  Seine,  110 
miles  south-east  of  Havre.  The  population 

1.750.000.  It  is  an  archiepiscopal 
see,  the  residence  of  the  court,  the  legislative 
body,  the  ministers  and  ambassadors,  one  of 
the  largest,  most  populous,  and  richest  cities 
in  the  world,  containing  some  most  superb 
monuments.  Including  its  suburbs,  it  is 
eighteen  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  much 
superior  to  London  in  palaces  and  public 
edifices.  Not  only  does  it  enjoy  a literary 
and  scientific  pre-eminence : it  is  one  of  the 
gayest  capitals  in  Europe.  The  houses  are 
lofty  and  built  of  the  stone  taken  from  the 
quarries  that  extend  beneath  the  city,  thus 
forming  the  celebrated  catacombs.  It  was 
very  strong,  when,  under  the  name  of  Lute- 
tia,  it  resisted  a Roman  detachment  sent 
against  it  by  Caesar.  The  Romans  strength- 
ened the  fortifications ; in  the  fifth  century 
it  w*as  taken  by  the  Franks ; and  in  508  was 
constituted  the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  It 
was  improved  by  Charlemagne,  and  sur- 
rounded with  walls  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century.  Under  Louis  XIY.  some  improve- 
ments w'ere  made:  but  Versailles  being  then 
the  chief  care  of  the  Bourbons,  Paris  received 
only  slow  and  partial  embellishments.  Na- 


poleon did  much  for  its  improvement  and 
decoration,  and  the  plans  which  he  projected 
have  pointed  a path  for  his  successors. 

PARK,  MuNGb,  a native  of  Scotland,  born 
near  Selkirk,  Sept.  10th,  1771,  fell  a victim 
to  the  cause  of  science,  being  murdered  in 
Africa,  while  engaged  in  his  second  expedition 
to  find  the  source  of  the  Niger,  1805. 

PARMA,  a duchy  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
with  an  area  of  2,391  square  miles,  and 
503,000  inhabitants.  Parma,  the  capital,  has 

40,000.  It  was  founded  by  the  ancient  Etru- 
rians. In  the  sixteenth  century,  Paul  III. 
gave  the  duchy  to  his  son  Luigi  Farnese, 
whose  descendants  continued  to  reign  as 
dukes  of  Parma  till  the  extinction  of  the 
male  branch.  In  1714  Elizabeth  Farnese 
married  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  and  brought  him 
the  duchy  as  a dowry.  Her  son  Don  Carlos 
took  possession  of  it  in  1731 ; but  it  being 
settled  in  1735,  that  Don  Carlos  should  be 
made  king  of  the  two  Sicilies,  the  duchies 
of  Parma  and  Piacenza  were  ceded  to  the  em- 
peror, and  governed  by  the  house  of  Austria 
till  1748,  when  they  were  given  up  to  Don 
Philip,  son  of  Philip  V.  By  the  peace  of 
Luneville,  the  Duke  of  Parma  was  raised  to 
the  throne  as  King  of  Etruria,  in  1801.  In 
1805  Parma  and  Piacenza  were  united  to 
France,  and  in  1814  were  given  to  Maria 
Louisa,  the  ex-empress ; and  after  her  death 
Parma  was  given  to  the  Duke  of  Lucca,  be- 
ing annexed  to  Tuscany.  Parma  became  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  by  virtue  of 
the  peace  of  Villa  Franca,  in  1859. 

PARR,  Samuel,  a distinguished  classical 
scholar  of  England,  long  head-master  of  Nor- 
wich school,  born  1747,  died  in  1825.  His 
celebrated  Spital  sermon,  when  printed,  pre- 
sented the  singular  anomaly  of  fifty-one 
pages  of  text,  and  two  hundred  and  twelve 
of  notes. 

PARR,  Thomas,  familiarly  called  ‘ Old 
Parr,’  died  in  1635,  aged  one  hundred  and 
fifty-twro,  having  lived  in  ten  reigns. 

PARRY,  Sir  William  Edward,  the  dis- 
tinguished Arctic  explorer,  died  in  1855. 

PARSONS,  Theopiiilus,  was  the  son  of  a 
minister  of  Byfield,  Mass.,  and  was  born  in 
February,  1750.  After  completing  his  legal 
studies,  he  opened  an  office  in  Newburyport, 
and  assumed  a high  standing  in  his  profes- 
sion ; in  1806  he  succeeded  Mr,  Dana  ip  the 


PAR 


618 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


chief-justiceship  of  the  supreme  court  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  died  at  Boston,  Oct.  30th, 
1813. 

PARTHIA,  a celebrated  kingdom  of  an- 
tiquity, was  situated  south-east  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  and  was  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Hyrcania,  on  the  south  by  Aria,  on  the  east 
by  Carmania,  and  on  the  west  by  Media. 
The  ancient  Parthians  were  originally  a tribe 
of  Scythians,  who,  being  expelled  from  the 
land  of  their  nativity,  took  up  their  abode  in 
this  part  of  Asia.  They  were  subject  to  the 
Persian  empire  in  the  time  of  Xerxes  and 
Darius.  Arsaces,  the  founder  of  the  Parthian 
monarchy,  assumed  the  regal  dignity  b.c. 
256.  His  son,  Arsaces  II.,  subdued  Media, 
but  was  soon  dispossessed  of  this  acqui- 
sition. 

On  the  death  of  Arsaces,  the  government 
devolved  on  his  son  Priapatius,  who  be- 
queathed the  crown  to  his  elder  son,  Phraates. 
This  last  prince  subdued  the  Mardi,  a warlike 
people  of  the  east.  He  left  the  kingdom  to 
his  brother  Mithridates,  who  soon  reduced 
Bactria,  Persia,  Media,  Elymais,  and  several 
other  countries,  and  carried  his  victorious 
arms  into  India,  even  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  Alexander’s  conquests.  He  afterward 
made  himself  master  of  Babylonia  and  Meso- 
potamia; and  his  reign  is  regarded  as  the 
epoch  of  the  Parthian  grandeur. 

We  pass  over  a few  unimportant  reigns  till 
we  come  to  that  of  Orodes,  who  engaged  in 
war  with  M.  Licinius  Crassus,  which  was 
attended  with  a vast  effusion  of  blood,  and 
proved  extremely  disastrous  both  to  the  Par- 
thians and  the  Romans.  At  length  Crassus 
was  overthrown  with  a great  slaughter,  and 
his  head  sent  to  Orodes;  whilst  his  van- 
quished troops  tamely  surrendered  or  were 
put  to  the  sword.  Orodes  sent  an  army  to 
besiege  the  city  of  Antioch,  which,  however, 
the  Parthians  could  not  take.  To  revenge  the 
death  of  Crassus,  the  Romans  entered  Syria, 
b.c.  50,  and,  after  some  partial  engagements, 
succeeded  in  defeating  Pacorus,  the  son  of 
Orodes,  who  was  killed  in  the  battle.  Orodes 
appointed  his  son  Phraates  his  successor, 
b.c.  36. 

Phraates  no  sooner  attained  to  this  height 
of  power  than  he  caused  all  his  brothers  by 
the  daughter  of  Antiochus  Eusebes  to  be  put 
to  death,  and  attempted  to  dispatch  Orodes 


also,  by  poison ; this  proving  ineffectual,  he 
ordered  him  to  be  stifled  in  his  bed,  and 
exercised  the  same  cruelty  upon  the  prime 
nobility,  his  eldest  son,  and  the  other  branches 
of  the  royal  family.  To  elude  the  vengeance 
of  this  barbarian,  many  of  the  Parthian  no- 
bles emigrated  into  Syria,  and  prevailed  on 
Marc  Antony  to  invade  their  unhappy  king- 
dom. The  Romans,  however,  were  so  har- 
rassed  by  the  enemy,  that  they  were  reduced 
to  the  most  pitiable  extremities,  and  nar- 
rowly escaped  destruction. 

The  Parthian  monarch  continuing  to  exer- 
cise the  most  wanton  cruelties  upon  his  own 
subjects,  the  nobles  entered  into  a conspiracy 
and  chased  him  from  the  country,  conferring 
the  sovereignty  on  Tiribates,  one  of  their 
own  body.  Phraates,  however,  returned,  and, 
defeating  his  rival  in  a pitched  battle,  recov- 
ered his  paternal  inheritance. 

At  length  this  tyrant  was  poisoned  by  his 
wife,  that  her  son  Phraatices  might  ascend 
the  throne.  Phraatices  had  scarcely  assumed 
the  diadem,  when  his  subjects,  resolving  to 
revenge  the  crime  to  which  he  had  been 
accessory,  rose  in  arms,  and  placed  one 
Orodes,  who  was  of  the  Arsacidan  family,  on 
the  throne.  This  prince  was  assassinated. 

On  the  death  of  Orodes  II.,  the  Roman 
emperor  Augustus  was  requested  by  the  Par' 
thians  to  send  one  of  the  sons  of  Phraates, 
who  had  been  educated  at  Rome,  to  assume 
the  government.  Accordingly,  he  sent  them 
Yonones,  but  the  Parthians  growing  weary 
of  him,  persuaded  Artabanus,  king  of  Media, 
to  chase  him  from  the  throne.  Artabanus, 
at  length,  firmly  established  himself  in  the 
government  of  Parthia,  and  died  in  the  thirty- 
first  year  of  his  reign.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Bardanes,  who  made  war  upon  Izates, 
king  of  Adiabene,  a.d.  47,  who  had  greatly 
assisted  in  restoring  Artabanus  to  the  throne 
of  Parthia.  This  ingratitude  was  so  warmly 
resented  by  the  Parthian  nobles,  that  they 
caused  Bardanes  to  be  assassinated,  and 
bestowed  the  crown  on  his  brother. 

Gotarzes  was  succeeded  by  one  Yen  ones, 
governor  of  Media,  a.d.  49.  On  the  demise 
of  this  last  prince,  the  government  devolved 
on  Yologeses,  the  son  of  Gotarzes,  who  main- 
tained a bloody  war  against  the  Romans,  on 
account  of  the  crowns  of  Armenia  and  Syria, 
which  he  had  bestowed  on  Tiridates  and  Pa- 


PAR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


619 


corus,  two  of  his  brothers.  Artabanus  III. 
next  ascended  the  throne.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Pacorus. 

Cosdroes,  the  son  of  Pacorus,  invaded  Ar- 
menia in  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  and 
expelled  Exadares,  who  had  been  placed  on 
the  throne  of  that  country  by  the  Roman 
emperor  Trajan.  To  revenge  this  insult, 
Trajan  marched  into  the  East,  recovered 
Armenia,  made  himself  master  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, pursued  his  route  to  Babylon  and 
Ctesiphon,  and  bestowed  their  crown  on 
Parthanaspates,  a prince  of  the  Arsacidan 
family. 

On  the  death  of  Trajan,  however,  the  Par- 
thians  recalled  Cosdroes,  and  pitched  Partha- 
naspate  from  the  throne.  After  a very  long 
reign,  Cosdroes  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son,  Vologeses  II.,  who,  after  carrying  on 
hostilities  against  Rome  for  about  four  years, 
with  various  success,  consented  to  acknowl- 
edge the  sovereignty  of  the  Roman  people. 

On  the  demise  of  the  Parthian  king,  his 
nephew,  Vologeses  III.,  ascended  the  vacant 
throne.  Having  incensed  the  Emperor  Se- 
verus,  he  was  stripped  of  his  treasures,  his 
wives,  and  his  children.  Artabanus,  the  son 
and  successor  of  Vologeses,  had  scarcely  es- 
tablished himself  in  the  kingdom,  when  the 
Emperor  Caracalla,  desirous  of  signalizing 
himself  against  the  Parthians,  sent  ambassa- 
dors to  demand  his  daughter  in  marriage. 
This  was  readily  granted ; and  the  king,  be- 
ing informed  that  the  emperor  was  coming 
to  solemnize  the  nuptials,  went  out  to  meet 
him,  with  the  chief  of  the  Parthian  nobility, 
all  unarmed  and  habited  in  splendid  dresses. 
This  peaceable  train  no  sooner  approached 
the  Roman  troops,  than  they  were  attacked 
with  the  utmost  fury,  and  Artabanus  himself 
was  compelled  to  elude  destruction  by  a 
precipitate  flight. 

On  account  of  this  exploit,  the  base  Cara- 
calla assumed  the  surname  of  Parthicus.  Ar- 
tabanus swore  irreconcilable  hatred  to  the 
perfidious  emperor,  and  inspired  the  whole 
nation  with  the  same  spirit  of  vengeance. 
An  engagement  was  fought  between  the 
Parthians  and  the  Romans,  which  was  ter- 
minated only  by  darkness.  Caracalla  dying, 
an  alliance  between  the  two  empires  was 
proposed,  and  peace  was  concluded.  At  this 
juncture,  a.d.  226,  a Persian  named  Artax- 


erxes,  pretended  to  be  a descendant  of  the 
ancient  kings  of  Persia,  and  called  upon  the 
Persians  to  recover  their  independence. 
After  a dreadful  engagement,  he  defeated  Ar- 
tabanus at  the  head  of  all  the  Parthian  forces. 
Artaxerxes  caused  Artabanus  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  restored  the  empire  to  the  Per- 
sians, after  they  had  been  subject  to  the 
princes  of  Parthia  for  the  space  of  475  years. 
The  royal  family  of  Arsaces,  however,  con- 
tinued to  reign  in  Armenia  till  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian.  Artaxerxes  was  the 
founder  of  the  new  Persian  empire  usually 
known  as  that  of  the  Sassanidae. 

PASCAL,  Blaise,  born  at  Clermont,  Au- 
vergne, in  1623,  died  in  1662.  He  excelled 
in  mathematics  and  physical  philosophy.  In 
the  great  controversy  between  the  Jansenists 
and  the  Jesuits,  Pascal  battled  for  the  former. 
His  “Provincial  Letters,”  a merciless  expo- 
sure of  the  Jesuits,  first  appeared  in  1656. 

PATAGONIA,  a vast  country  occupying 
the  southern  extremity  of  South  America, 
discovered  by  Magellan  in  1519.  The  climate 
is  cold  and  the  natives  are  wandering  savages. 
Some  of  the  tribes  are  large-bodied,  though 
not  the  giants  which  they  have  been  described. 

PATRICK,  Saint,  apostle  and  saint  of 
Ireland,  supposed  a native  of  Wales,  died  in 
460  or  493.  Others  say  he  was  a native  of 
Cornwall,  or  Scotland,  or  Brittany.  Little  is 
really  known  of  him,  save  that  he  preached 
the  gospel  to  the  Irish  in  the  fifth  century. 

PAUSANIAS,  a Spartan  general,  who 
greatly  signalized  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Plataea,  against  the  Persians.  He  was  after- 
ward set  at  the  head  of  the  Spartan  armies, 
and  extended  his  conquests  in  Asia;  but  the 
haughtiness  of  his  behavior  created  him 
many  enemies,  and  the  Athenians  soon  ob- 
tained a superiority  in  the  affairs  of  Greece. 
Pausanias  was  dissatisfied  with  his  coun- 
trymen, and  he  offered  to  betray  Greece  to 
the  Persians,  if  he  received  in  marriage,  as 
the  reward  of  his  perfidy,  the  daughter  of 
their  monarch.  His  intrigues  were  discov- 
ered by  means  of  a youth,  who  was  intrusted 
with  his  letters  to  Persia,  and  who  refused  to 
go,  on  the  recollection  that  such  as  had  been 
employed  in  that  office  before  had  never 
returned.  The  letters  were  given  to  the 
Ephori  of  Sparta,  and  the  perfidy  of  Pausa- 
nias laid  open.  He  fled  for  safety  to  a temple 


PAU 


620 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  Minerva,  and  as  the  sanctity  of  the  place 
screened  him  from  the  violence  of  his  pursu- 
ers, the  sacred  building  was  surrounded  with 
heaps  of  stones,  the  first  of  which  was  carried 
there  by  the  indignant  mother  of  the  unhappy 
man.  He  was  starved  to  death  in  the  temple, 
and  died  about  b.c.  471. 

PAVIA,  Battle  of,  in  Lombardy,  Feb. 
24th,  1525,  between  the  French  and  the 
forces  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  Francis  I., 
the  French  monarch,  after  maintaining  the 
contest  with  great  gallantry,  was  defeated, 
and  became  a prisoner.  He  sent  to  his  mother, 
Louisa  of  Savoy,  who  was  regent  in  his  ab- 
sence, news  of  his  misfortune  in  these  memor- 
able words,  “ All  is  lost,  madam,  save  honor.” 

PEABODY,  George.  See  Ap’x,  p.  974. 

PEEL,  Sir  Robert,  was  the  son  of  an  emi- 
nent English  manufacturer,  who  bequeathed 
to  him  a princely  fortune.  He  was  born 
February,  1788,  and  was  educated  at  Har- 
row (where  he  was  a school-fellow  of  Byron) 
and  at  Oxford,  taking  a high  stand  as  a bril- 
liant student.  When  just  of  age  he  entered 
parliament,  and  thenceforth  the  sphere  of  his 
exertions  and  triumphs  was  the  house  of 
commons.  He  was  no  orator,  nor  was  he, 
properly  speaking,  a natural  and  simple  de- 
bater. His  manner  was  the  artificial  one  of 
thorough  training ; but  for  an  artificial  one 
it  was  a good  one.  He  could  state  his  case 
clearly  and  forcibly,  but  he  seldom  liked  to 
abandon  a subject  until  he  had  discussed  it 
at  great  length.  In  1811  he  became  under- 
secretary for  the  colonies  in  the  Perceval 
cabinet,  and  in  1812,  though  only  twenty- 
four  years  of  age,  he  was  made  principal 
secretary  for  Ireland,  then  an  office  of  the 
greatest  difficulty  and  importance.  After 
carrying  his  celebrated  currency  measure 
(establishing  it  on  its  present  metallic  basis) 
in  1819,  he  became  home  secretary  in  1822, 
which  he  continued  till  the  overthrow  of 
Lord  Liverpool  in  1827,  when  he  retired,  in 
consequence,  as  it  is  alleged,  of  the  elevation 
of  Mr.  Canning,  who  favored  the  abolition  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  disabilities.  Upon  the 
accession  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  to  power 
in  1828,  Mr.  Peel  returned  to  the  home  of- 
fice, and  in  conjunction  with  the  premier,  con- 
ceded Catholic  emancipation.  This  brought 
a storm  of  abuse  upon  him  from  his  party,  wTho 


accused  him  of  tergiversation,  since  he  had 
been  so  strongly  opposed  to  the  measure. 

The  skirts  of  the  Gallic  storm  of  1830  that 
drove  the  Bourbons  from  the  throne  of  France, 
destroyed  the  Wellington  ministry,  and  the 
whigs  entered  office  under  Earl  Grey,  with 
the  reform  bill  as  their  prominent  measure. 
Meantime  the  elder  Peel  had  died,  and  the 
son  had  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy  and  an 
enormous  patrimony.  Sir  Robert  was  fiercely 
assailed  with  the  maledictions  of  Ireland,  the 
censures  of  the  high  tory  party, — whom  he 
was  alleged  to  have  betrayed, — and  the 
clamors  of  the  advocates  for  a paper  currency. 
His  party  imputed  to  him  the  rise  of  the  re- 
form bill,  as  a consequence  of  his  vacillation 
in  reference  to  the  emancipation  of  the  Cath- 
olics. Nevertheless  he  was  an  active  oppo- 
nent of  the  new  ministry  and  the  reform 
bill;  and  nothing  dismayed  by  the  angry 
elements  about  him,  or  the  new  political 
vista  of  England  and  the  continent,  he  dis- 
played all  the  resources  of  his  statesmanship 
in  concentrating  the  new  conservative  party. 
When  a conservative  government,  through 
various  accidental  and  pewonal  causes,  was 
established  in  1834,  he  gallantly  undertook 
to  conduct  it,  though  conscious  that  the  task 
was  hopeless.  He  became  prime  minister  in 
1841  with  better  prospects.  Though  he  was 
at  the  head  of  a protectionist  government, 
established  to  defeat  and  suppress  the  free 
trade  party,  he  opened  the  ports,  and  repealed 
the  corn  laws  forever,  to  the  consternation 
of  the  world,  and  in  opposition  to  all  the 
opinions  of  his  life.  This  was  in  1845. 
After  carrying  some  other  measures  in  the 
same  spirit,  he  resigned  office  to  the  party 
to  whom  his  later  opinions  legitimate^  be- 
longed, in  the  summer  of  1846.  After  that 
his  position  in  parliament  was  that  of  a dis- 
tinguished debater,  an  accomplished  finan- 
cier, and  the  expositor  of  opinions  which 
neither  of  the  great  parties  heartily  espoused. 
He  died  July  2d,  1850,  of  internal  injuries 
caused  by  a fall  from  his  horse. 

His  talents  were  great,  his  moral  integrity 
of  a high  order,  and  his  private  life  most 
exemplary.  It  is  a singular  fact  that  he 
spent  eleven  years  in  parliamentary  opposi- 
tion to  the  bullion  doctrine  he  adopted  in 
1822  ; that  he  waged  strenuous  war  for  eight- 


PEE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


621 


een  years  against  the  repeal  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  disabilities,  and  at  last  carried  it  in 
spite  of  his  own  party  ; and  that  for  thirty 
years  in  the  house  of  commons  he  maintained 
that  the  prosperity  of  Great  Britain  depended 
on  the  retention  of  her  corn  laws,  which  he 
abolished  in  1845.  It  would  therefore  seem 
that  his  final  measures  in  reference  to  these 
three  great  departments  of  his  political  life, 
were  rather  concessions  to  the  force  of  events, 
than  the  voluntary  policy  of  his  own  mind. 
His  wisdom  is  shown  in  the  concession. 
Many  of  his  chief  colleagues,  in  each  of  these 
instances,  would  have  blindly  rushed  upon 
destruction.  Sir  Robert’s  greater  sagacity 
foresaw  the  gulf  and  turned  away,  choosing 
to  show  the  courage  of  relinquishing  his  life’s 
opinions,  rather  than  that  of  courting  the 
dangers  of  resistance. 

PELOPIDAS,  a celebrated  general  of 
Thebes,  son  of  Hippocles.  No  sooner  had 
the  interest  of  Sparta  prevailed  at  Thebes, 
and  the  friends  of  liberty  and  national  inde- 
pendence been  banished  from  the  city,  than 
Pelopidas,  who  was  in  the  number  of  the 
exiles,  resolved  to  free  his  country  from  for- 
eign slavery.  His  plan  was  bold  and  ani- 
mated, and  his  deliberations  were  wise. 
Meanwhile,  Epaminondas,  who  had  been  left 
by  the  tyrants  at  Thebes,  as  being  in  appear- 
ance a worthless  and  insignificant  philosopher, 
animated  the  }muths  of  the  city;  and  at 
last  Pelopidas,  with  eleven  of  his  associates, 
entered  Thebes,  easily  massacred  the  friends 
of  the  tyranny,  and  freed  the  country  from 
foreign  masters.  After  this  successful  enter- 
prise, Pelopidas  was  unanimously  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  government;  and  so  confi- 
dent were  the  Thebans  of  his  abilities  as  a 
general  and  a magistrate,  that  they  succes- 
sively re-elected  him  thirteen  times  to  fill 
the  honorable  office  of  governor  of  Boeotia. 
Epaminondas  shared  with  him  the  sovereign 
power,  and  it  was  to  their  valor  and  prudence 
that  the  Thebans  were  indebted  for  a cele- 
brated victory  at  the  battle  of  Leuctra.  In 
a war  which  Thebes  carried  on  against  Alex- 
ander, tyrant  of  Pherse,  Pelopidas  was  ap- 
pointed commander ; but  his  imprudence,  in 
trusting  himself  unarmed  into  the  enemy’s 
camp,  proved  fatal  to  him.  He  was  taken 
prisoner,  but  Epaminondas  restored  him  to 
liberty.  The  perfidy  of  Alexander  irritated 


him,  and  he  was  killed  bravely  fighting  in  a 
celebrated  battle  in  which  his  troops  obtained 
the  victory,  b.c.  864.  Pelopidas  is  admired 
for  his  valor,  as  he  never  engaged  an  enemy 
without  obtaining  the  advantage.  It  has 
been  justly  observed  that  with  Pelopidas  and 
Epaminondas,  the  glory  and  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Thebans  rose  and  set. 

PELOPONNESUS,  a celebrated  peninsula 
which  comprehends  the  most  southern  parts 
of  Greece.  It  included  the  states  of  Laconia 
(Sparta),  Achaia,  Elis,  Arcadia,  Argolis,  Cor- 
inth, and  Messenia.  It  received  its  name  from 
Pelops,  who  settled  there  as  the  name  indi- 
cates (the  island  of  Pelops).  It  had  been 
called  before,  Apia,  Pelasgia,  and  Argos. 
Its  present  name  is  the  Morea,  which  seems 
to  be  derived  from  a word  signifying  a mul- 
berry-tree, which  is  found  there  in  great 
abundance.  The  Peloponnesus  was  con- 
quered, some  time  after  the  Trojan  war,  by 
the  Heraclidae,  or  descendants  of  Hercules, 
who  had  been  forcibly  expelled  from  it.  The 
inhabitants  of  this  peninsula  rendered  them- 
selves illustrious  like  the  rest  of  the  Greeks, 
by  their  genius,  their  fondness  for  the  fine 
arts,  the  cultivation  of  learning,  and  the  pro- 
fession of  arms ; but  in  nothing  more  than 
by  a celebrated  war  which  they  carried  on 
against  Athens  and  her  allies  for  twenty-seven 
years,  and  which  received  the  name  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  It  ended  with  the  taking 
of  Athens  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  b.c.  401. 

PENDLETON,  Edmund,  an  eminent  lawyer 
and  statesman  of  Virginia,  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1774,  died  in  1803. 

PENN,  John,  a signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Caroline  county, 
Virginia,  May  17th,  1741.  His  early  educa- 
tion was  defective,  but  a strong  mind  over- 
came obstacles.  He  studied  law  with  Edmund 
Pendleton,  went  to  North  Carolina  in  1774, 
became  at  once  an  active  politician  and  a 
lawyer  of  note,  and  was  a delegate  in  Con- 
gress, 1775-76  and  1777-79.  He  retired 
from  public  life  in  1783,  and  died  in  Septem- 
ber, 1788. 

PENN,  William,  the  son  of  Admiral  Penn, 
was  born  in  London,  in  1644.  At  an  early 
age  he  joined  the  society  of  Friends  or 
Quakers,  and  was  expelled  from  the  univer- 
sity of  Oxford  as  a nonconformist.  His  un- 
shaken adherence  to  the  principles  he  had 


PEN 


622 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


adopted  drew  upon  him  the  indignation  of 
his  father,  which  was  a source  of  grief  to 
Penn,  although  it  did  not  induce  him  to 
relinquish  the  faith  which  he  had  chosen. 
In  1668  he  appeared  as  a preacher,  and  also 
assumed  his  pen  to  make  known  and  defend 
his  principles,  for  which  he  was  fined  and 
imprisoned.  Afterward,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  his  family,  he  obtained  immunity  for 
his  belief.  In  1781  Charles  II.  granted  him 
the  patent  of  Pennsylvania  in  liquidation  of 
an  old  debt  from  the  crown  to  his  father. 
He  went  among  the  Indians  to  propitiate  them 
and  assure  them  of  his  good  intentions,  and 
having  displayed  the  plausibility  of  his 


scheme,  induced  a large  number  of  respecta- 
ble families  to  embark  for  the  New  World. 
He  remained  in  America  two  years,  regulat- 
ing the  alfairs  of  Philadelphia,  and  establish- 
ing amicable  relations  with  his  neighbors. 
The  treaty  which  Penn  concluded  with  the 
Indians  was  never  violated.  He  was  intimate 
at  the  court  of  James  II.,  and  procured  many 
privileges  for  his  Quaker  brethren.  In  1699 
he  made  a second  visit  to  Pennsylvania,  but 
the  machinations  of  his  enemies  at  home  in- 
duced him  to  return  in  1701.  In  consequence 
of  his  former  intimacy  with  the  exiled  mon- 
arch, Penn  was  suspected  of  being  a Jacobite. 
He  died  in  1718. 


PENNSYLVANIA.  The  Keystone  State 
has  an  area  of  47,000  square  miles,  on  which 
in  1870  dwelt  3,521.761  people.  The  broad 
Alleghanian  or  Appalachian  system  of  moun- 
tains passes  through  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
state  is  thus  naturally  divided  into  three 
clearly  defined  regions,  the  eastern  or  Atlan- 
tic slope,  the  central  mountainous  district, 
and  the  western  table-land.  The  whole 
mountain  region  is  interspersed  with  beau- 
tiful and  productive  valleys.  The  soil  of  the 
eastern  coast  is  in  part  light  and  sandy,  but 
the  inland  plains  and  valleys  are  composed 
of  a deep  rich  loam.  The  state  is  well 
watered:  the  Delaware,  Schuylkill,  Susque- 
hanna, Lehigh,  Juniata,  Alleghany,  Monon- 
gahela,  and  Ohio  are  the  large  rivers ; while 
there  are  an  abundance  of  smaller  streams, 
■which  serve  a useful  purpose  as  feeders  to 


the  great  system  of  canals  by  which  the  state 
is  threaded.  Pennsylvania  is  affluent  in 
mineral  wealth  : her  mines  of  iron,  and  her 
beds  of  coal,  both  anthracite  and  bituminous, 
seem  inexhaustible  in  centuries.  Wheat  is 
her  great  agricultural  staple,  though  the  other 
cereal  grains  are  extensively  grown,  as  also 
flax  and  hemp.  Her  manufactures,  especially 
in  iron,  are  also  flourishing  and  of  great 
extent.  In  foreign  commerce  she  ranks 
fourth  among  the  states : Philadelphia  is  her 
only  port. 

At  an  early  period  Swedes  settled  within 
the  limits  of  Pennsylvania.  They  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Dutch,  the  country  was  annexed 
to  the  colony  of  New  Netherlands,  and  with 
that  fell  into  English  possession.  The  coun- 
try was  granted  to  William  Penn  by  Charles 
II.  in  1681.  A number  of  Friends  Were  the 


PEN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


623 


first  colonists,  and  in  1682  Penn  himself 
came  over  and  laid  out  his  ‘ city  of  brotherly 
love.’  Among  the  articles  of  government 
which  he  drew  up  for  his  infant  state  was 
the  provision,  “ That  all  persons  in  this  prov- 
ince, who  confess  and  acknowledge  the  one 
almighty  and  eternal  God  to  be  the  creator, 
upholder,  and  ruler  of  the  world,  and  that 
hold  themselves  obliged  in  conscience  to  live 
peaceably  and  justly  in  society,  shall  in  no 
ways  be  molested  or  prejudiced  for  their  relig- 
ious persuasion,  or  practice  in  matters  of 
faith  and  worship ; nor  shall  they  be  com- 
pelled, at  any  time,  to  frequent,  or  maintain, 
any  religious  worship,  place,  or  ministry 
whatever.”  Penn  entered  into  a treaty  of 
peace  and  friendship  with  the  Indians,  pay- 
ing them  fair  prices  for  the  land  needed  for 
his  colony.  The  policy  of  this  honesty  was 
shown  in  the  freedom  from  Indian  wars  which 
Pennsylvania  long  enjoyed.  Ilis  descendants 
held  their  proprietary  rights  in  the  govern- 
ment until  the  Revolution,  when  the  com- 
monwealth bought  their  interest  for  $580,000. 
A considerable  proportion  of  the  people  of 
Pennsylvania  are  of  German  extraction : in 
some  counties  the  German  patois  is  largely 
used.  Two  characteristics  are  said  to  mark 
invariably  the  farms  of  these  thrifty  Ameri- 
can Teutons ; to  wit,  huge  stone  barns,  far 
larger  than  the  substantial  dwellings,  and 
gigantic  horses  immoderately  fat,  fatter  even 
than  the  well-fed,  comfortable  owners. 

The  first  state  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1776.  By  the  present,  there  is  a general 
assembly,  meeting  annually.  The  senators 
are  chosen  for  three  years,  one-third  each 
year.  The  governor  also  is  chosen  for  three 
years,  and  can  not  hold  the  office  longer  than 
six  years  in  any  term  of  nine  years.  The 
right  of  suffrage  is  exercised  by  every  free- 
man, twenty-one  years  of  age,  who  has  re- 
sided in  the  state  one  year.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a supreme  court,  in  courts 
of  common  pleas,  &c.  The  justices  of  the 
supreme  court  are  chosen  by  the  people  of 
the  state  lor  fifteen  years.  The  judges  of 
the  several  courts  of  common  pleas  are 
chosen  by  the  people  of  the  judicial  district 
over  which  they  are  to  preside,  for  a term 
of  five  years.  The  school  system  is  improv- 
ing in- efficiency.  There  is  an  institution  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb  at  Philadelphia.  In 


1799  the  seat  of  government  was  removed 
from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster,  and  again,  in 
1812,  to  Harrisburg,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Susquehanna.  Little  more  than  half  a cen- 
tury ago,  the  site  of  Harrisburg  was  a wil- 
derness: in  *1870  it  had  23,104  inhabitants. 
It  was  laid  out  in  1785,  and  named  for  the 
original  proprietor,  John  Harris. 

The  largest  city  of  Pennsylvania  is  Phila- 
delphia, about  five  miles  above  the  junction 
of  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  Rivers.  The 
population  of  Philadelphia,  in  1870,  was 
674,022.  It  is  one  of  the  most  regular  cities 
in  the  world,  being  handsomely  built  of  brick, 
marble,  and  granite,  on  a rectangular  plan ; 
it  is  a place  of  great  trade  and  opulence,  and 
ranks  as  the  second  city  in  the  Union.  Phila- 
delphia was  laid  out  by  Penn  in  1682.  When 
he  returned  to  England  two  years  after,  it 
contained  200  houses  and  2,500  inhabitants. 
In  the  annals  of  the  Revolution  Philadelphia 
has  an  illustrious  share.  The  first  conti- 
nental congress  assembled  here,  in  Carpenter 
Hall,  Sept.  5th,  1774.  The  bell  of  Independ- 
ence Hall,  July  4th,  1776,  did  “proclaim 
liberty  throughout  this  land,  to  all  the  inhab- 
itants thereof,”  when  its  glad  clangor  assem- 
bled the  people  to  hearken  to  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  just  resolved  upon  in  the 
adjoining  hall.  The  convention  that  formed 
the  constitution  in  1787  sat  here.  From  1790 
to  1800  Philadelphia  was  the  seat  of  the 
federal  government. 

The  great  city  of  western  Pennsylvania  is 
•Pittsburg,  beautifully  situated  on  a plain  at 
the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Mononga- 
hela  Rivers.  It  was  incorporated  a city  in 
1816.  The  principal  cause  which  has  con- 
tributed, aside  from  its  eligible  location,  to 
insure  the  prosperity  of  Pittsburg,  is  the  ex- 
haustless mass  of  mineral  coal  that  exists  in 
its  neighborhood.  The  great  abundance  of 
this  valuable  material  has  converted  Pittsburg 
into  a vast  workshop,  and  a warehouse  for 
the  immense  country  below,  upon  the  Ohio 
and  other  large  rivers  of  the  valley.  The  city 
contains,  according  to  the  last  census,  86,076 
inhabitants.  Pittsburg  occupies  the  site  of 
the  former  French  post,  Fort  Du  Quesne,  so 
important  a spot  in  the  history  of  the  early 
frontier  wars.  It  was  christened  in  honor  of 
William  Pitt,  afterward  Earl  of  Chatham. 
PEPIN,  surnamed  the  Fat,  mayor  of  the 


PEP 


62T 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


palace  in  France,  was  the  son  of  Anchises, 
and  grandson  of  St.  Arnold,  afterward  Bishop 
of  Metz.  He  began  to  govern  in  Austrasia, 
and  was  vanquished  in  the  year  681,  by  Eb- 
roih ; but  in  687,  he  defeated  King  Thierri, 
and  acted  his  part  so  well  that  hre  had  all  the 
authority  in  the  two  kingdoms,  under  Clovis 

111.,  Childebert,  and  Dagobert  III. ; and  it 
must  be  confessed  he  was  worthy  of  the  em- 
pire of  the  Franks.  He  gained  several  battles 
against  Berthairus,  in  691 ; Radbord,  Duke 
of  Friesland,  in  707;  and  Wiler,  Duke  of  Sua- 
bia,  whom  he  defeated  in  709  and  712.  He 
died  in  714,  near  Liege. 

PEPIN,  surnamed  the  Short,  King  of 
France  (grandson  of  the  preceding),  the  first 
of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  was  the  son  of 
Charles  Martel,  and  brother  of  Carloman. 
The  two  brothers  divided  the  power  between 
them  after  the  death  of  their  father,  but  Car- 
loman retiring  afterward  into  Italy,  Pepin  re- 
mained sole  manager,  and  carried  his  design 
farther ; in  short,  seeing  that  all  concurred  to 
set  the  crown  upon  his  head,  and  to  dethrone 
the  foolish  Childeric  III.,  he  called  a parlia- 
ment that  he  might  have  their  consent,  which 
was  unanimously  granted  him,  and  in  the 
mean  time  deputed  Bouchard,  Bishop  of 
Wurtzburg,  and  Fulrad,  Abbot  of  St.  Denys, 
and  chaplain  to  the  prince,  to  go  to  Rome,  in 
order  to  be  informed  of  Pope  Zachary,  who 
was  the  worthiest  to  be  on  the  throne,  he 
who  took  no  care  of  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom, 
or  he  who,  by  his  prudence  and  valor,  gov- 
erned it  wisely,  and  kept  it  from  the  oppres-* 
sions  of  the  enemy.  Zachary,  who  stood  in 
need  of  Pepin’s  forces,  declared  in  his  favor. 
This  answer  being  related  in  France,  the 
bishops  who  were  assembled  at  Soissons  with 
Boniface,  Archbishop  of  Mayence,  having  the 
suffrage  and  universal  consent  of  the  grandees 
and  people,  crowned  Pepin  on  the  1st  of  May, 
752.  At  the  same  time  Childeric  was  deposed, 
and  afterward  put  into  a monastery.  After 
the  performance  of  this  ceremony,  the  new 
king  put  a stop  to  the  revolt  of  his  brother 
Griphon,  and  took  Yannes.  Pope  Stephen 

11.,  who  succeeded  Zachary,  finding  himself 
extremely  incommoded  by  the  Lombards,  had 
recourse  to  Pepin,  whom  he  came  into  France 
to  see.  The  king  received  him  at  the  castle 
of  Poictier  near  Vitri,  and  sent  him  to  the 
abbey  of  St.  Dennis;  and  some  time  after, 


this  pope  anointed  and  crowned  him,  with 
his  two  sons  Charles  and  Carloman,  at  Fer- 
rieres,  J uly  28th,  754.  Next  year  Pepin  went 
into  Italy,  and  having  forced  Astulphus,  King 
of  the  same  Lombards,  to  £ive  up  all  that  he 
had  taken  from  the  church  of  Rome,  he  re- 
turned into  France,  and  sent  back  Pope  Ste- 
phen into  Italy ; but  the  Lombards  failing  to 
keep  their  word,  Pepin  repassed  the  Alps  in 
756,  and  constrained  them  to  give  all  manner 
of  satisfaction  to  the  pope  of  Rome.  Being 
come  back  into  France,  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  making  war  upon  the  Saxons,  and 
upon  Gaifre,  or  Waifer,  Duke  of  Aquitain, 
whom  he  defeated  six  or  seven  times,  till  the 
year  768,  when  this  prince  being  killed  by 
his  own  subjects,  the  king  remained  master 
of  all  his  dominions.  He  died  of  a dropsy, 
the  24th  of  September,  in  the  same  year,  aged 
fifty-four.  The  illustrious  Charlemagne,  his 
son,  succeeded  him. 

PERCEVAL,  Spencer,  second  son  of  John, 
Earl  of  Egmont,  was  born  in  1762.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow  school,  and  next  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
master’s  degree  in  1782,  and  the  year  follow- 
ing became  a student  of  Lincoln’s  Inn.  He 
commenced  practice  as  a barrister  in  the  king’s 
bench,  from  whence  he  removed  to  the  court 
of  chancery.  In  1796  he  was  made  king’s 
counsel,  and  about  the  same  time  attracted 
the  notice  of  Mr.  Pitt,  by  a pamphlet  proving 
that  an  impeachment  of  the  house  of  commons 
does  not  abate  by  a dissolution  of  parliament. 
The  same  year  he  was  returned  for  Northamp- 
ton. In  1801  he  was  made  solicitor-general, 
and  the  next  year  attorney-general.  On  the 
change  of  administration,  in  1807,  he  headed 
the  new  ministry  as  chancellor  of  the  excheq- 
uer, in  which  situation  he  displayed  great 
political  talents,  particularly  in  the  settlement 
of  the  regency.  He  was  shot  in  the  lobby  of 
the  house  of  commons,  by  an  assassin  named 
Bellingham,  May  11th,  1812.  Mr.  Perceval 
was  haughty,  ungenial,  and  intolerant  and 
illiberal  in  his  views. 

PERICLES,  an  Athenian  of  a noble  family, 
son  of  Xanthippus  and  Agariste.  When  he 
took  a share  in  the  administration  of  public 
affairs,  he  rendered  himself  popular  by  oppos- 
ing Cimon,  who  was  the  favorite  of  the  aris- 
tocracy ; and  to  remove  every  obstacle  which 
stood  in  the  way  of  his  ambition,  he  lessened 


PER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  6nO 


the  dignity  and  the  power  of  the  court  of  the 
Areopagus,  which  the  people  had  been  taught 
for  ages  to  respect  and  to  venerate.  He  also 
attacked  Cimon,  and  caused  him  to  be  ban- 
ished by  ostracism,  b.c.  468.  Thucydides  also, 
who  had  succeeded  Cimon  on  his  banishment, 
shared  the  same  fate,  and  Pericles  remained  for 
fifteen  years  the  sole  minister,  and  as  it  may 
be  said,  the  absolute  sovereign,  of  a republic 
which  always  showed  itself  so  jealous  of  her 
liberties,  and  which  distrustedsomuchthe  hon- 
esty of  her  magistrates.  He  ruled  vigorously 
and  with  splendor.  He  paid  especial  attention 
to  the  maritime  superiority  of  the  republic. 
Architecture,  sculpture,  the  drama,  and  poetry 
found  in  him  a munificent  patron.  The  Par- 
thenon, that  most  perfect  example  of  Grecian 
art,  the  magnificent  Propylaea,  and  other  edi- 
fices that  make  Athens  the  admiration  of  the 
world,  were  ereeted  during  his  administration. 

He  made  war  against  the  Lacedaemonians, 
obtained  a victory  over  the  Sicyonians  near 
Nemaea,  and  waged  a successful  war  against 
the  inhabitants  of  Samos.  The  Peloponnesian 
war  was  fomented  by  his  ambitious  views, 
and  when  he  had  warmly  represented  the 
flourishing  state,  the  opulence,  and  Actual 
power  of  his  country,  the  Athenians  did  not 
hesitate  a moment  to  undertake  a war  against 
the  most  powerful  republics  of  Greece,  a war 
which  continued  for  twenty -seven  years,  and 
which  was  concluded  by  the  destruction  of 
their  empire  and  the  demolition  of  their  walls. 

The  arms  of  the  Athenians  were  for  some 
time  crowned  with  success ; but  an  unfortu- 
nate expedition  raised  clamors  against  Peri- 
cles: the  enraged  populace  attributed  all 
their  losses  to  him,  and  to  make  atonement 
for  their  ill  success,  they  condemned  him  to 
pay  fifty  talents. 

This  loss  of  popular  favor  did  not  so  much 
affect  Pericles  as  the  recent  death  of  all  his 
children  ; and  when  the  tide  of  unpopularity 
was  passed  by,  he  condescended  to  come  into 
the  public  assembly,  and  to  view  with  secret 
pride  the  contrition  of  his  fellow-citizens,  who 
universally  begged  his  forgiveness  for  the  vio- 
lence which  they  had  offered  to  his  ministerial 
character.  He  was  again  restored  to  all  his 
honors ; but  the  dreadful  pestilence  which 
had  diminished  the  number  of  his  family, 
proved  fatal  to  him,  and  about  b.c.  429,  in 
his  seventieth  year,  he  fell  a sacrifice  to  that 

40 


terrible  malady  which  robbed  Athens  of  lo 
many  of  her  citizens. 

Pericles  was  for  forty  years  at  the  head  of 
the  administration,  twenty-five  years  with 
others,  and  fifteen  alone ; and  the  flourishing 
state  of  affairs  during  his  government,  gave 
occasion  to  the  Athenians  publicly  to  lament 
his  loss  and  venerate  his  memory.  As  he 
was  expiring,  and  seemingly  senseless,  his 
friends  that  stood  around  his  bed  expatiated 
with  warmth  on  the  most  glorious  actions  of 
his  life,  and  the  victories  which  he  had  won ; 
when  he  suddenly  interrupted  their  tearful 
panegyric,  by  saying  that  in  mentioning  the 
exploits  that  he  had  achieved,  and  which  were 
common  to  him  with  all  generals,  the)7  had 
forgot  to  mention  a circumstance  which  re- 
flected far  greater  glory  upon  him  as  a minis- 
ter, a general,  and  above  all,  as  a man.  “It 
is,”  said  he,  “ that  not  a citizen  in  Athens  has 
been  obliged  to  put  on  mourning  on  my 
account.” 

PERIER,  Casimir,  prime  minister  of  France 
under  Louis  Philippe,  the  son  of  a rich  mer- 
chant; born  Oct.  12th,  1777,  at  Grenoble, 
and  died  at  Paris,  of  cholera,  May  16th,  1832. 

PERRY,  Oliver  Hazard,  a distinguished 
captain  in  the  American  navy,  gained  a signal 
victory  over  the  British  naval  forces  on  Lake 
Erie  in  1813.  He  was  born  at  Newport,  R. 
I.,  in  1785,  and  died  in  1820. 

PERSIA  (called  Iran  by  the  natives),  a 
country  of  western  Asia,  is  an  elevated  table- 
land, surrounded  by  mountain  ranges.  At  a 
rough  estimate  it  contains  500,000  square 
miles,  and  is  supposed  to  have  8,000,000  in- 
habitants ; some  say  15,000,000.  One-fourth 
of  the  people  are  nomadic  tribes.  Those  who 
have  fixed  dwellings  consist  of  Persians,  Ar- 
menians, Arabs,  and  a few  Parsees,  or  fire- 
worshipers.  The  Persians  profess  the  Mo- 
hammedan religion,  of  the  sect  of  Ali.  Persia 
has  excellent  fruits,  cotton,  fine  wool,  silk, 
horses,  camels,  pearls,  vines ; mines  of  pre- 
cious stones  and  different  minerals.  Much  of 
the  soil  is  sandy.  The  Persians  are  true  Asi- 
atics, effeminate  and  fond  of  pleasures ; they 
are  of  small  size. 

Persia  has  ever  been  a country  of  great  in- 
terest, and  its  early  history  is  crowded^with 
events  of  importance.  Chance  and  change 
were  not  unfelt  by  its  inhabitants  of  former 
days.  The  early  Persians  were  hardy,  tem- 


PER 


626 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


psrate,  and  well  educated.  Education  received 
early  and  strict  attention  among  them,  and 
their  magi,  or  wise  men,  are  famous  in  the 
history  of  learning.  The  land  has  been  a 
battle-ground  for  rival  chieftains  and  contend- 
ing factions.  The  khans  or  chiefs  attained 
their  elevation  to  the  throne  by  a wanton  ex- 
penditure of  blood  and  life.  When  Ispahan 
was  the  capital  of  Persia,  and  famous  for  its 
commerce  and  splendor,  it  was  taken  by 
Tamerlane,  and  70,000  persons  slain  by  the 
cruel  Tartars.  The  modern  Persians  exhibit 
a very  marked  difference  from  those  of  the 
early  ages,  from  whom  they  are  descended. 
The  latter,  stern,  temperate,  and  warlike,  dis- 
regarded both  the  luxuries  and  elegancies  of 
life.  Inured  to  toil,  living  upon  the  plainest 
food,  and  taught  to  face  death  and  danger 
without  quailing,  they  became  formidable  to 
their  neighbors,  and  acquired  for  themselves 
a military  reputation,  which  only  their  subse- 
quent degeneracy  could  destroy.  At  the  time 
of  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes,  the  Per- 
sian monarch  relied  more  upon  the  immense 
numbers  of  his  army  and  their  splendid  equip- 
ments, than  upon  their  valor.  The  event 
proved  the  superiority  of  the  Greeks,  sternly 
brave  and  proudly  patriotic.  In  later  times, 
the  Persians  have  shown  themselves  capable 
of  luxury,  refinement,  and  the  more  elegant 
ar  s of  peace. 

Persia  abounds  with  the  hallowed  re- 
mains of  antiquity.  Among  the  most  cele- 
brated ruins  which  occur  are  those  of  the 
ancient  Persepolis,  a city  formerly  of  im- 
mense extent,  and  conspicuous  in  the  history 
of  Alexander  of  Macedon.  It  was  the  royal 
palace  of  this  city  that  the  Grecian  conqueror, 
inflamed  with  wine,  and  urged  by  the  wild 
persuasion  of  an  abandoned  woman,  destroyed 
by  fire,  aided  by  his  companion.  She  beheld 
the  flames  rolling  around  the  most  beautiful 
edifices,  consuming  splendid  palaces,  and 
hurling  to  the  ground  long-venerated  col- 
umns, with  the  mad  delight  which  the 
unprincipled  seem  to  take  in  the  works  of 
destruction. 

The  Persian  empire  anciently  extended 
about  2,800  English  miles  in  length,  from  the 
Hellespont  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  and 
about  2,000  miles  in  breadth,  from  Pontus  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Arabian  Gulf.  The  Per- 
sians are  supposed  to  have  descended  from 


Elam,  the  son  of  Shem;  and,  in  Scripture, 
they  are  sometimes  denominated  Elamites. 
The  first  king  of  Elam  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture is  Chederlaomer,  who  conquered  many 
of  the  Asiatic  provinces,  and  held  the  kings 
of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Bela,  Admah,  and 
Zeboim,  in  subjection  for  twelve  years.  He 
was,  however,  vanquished  by  the  patriarch 
Abraham,  and  lost  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Pentapolis.  From  this  period  to  the  reign 
of  Cyrus,  the  history  of  Elam  or  Persia  is 
clouded  with  fiction.  Tradition  says  that 
the  country  received  the  name  of  Persia  from 
Perseus,  a son  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda, 
who  settled  here,  and  probably  established  a 
petty  sovereignty.  Persia  was  included  in 
the  first  Assyrian  monarchy,  and  upon  its 
dismemberment  by  Arbaces,  appertained  to 
the  kingdom  of  Media. 

Cyrus,  styled  the  Great,  on  account  of  his 
extensive  conquests,  and  his  restoration  of 
the  captive  Jews,  was  the  son  of  Cambyses, 
a Persian  grandee,  and  of  Mandane,  daugln 
ter  of  Astyages,  king  of  the  Medes.  In  the 
fortieth  year  of  his  age,  he  was  called  to  the 
assistance  of  his  uncle  Cyaxares,  who  had 
ascended  the  throne  of  Media,  and  who  ap- 
pointed him  generalissimo  both  of  the  Medes 
and  Persians.  The  powerful  alliance  formed 
against  the  Medes,  b.c.  557,  induced  the  king 
of  Armenia  to  withhold  his  usual  tribute. 
Cyrus,  therefore,  marched  against  him,  and 
compelled  him  to  pay  his  tribute,  and  to  fur- 
nish his  customary  quota  of  auxiliaries. 

The  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Babylonians,  Thra- 
cians, and  other  nations  of  Lesser  Asia, 
having  entered  into  an  alliance  against  Cyax- 
ares, chose  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  to  be  their 
general.  The  confederates  assembled  in  the 
vicinage  of  the  river  Pactolus,  and  advanced 
to  Thymbra,  whither  Cyrus  also  marched 
with  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  troops, 
besides  three  hundred  armed  chariots,  several 
moving  towers,  and  a considerable  number 
of  camels,  upon  which  were  mounted  Ara- 
bian archers.  The  forces  of  Croesus,  however, 
were  twice  as  numerous  as  those  of  Cyrus, 
and  amounted  to  four  hundred  thousand  men. 
The  battle  was  extremely  bloody,  and  Cyrus 
himself  was  some  time  in  imminent  danger ; 
but  at  length  the  confederates  gave  way  on 
all  sides.  After  this  engagement,  Cyrus 
took  Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  and  Croesus 


PER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


627 


prisoner,  whom  he  replaced  on  the  throne,  i 
After  subduing  S}rria  and  Arabia,  he  marched 
against'  Babylon,  which  he  reduced  after  a 
siege  of  two  years,  and  put  an  end  to  the 
Babylonian  empire. 

About  two  years  after  the  reduction  of 
Babylon,  Cyaxares  died,  and  left  the  whole 
government  of  the  empire  to  Cyrus,  b.c.  534, 
who  at  this  time  published  the  famous  decree 
by  which  the  Jews  wTere  permitted  to  return 
to  their  native  country,  and  restored  all  the 
vessels  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  brought 
from  Jerusalem. 

Cyrus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cambyses, 
who,  soon  after  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
resolved  to  undertake  an  expedition  against 
Egypt,  and  in  that  kingdom  committed  great 
cruelties  and  devastations.  Cambyses  was 
returning  into  Persia,  to  quell  a revolt  which 
had  been  occasioned  by  Smerdis,  one  of  the 
magi,  who  pretended  to  be  the  brother  of 
the  king,  when  he  accidentally  received  a 
wound  from  his  sword,  of  which  he  died. 
The  counterfeit  Smerdis  was  injured  by  his 
excessive  precautions.  Cyrus  having  for- 
merly caused  the  ears  of  the  magi  to  be  cut 
off,  this  mutilation  occasioned  a discovery ; 
and  a conspiracy  of  seven  of  the  principal 
Persian  grandees  being  formed  against  Smer- 
dis, he  was  assassinated. 

When  the  public  tumults  had  subsided, 
the  conspirators  held  a council  on  the  kind 
of  government  which  should  be  established, 
and,  after  some  debate,  they  determined  in 
favor  of  monarchy.  They  agreed,  therefore, 
to  meet  next  morning  on  horseback,  at  an 
appointed  place  near  the  city,  and  to  ac- 
knowledge him  whose  horse  first  neighed, 
as  king.  This  plan  was  adopted,  and  Darius, 
by  a stratagem  of  his  groom,  obtained  the 
sovereignty,  b.c.  522.  Darius  had  scarcely 
entered  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign,  when  he 
was  compelled  to  lead  all  his  forces  against 
Babylon,  wdiich  had  revolted,  and  made  great 
preparations  for  sustaining  a regular  siege. 
To  prevent  the  consumption  of  their  provis- 
ions, the  Babylonians  collected  all  their  old 
men,  women,  and  children,  and  strangled 
them  without  distinction,  only  reserving  one 
wife  for  each  man,  and  a female  servant. 

After  Babylon  had  been  besieged  a year 
and  eight  months,  it  was  taken  by  the  con- 
trivance of  Zopyrus,  who  cut  off  his  own 


nose  and  ears,  and  pretending  that  he  was 
thus  mangled  by  the  Persian  .monarch  for 
advising  him  to  relinquish  his  undertaking, 
was  admitted  into  the  city  by  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  betrayed  it  to  Darius. 

Having  settled  the  affairs  of  Babylon  Darius 
undertook  an  expedition  against  the  Scythi- 
ans, b.c.  514,  on  pretense  of  revenging  the 
calamities  which  that  people  brought  upon 
Asia,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  years 
before.  By  means  of  a bridge  of  boats,  he 
transported  his  army  across  the  Bosphorus, 
and  subdued  Thrace ; and  having  appointed 
his  fleet  to  join  him  at  the  Ister,  or  Danube, 
he  also  passed  over  that  river  into  Scythia. 
The  Scythians  avoided  an  engagement,  and 
retired  before  him,  laying  waste  the  country, 
and  filling  up  all  the  wells  and  springs,  till 
the  Persian  troops  were  quite  exhausted  with 
tedious  and  fatiguing  marches.  At  last, 
Darius  resolved  to  abandon  this  wild  enter- 
prise, and  causing  a great  number  of  fires  to 
be  lighted,  he  left  the  old  men  and  invalids 
in  the  camp,  and  marched  with  all  expedition 
to  regain  the  pass  of  the  river.  The  king 
recrossed  the  Danube,  and  returned  into 
Thrace,  where  he  left  Megabyzus,  one  of  his 
generals,  to  complete  the  conquest  of  that 
country,  and,  repassing  the  Bosphorus,  took 
up  his  quarters  at  Sardis.  Afterward,  the 
Athenians  having  sent  a fleet  to  the  assist- 
ance of  certain  Grecian  cities  in  Asia  Minor 
that  had  revolted  from  the  Persian  rule, 
Darius  resolved  upon  their  chastisement. 
But  the  powerful  army  he  sent  into  Greece 
was  defeated  by  a handful  of  Athenians  on 
the  plain  of  Marathon,  b.c.  490,  and  the 
remnant  fled  ingloriously  back  to  Asia. 

Darius  declared  his  son  Xerxes,  who  was 
born  after  his  father’s  exaltation  to  the 
throne,  successor  in  the  kingdom,  setting  aside 
Artabazanes,  the  eldest  son.  Xerxes  as- 
cended the  throne  b.c.  485,  and  at  once  began 
to  prepare  to  retrieve  the  disgrace  of  Mara- 
thon. He  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the 
Carthaginians,  who  were  to  attack  the  Greek 
colonies  in  Sicily  and  Italy,  and ’who  raised 
an  army  of  three  hundred  thousand  men  in 
Spain,  Gaul,  Italy,  and  Africa.  To  prevent 
a repetition  of  a former  disaster  which  befell 
the  Persian  fleet,  Xerxes  commanded  a pas- 
sage for  his  galleys  to  be  cut  through  Mount 
Athos.  He  also  ordered  a bridge  of  boats 


PER 


628 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


to  be  laid  across  the  Hellespont  for  the  pas- 
sage of  his  troops  into  Europe. 

Having  made  the  necessary  preparations, 
the  Persian  monarch  began  his  march  against 
Greece,  b.c.  480,  with  a land  army  of  1,800,000 
men.  His  fleet  consisted  of  1,207  large 
ships,  and  3,000  galleys  and  transports, 
which  contained  517,600  men;  so  that  the 
whole  body  of  forces  amounted  to  2,317,600 
men.  This  number  was  so  much  increased 
on  the  march  by  such  nations  as  made  their 
submission,  that  Xerxes  arrived  at  Thermop- 
ylae with  2,641,000  men,  besides  servants, 
eunuchs,  women,  &c. 

The  Grecian  fleet  was  victorious  over  that 
of  Persia  in  some  partial  engagements,  and 
afterward  completely  at  the  battle  of  Salamis, 
in  which  the  dispersion  was  so  general,  and 
the  defeat  so  decisive,  that  Xerxes,  afraid  of 
not  being  able  to  preserve  a single  vessel  to 
carry  him  from  Europe,  made  an  expeditious 
retreat,  and  was  conveyed  into  Asia  in  a small 
boat.  This  success  inspired  the  other  Greeks 
with  new  courage ; and  they  joined  the 
Athenians  and  Lacedaemonians  in  harassing 
the  Persians  on  all  sides.  The  land  army 
ventured  a decisive  battle  at  Plataea  in  Bceo- 
tia,  b.c.  479,  where,  out  of  three  hundred 
thousand,  only  three  thousand  Persians  es- 
caped. The  same  day  the  Persian  fleet  was 
defeated  at  Mycale  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  dissolute  conduct  of  Xerxes  rendered 
him  obnoxious  to  his  subjects and  he  was 
murdered  by  his  chief  favorite,  Artabanus, 
who  persuaded  Artaxerxes,  the  king’s  third 
son,  that  Darius,  his  eldest  brother,  had  been 
guilty  of  the  crime  of  parricide.  Artax- 
erxes, therefore,  killed  Darius,  and  finding 
that  Artabanus  entertained  a design  against 
him,  he  put  him  to  a horrible  death,  b.c.  465. 

The  new  monarch  having  thus  removed 
one  formidable  competitor,  endeavored  to 
secure  his  crown  against  the  attempts  of  his 
brother  Hvstaspes,  who  held  the  government 
of  Bactria.  Artaxerxes  attacked  and  de- 
feated the  adherents  of  Artabanus.  He  then 
sent  an  army  into  Bactria,  which  had  declared 
in  favor  of  Hvstaspes ; and  though  victory 
was  doubtful  in  the  first  battle,  Artaxerxes 
was  successful  in  the  second,  and  firmly 
established  himself  in  the  empire.  This 
Artaxerxes,  surnamed  Longimanus,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Ahasuerus  of  Scripture. 


During  his  reign  peace  was  restored  between 
Persia  and  Athens,  after  a war  of  fifty-one 
years.  He  died  in  peace,  and  left  the  succes- 
sion to  Xerxes,  b.c.  424,  the  only  son  he  had 
by  his  queen,  though  by  his  concubines  he 
had  seventeen,  among  whom  were  Sogdianus, 
Ochus,  and  Arsites.  Xerxes  II.  had  assumed 
the  diadem  only  forty -five  days,  when,  being 
inebriated  at  a public  entertainment,  Sogdi- 
anus seized  an  opportunity  to  assassinate 
him.  The  regicide  was  scarcely  seated  on 
the  throne,  when  Ochus  having  declared  his 
intention  of  revenging  the  murder  of  Xerxes, 
Sogdianus  was  deserted  by  all  his  subjects, 
and  finally  doomed  to  expiate  his  crimes  by 
a cruel  death. 

Ochus,  being  now  invested  with  supreme 
authority,  assumed  the  name  of  Darius,  and 
is  mentioned  by  historians  under  the  appel- 
lation of  Darius  Nothus,  or  Darius  the  bas- 
tard. In  this  reign,  the  Egyptians  shook  off 
the  Persian  yoke,  and  the  Medes  also  revolted. 
Darius,  having  settled  the  affairs  of  the  rebell- 
ious provinces,  bestowed  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  Asia  Minor  on  his  youngest  son, 
Cyrus,  b.c.  407,  who  was  ordered  to  assist 
the  Lacedaemonians  against  the  Athenians. 
This  order,  however,  soon  exposed  the  weak- 
ness of  the  king’s  politics ; for  the  Lacedae- 
monians, after  conquering  the  Athenians, 
invaded  the  Persian  provinces  in  Asia. 

Darius  died,  b.c.  404,  and  left  the  imperial 
diadem  to  his  son  Arsaces,  who  assumed  the 
name  of  Artaxerxes,  and  received  the  ap- 
pellation of  Mnemon,  on  account  of  his  extra- 
ordinary memory.  Cyrus  resolved  to  exert 
all  his  abilities  to  drive  his  brother  from  the 
throne,  and  having  procured  a number  of 
Grecian  auxiliaries,  marched  his  troops  to 
the  plains  of  Cunaxa,  in  the  province  of 
Babylon,  where  he  found  Artaxerxes,  at  the 
head  of  nine  hundred  thousand  men,  ready 
for  battle. 

A sanguinary  contest  immediately  com- 
menced ; and  Cyrus,  on  seeing  his  brother, 
engaged  him  with  such  fury  as  seemed  to 
change  the  battle  into  a single  combat.  The 
rebellious  prince,  however,  fell  by  the  hands 
of  the  king  and  his  guards.  The  ten  thou- 
sand Greeks,  under  the  conduct  cf  Xeno- 
phon, effected  that  memorable  retreat,  which 
has  always  been  considered  as  a noble 
achievement  among  military  operations. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


629 


Darius,  the  eldest  son  of  the  king,  was 
executed  for  a conspiracy  : whereupon  three 
of  the  princes,  Ariaspes,  Ochus,  and  Arsames, 
became  competitors  for  the  crown.  Ochus 
practiced  so  effectually  on  the  credulity  of 
Ariaspes,  that  he  poisoned  himself ; and  Ar- 
sames was  assassinated  by  the  son  of  Tiriba- 
zus.  These  acts  of  cruelty  overwhelmed 
Artaxerxes  with  such  insupportable  grief 
that  he  died.  Ochus  concealed  the  death 
of  the  king,  and  assumed  the  administration 
of  government  in  the  name  of  Artaxerxes. 
He  caused  himself,  in  the  name  of  the  king, 
to  be  declared  his  successor ; and  after  ten 
months,  he  published  the  death  of  Artax- 
erxes. An  insurrection  in  several  of  the 
provinces  immediately  followed ; but  the 
leaders  of  the  confederacy  disagreeing  among 
themselves,  the  rebellion  terminated  without 
any  effusion  of  blood.  Ochus  no  sooner  pos- 
sessed absolute  authority,  than  he  began  to 
fill  his  capital  and  the  whole  empire  with 
carnage  and  misery.  He  caused  his  own 
sister  to  be  buried  alive ; he  shut  up  one  of 
his  uncles,  with  a hundred  of  his  sons  and 
grandsons,  in  a court  of  the  palace,  where 
they  were  massacred  by  a body  of  archers ; 
and  he  put  all  the  branches  of  the  royal 
family  to  death.  This  insupportable  tyranny 
occasioned  another  rebellion,  which  was  not 
quelled  without  much  difficulty.  This  revolt 
was  scarcely  terminated,  when  the  Sidonians 
and  other  natives  of  Phoenicia  joined  the 
Cypriots  ' and  Egyptians  in  a confederacy 
against  Persia.  Ochus  effected  the  reduction 
of  Sidon,  and  compelled  all  the  other  cities 
to  make  submissions.  He  also  reduced  the 
city  of  Jericho,  and  having  concluded  a peace 
with  the  kings  of  Cyprus,  he  led  his  victori- 
ous troops  into  Egypt,  which  he  completely 
subdued.  Apis,  the  sacred  bull,  was  butch- 
ered, and  the  holy  beef  served  up  at  a royal 
banquet.  Ochus  passed  his  time  amidst 
every  species  of  luxury  and  voluptuousness. 
Bagoas,  an  Egyptian  eunuch,  prevailed  on  the 
king’s  physician  to  administer  a strong  poison, 
instead  of  medicine,  to  his  royal  benefactor. 
Having  thus  accomplished  his  purpose,  he 
caused  the  flesh  of  the  king  to  be  cut  in 
pieces  and  thrown  to  dogs  and  cats,  and  had 
swcrd  handles  made  from  his  bones.  He 
then  placed  on  the  throne  Arses,  the  youngest 
prince,  and  condemned  all  the  rest  to  death. 


But  Arses,  sensible  of  the  slavery  in  which 
he  was  held,  concerted  measures  to  free  him- 
self from  it.  Bagoas,  therefore,  effected  his 
destruction  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign, 
b.c.  336,  and  bestowed  the  imperial  diadem 
on  Darius  Codomanus,  who  was  a descendant 
of  Darius  Nothus,  and  at  that  time  governor 
of  Armenia. 

This  prince,  however,  had  not  long  enjoyed 
the  sovereignty,  when  the  ambitious  eunuch 
determined  to  remove  him,  and  with  this 
design  provided  a deleterious  potion ; but 
Darius,  being  apprised  of  his  danger,  com- 
pelled Bagoas  to  drink  the  poison,  and  thus 
established  himself  on  the  throne.  In  the 
second  year  of  this  reign,  Alexander  of  Mace- 
don  crossed  the  Hellespont  at  the  head  of 
a well-disciplined  army,  with  the  design  of 
revenging  the  injuries  which  Greece  had 
received  from  the  Persians  during  three  hun- 
dred years.  On  his  arrival  at  the  Granicus, 
he  found  on  the  opposite  bank  a numerous 
Persian  army,  amounting  to  100,000  foot 
and  10,000  horse.  Though  Alexander  had 
not  more  than  30,000  foot  and  5,000  horse, 
he  crossed  the  Granicus  at  the  head  of  his 
cavalry,  and  attacked  with  impetuosity  the 
whole  Persian  force.  An  obstinate  conflict 
ensued,  in  which  the  Persians  were  defeated 
with  the  loss  of  20,000  foot  and  2,000  horse, 
and  in  which  Alexander  exposed  his  life  to 
the  most  imminent  danger.  The  invasion 
having  assumed  a serious  aspect,  Darius  led 
his  army  into  Cilicia,  b.c.  333,  and  advanced 
to  the  city  of  Issus,  near  which  Alexander 
drew  up  his  troops  on  an  advantageous  ground. 
Victory  clung  to  Macedon,  and  Darius  re- 
treated precipitately  to  the  adjoining  moun- 
tains, where  he  mounted  a horse,  and  con- 
tinued his  flight.  Alexander  was  now  entire 
master  of  the  field,  and  of  the  Persian  camp, 
in  which  the  mother,  wife,  and  son  of  Darius 
were  taken  prisoners. 

In  331  b.c.,  the  Persian  monarch,  having 
assembled  a numerous  army,  prepared  for 
battle  in  a large  plain  near  the  city  of  Arbela, 
on  the  confines  of  Persia.  The  Persians 
commenced  the  attack,  but  were  totally 
routed,  and  Darius  was  again  compelled  to 
seek  safety  in  flight.  At  Ecbatana,  in  Me- 
dia, he  collected  another  army,  with  which 
he  intended  to  make  a last  effort,  b.c.  330. 
He  was,  however,  prevented  by  Bessus,  gov- 


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630 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


ernor  of  Bactria,  and  Nabarzanes,  a Persian 
nobleman,  who  entered  into  a conspiracy 
against  him,  and  binding  him  with  golden 
chains,  shut  him  up  in  a covered  cart,  and 
retreated  precipitately  toward  Bactria.  They 
intended,  if  Alexander  pursued  them,  to 
deliver  up  the  object  of  his  resentment ; or, 
if  they  escaped  the  Macedonian  conqueror, 
to  murder  Darius,  and,  usurping  the  impe- 
rial diadem,  to  renew  the  war.  When 
Alexander  was  informed  of  the  base  designs 
of  Bessus  and  Nabarzanes,  he  advanced  with 
a small  body  of  light-armed  cavalry ; and, 
as  soon  as  the  Macedonians  came  within 
sight  of  the  enemy,  they  immediately  took  to 
flight,  and  having  discharged  their  darts  at 
the  unfortunate  Persian  monarch,  left  him 
weltering  in  his  blood.  Thus  died  Darius, 
in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  age,  and  the  sixth 
of  his  reign,  and  with  him  ended  the  Persian 
empire,  after  it  had  existed  206  years. 

After  the  dissolution  of  the  Macedonian 
empire,  Persia  fell  to  the  Seleucidse,  and 
next  to  Parthia.  After  the  Persians  had 
been  subject  to  the  Parthians  for  the  space 
of  475  years,  Artaxerxes,  a Persian  of  mean 
descent  and  spurious  birth,  excited  a revolt 
among  his  countrymen ; and,  the  reigning 
monarch  being  dethroned  and  put  to  death, 
a new  Persian  monarchy  was  founded.  The 
Roman  emperor,  Alexander  Severus,  attacked 
and  defeated  Artaxerxes,  and  wrested  from 
him  several  of  his  provinces.  Artaxerxes, 
however,  recovered  these  provinces,  and,  after 
swaying  the  sceptre  with  great  reputation  for 
the  space  of  twelve  years,  died  in  peace. 

Pie  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sapor,  a.d. 
242,  who  was  equally  famous  for  his  personal 
strength  and  mental  abilities,  but  was  of  a 
fierce,  cruel,  and  untractable  disposition.  lie 
waged  severe  wars  with  the  Romans.  Sa- 
por left  his  kingdom  to  his  son  Plormisdas, 
who,  refusing  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the 
Romans,  died  in  peace,  a.d.  273,  after  a 
reign  of  one  year  and  ten  days.  His  son 
Vararanes  I.  enjoyed  the  regal  dignity  three 
years,  without  being  disturbed  by  the  Ro- 
mans, or  attempting  to  extend  the  limits  of 
his  empire.  Vararanes  II.  meditated  an  inva- 
sion of  the  Roman  provinces,  a.d.  277,  but 
on  the  approach  of  the  Emperor  Probus,  he 
abandoned  his  design,  and  sued  for  peace. 
Vararanes  III.  was  denominated  Segansaa,  or 


king  of  the  Segans,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Narses,  a.d.  294,  a prince  of  great  abilities 
and  resolution. 

Sapor  II.,  a.d.  308,  was  a zealous  assertor 
of  the  dignity  of  the  Persian  crown,  and  en- 
deavored to  unite  all  the  provinces  of  the 
ancient  empire  under  his  authority.  This 
restless  and  ambitious  monarch  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Artaxerxes,  a.d.  380,  who  lived  in 
amity  with  the  Romans,  and  enjoyed  the 
regal  dignity  about  four  years.  Vararanes 
IV.  succeeded  his  father  Saporos,  and  gov- 
erned his  dominions  eleven  years.  Isdigertes 
was  deservedly  celebrated  for  his  virtuous 
disposition,  and,  at  the  death  of  his  friend 
the  Emperdr  Arcadius,  a.d.  401,  was  in- 
trusted with  the  care  of  his  son  Theodosius 
II.  and  the  Roman  empire.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Vararanes  V.,  a.d.  421. 
In  this  reign,  the  indiscreet  zeal  of  a Chris- 
tian, who  set  fire  to  a Persian  temple, 
renewed  the  war  with  the  Romans.  The 
Persian  monarch  obtained  the  assistance  of 
the  Saracens,  and,  notwithstanding  the  de- 
feats which  he  experienced  from  the  Romans, 
he  rendered  even  victory  disadvantageous  to 
the  enemy. 

Vararanes  VI.  was  next  invested  with  the 
diadem,  a.d.  442,  which  he  wore  for  seven- 
teen years  apd  four  months.  His  son  and 
successor,  Peroses,  being  incensed  against  the 
Euthalites  or  White  Huns,  marched  an  army 
into  their  country  ; but  the  Euthalites  cutting 
off  his  retreat,  obliged  him  to  swear  that  he 
would  never  more  invade  them.  Peroses, 
however,  assembled  his  forces,  and  marched 
a second  time  toward  the  northern  frontiers ; 
but  the  Euthalites,  rushing  unexpectedly 
upon  him,  slew  and  took  captive  most  of  his 
army,  and  put  him  to  death.  The  nobles 
bestowed  the  crown  on  his  brother  V alens, 
who,  at  the  expiration  of  four  years,  fell  a 
victim  to  the  oppressive  cares  of  government. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Cavades,  the  son  of 
Peroses,  a.d.  486.  On  the  death  of  Cavades, 
his  son  Chosroes  ascended  the  throne,  a.d. 
531.  The  Persian  monarch,  however,  was 
almost  constantly  engaged  in  hostilities  with 
the  eastern  empire.  He  raised  the  empire 
to  great  power,  and  the  excellence  of  his 
government  gained  him  the  name  of  the 
Just.  The  Romans  having  given  him  a com- 
plete defeat,  he  was  so  deeply  affected  with 


PER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


631 


his  ill  success,  that  he  sickened  and  died. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Horraisdas, 
a.d.  579. 

Hormisdas  was  dethroned  by  a person  of 
the  royal  blood,  named  Bindoes,  who  had 
been  loaded  with  chains  for  a slight  offense. 
The  unfortunate  monarch  being  heard  in  his 
own  defense,  recommended  his  younger  son 
Hormisdas  as  his  successor,  in  preference  to 
his  elder  son  Chosrodes.  The  assembly,, 
however,  at  the  instigation  of  Bindoes,  caused 
his  son  Hormisdas,  and  the  prince’s  mother, 
to  be  cut  in  pieces ; and  ordered  the  eyes  of 
the  deposed  monarch  to  be  put  out  with  a 
hot  iron. 

Chosroes  IT.  ascended  the  throne  a.d.  592. 
On  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Mauritius,  he 
took  up  arms  against  the  Romans,  a.d.  605, 
and  such  was  his  success,  that,  in  nine  years, 
he  plundered  the  provinces  of  Syria,  Mesopo- 
tamia, Phoenicia,  Armenia,  Cappadocia,  Gala- 
tia, Paphlagonia,  and  all  the  country  as  far 
as  Chalcedon.  He  also  ravaged  Judea,  pil- 
laged the  cit}^  of  Jerusalem,  and  sold  ninety 
Christians  to  the  Jews,  who  put  them  all  to 
death.  These  conquests  induced  him  to 
make  an  expedition  into  Egypt ; he  reduced 
Alexandria  and  all  the  country  toward  Libya, 
and  added  the  empire  of  Africa  to  that  of 
Asia.  At  last  his  star  waned.  He  was  de- 
feated in  several  battles,  and  finally  murdered 
in  a dungeon  by  command  of  his  own  son, 
Siores,  who  having  ascended  the  throne,  a.d. 
626,  concluded  a treaty  of  perpetual  peace 
with  Heraclius  ; but  he  was  murdered  by  one 
of  his  generals  after  twelve  months’  reign. 
His  son,  Ardeser,  was  next  invested  wTith  the 
government,  but  was  assassinated  in  the 
seventh  month  of  his  reign  by  Sarbas,  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Persian  forces,  who 
seized  the  diadem  for  himself.  A civil  war, 
however,  crushed  the  ambitious  projects  of  the 
usurer,  and  elevated  to  the  throne  Isdigertes 
II.,  a.d.  630.  The  reign  of  this  prince  was 
short  and  unhappy.  The  Moslems  were  then 
commencing  their  career  of  conquest.  He 
defended  his  country  with  becoming  resolu- 
lution  against  them,  till  the  spirits  of  his 
subjects  were  entirely  broken  by  repeated 
defeats.  At  last  he  was  slain  in  battle ; and 
in  him  ended  the  royal  line  of  Artaxares. 
With  his  death  terminated  the  last  Persian 


empire,  which  had  maintained  a splendid 
existence  for  upward  of  four  hundred  years. 

The  Persians  imbibed  the  literature  and 
religion  of  the  Arabs,  and  for  two  centuries 
the  country  was  a province  of  the  caliphate. 
After  the  power  of  the  caliphs  decayed,  the 
land  was  possessed  by  various  chiefs.  The 
Seljookian  Turks,  among  whom  were  the 
distinguished  kings  Togrel-Beg  and  Alp- Ars- 
lan, ruled  from  1028  till  1 194:.  The  famous 
Genghis  Khan  included  Persia  in  the  Mogul 
empire,  which  held  it  till  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  when  the  Tartars  under 
Tamerlane  conquered  the  country,  and  estab- 
lished a rule  which  lasted,  with  few  inter- 
ruptions, till  1502. 

The  founder  of  the  djmasty  of  shahs  in 
Persia,  was  Ismael,  surnamed  Sooffee,  who 
was  remotely  descended  from  the  Caliph 
Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed.  He  was 
a Turkoman,  but  he  belonged  to  the  sect  of 
his  ancestor,  and  hence  partly  the  national 
enmity  which  has  subsisted  between  the 
Sheah  and  Sooni,  or  Persian  and  Turkish 
Mohammedans.  In  1500  there  was  a great 
number  of  the  sectaries  of  Ali  among  the 
Mohammedans  of  Asia.  Ismael  assembled 
about  700,  who  were  attached  to  his  family  ; 
and  attacking  his  father’s  murderer,  slew 
him  in  battle,  and  took  possession  of  his  do- 
minions. He  was  a monster  of  inhumanity 
and  cruelty,  and  reigned  twenty-three  years ; 
during  which  period  began  the  struggle  for 
power  between  the  Persians  and  the  Turks. 
Ismael  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Tahmasp, 
a.d.  1523.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ismael  IL 
his  son,  a.d.  1575.  Mohammed,  the  brother 
and  successor  of  Ismael,  had  spent  his  life  in 
privacy,  wholly  devoted  to  religious  duties ; 
and  assumed  the  sceptre,  a.d.  1577.  Mo- 
hammed left  three  sons,  the  two  eldest  of 
whom,  Hamzeh  and  Ishmael,  merely  appeared 
upon  the  throne,  about  1584,  and  are  scarcely 
numbered  among  the  shahs. 

Shah  Abbas  the  Great  began  to  reign  in 
1582.  By  the  contrivance  of  a vizier  named 
Kouli  Khan,  Shah  Abbas  prosecuted  the  war 
against  the  Turks,  which  he  conducted  in 
person,  with  great  success  and  glory  ; retook 
Tauris,  and ‘defeated  his  enemies  in  several 
engagements.  In  his  dying  moments,  he 
sent  for  four  of  the  chief  lords  of  his  council 


PER 


632 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


to  his  bed-side,  and  told  them  that  it  was  his 
will  that  his  grandson  Mirza  should  succeed 
him,  and  assume  the  name  of  his  father. 
After  assembling  all  the  lords  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Ispahan,  they  crowned  him,  a.d. 
1628.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne,  he 
assumed  the  name  of  Soofee.  This  prince 
was  a second  Nero ; bearing  in  his  counte- 
nance every  mark  of  clemency  and  good- 
ness, he  cherished  in  his  heart  the  vicious 
inclinations  of  a savage  and  inexorable  tyrant. 
He  reigned  thirteen  years,  and  left  a son, 
named  Abbas,  who  succeeded  him  in  1641, 
and  whom  his  father  had  ordered  to  be 
deprived  of  sight ; but  the  compassion  of  the 
executioner  had  spared  him. 

Under  this  Abbas  II.,  intoxication,  pas- 
sion, and  an  uncontrollable  love  of  power 
rendered  life  not  more  secure  than  under  his 
brutal  father.  On  the  death  of  Abbas,  his 
eldest  son  Safi  was  immediately  saluted  em- 
peror, a.d.  1666,  but  afterward  assumed  the 
name  of  Solyman.  Solyman  died  a natural 
death  after  a reign  of  twenty-nine  years,  a.d. 
1694,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shah 
Husseyn,  the  most  merciful  and  most  unfor- 
tunate prince  of  his  race.  History  furnishes 
few  instances  of  a dissolution  so  entire  as  that 
of  the  kingdom  of  Persia,  under  the  feeble 
and  inactive  Husseyn. 

At  length,  after  a series  of  disasters,  Hus- 
seyn was  obliged  to  abdicate  the  throne  to  Mah- 
moud. Before  this  ceremony  took  place,  the 
king  traveled  through  the  principal  streets  of 
Ispahan  on  foot,  deploring  the  misfortunes  of 
his  reign,  and  consoling  the  people  who  sur- 
rounded him,  by  endeavoring  to  excite  in  them 
hopes  of  better  fortune  under  a new  govern- 
ment. 

In  dispossessing  Husseyn,  a.d.  1723,  Mah- 
moud avenged  himself  on  all  those  who,  by 
negligence,  ignorance,  party  spirit,  coward- 
ice, or  treason,  had  contributed  to  the  ruin 
of  the  state.  The  conduct  of  Mahmoud  tended 
to  excite  the  odium  of  his  subjects ; and  he 
saw  his  projects  defeated,  and  himself  begin- 
ning to  be  treated  with  general  hatred.  In 
order  to  avert  these  misfortunes,  which  he 
imputed  to  the  anger  of  heaven,  he  imposed 
on  himself  a sort  of  penance,  which  continued 
fifteen  days,  and  which  had  the  effect  of  com- 
pletely deranging  his  senses.  His  captains, 
seeing  him  at  the  point  of  death,  turned  their 


thoughts  on  his  cousin  Ashraf,  who  refused  the 
crown  except  the  head  of  Mahmoud  should  be 
brought  to  him.  Mahmoud,  therefore,  who 
could  not  have  lived  many  hours  longer,  was 
put  to  death ; and  the  destroyer  of  the 
dynasty  of  the  Shahs  enjoyed  his  triumph 
only  two  years.  Ashraf  ordered  all  the 
guards,  ministers,  and  confidants  of  Mah- 
moud to  be  executed ; and  did  not  spare  even 
those  who  had  placed  him  on  the  throne. 

About  this  time,  Kouli  Khan  became  dis- 
tinguished ; and  having  tendered  his  services 
to  Tahmasp,  in  three  campaigns  he  made  him 
master  of  all  the  possessions  of  the  Afghans. 
Ashraf  offered  to  abdicate  the  throne,  and 
to  restore  the  treasures  which  he  had  inher- 
ited after  Mahmoud’s  death ; but  Kouli 
Khan,  refusing  to  listen  to  any  terms  of  ac- 
commodation, pursued  his  enemy  even  to 
death,  and  with  him  ended  the  transitory 
dynasty  of  the  Afghans.  Tahmasp  was  re-es- 
tablished on  the  throne  by  the  power  of  Kouli 
Khan,  a.d.  1730,  who  in  a short  time  de- 
posed him,  and  introduced  into  his  place  his 
infant  son,  by  the  name  of  Abbas  III.  The 
infant  emperor  dying  within  six  months,  Kouli 
Khan  was  elected  to  the  vacant  throne  ; and, 
on  his  accession,  took  the  name  of  Nadir  Shah. 

The  reign  of  this  prince  was  marked  with 
glory  and  conquest.  His  government  was 
despotic  and  tyrannical ; and  he  formed  the 
design  of  a general  massacre  of  the  principal 
Persians.  He  conquered  Candahar  and  Af- 
ghanistan, and  invading  India  in  1739  bore 
from  Delhi  a booty  estimated  at  $160,000,000. 
He  conquered  Usbec  Tartary,  but  was  not 
so  successful  against  the  Daghistan  Tartars. 
He  beat  the  Turks  in  several  engagements, 
but  was  unable  to  take  Bagdad.  His  conduct 
became  so  intolerable,  that  he  was  assassin- 
ated in  his  tent,  in  the  year  1747. 

ManjT  pretenders,  upon  his  death,  started 
up ; but  the  fortunate  one  was  Kerim  Khan. 
His  death  gave  rise  to  another  disputed  suc- 
cession, with  civil  wars.  At  length,  Aga 
Mohammed  raised  himself  to  the  sovereignty. 
He  fixed  the  capital  at  Teheran.  His  cruelty 
provoked  his  attendants  to  his  assassination 
in  1797.  His  nephew,  Futtah  Ali,  became 
shah.  This  reign  was  marked  by  two  disas- 
trous wars  with  Russia,  who  had  already  seiz- 
ed Georgia,  and  now  obtained  fresh  slices  of 
Futtah  Ali  died  in  1834,  and  was 


territory. 
PER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


633 


succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Shah  Mohammed,  i 
at  whose  death  in  1848  his  son  Nasr-ul-Din,  | 
or  Nausser-ood-deen,  became  shah. 

The  Persian  possession  of  Herat  in  the  fall 
of  1856,  brought  on  a rupture  with  England. 
The  Persians  were  defeated  at  Bushire,  Dec. 
10th,  and  at  one  or  two  other  encounters,  and 
peace  was  ratified  at  Teheran,  April  14th? 
1857. 

PERU,  like  the  other  South  American 
provinces  of  Spain,  achieved  its  independ- 
ence in  the  early  part  of  this  century.  The 
southern  part  of  ancient  Peru  is  now  the 
republic  of  Bolivia;  the  remainder,  also  a 
republic,  retains  the  old  name,  having  an  area 
of  580,000  square  miles,  and  a population  of 
2,400,000.  The  surface  of  the  country  is 
of  the  boldest  and  most  varied  description. 
The  lofty  Andes  crowd  close  to  the  Pacific, 
leaving  but  a narrow  desert  between  them 
and  the  shore,  brightened  by  the  luxuriant 
verdure  of  the  valleys  through  which  the 
torrents  roll  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea. 
East  of  the  mountains  is  a vast  region,  inhab- 
ited by  independent  Indian  tribes,  with  all 
the  luxuriant  vegetation  and  animal  life  that 
belong  to  the  tropics.  Peru  is  considered 
the  native  land  of  the  potato : here  it  bears 
pure  white  blossoms  free  from  the  purple  hue 
so  common  in  cultivated  varieties.  This  is 
not  an  agricultural  country : its  mines  of 
gold,  silver,  and  mercury,  have  been  the 
source  of  its  wealth.  They  are  seated  in  the 
inmost  depths  of  the  Andes,  approached  only 
by  deep  and  perilous  passes,  and  in  moun- 
tains which  tower  into  the  regions  of  perpet- 
ual snow.  They  are  by  no  means  exhausted, 
though  of  late  years,  wars  and  political  con- 
vulsions caused  a diminution  of  their  prod- 
ucts. Guano  has  become  an  important 
export  of  late. 

The  population  of  Peru  is  made  up  of 
Spaniards  or  Creoles,  Indians,  mixed  races, 
and  negroes.  Much  of  the  commerce  at 
Callao  and  Lima  is  carried  on  by  English 
and  American  merchants.  The  Spanish 
ladies  of  Peru  are  famed  for  their  love  of 
intrigue  and  coquetry,  which  is  greatly  aided 
by  a dress  originally  intended  to  secure  re- 
serve and  seclusion  : the  say  a , a light  gown 
fitted  close  to  the  frame,  being  covered  with 
the  manto,  a large  loose  cloak  of  black  silk 
gauze,  which  is  wrapped  round  even  the  face. 


Under  this  disguise  they  sally  forth,  and 
amuse  themselves  by  addressing  their  friends 
without  being  known,  mixing  with  the  crowd 
tg  see  whatever  attracts  their  curiosity,  and 
too  liable  to  trip  in  more  culpable  indiscre- 
tions. 

The  Indians,  or  native  Peruvians,  are  the 
most  numerous  class.  They  have  small  fea- 
tures, little  feet,  well-turned  limbs,  sleek, 
coarse,  black  hair,  and  scarcely  any  beard. 
Conquest  and  oppression  plunged  them  in 
apathy,  ignorance,  and  degradation.  An  en- 
lightened government  could  easily  raise  them 
to  a higher  civilization,  for  many  of  them 
have  courage,  patience,  industry,  and  inge- 
nuity. The  monks  largely  converted  them 
to  something  which  was  called  Christianity. 
They  celebrated  the  festivals  of  the  Romish 
church  by  drinking  enormous  potations  of 
chica  (a  liquor  made  from  corn,  the  Indian 
women  helping  on  the  fermentation  by  first 
chewing  the  kernels),  dancing  through  the 
streets  to  the  sound  of  the  pipe,  with  bells 
fastened  to  their  legs,  and  cudgels  for  thwack- 
ing any  who  stood  in  their  way  : in  which 
devout  exercises  a whole  week  was  sometimes 
consumed.  During  the  war  of  independence 
the  missions  were  mostly  broken  up.  It  is 
said  that  amid  their  gloomy  debasement, 
the  natives  yet  retain  a mournful  recollec- 
tion of  the  estate  of  their  anceestors,  and  in 
the  more  remote  districts,  the  death  of  the 
last  inca  is  annually  observed  by  a sort  of  rude 
tragedy,  accompanied  by  plaintive  strains 
of  their  wild  music. 

Lima,  next  to  Mexico  the  most  splendid 
city  of  Spanish  America,  is  the  capital  of 
Peru;  population  60,000.  Lima  was  founded 
in  1534  by  Pizarro,  and  has  been  visited  by 
severe  earthquakes.  It  stands  six  miles  from 
the  coast.  Callao,  its  port,  is  itself  a consid- 
erable town,  having  20,000  inhabitants.  The 
most  interesting  town  in  Peru  is  Cuzco,  the 
metropolis  of  the  ancient  empire,  situated  in 
the  interior  upon  a table-land  of  the  Andes, 
surrounded  by  valleys,  and  even  extended 
plains,  rich  in  pasturage  and  the  grains  of 
temperate  climates.  In  its  fallen  state,  it  is 
still  rioble.  The  cathedral  is  a stately  pile. 
On  the  site  of  the  ancient  temple  of  the  sun 
and  from  its  materials,  the  Dominican  monks 
reared  a church ; their  altar  took  the  place 
of  the  image  of  the  Peruvian  deity.  On  an 


PER 


634 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


mantled  walls  of  the  great  fortress  of  the 
incas.  They  were  raised  to  a great  height, 
and  built  of  truly  astonishing  masses  of  stone, 
placed  upon  one  another  without  cement,  but 
fitted  with  such  nicety  as  not  to  admit  the 
insertion  of  a blade  between  them.  Cuzco 
has  some  40,000  inhabitants. 

The  ancient  Peruvians  enjoyed  a degree  of 
civilization  far  above  the  savage  state,  equaled 
on  the  continent  only  by  that  of  Mexico,  and 
with  that  contrasting  remarkably.  Instead 
of  the  fierce  and  lofty  spirit,  the  bloody 
wars,  the  uncouth  deities,  and  the  ferocious 
rites  of  that  singular  nation,  the  Peruvians 
were  united  in  tranquil  subjection  to  a mild 
superstition,  which  represented  to  them  their 
• inca  as  one  to  whom  their  unreserved  submis- 
sion was  due.  They  venerated  the  memory 
of  Manco  Capac,  and  Mama  Ocello  his  wife, 
children  of  the  sun,  who  came  among  them 
in  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  to  teach 
the  women  how  to  spin  and  the  men  how  to 
till  the  ground,  and  established  peace,  order, 
and  religion.  The  truth  hidden  in  this  tradi- 
tion, is  hidden  from  us  forever.  The  un- 
known history  of  the  world  is  greater  than 
that  which  is  written.  We  may  repeat  the 
question  of  quaint  Sir  Thomas  Browne : 
“ Who  knows  whether  the  best  of  men  be 
known?  or  whether  there  be  not  more  re- 
markable persons  forgot  than  any  that  stand 
remembered  in  the  known  account  of  time  ? ” 

The  incas  were  the  posterity  of  Manco 
Capac,  and  thus  sacred  as  descendants  of  the 
sun.  Their  government  was  a theocracy, 
despotic  though  not  cruel.  They  were  at 
once  temporal  and  spiritual  sovereigns.  “ The 
empire  of  the  incas,”  Humboldt  says,  “was 
like  a great  monastic  establishment : there 
prevailed  a state  of  general  ease  with  little 
individual  happiness;  a resignation  to  the 
decrees  of  the  sovereign,  rather  than  a love 
of  country  ; a passive  obedience  without  the 
courage  for  great  undertakings ; a spirit  of 
order,  which  directed  with  great  minuteness 
the  most  indifferent  acts  of  life,  but  no  ex- 
pansion of  mind,  no  elevation  of  character.” 
The  religion  was  a worship  of  the  sun  and 
other  heavenly  bodies,  rarely  stained  by  hu- 
man sacrifices.  The  empire  attained  domin- 
ion over  a territory  more  than  two  thousand 
miles  in  length.  The  land  was  carefully 


As  moisture  was  the  chief  want, 
all  the  rivers  were  diverted  into  canals  for 
irrigation ; mountains  were  formed  into  ter- 
races to  receive  them;  walls  were  built  to 
prevent  the  waters  from  escaping ; and  thus 
large  tracts  were  made  to  blossom  and  smile, 
which  under  Spanish  indolence  have  relapsed 
into  deserts.  From  Cuzco  to  Quito,  a dis- 
tance of  1,500  miles,  a road  was  constructed, 
which  though  only  eighteen  feet  broad,  and 
not  fitted  for  carriages, — which  indeed  were 
not  known  to  the  Peruvians, — was  yet  a won- 
derful work,  from  the  natural  obstacles  which 
had  been  overcome,  jgid  the  flying  bridges 
that  gave  a'  passage  over  the  deep  ravines. 
The  country  is  subject  to  earthquakes,  and 
to  this  the  structure  of  the  edifices  was 
adapted.  The  walls  were  formed  of  huge 
blocks  of  stone,  and  seldom  rose  to  more  than 
twelve  feet  in  height.  But  they  inclosed 
immense  spaces  of  ground,  and  were  divided 
into  many  apartments.  The  people  were 
decently  clad.  They  had  manufactures  of 
earthenware,  and  woolen  and  cotton  cloth. 
They  had  tools  made  of  copper.  To  the 
Mexican  paintings  and  hieroglyphics,  the 
Peruvians  had  nothing  analogous.  Their 
quipos,  or  strings,  on  which  the  colors  repre- 
sented objects,  and  the  knots  their  number, 
were  apparently  first  used  for  purposes 
of  calculation,  and  afterward  employed  as  a 
rude  record  of  events.  Amid  the  mildness 
of  their  rites  and  habits,  there  remained  one 
decided  relic  of  barbarism.  On  the  death 
of  an  inca,  or  even  of  any  great  chief,  a num- 
ber of  his  vassals,  often  very  considerable, 
were  buried  with  his  corpse.  A portion  of 
his  wealth  was  also  deposited,  and  many  pre- 
cious and  useful  articles,  destined  for  his  use 
in  the  world  to  which  he  had  gone.  In  later 
days  the  opening  of  these  huacas,  or  tombs, 
often  proved  a great  prize  to  European  ad- 
venturers, and  in  one  instance  there  was  found 
a treasure  in  gold  amounting  to  $750,000. 

Rumors  of  a region  that  vied  with  the 
Indies  in  wealth  reached  the  Spaniards.  In 
1531  Pizarro  led  his  band  into  the  quiet 
realm,  whose  unsuspecting  people  received 
them  with  hospitality  and  venerated  them  as 
superior  beings.  The  inca  Huayna  Capac 
had  violated  the  ancient  usage  forbidding  him 
to  wed  beyond  the  lineage  of  Manco  Capac. 
His  second  wife  was  the  daughter  of  the 


PER 


eminence  north  of  the  town  stand  the  dis- 1 cultivated. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


635 


vanquished  king  of  Quito,  and  the  son  whom 
she  had  borne  him,  named  Atahualpa,  he 
made  his  successoi  in  that  kingdom,  while 
Huascar,  his  eldest  son  by  a princess  of  the 
sacred  race,  reigned  over  the  other  domin- 
ions. The  contest  between  the  half-brothers 
smoothed  the  way  for  Spanish  ambition. 
The  conquest  was  soon  made.  Atahualpa, 
the  last  of  the  incas,  was  held  a captive. 
The  Spaniards  promised  to  ransom  him  on 
the  payment  of  an  immense  sum  of  money ; 
when  the  loyalty  of  the  people  had  pro- 
duced the  treasure,  Pizarro  accepted  it,  but 
refused  to  release  his  prisoner,  who  was  mur- 
dered in  his  palace  at  Caxamarca.  In  that 
town  still  dwells  an  Indian  family  who  boast 
a descent  from  the  incas,  and  inhabit  the  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  palace.  The  room  in 
which  Atahualpa  was  confined  is  shown,  and 
especially  the  mark  on  the  wall,  to  which  the 
room  was  to  be  filled  with  silver  as  his  ran- 
som. The  Peruvians  were  degraded  into  a 
cruel  bondage,  and  their  country  became  the 
centre  of  the  wealth  and  power  of  Spain  in 
South  America.  It  was  the  last  of  the  vice- 
royalties  to  throw  oif  the  Spanish  rule. 
The  battle  of  Ayacucho,  Dec.  9th,  1824, 
overthrew  the  last  army  of  Spain.  Peru  has 
since  shared  the  unhappy  lot  of  all  the  South 
American  republics. 

PESTALOZZI,  Henry,  the  celebrated  in- 
structor,born  at  Zurich,  Jan.  12th,  1745,  died 
in  1827. 

PETER  the  Hermit,  a French  enthusiast  of 
the  eleventh  century,  who  made  a pilgrimage 
to  Palestine,  and,  on  his  return  to  Europe, 
preached  up  a crusade  for  the  recovery  of 
the  holy  city  from  the  infidels.  His  success 
was  such  as  might  have  been  expected  in  an 
ignorant  age.  He  passed  through  Hungary 
with  an  immense  crowd  of  followers,  thou- 
sands of  whom  perished  miserably  by  the 
way.  Peter,  however,  entered  Syria,  and  dis- 
played great  bravery  at  the  taking  of  Jerusa- 
lem. He  then  returned  to  France,  where  he 
died,  in  the  abbey  of  Noirmoutier,  of  which 
he  was  the  founder. 

PETERS,  Richard,  was  born  near  Phila- 
delphia, Aug.  22d,  1744,  and  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  stud- 
ied law,  and,  having  served  a short  time  as 
captain  in  the  revolutionary  army,  he  was 
transferred  to  the  board  of  war,  where  his 


services  were  of  high  worth  to  the  patriot 
cause.  For  thirty-six  years  he  held  the  sta- 
tion of  judge  of  the  district  court  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  made  many  agricultural  experi- 
ments, most  of  which  were  highly  successful. 
He  was  particularly  distinguished  for  a fertile 
fancy  and  wit. 

PETRARCA,  Francesco,  or,  as  he  is  gen- 
erally termed  by  English  writers,  Petrarch, 
was  an  Italian  poet  and  scholar  who  adorned 
the  fourteenth  century.  He  was  born  at 
Arezzo  in  Tuscany,  July  4th,  1304.  he  stud- 
ied law  and  theology,  entering  into  the  eccle- 
siastical state  in  1326.  His  platonic  affection 
for  the  beautiful  Laura  led  him  to  write  ama- 
tory sonnets  in  his  native  tongue,  which  trib- 
utes of  affection  were  continued  after  the  death 
of  the  virtuous  lady  who  inspired  them.  Pe- 
trarch died  at  Arqua,  near  Padua,  July  18th, 
1374. 

PETRONIUS,  Arbiter,  a licentious  Roman 
author,  bled  to  death  by  order  of  Nero,  a.d.  65. 

PHARSALIA,  Battle  of,  fought  May  12th, 
b.c.  48,  in  which  Caesar  defeated  Pompey, 
who  fled  into  Egypt,  and  was  there  slain. 

PHIDIAS,  the  greatest  of  Grecian  sculptors, 
was  born  at  Athens  about  b.c.  490.  Under 
the  patronage  of  Pericles,  he  executed  his 
greatest  works.  He  superintended  the  build- 
ing of  the  Parthenon,  whose  sculptures,  known 
in  the  British  Museum  as  the  Elgin  marbles, 
eloquently  extol  his  genius.  Phidias  died 
432  b.c. 

PHILIP  I.  of  France,  born  in  1053,  the  son 
of  Henry  I.,  was  crowned  at  Rheims,  1059. 
His  jealousy  against  William  the  Conqueror 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  wars  between  Eng- 
land and  France.  He  died  at  Milan,  July 
29  th,  1108. 

PHILIP  II.  of  France,  surnamed  Augustus, 
son  of  Louis  VII.  and  of  Alix,  daughter  of  the 
Count  of  Champagne,  was  born  August  22d, 
1165.  He  began  to  reign  in  1180.  He  made 
war  with  the  English ; but  some  time  after, 
he  joined  Richard  I.  in  the  crusade  in  1190. 
He  returned  about  Christmas,  1191,  and  in- 
vaded Normandy  during  Richard’s  captivity. 
Afterward  he  seized  all  King  John’s  posses- 
sions in  France.  In  1214  the  Emperor  Otho 
IV.,  a Count  of  Flanders,  and  several  confed- 
erate princes  raised  an  army  of  150,000  men 
against  him,  whei!  the  king  engaged  them  at 
Bovines,  and  gained  the  victory.  The  king 


636 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


fought  with  great  intrepidity  at  Bovines,  and 
had  his  horse  kiiled  under  him.  He  died  at 
Mante  upon  the  Seine,  July  14th,  1223,  after 
a reign  of  forty-two  years. 

PHILIP  III.  of  France,  surnamed  the 
Hardy,  the  son  of  St.  Louis  and  Margaret  of 
Provence,  was  born  in  1 245.  After  his  father’s 
death  before  Tunis,  he  brought  the  army 
home  to  France,  where  he  was  crowned  in 
1271.  He  engaged  in  war  with  Peter  of  Ara- 
gon, went  in  person  against  the  Aragonese, 
took  Girone,  and  on  his  return  died  of  a ma- 
lignant fever  at  Perpignan  in  the  sixteenth 
year  of  his  reign,  aged  forty -one. 

PHILIP  IV.  of  France,  surnamed  the  Fair, 
as  also  le  Grand , born  at  Fontainebleau  in 
1268,  was  the  son  of  the  preceding  by  Isabella 
of  Aragon,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1285. 
The  ill  conduct  of  James  of  Castillon,  Earl  of 
St.  Paul,  caused  a sedition  at  Bruges.  The 
king  sent  an  army  to  reduce  it,  under  the 
command  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Artois  ; but  they 
were  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Courtray  in 
1302.  Philip  recovered  himself  in  some 
measure  again,  especially  on  the  18th  of  Au- 
gust, 1304,  in  the  memorable  battle  at  Mons 
in  Puelle,  where  above  25,000  Flemings  were 
slain.  At  length  peace  was  made,  in  1305. 
Philip  also  waged  war  with  England,  and 
quarreled  with  the  pope,  by  whom  he  was 
excommunicated.  Philip  died  at  Fontaine- 
bleau, in  1314. 

PHILIP  V.  of  France,  surnamed  the  Long, 
youngest  son  to  Philip  the  Fair,  succeeded  to 
the  crown  in  1317,  but  died  after  a reign  of 
five  years.  IIe  renewed  his  alliance  with  the 
Scots  in  1318,  and  cruelly  expelled  the  Jews 
from  his  dominions.  He  died  at  Long-Champ, 
1322,  aged  twenty-eight  years. 

PHILIP  VI.  of  France  succeeded  in  1328. 
He  was  the  son  of  Charles  of  Valois,  a son  of 
Philip  III.  Edward  III.  of  England  claiming 
the  c'own,  war  broke  out  in  1338.  Next  year 
Cambray  was  besieged  by  the  English.  The 
king  had  taken  the  part  of  Charles  de  Blois, 
his  nephew,  and  had  received  homage  for 
Brittany,  which  John  de  Montfort  pretended 
to ; but  the  latter  was  supported  by  Edward, 
who  made  a descent  into  Normandy,  took 
Caen,  and  gained  a great  victory  at  Cressy. 
The  English,  flushed  with  this  victory,  took 
Calais.  Philip  died  at  Nogent  le  Potrou, 
1350,  aged  fifty-seven. 


PHILIP  II.  of  Spain,  born  at  Valladolid  in 
1527,  was  son  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and 
Isabel  of  Portugal.  He  was  married  first  to 
the  Princess  Mary  of  Portugal,  and  in  1554 
to  Queen  Mary  of  England.  He  was  dis- 
satisfied with  this  last  match;  he  soon  re- 
turned to  the  continent,  and  by  his  father’s 
abdication  received  the  crown  of  Spain  and 
the  Indies.  He  made  a league  with  the  Eng- 
lish, and  sent  40,000  men  into  Picardy,  who 
gained  a victory  over  18,000  French  at  St. 
Quintin  in  1557.  Peace  was  made  at  Chateau 
Cambresis  in  1559.  In  1580  Philip  made 
himself  master  of  the  kingdom  of  Portugal ; 
and  his  troops  contributed  to  the  defeat  of  the 
Turks  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  He  also  re- 
duced the  Moors  who  revolted  against  him  in 
1561.  His  bigotry  caused  the  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands.  Queen  Elizabeth  gave  them 
succor,  and  Philip  sent  out  a fleet  of  above 
fourscore  ships,  which  was  called  the  Invinci- 
ble Armada,  against  England.  They  sailed 
from  Lisbon,  May  29th,  1588,  and  were  de- 
stroyed partly  by  storms  and  partly  by  the 
valor  of  the  English.  Philip  received  the 
news  without  the  least  discomposure.  He 
calmly  thanked  God  that  he  was  able  to  rig 
out  such  another.  Philip  died  at  the  Escurial, 
Sept.  13  th,  1598. 

PFIILIP  III.  of  Spain,  born  at  Madrid,  1578, 
succeeded  his  father  Philip  II.  in  1598,  re- 
formed the  courts  of  judicature,  expelled  the 
Moors  out  of  Spain,  and  made  a peace  in  the 
Low  Countries,  and  afterward  lived  in  repose. 
He  died  on  the  31st  of  March,  1621. 

PHILIP  of  Macedon,  the  second  king  of 
that  name,  was  the  fourth  son  of  Amyntas. 
He  was  sent  to  Thebes  as  an  hostage  by  his 
father,  where  he  learned  the  art  of  war  under 
Epaminondas,  and  studied  with  the  greatest 
care  the  manners  and  the  pursuits  of  the 
Greeks.  He  was  recalled  to  Macedonia,  and 
ascended  the  throne,  b.c.  360.  The  neigh- 
boring nations,  ridiculing  the  youth  and  inex- 
perience of  the  new  king  of  Macedonia,  ap- 
peared in  arms ; but  Philip  soon  convinced 
them  of  their  error.  Unable  to  meet  them  as 
yet  in  the  field  of  battle,  he  suspended  their 
fury  by  presents,  and  soon  turned  his  arms 
against  Amphipolis,  a colony  tributary  to  the 
Athenians. 

Amphipolis  was  conquered,  and  added  to 
the  kingdom  of  Macedonia ; and  Philip  medi- 


PHI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


637 


tated  no  less  than  the  destruction  of  the  re- 
public which  had  rendered  itself  so  formidable 
to  the  rest  of  Greece,  and  had  even  claimed 
submission  from  the  princes  of  Macedonia. 
He  made  himself  master  of  a Thracian  colony, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Philippi. 

In  the  midst  of  his  political  prosperity, 
Philip  did  not  neglect  the  honor  of  his  family. 
Everything  seemed  now  to  conspire  to  his 
aggrandizement;  and  historians  have  ob- 
served, that  Philip  received  in  one  day  the  in- 
telligence of  three  things  which  could  gratify 
the  most  unbounded  ambition,  and  flatter  the 
hopes  of  the  most  aspiring  monarch, — the 
birth  of  a son,  an  honorable  crown  at  the 
Olympic  games,  and  a victor}'  over  the  bar- 
barians of  Illyricum. 

But  all  these  increased  rather  than  satiated 
his  ambition ; he  declared  his  inimical  senti- 
ments against  the  power  of  Athens,  and  the 
independence  of  all  Greece,  by  laying  siege  to 
Olynthus,  a place  which,  on  account  of  its 
situation  and  consequence,  was  most  advan- 
tageous to  the  intrigues  of  every  Macedonian 
prince. 

The  Athenians  sent  seventeen  vessels  and 
2,000  men  to  the  assistance  of  Olynthus,  but 
the  money  of  Philip  prevailed  over  all  their 
efforts.  The  greatest  part  of  the  citizens  suf- 
fered themselves  to  be  bribed  by  the  Macedo- 
nian gold,  and  Olynthus  surrendered  to  the 
enemy,  and  was  instantly  reduced  to  ruins. 
In  his  attempts  to  make  himself  master  of 
Euboea,  Philip  was  unsuccessful;  and  Pho- 
cion,  who  despised  his  gold,  obliged  him  to 
evacuate  an  island  whose  inhabitants  were  as 
insensible  to  the  charms  of  money,  as  they 
were  unmoved  at  the  horrors  of  war  and  the 
bold  efforts  of  a vigilant  enem}r.  From  Eu- 
boea he  turned  his  arms  against  the  Scythians, 
but  the  advantages  which  he  obtained  over 
this  indigent  nation  were  inconsiderable. 

He  next  advanced  far  into  Boeotia,  and  a 
’general  engagement  was  fought  at  Chseronea. 
The  fight  was  long  and  bloody,  but  Philip  ob- 
tained the  victory.  At  the  battle  of  Chseronea 
the  independence  of  Greece  was  extinguished ; 
and  Philip,  unable  to  find  new  enemies  in  Eu- 
rope, formed  new  enterprises  and  meditated 
new  conquests. 

He  was  appointed  general  of  the  Greeks 
against  the  Persians,  and  was  called  upon  to 
revenge  those  injuries  which  Greece  had  suf- 


fered from  the  invasions  of  Darius  and  of 
Xerxes.  But  he  was  stopped  in  the  midst  of 
his  warlike  preparations,  being  stabbed  by 
Pausanias  at  the  instance  of  his  repudiated 
spouse  Olympias  (the  mother  of  Alexander 
the  Great),  as  he  entered  the  theatre,  at  the 
celebration  of  the  nuptials  of  his  daughter 
Cleopatra.  He  was  murdered  in  the  forty- 
seventh  year  of  his  age,  and  the  twenty-fourth 
of  his  reign,  336  years  before  the  Christian 
era. 

PHILIP,  sachem  of  Pokanoket,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Massasoit.  In  1675  he  com- 
menced a war  with  the  colonists  of  New  Eng- 
land, who  suffered  severely  from  his  enmity. 
He  was  killed  Aug.  12th,  1676. 

PlIILIPPT,  Battles  of,  both  fought  in  Oc- 
tober, b.c.  42,  between  the  forces  of  Octavius 
Caesar  and  Mark  Antony,  and  those  of  Brutus 
and  Cassius.  In  the  first  battle  the  illness  of 
Caesar  confined  him  to  the  camp.  Antony 
defeated  the  troops  of  Cassius,  but  Brutus 
with  the  other  wing  routed  Caesar’s  forces. 
Cassius,  thinking  all  was  lost,  withdrew  into 
a lonely  hut  and  made  his  freedman  strike  off 
his  head.  In  the  second  battle  both  sides 
fought  with  desperation,  but  victory  finally 
declared  for  Caesar  and  Antony.  Brutus 
sought  refuge  in  a glen  with  a few  of  his 
friends.  Looking  up  at  the  sky,  which  the 
night  had  gemmed  with  the  silent  stars,  he 
repeated  two  Greek  verses,  one  from  the 
“Medea”  of  Euripides: — 

“ Zeus ! may  the  cause  of  all  these  ills  escape  thee 
not.” 

He  passed  the  night  in  enumerating  and 
mourning  over  those  who  had  fallen.  Toward 
morning  he  fell  upon  his  sword,  and  expired. 

PHILIPPINES,  a group  of  islands  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  They  were  discovered  by 
Magellan  in  1521,  who  here  lost  his  life,  and 
the  first  settlements  were  made  by  the  Span- 
iards in  1570.  The  population  is  composed 
of  Chinese,  Spaniards,  mestizoes,  and  Malays, 
and  amounts  to  about  three  and  a half  mill- 
ions. These  islands  are  fruitful  and  produc- 
tive, but  subject  to  ravages  from  hurricanes, 
earthquakes,  and  volcanic  eruptions.  Luzon, 
the  largest,  is  very  mountainous.  Manilla 
on  Luzon,  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  posses- 
sions, is  a great  mart  of  commerce.  Three 
thousand  persons  perished  here  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1645,  and  the  town  was  nearly 


PHI 


638 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


# 

destined  by  a shock,  Sept.  22d,  1852.  Pop- 
ulation 150,000. 

PHOCION,  an  Athenian,  celebrated  for  his 
virtues,  private  as  well  as  public.  He  often 
checked  the  violent  and  inconsiderate  meas- 
ures of  Demosthenes,  and  when  the  Athen- 
ians seemed  eager  to  make  war  against  Philip 
of  Macedon,  Phocion  observed  that  war 
should  never  be  undertaken  without  the 
strongest  and  most  certain  expectations  of 
success  and  victory. 

He  was  forty-five  times  appointed  governor 
of  Athens,  and  no  greater  encomium  can  be 
passed  upon  his  talents  as  a minister  and 
statesman,  than  that  he  never  solicited  that 
high  though  dangerous  position.  It  was 
through  him  that  Greece  was  saved  from  an 
impending  war,  and  he  advised  Alexander 
rather  to  turn  his  arms  against  Persia,  than 
to  shed  the  blood  of  the  Greeks,  who  were 
either  his  allies  or  his  subjects.  But  not 
totally  to  despise  the  favors  of  the  monarch, 
he  begged  Alexander  to  restore  to  their  lib- 
erty four  slaves  that  were  confined  in  the 
citadel  of  Sardis. 

When  the  Piraeus  was  taken,  Phocion  was 
accused  of  treason,  and  therefore,  to  avoid 
the  public  indignation,  he  fled  for  safety  to 
Polyperchon.  Polyperchon  sent  him  back 
to  Athens,  where  he  was  immediately  con- 
demned to  drink  the  fatal  poison.  He  re- 
ceived the  indignities  of  the  people  with 
uncommon  composure ; and  when  one  of  his 
friends  lamented  his  fate,  Phociqn  exclaimed, 
“This  is  no  more  than  what  I expected;  this 
treatment  the  most  illustrious  citizens  of 
Athens  have  received  before  me.”  He  died 
about  318  b.c. 

It  has  been  observed  of  Phocion,  that  he 
never  appeared  elated  in  prosperity,  or  de- 
jected in  adversity ; he  never  betrayed  pusil- 
lanimity by  a tear,  nor  joy  by  a smile.  His 
countenance  was  stern  and  unpleasant,  but 
he  never  behaved  with  severit}7-,  his  expres- 
sions were  mild,  and  his  rebukes  gentle.  At 
the  age  of  eighty  he  appeared  at  the  head  of 
the  Athenian  armies  like  the  most  active 
officer,  and  to  his  prudence  and  cool  valor  in 
every  period  of  life  his  fellow-citizens  con- 
fessed themselves  much  indebted.  His  merits 
were  not  buried  in  oblivion ; the  Athenians 
repented  of  their  ingratitude,  and  honored  his 


memory  by  raising  him  statues,  and  putting 
to  a cruel  death  his  guilty  accusers. 

PHOCIS,  an  ancient  country  of  Greece, 
bounded  north  by  Thessaly,  east  by  Locris 
and  Boeotia,  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Corinth, 
and  west  by  Doris  and  the  country  of  the 
Ozolian  Locrians.  Phocis  was  rendered 
famous  by  a war  which  it  maintained  against 
some  of  the  Grecian  republics,  and  which  has 
received  the  name  of  the  Phocian  war. 
When  Philip,  of  Macedon,  had  fomented 
divisions  in  Greece,  and  disturbed  the  peace 
of  every  republic,  the  Greeks  universally 
became  discontented  in  their  situation,  and 
jealous  of  the  prosperity  of  the  neighboring 
states.  The  Amphictyons,  who  were  the 
supreme  rulers  of  Greece,  and  who  at  that 
time  were  subservient  to  the  views  of  the 
Thebans,  the  inveterate  enemies  of  the  Pho- 
cians,  showed  the  same  spirit,  and  like  the 
rest  of  their  countrymen,  were  actuated  by 
the  same  jealousy  and  ambition.  As  the  sup- 
porters of  religion,  they  accused  the  Pho- 
cians  of  impiety  for  ploughing  a small  portion 
of  land  which  belonged  to  the  god  of  Delphi. 
They  immediately  commanded  that  the  sacred 
field  should  be  laid  waste,  and  that  the  Pho- 
cians,  to  expiate  their  crime,  should  pay  a 
heavy  fine  to  the  community. 

The  inability  of  the  Phocians  to  pay  the 
fine,  and  that  of  the  Amphictyons  to  enforce 
their  commands  by  violence,  gave  rise  to 
new  events.  The  people  of  Phocis  resolved 
to  oppose  the  Amphictyonic  council  by  force 
of  arms.  During  two  years  hostilities  were 
carried  on  between  the  Phocians  and  their 
enemies,  the  Thebans  and  the  people  of 
Locris,  but  no  decisive  battles  were  fought. 

Philip  of  Macedon,  who  had  assisted  the 
Thebans,  was  obliged  to  retire  from  the  field 
with  dishonor,  but  a more  successful  battle 
was  fought  near  Magnesia,  and  the  monarch, 
by  crowning  the  head  of  his  soldiers  with 
laurel,  and  telling  them  that  they  fought  in 
the  cause  of  Delphi  and  heaven,  obtained  a 
complete  victory.  This  fatal  defeat,  however, 
did  not  ruin  the  Phocians : Phallus  took  the 
command  of  their  armies,  and  doubling  the 
pay  of  his  soldiers,  he  increased  his  forces  by 
the  addition  of  9,000  men  from  Athens, 
Lacedaemon,  and  Achaia. 

But  all  this  numerous  force  at  last  proved 


PHO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


639 


ineffectual ; the  treasures  of  the  temple  of 
Delphi,  which  had  long  defrayed  the  expenses 
of  the  war,  began  to  fail,  dissensions  arose 
among  the  ringleaders  of  Phocis,  and  when 
Philip  had  crossed  the  Straits  of  Thermopylae,  . 
the  Phocians,  relying  on  his  generosity, 
claimed  his  protection,  and  implored  him  to 
plead  their  cause  before  the  Amphictyonic 
council.  His  feeble  intercession  was  not 
attended  with  success,  and  the  Thebans,  the 
Locrians,  and  the  Thessalians,  who  then 
composed  the  ximphictyonic  council,  unani- 
mously decreed  that  the  Phocians  should 
be  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  sending  mem- 
bers among  the  Amphictyons. 

The  Phocians,  ten  years  after  they  had 
undertaken  the  sacred  war,  saw  their  country 
laid  desolate,  their  walls  demolished,  and 
their  cities  in  ruins,  by  the  wanton  jealousy 
of  their  enemies,  and  the  inflexible  crueltjr 
of  the  Macedonian  soldiers,  b.c.  348.  They 
were  not,  however,  long  under  this  disgrace- 
ful sentence : their  well  known  valor  and 
courage  recommended  them  to  favor,  and 
they  gradually  regained  their  influence  and 
consequence  by  the  protection  of  the  Athen- 
ians, and  the  favors  of  Philip. 

PTKENICE,  or  Pikenicia,  a small  country 
of  Asia,  at  the  east  of  the  Mediterranean, 
whose  boundaries  varied  in  different  ages. 
According  to  Ptolemy,  it  extended  on  the 
north  as  far  as  the  Eleutherus,  a small  river 
which  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  a little 
below  the  island  of  Araddus,  and  it  had  Pe- 
lusium,  or  the  territories  of  Egypt,  as  its 
more  southern  boundary,  and  Syria  on  the 
east.  Sidon  and  Tyre  were  the  chief  towns. 
The  inhabitants  planted  colonies  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  particularly 
Carthage,  Marseilles,  and  Utica ; and  their 
manufactures  acquired  such  superiority  over 
those  of  other  nations,  that  among  the  an- 
cients, whatever  was  elegant,  great,  or  pleas- 
ing, either  in  apparel  or  domestic  utensils, 
received  the  epithet  of  Sidonian.  The  Phoe- 
nicians were  originally  governed  by  kings. 
They  were  subdued  by  the  Persians,  and 
afterward  by  Alexander,  and  remained  trib- 
utary to  his  successors  and  to  the  Romans. 
The  Phoenicians  surpassed  all  the  other 
nations  of  antiquity  in  commercial  adven- 
ture. Their  vessels  are  supposed  to  have 
sought  Cornwall  for  tin. 


PICTIEGRU,  Charles,  a French  general, 
was  born  at  Arbois.  in  1761,  in  Franche  Comte. 
His  parentage  was  mean,  but  he  received  a 
good  education  under  the  monks  in  his  native 
town,  and  at  Brienne ; after  which  he  entered 
into  the  army,  and  became  a sergeant.  In 
the  revolution  he  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of 
a general.  In  1793  he  gained  a victory  over 
the  allies  at  Hagenau,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
army  of  the  north.  His  most  celebrated 
exploit  was  the  subjugation  of  Holland,  after 
which  he  was  elected  a member  of  the  na- 
tional assembly.  At  length  he  fell  under 
suspicion  of  being  a ro}’alist,  and  was  ban- 
ished to  Cayenne,  whence  he  escaped  to 
England.  He  engaged  in  a conspiracy  against 
Napoleon,  and  in  the  spring  of  1804  he  went 
secretly  to  Paris,  but  was  soon  seized,  and 
thrown  into  a dungeon  of  the  Temple,  where 
he  probably  strangled  himself  on  the  6th  of 
April  of  the  same  year. 

PICKENS,  Andrew,  a celebrated  Revolu- 
tionary officer,  born  of  Irish  parents,  in  Bucks 
county,  Pennsylvania,  Sept.  13  th,  1739. 
While  he  was  still  young,  his  father  removed 
to  South  Carolina.  He  had  fought  against 
the  French  and  the  Cherpkees  before  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolution.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  active  of  the  patriot  partisans 
of  the  South,  and  acted  a gallant  part  at  the 
battle  of  Cowpens,  as  well  as  at  that  of  Eu- 
tavy  Springs.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  war, 
he  served  his  country  in  various  civil  offices, 
and  died,  full  of  years  and  honors,  Oct.  11th, 
1817. 

PICKERING,  Timothy,  was  born  at  Sa- 
lam,  Mass.,  July  17th,  1745  ; and  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  College.  He  served  with 
distinction  as  adjutant-general  during  the 
Revolutionary  war,  toward  the  close  of  which 
he  succeeded  General  Greene  as  quarter-mas- 
ter-general, and  contributed  greatty  to  the 
surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown.  In 
1794  he  was  made  postmaster-general,  in 
1794  secretary  of  war,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
year  he  succeeded  Edmund  Randolph  as  sec- 
retary of  state,  in  which  department  he  re- 
mained till  nearly  the  close  of  Washington's 
administration.  In  1803  he  was  chosen 
senator  to  Congress  from  Massachusetts,  and 
in  1811,  when  his  term  of  office  had  expired, 
he  was  made  member  of  the  executive  council. 


PIC 


610 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


During  the  ensuing  war  with  Great  Britain 
he  was  a member  of  the  board  of  war  for 
the  defense  of  the  state.  From  1814  to  1817 
he  was  in  the  lower  house  of  Congress. 
He  died  Jan.  29th,  1829. 

PIERCE,  Franklin.  See  Ap’x,  p.  975. 

PIKE,  Zebulon,  brigadier  general  of  the 
United  States  army,  killed  at  York,  in  Upper 
Canada,  1813.  Gen.  Pike  was  a native  of 
New  Jersey. 

PILES,  Roger  de,  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  1635,  died  in  1709. 

PINCKNEY,  Charles  Cotesworth,  was 
born  in  South  Carolina,  Feb.  25th,  1746,  and 
educated  in  England,  where  he  studied  law. 
He  returned  to  his  native  state  in  1769.  He 
held  a colonel’s  commission  during  the  Rev- 
olutionary war,  and  aided  in  the  defense  of 
Charleston.  At  its  fall  he  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  not  released  till  1782.  After  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  war  he  was  appointed  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  France,  where  his  treat- 
ment by  the  French  directory  was  insulting. 
He  was  ordered  to  leave  the  French  territo- 
ries. In  1797  he  was  appointed  the  second 
major-general  in  the  army  under  Washing- 
ton. He  died  Aug.  16th,  1825. 

PINCKNEY,  Thomas,  a major-general  in 
the  army  of  the  United  States,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  Oct.  23d,  1750.  He  studied  law  in 
England.  During  the  Revolution,  he  served 
with  distinction,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  he  was  elected  second  governor  of  South 
Carolina.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term  of 
office,  he  was  appointed  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary to  the  court  of  St.  James.  After  a few 
years  he  was  appointed  minister  to  the  court 
of  Spain.  He  returned  to  America  in  1796, 
and  was  soon  elected  to  Congress.  In  the 
war  of  1812  he  received  the  commission  of 
major-general.  He  died  Nov.  2d,  1828. 

PINDAR,  the  great  lyric  poet,  died  442 
b.c.,  aged  eighty.  He  was  a native  of  Boeo- 
tia,  and  when  Alexander  the  Great  took 
Thebes,  he  ordered  the  house  of  Pindar  to 
be  spared. 

PINKNEY,  William,  a distinguished  law- 
yer and  statesman,  born  at  Annapolis,  in 
Maryland,  March  17th,  1765.  He  was  twice 
ambassador  to  England  between  1806  and 
1815;  and  to  Russia  from  1815  to  1818.  He 
commanded  a volunteer  company  during  the 


war  of  1812,  receiving  a severe  wound  in  the 
battle  of  Bladensburg.  He  died  Feb.  25th, 
1822. 

PIRON,  Alexis,  French  poet  and  satirist, 
died  in  1773,  aged  eighty -four. 

PISISTRATUS,  an  Athenian,  son  of  Hip- 
pocrates, early  distinguished  himself  by  his 
valor  in  the  field  and  by  his  address  and 
eloquence  at  home.  After  he  had  rendered 
himself  the  favorite  of  the  populace  by  his 
liberality,  and  by  the  intrepi  lity  with  which 
he  had  fought  their  battles,  particularly  near 
Salamis,  he  resolved  to  make  himself  master 
of  his  country.  Pisistratus  was  not  dis- 
heartened by  the  measures  of  his  kinsman 
Solon,  but  he  had  recourse  to  artifice.  The 
people  too  late  perceived  their  credulity ; 
yet,  though  the  tyrant  was  popular,  two  of 
the  citizens,  Megacles  and  Lycurgus,  con- 
spired together  against  him,  and  by  their 
means  he  was  forcibly  ejected  from  the  city. 

The  private  dissensions  of  the  friends  of 
liberty  proved  favorable  to  the  expelled 
tyrant,  and  Megacles,  who  was  jealous  of 
Lycurgus,  secretly  promised  to  restore  Pis- 
istratus to  all  his  rights  and  privileges  in 
Athens,  if  he  would  marry  his  daughter. 
Pisistratus  consented,  and  by  the  assistance 
of  his  father-in-law,  he  was  soon  enabled  to 
expel  Lycurgus,  and  to  re-establish  himself. 
In  the  midst  of  his  triumph,  however,  Pisis- 
tratus felt  himself  unsupported,  and  some 
time  after,  when  he  repudiated  the  daughter 
of  Megacles,  he  found  that  not  only  the  citi- 
zens, but  even  his  very  troops,  were  alienated 
from  him  by  the  influence,  the  intrigues,  and 
the  bribery  of  his  father-in-law. 

He  fled  from  Athens,  where  he  could  no 
longer  maintain  his  power,  and  retired  to 
Euboea.  Eleven  years  after,  he  was  drawn 
from  his  obscure  retreat  by  means  of  his  son 
Hippias,  and  he  was  a third  time  received  by 
the  people  of  Athens  as  their  master  and  sov- 
ereign. He  died  about  b.c.  527,  after  he  had 
enjoyed  the  sovereign  power  at  Athens  for 
thirty -three  years,  including  the  time  of  his 
banishment.  He  ruled  beneficently,  and  to 
him  we  owe  the  collection  and  preservation 
of  the  poems  of  Homer.  He  also  founded 
the  first  public  library  of  which  we  have  any 
certain  account  in  history. 

PITCAIRN’S  ISLAND,  in  the  South  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  is  six  miles  long  and  three  broad, 


PIT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


641 


and  remarkably  fertile,  possessing  a fine 
climate.  It  was  "discovered  by  Carteret  in 
1767,  but  was  then  uninhabited.  In  1789, 
however,  it  was  settled  by  some  of  the  muti- 
neers of  the  English  ship  Bounty.  The 
Bounty  was  an  armed  vessel  sent  to  Otaheite 
by  the  British  government  for  bread-fruit 
plants.  An  account  of  the  mutiny  may  not 
be  uninteresting.  It  is  best  described  by 
the  narrative  of  Captain  Bligh. 

“We  discovered  the  island  of  Otaheite  on 
the  25th,  and,  before  casting  anchor  next 
morning  in  Matavai  Bay,  such  numbers  of 
canoes  had  come  off,  that  after  the  natives 
ascertained  we  were  friends,  they  came  on 
board,  and  crowded  the  deck  so  much  that 
in  ten  minutes  I could  scarce  find  my  own 
people.  The  whole  distance  which  the  ship 
had  run,  in  direct  and  contrary  courses,  from 
the  time  of  leaving  England  until  reaching 
Otaheite,  was  twenty-seven  thousand  and 
eighty-six  miles,  which,  on  an  average,  was 
one  hundred  and  eight  miles  each  twenty- 
four  hours. 

“On  Monday,  the  5th  of  January,  the 
small  gutter  was  missed,  of  which  I was 
immediately  apprised.  The  ship’s  company 
being  mustered,  we  found  three  men  absent, 
who  had  carried  it  off.  They  had  taken  with 
them  eight  stand  of  arms  and  ammunition ; 
but  with  regard  to  their  plan,  every  one  on 
board  seemed  to  be  quite  ignorant.  I there- 
fore went  on  shore,  and  engaged  all  the  chiefs 
to  assist  in  recovering  both  the  boats  and 
the  deserters.  Accordingly,  the  former  were 
brought  back  in  the  course  of  the  day,  by 
five  of  the  natives ; but  the  men  were  not 
taken  until  nearly  three  weeks  afterward. 
Learning  the  place  where  they  were,  in  a 
different  quarter  of  the  island  of  Otaheite,  I 
went  thither  in  the  cutter,  thinking  there 
would  be  no  great  difficulty  in  securing  them 
with  the  assistance  of  the  natives.  However, 
they  heard  of  my  arrival ; and  when  I was 
near  a house  in  which  they  were,  they  came 
out  wanting  their  fire-arms,  and  delivered 
themselves  ^ip.  Some  of  the  chiefs  had  for- 
merly seized  and  bound  these  deserters,  but 
had  been  prevailed  on,  by  fair  promises  of 
returning  peaceably  to  the  ship,  to  release 
them.  But  finding  an  opportunity  again  to 
get  possession  of  their  arms,  they  set  the 
natives  at  defiance.  * * 

41  P 


“ The  object  of  the  voyage  being  now  com- 
pleted, all  the  bread-fruit  plants,  to  the 
number  of  one  thousand  and  fifteen,  were  got 
on  board  on  Tuesday  the  81st  of  March. 
Besides  these,  we  had  collected  many  other 
plants,  some  of  them  bearing  the  finest  fruits 
in  the  world ; and  valuable,  from  affording 
brilliant  dyes,  and  for  various  properties 
besides.  At  sunset  of  the  4th  of  April,  we 
made  sail  from  Otaheite,  bidding  farewell  to 
an  island  where  for  twenty-three  weeks  we 
had  been  treated  with  the  utmost  affection 
and  regard,  and  which  seemed  to  increase  in 
proportion  to  our  stay.  That  we  were  not 
insensible  to  their  kindness,  the  succeeding 
circumstances  sufficiently  proved  ; for  to  the 
friendly  and  endearing  behavior  of  these 
people  may  be  ascribed  the  motives  inciting 
an  event  that  effected  the  ruin  of  our  expe- 
dition, which  there  was  every  reason  to  believe 
would  have  been  attended  with  the  most 
favorable  issue. 

“Next  morning  we  got  sight  of  the  island 
Huaheine ; and  a double  canoe  soon  coming 
alongside,  containing  ten  natives,  I saw 
among  them  a young  man  who  recollected 
me,  and  called  me  by  my  name.  I had  been 
here  in  the  year  1780,  with  Captain  Cook,  in 
the  Resolution.  A few  days  after  sailing  from 
this  island,  the  weather  became  squally,  and 
a thick  body  of  black  clouds  collected  in  the 
east.  A water-spout  was  in  a short  time  seen 
at  no  great  distance  from  us,  which  appeared 
to  great  advantage  from  the  darkness  of  the 
clouds  behind  it.  As  nearly  as  I could 
judge,  the  upper  part  was  about  two  feet  in 
diameter,  and  the  lower  about  eight  inches. 
Scarcely  had  I made  these  remarks,  when  I 
observed  that  it  was  rapidly  advancing  to- 
ward the  ship.  We  immediately  altered  our 
course,  and  took  in  all  the  sails  except  the 
foresail ; soon  after  which  it  passed  within 
ten  yards  of  the  stern,  with  a rustling  noise, 
but  without  our  feeling  the  least  effect  from 
its  being  so  near.  It  seemed  to  be  traveling 
at  the  rate  of  about  ten  miles  an  hour,  in  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  and  it  dispersed  in  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  after  passing  us.  It  is 
impossible  to  say  what  injury  we  should  have 
received,  had  it  passed  directly  over  us. 
Masts,  I imagine,  might  have  been  carried 
away,  but  I do  not  apprehend  that  it  would 
have  endangered  the  loss  of  the  ship. 

T 


642 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


“ Passing  several  islands  on  the  way,  we 
anchored  at  Anamooka,  on  the  23d  of  April ; 
and  an  old  lame  man  called  Tepa,  whom  I 
had  known  here  in  1777,  and  immediately 
recollected,  came  on  board,  along  with  the 
others  from  different  islands  ill  the  vicinity. 
They  were  desirous  to  see  I'.j  ship,  and  on 
being  taken  below,  where  the  bread-fruit 
plants  were  arranged,  they  testified  great  sur- 
prise. A few  of  these  being  decayed,  we 
went  on  shore  so  procure  some  in  their  place. 

“The  natives  exhibited  numerous  marks 
of  the  peculiar  mourning  which  they  express 
on  losing  their  relatives;  such  as  bloody 
temples,  their  heads  being  deprived  of  most 
of  the  hair,  and  what  was  worse,  almost  the 
whole  of  them  had  lost  some  of  their  fingers. 
Several  fine  boys,  not  above  six  years  old, 
had  lost  both  their  little  fingers  ; and  several 
of  the  men,  besides  these,  had  parted  with 
the  middle  finger  of  the  right  hand. 

“The  chiefs  went  off  with  me  to  dinner, 
and  we  carried  on  a brisk  trade  for  yams ; 
we  also  got  plantains  and  bread-fruits.  But 
the  yams  were  in  great  abundance,  and  very 
fine  and  large.  One  of  them  weighed  above 
forty-five  pounds.  Sailing  canoes  came, 
some  of  which  contained  not  less  than  ninety 
passengers.  Such  a number  of  them  gradu- 
ally arrived  from  different  islands,  that  it  was 
impossible  to  get  anything  done,  the  multi- 
tude became  so  great,  and  there  was  no  chief 
of  sufficient  authority  to  command  the  whole. 
I therefore  ordered  a watering  party,  then 
employed,  to  come  on  board,  and  sailed  on 
Sunday  the  26th  of  xipril. 

“We  kept  near  the  island  of  Kotoo  all 
the  afternoon  of  Monday,  in  hopes  that  some 
canoes  would  come  off  to  the  ship,  but  in 
this  we  were  disappointed.  The  wind  being 
northerly,  we  steered  to  the  westward  in  the 
evening,  to  pass  south  of  Tofoa ; and  I gave 
directions  for  this  course  to  be  continued 
during  the  night.  The  master  had  the  first 
watch,  the  gunner  the  middle  watch,  and 
Mr.  Christian  the  morning  watch.  This  was 
the  turn  of  duty  for  the  night. 

“ Hitherto  the  voyage  had  advanced  in  a 
course  of  uninterrupted  prosperity,  and  had 
been  attended  with  circumstances  equally 
pleasing  and  satisfactory.  But  a very  differ- 
ent scene  was  now  to  be  disclosed;  a con- 
spiracy had  been  formed,  which  was  to  ren- 


der all  our  past  labor  productive  only  of 
misery  and  distress ; and  it  had  been  con- 
certed with  so  much  secrecy  and  circumspec- 
tion, that  no  one  circumstance  escaped  to 
betray  the  impending  calamity. 

“ On  the  night  of  Monday,  the  watch  was 
set  as  I have  described.  Just  before  sunrise, 
on  Tuesday  morning,  while  I was  yet  asleep, 
Mr.  Christian  (the  third  mate),  with  the  mas- 
ter-at-arms,  gunner’s  mate,  and  Thomas 
Burkitt,  seaman,  came  into  my  cabin,  and 
seizing  me,  tied  my  hands  with  a cord  behind 
my  back ; threatening  me  with  instant  death 
if  I spoke  or  made  the  least  noise.  I never- 
theless called  out  as  loud  as  I could,  in  hopes 
of  assistance ; but  the  officers  not  of  their 
party  were  already  secured  by  sentinels  at 
their  doors.  At  my  own  cabin  door  were 
three  men,  besides  the  four  within ; all  ex- 
cept Christian  had  muskets  and  bayonets; 
he  had  only  a cutlass.  I was  dragged  out 
of  bed,  and  forced  on  deck  in  my  shirt,  suf- 
fering great  pain  in  the  mean  time  from  the 
tightness  with  which  my  hands  were  tied. 
On  demanding  the  reason  of  such  violence, 
the  only  answer  was  abuse  for  not  holding 
my  tongue.  The  master,  the  gunner,  sur- 
geon, master’s  mate,  and  Nelson  the  gardener, 
were  kept  confined  below,  and  the  fore  hatch- 
way was  guarded  by  sentinels.  The  boat- 
swain and  carpenter,  and  also  the  clerk,  were 
allowed  to  come  on  deck,  where  they  saw  me 
standing  abaft  the  mizzen-mast,  with  my 
hands  tied  behind  my  back,  under  a guard, 
with  Christian  at  their  head.  The  boatswain 
was  then  ordered  to  hoist  out  the  launch, 
accompanied  by  a threat,  if  he  did  not  do  it 
instantly,  to  take  care  of  himself. 

“The  boat  being  hoisted  out,  Mr.  Hayward 
and  Mr.  Hallet,  two  of  the  midshipmen,  and 
Mr.  Samuel,  the  clerk,  were  ordered  into  it. 
I demanded  the  intention  of  giving  this  or- 
der, and  endeavored  to  persuade  the  people 
near  me  not  to  persist  in  such  acts  of  vio- 
lence ; but  it  was  to  no  effect ; for  the  con- 
stant answer  was,  ‘Hold  your  tongue,  sir, 
or  you  are  dead  this  moment.’ 

“The  master  had  by  this  time  sent,  re- 
questing that  he  might  come  on  deck,  which 
was  permitted ; but  he  was  soon  ordered  back 
again  to  his  cabin.  My  exertions  to  turn  the 
tide  of  affairs  were  continued ; when  Chris- 
tian, changing  the  cutlass  he  held  for  a bay- 


PIT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


6-13 


onet,  and  holding  me  by  the  cord  about  my 
hands  wilh  a strong  gripe,  threatened  me 
with  immediate  death  if  1 would  not  be 
quiet ; and  the  villains  around  me  had  their 
pieces  cocked  and  bayonets  fixed. 

“ Certain  individuals  were  called  on  to  get 
into  the  boat,  and  were  hurried  over  the 
ship's  side ; whence  I concluded  that  along 
with  them  I was  to  be  set  adrift.  Another 
effort  to  bring  about  a change  produced 
nothing  but  menaces  of  having  my  brains 
blown  out.  The  boatswain  and  those  seamen 
who  were  to  be  put  into  the  boat,  were  al- 
lowed to  collect  twine,  canvas,  lines,  sails, 
cordage,  and  a twenty-eight  gallon  cask  of 
water ; and  Mr.  Samuel  got  one  hundred  and 
fifty7  pounds  of  bread,  with  a small  quantity 
of  rum  and  wine,  also  a quadrant  and  com- 
pass ; but  he  was  prohibited  on  pain  of  death, 
to  touch  any  map  or  astronomical  book,  and 
any  instrument,  or  any  of  my  surveys  and 
drawings. 

“ The  mutineers  having  thus  forced  those 
of  the  seamen  whom  they  wished  to  get  rid 
of  into  the  boat,  Christian  directed  a dram  to 
be  served  to  each  of  his  crew.  I then  un- 
happily saw  that  nothing  could  be  done  to 
recover  the  ship.  The  officers  were  next 
called  on  deck,  and  forced  over  the  ship’s  side 
into  the  boat,  while  I was  kept  apart  from 
every  one  abaft  the  mizzen-mast.  Christian, 
armed  with  a bayonet,  held  the  cord  fastening 
my  hands,  and  the  guard  around  me  stood 
with  their  pieces  cocked ; but  on  my  daring 
the  ungrateful  wretches  to  fire,  they  uncocked 
them.  Isaac  Martin,  one  of  them,  I saw  had 
an  inclination  to  assist  me ; and  as  he  fed  me 
with  shaddock,  my  lips  being  quite  parched, 
we  explained  each  other’s  sentiments  by 
looks.  But  this  was  observed,  and  he  was 
removed.  He  then  got  into  the  boat,  at- 
tempting to  leave  the  ship  ; however,  he  was 
compelled  to  return.  Some  others  were  also 
kept  contrary  to  their  inclination. 

“It  appeared  to  me  that  Christian  was 
some  time  in  doubt  whether  he  should  keep 
the  carpenter  or  his  mate.  At  length  he 
determined  on  the  latter,  and  the  carpenter 
was  ordered  into  the  boat.  He  was  permit- 
ted, though  not  without  opposition,  to  take 
his  tool  chest. 

“Mr.  Samuel  secured  my  journals  and 
commission,  with  some  important  ship  pa- 


pers ; this  he  did  with  great  resolution, 
though  strictly  watched.  He  attempted  to 
save  the  time-keeper,  and  a box  with  my  sur- 
veys, drawings,  and  remarks,  for  fifteen  years 
past,  which  were  very  numerous,  when  He 
was  hurried  away  with  ‘Damn  your  eyes, 
you  are  well  off  to  get  what  you  have.’ 

“Much  altercation  took  place  among  the 
mutinous  crew  during  the  transaction  of  this 
whole  affair.  Some  swore,  ‘ I’ll  be  damned 
if  he  does  not  find  his  way  home,  if  he  gets 
anything  with  him,’  meaning  me;  and  when 
the  carpenter’s  chest  was  carrying  away, 

‘ Damn  my  eyes,  he  will  have  a vessel  built 
in  a month ;’  while  others  ridiculed  the  help- 
less situation  of  the  boat,  which  was  very 
deep  in  the  water,  and  had  so  little  room  for 
those  wTho  were  in  her.  As  for  Christian, 
he  seemed  as  if  meditating  destruction  on 
himself  and  every  one  else. 

“ I asked  for  arms,  but  the  mutineers 
laughed  at  me,  and  said  I was  well  acquainted 
with  the  people  among  whom  I was  going ; 
four  cutlasses,  however,  were  thrown  into  the 
the  boat,  after  we  were  veered  astern. 

“ The  officers  and  men  being  in  the  boat, 
they  only  waited  for  me,  of  which  the  master- 
at-arms  informed  Christian,  who  then  said, 
‘ Come,  Captain  Bligh,  your  officers  and  men 
are  now  in  the  boat,  and  you  must  go  with 
them  ; if  you  attempt  to  make  the  least  resis- 
tance, you  will  instantly  be  put  to  death  ; ’ 
and  without  further  ceremony,  I was  forced 
over  the  side  by  a tribe  of  armed  ruffians, 
where  they  untied  my  hands.  Being  in  the 
boat,  we  were  veered  astern  by  a rope.  A 
few  pieces  of  pork  were  thrown  to  us,  also 
the  four  cutlasses.  The  armorer  and  carpen- 
ter then  called  out  to  me  to  remember  that 
they  had  no  hand  in  the  transaction.  After 
having  been  kept  some  time  to  make  sport 
for  these  unfeeling  wretches,  and  having  un- 
dergone much  ridicule,  we  wrere  at  length 
cast  adrift  in  the  open  ocean. 

“Eighteen  persons  were  with  me  in  the 
boat, — the  master,  acting  surgeon,  botanist, 
gunner,  boatswTain,  carpenter,  master,  and 
quartermaster’s  mate,  two  quartermasters, 
the  sailmaker,  two  cooks,  my  clerk,  the 
butcher,  and  a boy.  There  remained  on 
board,  Fletcher  Christian,  the  master’s  mate, 
Peter  Haywmod,  Edward  Young,  George 
Stewart,  midshipmen,  the  master-at-arms, 


PIT 


QU 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


gunner’s  mate,  boatswain’s  mate,  gardener, 
armorer,  carpenter’s  mate,  carpenter’s  crew, 
and  fourteen  seamen,  being  altogether  the 
most  able  men  of  the  ship’s  company. 

* “ Having  little  or  no  wind,  we  rowed  pretty 
fast  toward  the  island  of  Tofoa,  which  bore 
north-east  about  ten  leagues  distant.  The 
ship  while  in  sight  steered  west-north-west, 
but  this  I considered  only  as  a feint,  for  when 
we  were  sent  away,  ‘Huzza  for  Otaheite!’ 
was  frequently  heard  among  the  mutineers. 

“ Christian,  the  chief  of  them,  was  of  a 
respectable  family  in  the  north  of  England. 
This  was  the  third  voyage  he  had  made  with 
me.  Notwithstanding  the  roughness*  with 
which  I was  treated,  the  remembrance  of  past 
kindnesses  produced  some  remorse  in  him. 
While  they  were  forcing  me  out  of  the  ship, 
I asked  him  whether  this  was  a proper  return 
for  the  many  instances  he  had  experienced 
of  my  friendship?  He  appeared  disturbed 
at  the  question,  and  answered  with  much 
emotion,  ‘ That — Captain  Bligh — that  is  the 
thing — I am  in  hell — I am  in  hell.’  His 
abilities  to  take  charge  of  the  third  watch,  as 
I had  so  divided  the  ship’s  company,  were 
fully  equal  to  the  task. 

“ Haywood  was  also  of  a respectable  family 
in  the  north  of  England,  and  a young  man 
of  abilities,  as  well  as  Christian.  These  two 
had  been  objects  of  my  particular  regard  and 
attention,  and  I had  taken  great  pains  to  in- 
struct them,  having  entertained  hopes  that, 
as  professional  men,  they  would  have  become 
a credit  to  their  country.  Young  wras  well 
recommended ; and  Stewart  of  creditable 
parents  in  the  Orkneys,  at  which  place,  on 
the  return  of  the  Resolution  from  the  South 
Seas  in  1780,  we  received  so  many  civilities, 
that  in  consideration  of  these  alone  I should 
gladly  have  taken  him  .with  me.  But  he  had 
always  borne  a good  character. 

“When  I had  time  to  reflect,  an  inward 
satisfaction  prevented  the  depression  of  my 
spirits.  Yet,  a few  hours  before,  my  situa- 
tion had  been  peculiarly  flattering;  I had 
a ship  in  the  most  perfect  order,  stored  with 
every  necessary,  both  for  health  and  service; 
the  object  of  the  voyage  was  attained,  and 
two-thirds  of  it  now  completed.  The  remain- 
ing part  had  every  prospect  of  success. 

“it  will  naturally  be  asked,  what  could  be 


the  cause  of  such  a revolt  ? In  answer,  I can 
only  conjecture  that  the  mutineers  had  flat- 
tered themselves  with  the  hope  of  a happier 
life  among  the  Otaheitans,  than  they  could 
possibly  enjoy  in  England ; wThich  joined  to 
some  female  connections,  most  probably  occa* 
sioned  the  whole  transaction. 

“ The  women  of  Otaheite  are  handsome, 
mild,  and  cheerful  in  manners  and  conversa- 
tion ; possessed  of  great  sensibility,  and  have 
sufficient  delicacy  to  make  them  be  admired 
and  beloved.  The  chiefs  were  so  much  at- 
tached to  our  people,  that  they  rather  en- 
couraged their  stay  among  them  than  other- 
wise, and  even  made  them  promises  of  large 
possessions.  Under  these,  and  many  other 
concomitant  circumstances,  it  ought  hardly 
to  be  the  subject  of  surprise  that  a set  of 
sailors,  most  of  them  void  of  connections, 
should  be  led  away,  where  they  had  the 
power  of  fixing  themselves  in  the  midst  of 
plenty,  in  one  of  the  finest  islands  in  the 
world,  where  there  was  no  necessity  to  labor, 
and  where  the  allurements  of  dissipation  are 
beyond  any  conception  that  can  be  formed 
of  it.  The  utmost,  however,  that  a com- 
mander could  have  expected,  was  desertions, 
such  as  have  already  happened  more  or  less 
in  the  South  Seas,  and  not  an  act  of  open 
mutiny. 

“But  the  secrecy  of  this  mutiny  surpasses 
belief.  Thirteen  of  the  party  who  were  now 
with  me  had  always  lived  forward  among  the 
seamen ; yet  neither  they,  nor  the  messmates 
of  Christian,  Stewart,  Haywood,  and  Young, 
had  ever  observed  any  circumstance  to  excite 
suspicion  of  what  was  plotting ; and  it  is  not 
wonderful  if  I fell  a sacrifice  to  it,  my  mind 
being  entirely  free  from  suspicion.  Perhaps, 
had  marines  been  on  board,  a sentinel  at  my 
cabin-door  might  have  prevented  it;  for  I 
constantly  slept  with  the  door  open,  that  the 
officer  of  the  watch  might  have  access  to  me 
on  all  occasions.  If  the  mutiny  had  been 
occasioned  by  any  grievances,  either  real  or 
imaginary,  I must  have  discovered  symptoms 
of  discontent,  which  would  have  put  me  on 
my  guard ; but  it  was  far  otherwise.  With 
Christian,  in  particular,  I was  on  the  most 
friendly  terms  ; that  very  day  he  was  engaged 
to  have  dined  with  me ; and  the  preceding 
night  he  excused  himself  from  supping  with 


PIT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


645 


me  on  pretense  of  indisposition,  for  which  I 
felt  concerned,  having  no  suspicions  of  his 
honor  or  integrity.” 

Captain  Bligh  and  his  fellow-sufferers 
reached  the  island  of  Timor,  south  of  the 
Moluccas,  in  June,  after  a perilous  voyage  of 
nearly  four  thousand  miles,  during  which 
their  preservation  was  next  to  miraculous. 
A part  of  the  mutineers  were  tried  Sept.  15th, 
1792,  six  condemned,  and  three  executed. 
Ten  others  settled  upon  solitary  Pitcairn’s 
Island.  They  remained  unknown  until  acci- 
dentally discovered  in  1814,  when  an  English 
ship  nearing  the  island  was  hailed  by  a 
swarthy  youth  in  the  English  language.  It 
appeared  that  the  mutineers  had  obtained 
themselves  dusky  wives,  and  finally  under 
the  guidance  of  John  Adams,  one  of  their 
number,  had  become  an  orderly  and  pious 
community.  Adams  was  the  last  survivor 
of  the  mutineers.  As  the  population  in- 
creased, the  island  proved  incapable  for  its 
support.  In  1856,  by  permission  of  the 
English  government,  the  colony  removed  to 
Norfolk  Island,  which  had  been  given  to 
them  (the  convict  establishment  being  with- 
drawn) and  stocked  with  sheep,  cattle,  and 
horses  for  their  use.  They  numbered  96  men 
and  102  women. 

PITT,  W [lliam,  the  second  son  of  the  Earl 
of  Chatham,  was  born  May  28th,  1759.  In 
1780,  he  obtained  a seat  in  parliament,  where 
he  exerted  the  power  of  his  eloquence  against 
Lord  North.  On  the  removal  of  that  minister, 
Mr.  Pitt  did  not  obtain  a place:  but  when 
the  Earl  of  Shelburne  succeeded  the  Marquis 
of  Rockingham,  he  became  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer.  This  ministry,  however,  was  soon 
displaced  by  the  coalition  of  Lord  North  and 
Mr.  Fox,  in  1782;  but  the  famous  India  bill 
of  the  latter  producing  another  change,  at  the 
end  of  1788,  Mr.  Pitt  became  first  lord  of  the 
treasury,  as  well  as  chancellor  of  exchequer. 
Though  in  this  situation  he  had  to  encounter 
an  extraordinary  combination  of  talents  and 
influence,  he  overcame  all  obstacles,  and  car- 
ried many  important  measures,  particularly 
his  own  India  bill,  a commercial  treaty  with 
France,  the  acts  against  smuggling,  and  the 
establishment  of  a sinking  fund.  The  illness 
of  the  king,  in  1788,  threatened  an  end  of  his 
ministry.  The  recovery  of  his  majesty,  how- 
ever, fixed  him  more  firmly  in  his  seat.  The 


next  great  event  in  his  life  was  that  of  being 
called  to  oppose  the  power  of  revolutionary 
France.  He  was  the  mainspring  of  the  con- 
tinuous coalitions  against  Napoleon.  At 
length  he  acceded  to  the  wish  that  an  experi- 
ment for  peace  should  be  tried  in  1801,  and 
yielded  the  ministry  to  Mr.  Addington;  but 
in  1804  Mr.  Pitt  was  recalled  to  power.  His 
health  was  now  in  a very  precarious  state, 
and  he  died  at  Putney,  Jan.  23d,  1806.  His 
remains  were  deposited  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey. Very  honorable  eulogiums  were  pro- 
nounced on  his  memory  by  all  parties,  and 
his  debts  were  paid  at  the  public  expense, 
according  to  a vote  of  parliament. 

PIUS  YI.  (or  Giovanni  Angelo  Braschi) 
was  born  at  Cesena  in  1717.  He  succeeded 
Pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1775.  When  the  Em- 
peror Joseph  II.  decreed  that  all  the  religious 
orders  in  his  dominions  were  free  from  papal 
jurisdiction,  Pius,  apprehensive  of  the  conse- 
quences .of  such  a measure,  went  in  person  to 
Vienna  in  1782 ; but  though  he  was  honorably 
received,  his  remonstrances  were  ineffectual. 
The  French  revolution,  however,  was  of  more 
serious  consequence  to  the  papal  see.  The 
pope  having  favored  the  allies,  Bonaparte  en- 
tered the  ecclesiastical  territory,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  purchase  a peace.  Basseville 
was  then  sent  from  the  republic  to  Rome, 
where  the  people  assassinated  him  in  1793. 
This  furnished  the  pretext  for  another  visita- 
tion, and  accordingly  Bonaparte  again  entered 
Italy,  made  the  pope  prisoner  in  his  capital, 
and  hurried  him  over  the  Alps  to  Valence, 
where  he  died,  Aug.  29th,  1799. 

PIUS  VII.  (Gregorio  Luigi  Barnaba  Chi- 
aramonti)  was  also  a native  of  Cesena,  and 
born  in  1740.  He  succeeded  Pius  VI.  in  the 
papacy.  He  went  to  Paris  to  crown  Napoleon 
emperor,  and  was  under  his  power  till  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  He  died  Aug. 
20th,  1823. 

PIZARRO,  Francisco,  the  conqueror  of 
Peru,  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  a Spanish 
colonel,  and  was  born  at  Truxillo,  1471.  He 
embarked  for  America  as  a soldier,  and  served 
in  many  perilous  adventures.  In  1524,  he  asso- 
ciated at  Panama  with  Diego  de  Almagro,  and 
Hernandez  Lucque,  a priest,  in  an  enterprise 
to  make  discoveries.  In  this  voyage  they  fell 
in  with  the  coast  of  Peru,  but  being  too  few 
to  make  any  attempt  at  a settlement,  Pizarro 


PIZ 


6io 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


returned  to  Spain,  where  all  that  he  gained 
was  a power  from  the  court  to  prosecute  his 
obj  ect.  However,  having  raised  some  money, 
tie  was  enabled  again,  in  1531,  to  visit  Peru, 
where  a civil  war  was  then  raging  between 
the  Inca  Huasca,  the  legitimate  monarch,  and 
his  half-brother  Atahualpa.  The  invading 
force  did  not  exceed  110  foot  soldiers,  67 
horsemen,  and  two  small  pieces  of  artillery. 
Pizarro,  by  pretending  to  take  the  part  of  the 
tatter,  was  permitted  to  march  into  the  inte- 
rior, where  he  made  the  unsuspecting  chief 
his  prisoner,  and  exacted  an  immense  ransom. 
Soon  after,  Pizarro  murdered  the  unfortunate 
Atahualpa,  by  burning  him  at  a stake.  In 
1535  the  conqueror  laid  the  foundation  of 
Lima.  In  1537  a contest  arose  between  him 
and  Almagro,  who  was  defeated  and  executed. 
The  son  and  friends  of  Almagro,  however 
avenged  his  death,  and  June  26th,  .1541, 
Pizarro  was  assassinated  in  his  palace. 

PLAGUE.  In  early  times  dreadful  pesti- 
lences often  prevailed,  which  are  known  in 
history  by  the  general  name  of  plague. 

The  first  recorded  general  plague  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  occurred  767  b.c.  At  Car- 
thage a plague  was  so  terrible  that  people 
sacrificed  their  children  to  appease  the  gods, 
534  b.c.  At  Rome  prevailed  a desolating 
plague,  carrying  off  a hundred  thousand  per- 
sons in  and  round  the  city,  461  b.c.  At 
Athens,  whence  it  spread  into  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia,  and  caused  an  awful  devastation, 
430  b.c.  Another,  which  raged  in  the  Greek 
islands,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  and  destroyed  2,000 
persons  every  day,  188  b.c. 

At  Rome,  a most  awful  plague;  10,000  persons 
perish  daily,  a.d.  78. 

The  same  fatal  disease  again  ravaged  the  Roman 
empire,  a.d.  167. 

In  Britain  a plague  raged  so  formidably,  and 
swept  away  such  multitudes,  that  the  living 
were  scarcely  sufficient  to  bury  the  dead,  a.d. 
430. 

A dreadful  one  began  in  Europe  in  558,  extended 
all  over  Asia  and  Africa,  and  it  is  said  did  not 
cease  for  many  years. 

At  Constantinople,  when  200,000  of  its  inhabit- 
ants perished,  a.d *746. . This  plague  raged  for 
three  years,  and  was  equally  fatal  in  Calabria, 
Sicily,  and  Greece.  , 

At  Chichester  in  England,  an  epidemical  disease 
carried  off  34,000  persons,  a.d.  772. 

In  Scotland,  40,000  persons  perished  of  a pesti- 
lence, a.d.  954. 

I.\  London,  a great  mortality,  a.d.  1094;  and  in 
> Ireland,  1095. 


Again  in  London : it  extended  to  cattle,  fowls, 
and  other  domestic  animals,  1111. 

In  Ireland:  after  Christmas  this  year,  Henry  II. 
was  forced  to  quit  the  country,  1172. 

Again  in  Ireland,  When  a prodigious  number  per- 
ished, 1204. 

A general  plague  raged  throughout  Europe,  caus- 
ing a most  extensive  mortality.  Britain  and 
Ireland  suffered  grievously.  In  London  alone, 
200  persons  were  buried  daily  in  the  Charter- 
house-yard. 

In  Paris  and  London  a dreadful  mortality  pre- 
vailed in  1362  and  1367;  and  in  Ireland  in 
1370. 

A great  pestilence  in  Ireland,  called  the  Fourth ' 
destroyed  a great  number  of  the  people,  1383. 

30.000  persons  perished  of  a dreadful  pestilence 
in  London,  1407. 

Again  in  Ireland,  superinduced  by  a famine; 
great  numbers  died  1466;  and  Dublin  was 
wasted  by  a plague,  1470. 

An  awful  pestilence  at  Oxford,  1471 ; and  through- 
out England  a plague  which  destroyed  more 
people  than  the  continual  wars  for  the  fifteen 
preceding  years,  1478. 

The  awful  Sudor  Anglicus,  or  sweating  sickness, 
very  fatal  at  London,  1485. 

The  plague  at  London,  so  dreadful  that  Henry 
VII.  and  his  court  removed  to  Calais,  1500. 

Again,  the  sweating  sickness  (mortal  in  three 
hours).  In  most  of  the  capital  towns  in  Eng- 
land half  the  inhabitants  died,  and  Oxford  was 
depopulated,  9 Hen.  VIII.,  1517. 

Limerick  was  visited  by  a plague,  when  many 
thousands  perished,  1522. 

A pestilence  throughout  Ireland,  1525;  and  the 
English  sweat,  1528;  and  a pestilence  in  Dub- 
lin, 1575. 

30,578  persons  perished  of  the  plague  in  London 
alone,  1603-1604.  It  was  also  fatal  in  Ireland. 

200.000  perished  of  a pestilence  at  Constantino- 
ple, in  1611. 

In  London,  a great  mortality  prevailed,  and  35,417 
persons  perished,  1625. 

In  France,  a general  mortality;  at  Lyons  60,000 
persons  died,  1632. 

The  plague,  brought  from  Sardinia  to  Naples 
(being  introduced  by  a transport  with  soldiers 
on  board),  raged  with  such  violence  as  to  carry 
off  400,000  of  the  inhabitants  in  six  months, 
1656. 

Memorable  plague,  which  carried  off  68,596  per- 
sons in  London,  1665.  [/See  below .]  Fires 
were  kept  up  night  and  day  to  purify  the  air 
for  three  days;  and  it  is  thought  the  infection 
was  not  totally  destroyed  till  the  great  confla- 
gration of  1666. 

60.000  persons  perished  of  the  plague  at  Mar- 
seilles and  neighbourhood,  brought  in  a ship 
from  the  Levant,  1720. 

Qne  of  the  most  awful  plagues  that  ever  raged, 
prevailed  in  Syria,  17  60. 

In  Persia,  a fatal  pestilence,  which  carried  off 
80,000  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bassora,  1773. 

In  Egypt,  more  than  800,000  persons  died  of 
plague,  1792. 

In  Barbary,  3,000  died  daily  and  at  Fez  247,000 
perished,  1799. 


PLA 


IIISTCRY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


647 


In  Spain  and  at  Gibraltar,  immense  numbers  were 
carried  off  by  a pestilent  disease  in  1804  and 
1805. 

Again,  at  Gibraltar,  an  epidemic  fever,  much  re- 
sembling the  plague,  causad  great  mortality, 
1828. 

The  Asiatic  cholera  made  its  first  appearance  in 
England,  at  Sunderland,  Oct.  26th,  1831;  in 
Scotland,  at  Haddington,  Dec.  23d,  same  year ; 
and  in  Ireland,  at  Belfast,  March  14th,  1832. 
The  cholera  again  visited  England,  1848  and  l'>49. 

The  awful  and  memorable  scourge  called 
the  Great  Plague  in  London,  commenced  in 
December,  1604.  In  the  months  of-  May, 
Jun.e,  and  July,  it  had  continued  with  great 
severity;  but  in  August  and  September  it 
quickened  into  dreadful  activity,  sweeping 
away  8,000  persons  in  a week.  Then  it  was 
that  the  whole  British  nation  wept  for  the 
sufferings  of  the  metropolis.  In  some  houses 
carcasses  lay  waiting  for  burial ; and  in  others, 
persons  were  seen  doubled  up  in  their  last 
agonies.  In  one  room  were  heard  dying 
groans ; and  in  the  next,  the  ravings  of  delir- 
ium mingled  with  the  wailings  of  relatives 
and  friends,  and  the  apprehensive  shrieks  of 
children.  Infants  passed  at  once  from  the 
womb  to  the  grave.  The  }^et  healthy  child 
hung  upon  the  putrid  breast  of  a dead  mother ; 
and  the  nuptial  bed  was  changed  into  a sep- 
ulchre. Some  of  the  infected  ran  about  stag- 
gering like  drunken  men,  and  fell  and  expired 
in  the  streets ; while  others  calmly  laid  them- 
selves down,  never  to  rise  but  at  the  call  of 
the  last  trumpet.  At  length,  in  the  middle 
of  September,  more  than  12,000  perished  in 
one  week;  in  one  night  4,000  died;  and  in 
the  whole,  not  68,000,  as  has  been  stated,  but 
100,000,  perished  of  this  plague. 

The  hearses  were  but  dead-carts  which  con- 
tinually traversed  the  streets,  while  the  ap- 
palling cry,  “ Bring  out  you?  dead”  thrilled 
through  every  soul.  Then  it  was  that  parents, 
husbands,  wives,  and  children  saw  all  those 
that  were  dear  to  them  thrown  with  a pitch- 
fork  into  a cart,  like  the  offal  of  the  slaughter- 
house, to  be  conveyed  without  the  walls,  and 
flung  into  one  promiscuous  heap,  without  the 
rites  of  sepulture,  without  a coffin,  and  with- 
out a shroud!  Some  graves  were  dug  so 
large  as  to  hold  a thousand  bodies  each ; and 
into  these  huge  holes,  the  living,  wrapt  in 
blankets  and  rags,  threw  themselves  among 
the  dead,  in  their  agonies  and  delirium.  They 
were  often  found  in  this  state  hugging  the 


flesh  of  their  kindred  that  had  not  quite  per- 
ished. People,  in  the  intolerable  torment  of 
their  swellings,  ran  wild  and  mad,  laying 
violent  hands  upon  themselves;  and  even 
mothers  in  their  lunacy  murdered  their  own 
children.  When  the  carts  were  insufficient 
for  their  office,  the  houses  and  streets  were 
rendered  tenfold  more  pestilential  by  the  un- 
buried dead. — Defoe. 

PLANETS.  The  planet  Jupiter  was  known 
as  a planet  to  the  Chinese  and  the  Chaldeans ; 
to  the  former,  it  is  said,  3000  b.c.  ; and  cor- 
rectly inserted  in  a chart  of  the  heavens,  made 
about  600  b.c.  and  in  which  1,460  stars  are 
accurately  described ; this  chart  is  said  to  be 
in  the  imperial  library  at  Paris.  The  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter  were  discovered  by  Galileo, 
a.d.  1610;  but  Janssen,  it  is  affirmed,  claimed 
some  acquaintance  with  them  about  twenty 
years  before.  We  have  now  eleven  primary 
planets,  viz. : Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth, 
Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  the  Georgium  Sidus, 
Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  and  Vesta;  and  more 
than  thirty  secondary  planets,  or  small  plan- 
ets belonging  to  our  solar  system.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a list  of  the  late  discoveries : — 


Georgium  Sidus,  called  also  Iler- 
schel  and  Uranus ; discovered 
by  Herschel,  Marcl^l3,  1781. 

Neptune,  discovered  (in  conse- 
quence of  the  calculations  of 
Le  Verrier  and  Adams)  Sept. 
23,  1816,  by  Dr.  GaUe  at  Ber- 
lin. 

MINOK  PLANETS. 

Ceres,  discovered  by  Piazzi.  Jan. 
1,  1801.  This  planet  is  visible 
to  the  naked  eye. 

Pallas,  discovered  at  Bremen,  by 
Olbers,  March  29,  1802. 

Juno,  discovered  by  Harding, 
Sept.  1,  1S04. 

Vesta,  discovered  by  Olbers  (his 
second  discovery),  March  29, 
1807. 

Astroea,  Dec.  8, 1845,  Hencke. 

Hebe,  July  1,  1847.  Hencke. 

Iris,  Aug.  13,  1847,  Hind. 

Flora,  Oct.  18,  1847,  Hind. 

Metis,  April  26,  1848,  Graham. 

Hygeia,  Apr.  12,  '49,  De  Gasparis. 

Parthenope,  May  11, 1850,  De  Gas- 
paris. 

Victoria,  Sept.  13,  1850,  Hind. 

Egeria,  Nov.  2,  1850,  De  Gasparis. 

Irene,  May  19,  1851,  Hind. 

Eunemia,  July  29,  1851,  De  Gas- 
paris. 

Psyche,  March  17,  1852,  De  Gas- 
paris. 

Thetis,  April  17,  1852,  Luther. 

Melpomene,  June  21,  1852,  Hind. 

Fortuna,  Aug.  22,  1852,  Hind. 

Massilia,  Sept.  19, 1852,  Gasparis. 


Circe,  April  6,  1855,  Chacoruac. 
t Leucothea , April  19, 1855,  Luther. 
jFides,  Oct.  5,  1855,  Luther. 

; Atalania,  Oct.  5, '55, Goldschmidt, 
j Leda,  Jan.  12,  1856,  Chacornac. 
Lcetitia,  Feb.  8,  '56,  Chacornac. 
Daphne,  May  22, '56, Goldschmidt. 
Isis,  May  23,  1856,  Pogson. 
Ariadne,  April  15,  1857,  Pogson. 

May  27,  1857,  Goldschmidt. 

Euqenia, June  28, '57, Goldschmidt 
Hestia,  Aug.  16,  1857,  Pogson. 

— ■ Sept.  15,  1857,  Luther. 

Pales,  Sept.  19,  '57,  Goldschmidt. 
Doris,  Sept.  19,  '57,  Goldschmidt. 
Virginia,  Oct.  5,  '57,  Ferguson. 

January,  1858,  at  Nismes. 

Feb.  4,  1858,  Goldschmidt. 

Nysa,  May  27,  1857. 

Agalia,  Sept.  15,  1857. 

Nemausa,  Jan.  22, 1858,  Laurent. 
Europa,  Feb.  4,  1858. 

Calypso,  April  4,  1858,  Sutlier. 
Alexandra,  Sept.  11,  1858,  Gold- 
schmidt. 

Pandora,  Sept.  11,  1858,  Searle. 
Melete,  Sept.  9,  ’57,  Goldschmidt. 
Miremosyne,  Sept.  22,'59,  Luther, 
Concordia,  March  24,  '60,  Luther. 
Olympia,  Sept.  12, '60,  Chacornac. 
Echo,  Sept.  15,  1860,  Ferguson. 
Danae,  Sept.  19, '60, Goldschmidt, 
Erato,  Oct.  10,  1860,  Forster. 
Ansonia,  Feb.  10,1861,  Gasparis. 
Angelina,  March  2,  1861,  Temper 
Cybele , March  4,  1861,  Tempel. 
Maia,  April  9,  ’861,  Tuttle. 

Asia,  April  17,  1361,  Pogson. 


PLA 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


648 


Lutetia,  Nov.  15,  1853,  Gold- 
schmidt. 

Calliope,  Nov.  16,  1852,  Hind. 
Thalia,  Dec.  15,  1852,  Hind. 
Themis,  April  6,  '53,  De  Gasparis 
Phocea,  April  6,  1853,  Chacornac. 
Proserpine,  May  5,  1853,  Luther. 
Euterpe.  Nov.  8,  1853,  Uind. 
Bellona,  March  1,  1854,  Luther. 
Amphitrite,  March  1,  1854,  Marth. 
Urania,  July  22,  1854,  Hind. 
Euphrosyne,  Sept.  1,  1854,  Fergu 
son. 

Pomona,  Oct.  26, '54. Goldschmidt. 
Polyhymnia,  Oct.  28,  1854,  Cha- 
cornac. 

Beatrice,  April  26,  '65,  Gasparis. 
Clio,  April  25,  1885,  Luther. 

Jo,  Sept.  13,  1885,  Peters. 

Semele,  Jan.  4,  1868,  Tictjen. 
Sylvia,  May  16,  1883,  Pogson. 
Thisbe,  June  15,  1866,  Peters. 
Julia,  Aug.  6, 1886,  Stephan. 
Antiope,  Oct.  1,  1866,  Luther. 
jEgina,  Nov.  4,  1886,  Stephan. 
Undina,  July  7,  1837,  Peters. 
Minerva,  Aug.  24,  1867,  Watson. 
Aurora,  Sept.  6,  1867,  Watson. 
Arethusa,  Nov.  23, 1867,  Luther. 
jEgle,  Feb.  17,  1868,  Coggia. 
Ciotho,  Feb.  17,  1868,  Tempel. 
Janthe,  April  13,  1868,  Peters. 
Dike,  May  28, 1868,  Borelly. 


Leto,  April  17,  1861,  Luther. 
Hesperia,  April  29, 1861,  Schiapa- 
relli. 

Panopcca, TAa.y  5, '61, Goldschmidt. 
Niobe,  May  29,  1861,  Peters. 
Feronia,  Aug.  13,  1861,  Luther. 
Clytia,  April  8,  1862,  Tuttle. 
Galatea , Aug.  29,  1862,  Tempel. 
Eurydice,  Sept.  22,1862  Peters. 
Freya , Oct.  21  1862.  D Arrest. 
Frigga,  Nov.  12.  1862.  Peters. 
Diana,  March  15.  1863.  Luther. 
Eurynome.  Sep.  44, 1863,  Watscn. 
Sappho,  May  2.  1864,  Pogson. 
Terpsichore,  Sept.  30, '64,  Tempel. 
Alcemene,  Nov.  27, 1864,  Luther. 
Hecate,  July  11,  1868,  Watson. 
Helena,  Aug.  15,  1868,  Watson. 
Miriam,  Aug.  22,  1868,  Peters. 
Hera,  Sept  >,  1868,  Watson. 
Clymenc,  Sept.  13,  1868,  Watson. 
Artemis,  Sept.  16,  1868,  Watson. 
Dione,  Oct.  10,  1868,  Watson. 
Camilla,  Nov.  17,  1868,  Luther. 

Hccerba,  April  2,  1869, . 

Fclicitas,  Oct.  9,  1869,  Peters. 
Lydia,  April  19,  1870,  Borelly. 
Ate,  Aug.  14,  1870,  Peters. 
Tphigenia,  Sept.  19,  1870,  Peters. 
.4 malthea,  March  12, 1871, Luther. 
Cassandra,  July  23,  1871,  Peters. 

Aug.  6,  1871,  Watson. 

Sept.  8, 1871,  Peters. 


PLANTAGENET,  House  of,  a race  of 
fourteen  English  kings,  from  Henry  II.  to 
Richard  III.  The  first  called  Plantagenet 
was  Fulke  Martel,  Earl  of  Anjou,  in  the  tenth 
century.  That  noble  having  contrived  the 
death  of  his  nephew,  the  Ea$l  of  Brittany, 
in  order  to  succeed  to  that  earldom,  his  con- 
fessor sent  him,  in  atonement  for  the  murder, 
to  Jerusalem,  attended  by  only  two  servants, 
one  of  whom  was  to  lead  him  by  a halter  to 
the  holy  sepulchre,  the  other  to  strip  and 
whip  him  there,  like  a common  malefactor. 
Broom  (in  French  genet,  in  Latin  genista) 
being  the  only  tough  pliant  shrub  in  Pales- 
tine, the  knightly  criminal  was  smartly 
scourged  with  it,  and  from  this  instrument 
of  his  chastisement,  he  (and  his  descendants 
after  him)  was  called  Planta-genista , or  Plan- 
tagenet. 

Henry  II.,  born  in  1133,  was  the  son  of 
Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  I.,  and  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet,  Earl  of  Anjou.  The  only  son 
of  the  English  monarch  having  perished  at 
sea,  Matilda  was  the  heir  to  the  crown,  and 
her  infant  son  was  invested  with  the  rights 
of  both  his  parents.  Upon  the  death  of  the 
usurper  Stephen  in  1154,  he  ascenckd  the 
throne.  He  had  previously  married  Eleanor, 
the  repudiated  queen  of  Louis  VII.  of  France, 
the  heiress  ofGuienne,  Aquitaine,  and  Poitou 


in  her  own  right.  These  acquisitions  to  his 
hereditary  domain  made  him  master  of  the 
larger  portion  of  France,  and  his  possessions 
were  far  more  extensive  than  those  of  the 
French  king,  to  whom  he  owed  feudal  alle- 
giance. In  1170  he  had  his  son  Hemy 
crowned  King  of  England.  In  1172  he 
reduced  Ireland  to  subjection.  During  his 
reign  great  improvement  was  made  in  the 
administration  of  the  laws,  and  England  was 
divided  into  three  judicial  circuits.  The 
king  attempted  so  to  limit  the  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction,  that  the  clergy  should  be  amen- 
able to  the  royal  tribunals  in  temporal  mat- 
ters, without  any  appeal  to  the  pope.  This 
met  strong  opposition  from  Thomas  a Becket, 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  anath- 
emas of  the  obstinate  ecclesiastic  exasperated 
Henry  into  exclaiming,  “ What  an  unhappy 
prince  am  I,  wdio  have  not  about  me  one 
man  of  spirit  enough  to  rid  me  of  this  inso 
lent  prelate.”  Four  barons  who  heard 
departed  at  once  for  Canterbury,  where  they 
murdered  the  archbishop  before  the  altar. 
The  superstitious  horror  aroused  by  this 
bloody  sacrilege,  and  the  fear  of  excommuni- 
cation, forced  Henry  into  unconditional  sub- 
mission to  the  pope,  and  for  the  intemperate 
speech  which  had  instigated  the  assassina- 
tion, he  atoned  by  a vow  to  serve  three  years 
against  the  infidels  in  Palestine,  should  the 
pope  demand  it.  Afterward,  when  his  sons 
were  armed  against  him,  he  trudged  bare- 
foot to  the  tomb  of  Becket,  fasted  and  prayed 
all  day,  watched  all  night,  and  bared  his 
shoulders  that  the  monks  might  scourge  him. 
A great  victory  obtained  by  his  army  over 
the  Scots  that  day  was  considered  a sure 
token  that  Heaven  and  the  murdered  Becket 
accepted  his  penitence.  The  jealousy  of 
Queen  Eleanor  against  Henry’s  famous  mis- 
tress the  Fair  Rosamond,  and  the  unnatural 
rebellions  of  his  sons,  troubled  the  last  years 
of  Henry’s  reign,  and  embittered  his  closing 
days.  He  died  at  the  castle  of  Chinon  in 
Normandy,  July  6th,  1189,  in  the  thirty- 
fifth  year  of  a reign  wherein  he  had  displayed 
great  wisdom  and  bravery.  Two  of  his  sons 
(Henry  and  Geoffre}”)  had  died  during  his 
lifetime ; the  other  two  successively  held  the 
sceptre. 

Richard  I.,  born  at  Oxford  in  1157,  suc- 
ceeded the  father  whom  his  haughty,  rebel- 


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649 


lious  conduct  had  helped  to  lay  in  the  grave. 
Martial  enthusiasm  led  him  to  join  the  cru- 
sade against  Saladin.  Pledges  were  inter- 
changed between  him  and  Philip  Augustus 
of  France,  that  neither  should  invade  the 
other’s  kingdom  while  the  holy  expedition 
lasted.  The  French  and  English  forces  ren- 
dezvoused before  Messina,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  year,  and  took  that  city  from  the  Sara- 
cens. Then  took  place  the  romantic  episode 
of  Richard’s  expedition  against  Cyprus,  and 
his  marriage  with  Berengera,  daughter  of  the 
King  of  Navarre.  At  last,  in  the  summer 
of  1101.  Richard  arrived  before  St  Jean  d’ 
Acre,  whose  walls  the  crusaders  had  now 
beleaguered  for  two  weary  years.  Freder- 
ick Barbarossa,  the  Emperor  of  Germany, 
had  been  drowned  in  the  previous  year,  and 
the  vacant  leadership  was  assumed  by  the 
English  monarch.  The  vigor  with  which  he 
entered  into  the  siege  effected  the  downfall 
of  the  Saracenic  stronghold  and  aroused  the 
envy  of  the  French  sovereign,  who  soon 
after  set  out  for  home,  maddened  by  the 
exploits  of  his  rival.  The  prowess  of  Rich- 
ard gained  him  the  surname  of  Cmur  de  Lion 
(the  lion-hearted).  Gaining  the  great  battle 
of  Ascalon  over  Saladin,  he  burned  to  press 
forward  to  the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  Bick- 
erings among  the  Christian  leaders  prevented 
this  glorious  consummation  of  his  successes, 
and  news  of  the  perfidy  of  his  brother  John 
and  PLilip  of  France,  induced  him  to  con- 
clude a truce  with  Saladin  and  voyage  home 
in  the  autumn  of  1192.  Shipwrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Italy,  he  disguised  himself  as  a pil- 
grim, and  set  out  for  England  by  land.  Near 
Vienna  the  itinerant  king  was  discovered  and 
imprisoned  by  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria, 
in  revenge  both  for  Richard’s  capture  of  the 
King  of  Cyprus,  Leopold’s  brother-in-law, 
and  for  the  contempt  Richard  had  shown  for 
the  Austrian  banner  at  Acre.  The  place  of 
Richard’s  captivity  was  carefully  concealed, 
and  his  fate  was  long  in  doubt.  The  story 
of  his  release  is  romantic.  Blondel,  a min- 
strel, who  had  been  his  servant  and  friend, 
wandered  through  Palestine  and  Germany  in 
search  of  his  royal  master.  Placing  himself 
beneath  a grated  window  of  the  castle  of 
Lowestein,  and  singing  one  of  the  lays  which 
he  had  formerly  taught  the  king,  he  but  just 
completed  the  first  stanza,  when,  to  his  great 


delight,  he  heard  the  voice  of  Richard,  re- 
plying in  the  same  strain.  He  received  the 
name  of  the  faithful  Blondel.  Richard  was 
ransomed  by  his  subjects  for  a hundred  thou- 
sand marks  (about  $2,000,000),  having  lain 
two  years  in  bondage.  John,  who  had  as- 
sumed the  crown  in  his  absence,  was  advised 
of  his  return  by  Philip  Augustus,  with  the 
pithy  warning  to  “ take  care  of  himself,  for 
the  devil  had  broke  loose.”  Richard’s  re- 
venge, however,  was  bestowed  upon  Philip, 
and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  war  sub- 
sisted between  France  and  England.  In  the 
battle  of  Gisors,  in  1198,  Richard  gave  Dieu 
et  mon  droit  (“God  and  my  right”)  to  his 
army  as  the  parole  of  the  day,  and  so  signal 
was  his  success  in  the  contest  that  he  made 
the  watchword  the  motto  of  the  royal  arms 
of  England,  in  which  it  has  ever  since  been 
retained.  A truce  with  France  the  next  year, 
Richard  occupied  in  quarreling  with  his  vas- 
sal Vidomar,  Count  of  Limoges,  wrho  having 
found  a treasure,  sent  only  a part  to  the  king 
as  his  feudal  superior,  whereas  the  king 
claimed  all.  Coeur  de  Lion  invested  the 
count’s  castle  of  Chaluz,  and  haughtily  refus- 
ing all  overtures,  threatened  to  hang  the 
whole  garrison.  While  reconnoitering  the 
fortress,  he  was‘shot  in  the  shoulder  with  an 
arrow  by  a crossbowman,  named  Bertrand  de 
Gourdon.  The  wound  proved  mortal,  and 
Richard  expired  in  the  tenth  year  of  his 
reign,  April  16th,  1199.  Before  he  died  the 
castle  was  taken,  and  he  magnanimously 
ordered  that  Gourdon  should  go  unharmed. 
On  the  contrary  the  hapless  man  was  flayed 
alive,  and  then  hung.  Richard,  in  his  love 
for  war,  had  paid  but  little  heed  to  the  welfare 
or  concerns  of  England.  His  violence  and 
cruelty  were  mantled  by  his  intrepid  courage 
and  the  deeds  in  arms  whose  renown  spread 
through  Asia  as  well  as  Europe.  Arabian 
chroniclers  recorded  with  unwilling  admira- 
tion the  fall  of  Acre,  the  defense  of  Joppa, 
and  the  victorious  march  to  Ascalon;  and 
Arabian  mothers  long  awed  their  infants  to 
silence  with  the  name  of  the  lion-hearted 
Plantagenet. 

Coeur  de  Lion  dying  without  issue,  his 
brother  John  ascended  the  throne  he  had 
before  usurped.  The  new  king  w*as  then  in 
the  thirty-fourth  year  of  life.  Although  he 
had  been  his  father’s  favorite  son,  he  had 


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COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


none  of  the  qualities  which  had  rendered 
the  royal  Plantagenets  illustrious.  In  the 
place  of  his  father’s  wisdom,  John  was  cursed 
with  weakness.  While  he  was  as  cruel  and 
violent  as  his  brother,  the  daring  which  had 
gained  Richard  the  name  of  the  lion-hearted 
was  contrasted  in  John  by  a cowardice  and 
an  irresolution  that  brought  him  misfortune 
and  the  name  of  Lackland.  Arthur  of  Brit- 
tany, son  of  John’s  deceased  brother  Geoffrey, 
laid  claim  to  the  crown.  The  youthful  aspi- 
rant was  captured  and  murdered,  but  the 
revolt  ended  in  the  loss  of  Normandy  to 
England.  John  having  resisted  the  pope’s 
nomination  of  Stephen  Langton  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  sentence  of  excommunication 
was  pronounced  against  him ; the  kingdom 
was  placed  under  an  interdict,  and  given  by 
the  offended  pope  to  Philip  of  France.  John 
advanced  to  Dover  with  sixty  thousand  men, 
to  meet  the  French  king,  who  was  preparing 
an  army  to  take  possession  of  England.  In 
this  posture  of  affairs,  the  pope,  whose  high 
• authority  in  temporal  as  well  spiritual  con- 
cerns was  considered  to  be  then  almost  om- 
nipotent, intimated  to  John,  by  his  legate, 
that  there  was  but  one  way  to  secure  himself 
from  the  threatened  danger ; which  was  to 
put  himself  entirely  under  the  papal  protec- 
tion, and  to  perform  whatever  the  pope  should 
command.  John,  accordingly,  resigned  his 
crown  and  dominions  to  Innocent  III.,  get- 
ting in  return  absolution  for  the  murder  of 
his  nephew  Arthur;  and  having,  in  a full 
assembly  of  clergy  and  nobles,  submitted  to 
the  humiliation  of  receiving  them  again  from 
the  papal  legate,  he  paid  homage  for  them, 
and  took  an  oath  upon  his  knees,  with  his 
hands  raised  between  those  of  the  legate, 
to  hold  them  as  the  pope’s  vassal,  under  a 
yearly  tribute  of  a thousand  marks.  By 
this  scandalous  concession,  John  once  more 
averted  the  threatened  blow ; but  he  had 
now  incurred  the  detestation  of  his  subjects. 
The  barons  and  bishops,  incensed  at  such 
indignity  and  roused  by  his  exactions,  con- 
federated against  him,  rose  in  arms,  and  on 
the  field  of  Runnymede,  June  19th,  1215, 
forced  him  to  sign  that  famous  bulwark  of 
English  liberty,  the  Magna  Gharta.  John, 
however,  refused  to  be  governed  by  this 
charter.  This  produced  a second  civil  war, 
in  which  the  barons  had  recourse  to  the 

JPI 


King  of  France  for  assistance.  John  directed 
his  route  toward  Lincolnshire  with  an  army, 
but  being  obliged  to  keep  close  to  the  sea- 
shore, and  not  being  apprised  of  the  influx 
of  the  tide  at  a particular  place,  he  lost  all 
his  carriages,  treasure,  and  baggage.  Grief 
for  the  loss  he  had  sustained,  threw  him  into 
a fever,  of  which  he  died  at  Newark,  in  the 
fifty-first  year  of  his  age,  and  the  eighteenth 
of  his  detested  reign,  Oct.  18th,  1216. 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  use  of  the  plural 
pronoun  we,  now  the  style  royal  of  all  mon- 
archs  as  well  as  editors,  was  begun  by  John. 
Before  his  time  sovereigns  had  used  the  sin- 
gular person  in  all  their  edicts. 

Henry  III.  was  a lad  of  ten  years  at  the 
decease  of  his  father;  he  was  crowned  at 
Gloucester,  Oct.  28th,  1216,  and  married 
Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Provence, 
Jan.  14th,  1236.  His  long  reign  was  favora- 
ble to  the  growth  of  liberty,  although  the 
kingdom  was  in  a disturbed  condition.  His 
extravagant  profuseness  to  favorites,  and  the 
exactions  of  the  priesthood,  drove  the  people 
to  rebel  and  seize  upon  the  person  of  the 
king.  He  was  rescued  by  the  bravery  of 
Prince  Edward,  regained  his  power,  and  died 
at  Westminster,  Nov.  16th,  1272. 

His  chivalrous  son,  Edward  I.,  had  won 
great  warlike  reputation,  both  in  the  civil  con- 
tests at  home  and  in  Palestine,  and  to  this  he 
added  during  his  reign.  He  subjugated  the 
hitherto  independent  principality  of  W ales,  in 
1282.  He  promised  the  conquered  Welsh  a 
countryman  of  their  own  to  rule  over  them. 
His  queen  was  brought  to  bed  at  Caernarvon, 
and  the  wily  king  presented  the  son  to  whom 
she  gave  birth,  to  the  subjugated  chieftains  as 
their  future  prince.  This  prince,  by  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  afterward  became 
king  of  England;  and  since  that  time  the 
heir  apparent  to  the  English  throne  has 
borne  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales.  When 
the  quarrel  for  the  Scottish  crown  broke  out 
between  Robert  Bruce  and  John  Baliol,  Ed- 
ward, being  chosen  umpire,  decided  in  favor 
of  the  latter,  who  was  ready  to  do  him  hom- 
age as  a vassal.  The  Scots,  proud  of  their 
independence,  were  aroused  by  the  Norman 
tyranny  ; they  bared  the  sword,  and  led  by 
heroic  champions  like  Wallace,  fought  many 
a battle  now  of  renown  in  song  and  legend. 
Blood  drenched  the  border;  Wallace  was 
<A 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


651 


taken  prisoner  and  hanged  at  London  ; the 
stone  on  which  for  ages  the  Scottish  kings 
had  been  crowned  at  Scone  was  brought  to 
Westminster  Abbey,  where  it  still  remains; 
Edward’s  victorious  host  marched  through 
the  Lowlands  of  Scotland ; and  yet  the  Scots 
held  out.  Robert  Bruce,  the  grandson  of 
Baliol’s  competitor,  obtained  the  crown  after 
many  vicissitudes.  Edward  I.  died  July  7th, 
1307,  in  the  sixty -ninth  year  of  his  age.  He 
wras  about  to  invade  Scotland  anew,  and  his 
last  words  to  his  son  were  that  the  war 
might  be  earnestly  waged. 

Edward  IT.,  however,  could  neither  win 
conquests  abroad  nor  keep  order  at  home. 
The  barons  repeatedly  rose  in  arms  against 
him,  killing  his  obnoxious  favorites,  Piers 
Gaveston  and  Hugh  Spencer.  Edward  had 
v/edded  in  1308,  Isabella,  daughter  of  the 
ICing  of  France.  The  queen  deserted  her 
husband,  invaded  his  realm  with  a foreign 
force,  and  aided  by  her  paramour,  Roger 
Mortimer,  Earl  of  March,  thrust  him  from 
the  throne  in  1327.  After  several  months  of 
close  imprisonment  at  Kenilworth,  he  was 
inhumanly  murdered  in  Berkeley  Castle  the 
September  following.  This  atrocity  was 
avenged  by  his  energetic  son,  Edward  III., 
who  was  at  once  proclaimed  king,  being  in 
his  fourteenth  year.  Mortimer  was  gibbeted, 
and  the  queen  immured  for  life. 

The  reign  of  the  third  Edward  was  glo- 
rious in  vigor  and  renown.  He  withstood 
the  encroachments  of  the  pope,  profiting  by 
the  advice  of  an  Oxford  professor,  John 
Wickliffe.  The.  wars  which  he  and  his  great 
son,  the  Black  Prince,  waged  with  France, 
crowned  the  English  arms  with  success. 
Calais  was  reduced,  and  the  memorable  fields 
of  Cressy  and  Poitiers  were  won.  The  king 
renewed  the  war  of  his  grandfather  with 
Scotland,  raising  Edward  Baliol  to  a tribu- 
tary throne,  and  imprisoning  David  Bruce. 
Two  kings  were  at  one  time  captives  at  the 
English  court,  David  of  Scotland  and  John 
of  France.  The  Black  Prince  did  not  sur- 
vive to  reach  the  throne  which  his  stout  arm 
and  heroic  heart  had  defended  and  magnified. 
He  died  in  1376;  his  father  followed  him 
the  next  year. 

The  eldest  son  of  the  Black  Prince  reigned 
as  Richard  II.  During  his  minority  of 
eleven  years,  his  uncles  the  Dukes  of  Lan- 


caster and  Gloucester  ruled  as  regents.  The 
line  of  the  Plantagenets  thus  far  is  curiously 
chequered ; first  an  able  king,  then  a weak 
one.  The  reign  of  the  feeble  and  irresolute 
Richard  was  harassed  by  domestic  troubles, 
and  ended  writh  his  dethronement  in  1399, 
by  his  cousin  Henry,  son  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
the  Duke  of  Lancaster.  The  fallen  mon- 
arch perished  in  Pomfret  Castle.  Henry  IV. 
w*as  the  first  king  of  the  Lancaster  branch, 
and  his  unlawful  seizure  of  the  crowu  en- 
tailed upon  England  in  after  years  the  wars 
of  the  roses.  Various  rebellions  against  his 
powrer  he  quelled ; among  others  that  of 
Northumberland  and  Hotspur.  To  gain  for 
himself  and  family  the  good  will  of  the  Ro- 
mish priesthood,  he  persecuted  the  disciples 
of  Wickliffe,  called  Lollards,  and  his  reign 
is  blackened  by  the  first  martyrdom  in  Eng- 
land for  religion.  At  his  death  in  1443,  he 
left  the  house  of  Lancaster  firmly  seated  on 
the  throne,  and  its  power  was  still  increased 
by  his  valiant  son,  Henry  V.,  the  Prince 
Hal  of  Shakspeare.  His  victory  over  the 
French  at  Agincourt  revived  the  ancient 
glories  of  Cressy  and  Poitiers.  He  pushed 
his  conquests  in  France,  till  he  w’edded  the 
Princess  Catherine,  was  made  regent  of  the 
kingdom,  and  was  declared  the  heir  of  the 
insane  Charles  VI.  Just  as  he  had  reached 
this  summit  of  power,  death  leveled  him  to 
the  dust.  In  the  same  year  died  the  crazy 
Charles,  and  the  infant  Henry  VI.  was  pro- 
claimed king  of  both  England  and  France, 
his  uncle  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  acting  as 
regent.  But  this  sixth  Henrj''  wTas  more  un- 
fortunate than  his  father  had  been  successful. 
Inspirited  by  Joan  of  Arc,  the  French  wrested 
from  him  all  his  possessions  in  France  except 
Calais,  and  the  English  crowm  was  snatched 
from  him  by  the  house  of  York.  This  was 
the  commencement  of  the  intestine  wars  by 
which  England  wras  so  long  wasted.  The 
partisans  of  the  faction  of  Lancaster  chose  the 
red  rose  as  their  symbol ; those  of  York,  the 
white  rose  ; and  the  contest  thus  came  to  be 
know-n  as  the  wrar  of  the  Roses.  Henry  VI. 
wras  the  great-grandson  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
the  third  son  of  Edward  III.  Richard,  Duke 
of  York,  grandson  of  Lionel,  the  second  son 
of  Edward  III.,  asserted  his  better  claim  to 
the  crown.  Margaret  of  Anjou,  Henry’s 
queen,  a woman  of  great  strength  of  char- 


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COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


acter,  compensated  for  her  spouse’s  ineffi- 
ciency. The  sun  of  success  shone  now  upon 
the  red  rose,  and  now  upon  the  white. 
Richard  was  captured  by  the  forces  of  Mar- 
garet, who  mocked  his  gory  head  with  a 
paper  crown,  and  set  it  on  the  battlements  of 
York. 

Edward  IV.,  his  son,  was  proclaimed  king 
in  14G0,  after  winning  the  bloody  field  of 
Towton.  The  stout  Earl  of  Warwick,  who 
had  aided  to  raise  him  to  the  throne,  hurled 
him  down  in  1470,  and  Henry  VI.  was  re- 
stored. Edward  finally  established  himself 
on  the  throne,  after  Henry,  who  had  four 
times  exchanged  the  throne  for  a dungeon, 
had  ended  his  miserable  existence  in  the 
Tower,  Margaret  had  fled,  and  their  boy  met 
a cruel  death.  Edward  IV.,  died  April  9th, 
1483,  leaving  two  infant  princes,  the  oldest 
of  whom  was  proclaimed  as  Edward  V., 
his  uncle  Richard,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
being  made  protector.  This  protectorate 
ended  with  the  assumption  of  royalty  by 
Gloucester  in  the  following  year,  his  young 
nephews  having  been  smothered  in  the 
Tower.  Historians  are  divided  concern- 
ing the  character  of  Richard  III.  Some 
make  him  out  nothing  but  an  ambitious,  un- 
scrupulous, and  bloodthirsty  monster;  and 
others  contend,  that  although  he  was  cruel 
and  vicious,  he  was  no  more  so  than  Ed- 
ward IV.  or  Henry  VII.,  while  the  bravery, 
policy,  and  statesmanship  of  his  short  reign 
augured  well  for  what  he  would  have  done 
had  he  gained  the  day  at  Bosworth.  But 
Richmond  was  victorious  there ; the  crown 
of  Richard  was  found  in  a hawthorn  bush  on 
the  plain  where  the  fight  was  waged ; and  so 
impatient  was  the  victor  to  be  crowned,  that 
he  had  the  ceremony  performed  on  the  spot 
with  that  very  crown.  Thus,  on  the  22d  of 
August,  1485,  the  throne  was  forever  lost  to 
the  Plantagenet  race.  Thus,  too,  were  ended 
the  civil  wars,  in  which  many  of  the  most 
ancient  families  in  the  land  had  been  extin- 
guished, and  in  which  no  less  than  a hund- 
red thousand  human  beings  had  lost  their 
lives.  Plantagenets  had  sat  on  the  throne 
for  more  than  three  hundred  years : there 
had  been  fourteen  kings  of  the  dynasty  ; 
seven  of  them  were  deposed,  and  five  lost 
their  lives  as  well  as  their  crowns. 

PLASSEY,  Battle  of,  June  23d,  1757, 


fought  between  Lord  Clive  with  little  more 
than  3,000  British,  and  Surajah  Dowlah  with 

70.000  Hindoos.  The  victory  laid  the  corner- 
stone of  the  British  empire  in  India. 

PLATiEA,  a town  of  Boeotia,  near  Mount 
Cithaeron,  on  the  confines  of  Megaris  and 
Attica,  celebrated  for  a battle  fought  there, 
between  Mardonius,  the  commander  of  the 
army  of  Xerxes,  King  of  Persia,  and  Pausa- 
nias  the  Lacedaemonian  and  the  Athenians. 
The  Persian  army  consisted  of  300,000  men, 

3.000  of  whom  scarce  escaped  with  their 
lives  by  flight.  The  Grecian  army,  which 
was  about  110,000,  lost  but  few  men;  and 
among  these,  ninety-one  Spartans,  fifty-two 
Athenians,  and  sixteen  Tegeans,  were  the 
only  soldiers  found  in  the  number  of  the 
slain.  The  plunder  wThich  the  Greeks  ob- 
tained in  the  Persian  camp  was  immense. 
Pausanias  received  the  tenth  of  all  the  spoils, 
on  account  of  his  uncommon  valor  during  the 
engagement,  and  the  rest  were  rewarded  each 
according  to  their  respective  merit.  This 
battle  was  fought  on  the  22d  of  September, 
the  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Mycale,  b.c. 
479,  and  by  it  Greece  was  delivered  from  the 
continual  alarms  to  which  she  was  exposed 
on  account  of  the  Persian  invasions,  for  from 
that  time  none  of  the  princes  of  Persia  dared 
to  appear  with  a hostile  force  beyond  the 
Hellespont.  Plataea  was  taken  by  the  Lace- 
daemonians, after  a famous  siege,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and 
afterward  destroyed  by  the  Thebans,  b.c.  427. 
Alexander  rebuilt  it,  and  paid  great  encomi- 
ums to  the  inhabitants,  on  account  of  their 
ancestors,  who  had'so  bravely  fought  against 
the  Persians  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  and 
under  Pausanias. 

PLATO  was  a disciple  of  Socrates.  After 
the  death  of  his  master  he  traveled  and  stud- 
ied in  Egypt.  Upon  his  return  to  Athens 
he  set  up  his  school  in  a grove  called  the 
Academy.  He  visited  Sicily  several  times. 
The  elder  Dionysius,  offended  at  his  freedom, 
sold  him  as  a slave.  The  philosopher  was 
ransomed  by  his  friends.  His  teachings  were 
reverenced  by  the  most  illustrious  of  the  an- 
cients. He  died  at  Athens  in  his  seventy- 
ninth  year,  b.c.  438. 

PLATTSBURG,  Battle  of.  On  the  11th 
of  September,  1814,  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  was 
the  scene  of  an  important  conflict  between 


TLA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


653 


the  Americans  and  British  forces,  both  on 
the  land  and  on  the  water,  in  which  the 
Americans  were  victorious.  The  land  forces 
of  the  enemy,  consisting  of  about  14,000 
men,  were  led  on  to  the  attack  by  Sir  George 
Prevost,  and  were  successfully  repulsed  by 
about  3,000  men,  under  the  command  of 
General  Macomb.  The  engagement  on  the 
lake  was  between  Commodore  McDonough, 
of  the  American  navy,  and  Commodore 
Downie,  of  the  British.  The  fleet  under 
McDonough  carried  86  guns  and  820  men, 
and  the  British  fleet  95  guns  and  1050  men. 
The  action  lasted,  without  any  cessation,  on 
a smooth  sea,  at  close  quarters,  two  hours 
and  twenty  minutes,  in  full  view  of  both  the 
armies  fighting  on  land.  The  fortune  of  the 
day  was  in  a great  measure  decided  by  the 
issue  on  the  lake.  When  the  British  army 
saw  their  fleet  completely  conquered,  they 
were  at  once  dispirited,  and  commenced  their 
retreat.  Their  loss  in  the  mean  time  had 
been  more  than  six  times  as  great  as  that 
of  the  Americans.  Among  the  slain  in  the 
naval  engagement  was  the  British  command- 
ant, Commodore  Downie,  who  was  a brave 
and  skillful  officer.  The  fact  is  stated  as 
showing  the  frame  of  mind  in  which  the 
brave  McDonough  entered  the  battle,  and  in 
whom  he  put  his  trust  for  success,  that, 
“after  the  enemy’s  fleet  hove  in  sight,  the 
men  of  his  ship  were  assembled  on  the  quar- 
ter deck,  when  he  kneeled  down,  and,  in 
humble  and  fervent  prayer,  commended  him- 
self, his  men,  and  the  cause  in  which  they 
were  engaged,  to  the  God  of  battles.” 

PLAYFAIR,  JonN,  born  in  Scotland,  1749, 
professor  of  mathomatics  and  natural  philoso- 
fthy  at  Edinburgh,  died  in  1819. 

PLINY,  the  Elder,  after  Aristotle  the  most 
learned  of  ancient  writers  in  natural  philoso- 
phy and  history,  was  born  at  the  modern 
Como,  a.d.  23.  His  love  of  science  cost  him 
his  life  in  the  year  79.  During  the  great  erup- 
tion of  Vesuvius  by  which  Pompeii  and  Her- 
culaneum were  overwhelmed,  his  desire  to 
save  the  poor  people  threatened  by  the  burn- 
ing torrents,  and  also  to  witness  the  awful 
spectacle,  led  him  to  sail  too  near  the  coast, 
and  he  was  suffocated  by  the  smoke  and 
ashes. 

PLINY,  the  Younger,  a nephew  and 
adopted  son  of  the  foregoing,  and  distin- 


guished as  a Roman  orator,  historian,  and 
statesman,  was  born  a.d.  62,  and  died  in  116. 
He  was  a pro-consul  in  Bithynia  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan. 

PLUTARCH,  the  philosopher  and  histo- 
rian, born  in  Boeotia,  died  a.d.  120,  aged 
seventy. 

POCAHONTAS,  an  Indian  princess,  cele- 
brated in  the  annals  of  Virginia,  married  Mr. 
Rolfe,  and  from  them  descended  families  in 
Virginia:  she  died  in  England  in  1616. 

POET  LAUREATE.  The  origin  of  this 
appointment  is  not  known.  It  is  said  to  be 
peculiar  to  England.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.  there  was  a ‘king’s  versifier,’  to  whom 
was  paid  an  annual  stipend  of  one  hundred 
shillings.  It  is  said  that  the  first  mention 
of  a Poet  Laureate  occurs  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward IV.,  when  John  Kay  was  laureate. 
Andrew  Bernard  was  laureate  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VII.,  and  John  Skelton  in  the  succeed- 
ing reign.  The  following  poets  and  versifi- 
ers have  since  held  the  post.  Edmund 
Spenser,  died  1598 ; Samuel  Daniel,  died 
1619;  Ben  Jonson,  died  Aug.  6th,  1637 ; Sir 
William  Davenant,  died  Apr.  7th,  1668; 
John  Dryden,  dismissed  as  a papist,  1688; 
Thomas  Shadwell,  died  December,  1692; 
Nahum  Tate,  died  Aug.  12th,  1715 ; Nicholas 
Rowe,  died  Dec.  6th,  1718;  Rev.  Lawrence 
Eusden,  died  1730  ; Colley  Cibber,  died  1757 ; 
William  Whitehead  (appointed  on  the  refusal 
of  Gray),  died  Apr.  14th,  1785;  Rev.  Thomas 
Warton,  D.  D.,  died  May  21st,  1790;  Henry 
James  Pye,  died  1813  ; Robert  Southey,  died 
Mar.  21st,  1843;  William  Wordsworth,  died 
Apr.  23d,  1850;  Alfred  Tennyson. 

James  I.  granted  the  Laureate  a yearly 
pension  of  a hundred  marks.  Charles  I.  in* 
creased  the  stipend  to  £100,  and  added  a 
tierce  of  Spanish  wine.  Southey  commuted 
the  tierce  for  £27  a year. 

James  II.,  when  he  came  to  the  throne, 
ordered,  with  characteristic  parsimony,’  that 
the  annual  butt  of  sack  originally  granted  to 
Jonson,  and  continued  to  Rare  Ben’s  suc- 
cessors, should  be  omitted.  But  when  Dry- 
den, then  the  laureate,  became  a Catholic, 
James  granted  him  a pension  of  a hundred 
pounds  a year. 

POITIERS,  anciently  Pictavi , a town  of 
France,  now  capital  of  the  department  of  the 
Vienne,  containing  26,000  inhabitants.  It  is 


POI 


654 


COTTAGE  CYCLOTEDIA  OF 


memorable  for  a battle  between  the  English 
under  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  and  the 
French  under  John  II.,  fought  here  Sept. 
19th,  1356.  The  van  of  the  English  army 
(which  consisted  altogether  of  only  8,000 
men)  was  commanded  by  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick ; the  rear  by  the  Earls  of  Salisbury  and 
Suffolk ; the  main  body  by  the  Black  Prince 
himself.  The  first  division  of  John’s  army 
(which  was  50,000  strong)  was  commanded 
by  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  king’s  brother; 
the  second  by  the  dauphin ; the  third  by  the 
king  himself.  A French  detachment  which 
advanced  first  to  the  charge  was  discomfited 
and  overthrown  ; one  of  the  marshals  was  slain, 
the  other  taken  prisoner ; and  the  remainder 
of  the  detachment  fell  back,  and  put  every- 
thing into  disorder.  In  that  critical  moment, 
the  Captal  de  Buch  unexpectedly  appeared 
and  attacked  the  dauphin’s  line,  which  fell 
into  confusion.  Landas,  Bodenai,  and  St. 
Yenant  now  set  the  example  of  flight,  which 
was  followed  by  that  of  the  whole  division. 
The  Duke  of  Orleans,  seized  with  a panic, 
thought  no  longer  of  fighting,  but  carried  off 
his  division  by  a retreat  which  soon  after 
turned  into  a flight.  The  division  under  King 
John  was  still,  however,  more  numerous  than 
the  whole  English  army ; and  the  only  resist- 
ance made  that  day  was  by  his  line  of  battle. 
The  Black  Prince  fell  with  impetuosity  on 
some  German  cavalry  placed  in  the  front;  a 
fierce  battle  ensued : but  the  German  generals 
falling  in  the  engagement,  that  body  of  cavalry 
gave  way,  and  left  the  king  himself  exposed 
to  the  whole  fury  of  the  enemy.  The  king, 
spent  with  fatigue,  and  overwhelmed  by  num- 
bers, might  easily"  have  been  slain,  but  every 
English  gentleman,  ambitious  of  taking  alive 
the  royal  prisoner,  spared  him  in  the  action, 
exhorted  him  to  surrender,  and  offered  him 
quarter.  Several  who  attempted  to  seize  him 
suffered  for  their  temerity.  In  this  dilemma 
he  cried  out,  “Where  is  my  cousin,  the  Prince 
of  Wales?”  and  seemed  unwilling  to  become 
prisoner  to  any  person  of  inferior  rank;  but 
being  told  that  the  prince  was  at  a distance, 
he  threw  down  his  gauntlet,  and  yielded  him- 
self, together  with  his  son,  to  Dennis  de  Mor- 
bec,  a fugitive  knight  of  Arras.  The  modera- 
tion which  Edward  displayed  on  this  occasion, 
has  forever  stamped  his  character.  At  a re- 
past which  was  prepared  in  his  tent  for  his 


royal  prisoner,  he  served  behind  his  chair,  as 
if  he  had  been  one  of  his  retinue.  He  refused 
to  seat  himself  at  table  with  his  majesty : 
and  John  received,  when  a captive,  those 
honors  which  had  been  denied  him  when  on 
a throne. 

POLAND,  in  Polish  Polska,  a country  in 
the  northern  part  of  Europe,  was  formerly  of 
vast  extent;  although  now  dismembered,  a 
part  of  it  retains  the  ancient  name,  as  an  im 
tegral  part  of  the  Russian  empire.  It  is  a 
vice-roj^alty  with  an  area  of  49,000  square 
miles,  and  4,852,000  inhabitants.  [See  War- 
saw.] Poland  was  formerly  called  the  gran- 
ary of  Europe;  but  this  was  when  its  bound- 
aries extended  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black 
Sea;  and  when  the  Ukraine  and  Lithuania 
were  included.  At  present  its  limits  are  so 
circumscribed  and  its  arable  surface  so  indif- 
ferently cultivated,  or  naturally  so  infertile, 
that  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  strictly  speaking, 
furnishes  little  more  corn  than  supplies  its 
own  population.  The  immense  supplies  of 
wheat  sent  to  Dantzic  are  chiefty  from  the 
detached  provinces  of  Galicia,  united  to  Aus- 
tria, and  from  Volhynia  and  Podolia,  now  be- 
longing to  Russia. 

The  climate  of  Poland,  though  severe,  is 
much  less  precarious  than  that  of  the  south 
of  Germany  or  of  France.  A winter  of  from 
five  to  seven  months,  during  the  greater  part 
of  which  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  is 
succeeded  by  a rapid  spring  and  warm  sum- 
mer; and  these  are  followed  by  a short,  cold, 
wet  autumn.  The  surface  of  Poland  is  re- 
markably even ; to  the  traveler  passing 
through  the  country  it  appears  an  intermina- 
ble forest.  Wheat  is  raised  only  in  the  hilly 
southern  region;  elsewhere  rye,  oats,  buck- 
wheat, and  some  barley  are  cultivated. 
Horses  and  cattle  are  of  inferior  size,  but 
rather  numerous ; and  cattle,  as  well  as  hides 
and  tallow,  are  articles  of  export.  Hogs  also 
are  numerous,  and  bacon  to  a considerable 
amount  is  exported.  Sheep  and  goats  are  less 
abundant;  the  wool  is  coarse.  As  much  of 
the  country  is  still  covered  with  forests, 
chiefly  of  pine  and  fir,  timber  is  an  important 
export.  Wild  animals  are  numerous,  espe- 
cially wolves. 

The  early  history  of  Poland  is  obscure.  In 
the  year  842  Piastus,  a peasant,  was  chosen 
duke.  Under  his  descendants  Poland  became 


POL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


655 


a kingdom,  and  Christianity  was  introduced 
in  the  latter  years  of  the  tenth  century.  The 
dynasty  ended  with  Casimir  the  Great  in 
1370.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew 
Louis,  King  of  Hungary,  who  neglected  his 
new  acquisition,  only  visiting  Poland  twice 
during  his  reign.  After  his  death,  1382,  his 
youngest  daughter,  the  beautiful  and  gracious 
Hedvige,  was  crowned  Queen  of  Poland.  She 
wedded  Jagellon,  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania, 
who  thereupon  renounced  his  paganism  for 
the  Christian  faith. 

On  the  death  of  Sigismund,  the  last  of  the 
Jagellon  family,  in  1572,  Henrj^  Duke  of  An- 
jou, and  brother  to  Charles  IX.  of  France, 
was  elected  to  the  Polish  throne;  but  the 
death  of  Charles  giving  him  the  French  crown, 
he  quitted  Poland,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ste- 
phen Bathori.  This  prince  subdued  the  bar- 
barian Cossacks. 

Poland  was  often  engaged  in  war,  with  the 
Swedes  or  the  Muscovites  or  the  Turks.  In 
1668  Michael  Wiesnowiski  was  chosen  to  suc- 
ceed John  Casimir  as  king.  The  Turks  in- 
vaded Poland  in  great  force,  but  were  stoutly 
withstood  by  brave  John  Sobieski.  On  the 
death  of  Michael  in  1673,  Sobieski  was  chosen 
his  successor.  [See  Sobieski.] 

After  a glorious  reign,  Sobieski  died ; when 
Frederic  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  was 
chosen  king,  in  opposition  to  the  Prince  of 
Conti.  Augustus  was  dethroned  by  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden,  who  placed  on  the  throne 
Stanislaus ; but  Augustus  was  afterward  re- 
established by  the  Czar  of  Russia.  On  his 
death,  Stanislaus  was  chosen  king  a second 
time ; but  through  the  influence  of  Germany 
and  Russia,  his  election  was  annulled;  and 
the  son  of  the  late  king  was  invested  with  the 
sovereignty,  by  the  name  of  Augustus  III. 
At  his  death,  through  the  intervention  of 
Russia,  Count  Poniatowski  was  elected  king, 
and  proclaimed  by  the  title  of  Stanislaus  Au- 
gustus ; but  his  reign  was  one  continued  scene 
of  confusion  and  distress. 

The  weak  kingdom  was  elbowed  by  power- 
ful neighbors.  The  first  partition  of  Poland, 
in  1772,  was  planned  by  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia.  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  in  a 
most  unprincipled  manner,  divided  among 
themselves  the  greater  part  of  this  unfortu- 
nate country.  The  brave  Kosciusko  and 
Poniatowski  struggled  vainly  against  the 


armies  of  the  imperial  thieves.  In  1 795  the 
trio  completed  this  great  political  crime,  by 
seizing  on  the  remaining  part,  and  expunging 
Poland  from  among  independent  nations.  At, 
the  congress  held  at  Vienna  in  1815,  part  of 
Poland  was  united  to  the  Russian  empire, 
with  the  preservation  of  its  own  constitution ; 
and,  on  this  event,  Alexander,  Emperor  of 
Russia,  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Poland. 
The  rule  of  Russia  became  less  and  less  lib- 
eral ; her  determination  to  crush  out  the 
nationality  of  the  Poles  was  more  and  more 
evident.  Smouldering  dissatisfaction  broke  at 
last  into  the  flame  of  revolt. 

The  unhappy  struggle  for  independence, 
with  the  most  powerful  empire  of  Europe, 
aroused  the  world’s  attention.  The  revolution 
commenced  with  an  insurrection  at  Warsaw, 
Nov.  29th,  1830.  The  Polish  diet,  on  the 
24th  of  January,  1831,  declared  the  indepen- 
dence of  their  country.  The  spirit  of  resist- 
ance was  not  quelled  without  a long  struggle 
and  a horrible  effusion  of  blood  on  both  sides. 
Nicholas  severely  punished  the  insurgents 
and  their  country.  Siberia  was  filled  with 
exiled  Poles;  others,  little  more  fortunate, 
wandered  in  penury  through  Europe,  or  to 
the  shores  of  America.  The  universities  of 
Wilna  and  Warsaw,  whose  students  had  been 
conspicuous  in  patriotism,  were  abolished; 
public  libraries  and  museums  were  carried  to 
St.  Petersburg ; the  Polish  language  was  pro- 
hibited; the  Catholic  religion,  long  the  na- 
tional faith,  was  assailed  and  burdened  with 
restrictions;  the  last  vestige  of  national  in- 
dependence was  swept  off,  and  Poland  was 
declared  an  integral  part  of  the  great  Russian 
empire.  There  was  one  more  attempt  for  in- 
dependence at  Cracow  in  1846,  soon  put  down 
by  Austria  and  Russia. 

What  a melancholy  task  is  his  who  seeks 
for  the  records  of  Poland  on  the  historical 
tablet  for  the  last  fifty  years!  The  nation 
which  once  carried  its  conquests  as  far  as 
Dacia,  made  the  divan  tremble,  and  chased 
the  flying  Spahi  beyond  the  Danube;  the 
king  who  once  paternally  planned  his  coun- 
try’s weal ; the  nobles  who  once  appeared  at 
the  signal  of  foreign  invasion,  clad  in  brass 
and  steel;  the  peasant  who  once  bared  his 
brawny  breast  and  stood  in  the  last  rampart 
of  his  country, — where  are  their  names  re- 
corded ? Can  we  avoid  recurring  to  the  past, 


POL 


656 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


to  that  moment  which  promised  to  be  so  pro- 
pitious, when  the  hopes  of  the  country  were, 
after  a long  interval  of  death-like  sleep,  awak- 
ened, but  awakened  to  slumber  again,  perhaps 
in  eternal  sleep  ? The  giant  warrior  of  Cor- 
sica spread  before  the  Poles  a golden  vision, 
lie  mocked  Poland  with  the  name  of  liberty! 
At  the  head  of  his  myriad  men  of  war  he  said 
to  the  Polish  mother,  “That  son,  which  is  in 
thy  cradle,  shall  be  free!  Poland  shall  be 
free ! ” Six  months  passed,  and  the  dome 
which  had  echoed  these  words  was  filled  with 
the  lances  of  the  Cossacks. 

POLE,  Reginald,  was  a younger  son  of 
Lord  Montacute,  cousin  of  Henry  VII.  He 
was  born  at  Stourton  Castle  in  Staffordshire, 
1500,  and  educated  at  Oxford  and  in  Italy. 
Pole  could  not  stoop  to  abet  the  plans  and 
deeds  of  Henry  VIII., — not  to  gain  the  mitre 
of  York.  Therefore  it  was  safer  that  he 
should  dwell  in  Italy,  where  he  rose  to  be 
cardinal.  Higher  honors  seemed  within  his 
reach.  It  was  said,  that  whereas  Cardinal 
Wolsey  would  have  been  pope  if  he  could, 
Cardinal  Pole  could  have  been  pope  if  he 
would.  He  returned  to  England,  upon  the 
accession  of  Mary,  and  succeeded  the  martyred 
Cranmer  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  For 
the  cruel  fires  that  bigotry  fed  during  Mary’s 
time,  Pole  is  not  responsible.  His  humanity 
and  his  inclination  toward  the  Protestant 
doctrines  led  him  to  advocate  lenient  and 
moderate  measures.  He  died  the  day  after 
Mary,  Nov.  17th,  1558. 

POLIGNAC,  Jules,  Prince  de,  was  born  in 
1 783.  He  passed  through  various  vicissitudes 
and  dangers  during  the  French  revolution  and 
the  empire  of  Bonaparte,  for  which  he  tasted 
his  reward  after  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons. In  1829  he  became  premier.  His  policy 
brought  on  his  overthrow  and  the  deposition 
of  Charles  X.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was 
chiefly  spent  in  exile.  He  died  in  1847. 

POLIGNAC,  Melchior  de,  a cardinal,  was 
born  in  1061,  at  Puy,  in  Languedoc.  He 
studied  at  Paris,  after  which  he  was  employed 
in  diplomatic  concerns,  in  which  he  gave  such 
satisfaction  as  to  be  rewarded  with  the  pur- 
ple. During  the  regency  he  was  banished  to 
his  abbey  of  Anehin  ; but  afterward  he  was 
recalled,  and  appointed  agent  for  French  af- 
fairs at  Rome.  In  1726  he  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Auch.  He  died  in  1741. 


POLK,  James  Knox,  the  eleventh  president 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  Nov.  2d,  1795, 
in  Mecklenburg  county,  North  Carolina.  The 
name  was  originally  Pollock,  and  his  ances- 
tors came  from  the  north  of  Ireland,  early  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  James  was  the  old- 
est of  ten  children.  His  father,  a modest 
farmer,  removed  in  1806  to  Tennessee,  where 
he  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  fertile  valley 
of  Duck  River,  a branch  of  the  Cumberland  ; 
then  a wilderness,  but  now  among  the  most 
populous  parts  of  the  state.  Two  obstacles 
lay  in  James’s  way  to  knowledge — scanty 
means  of  instruction,  and  an  organic  affection 
from  which  he  did  not  find  relief  till  after 
years  of  suffering.  Nevertheless  he  fitted  for 
college,  and  entered  the  universitjr  of  North 
Carolina,  where  he  graduated  in  1818,  sur- 
passing his  fellows  both  in  the  mathematics 
and  the  classics.  With  the  same  closeness  of 
application  which  had  won  his  collegiate 
honors  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  law, 
under  Felix  Grundy  (a  leading  lawyer  and 
citizen  of  Tennessee),  and  commenced  practice 
in  Maury  county  in  1820.  He  was  highly 
successful  in  his  profession.  After  a couple 
of  terms  in  the  state  legislature,  he  was  picked 
by  the  Democratic  party  to  represent  his  dis- 
trict in  congress.  He  took  his  seat  in  De- 
cember, 1825,  being  then  thirty  years  of  age. 
He  was  prominent  among  the  most  decided 
Democratic  members,  and  in  1835  was  made 
speaker,  the  arduous  duties  of  which  station 
he  discharged  with  eminent  ability  till  his  re- 
tirement from  congress  in  March,  1839.  The 
autumn  of  that  year  he  was  elected  governor 
of  Tennessee.  Being  nominated  for  the  office 
of  president  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1844, 
he  was  elected  over  his  competitor,  Mr.  Clay, 
and  administered  the  national  affairs  for  four 
years  from  the  4th  of  March,  1845.  The  dis- 
tinguishing measures  of  his  administration 
were  the  annexation  of  Texas,  the  ensuing 
war  with  Mexico,  and  the  treaty  of  peace  with 
that  republic  by  which  California  and  New’ 
Mexico  wrere  added  to  our  domain.  Having 
declined  a renomination  to  the  presidency,  he 
retired  to  Nashville,  Tennessee.  The  earthly 
rest  wrhich  he  sought  after  the  severe  fatigues 
of  his  high  office,  was  suddenly  cut  short. 
Seized  by  a chronic  diarrhea,  he  suffered  a 
few  days,  and  died  June  15th,  1849,  in  the 
fifty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  Public  honors 


POL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


657 


were  paid  to  his  memory  throughout  the 
Union.  His  wife  survived  him,  but  they  had 
no  offspring. 

Mr.  Polk  was  of  middle  stature,  with  a full, 
angular  brow,  and  a quick,  penetrating  eye. 
His  countenance  was  grave,  though  often  re- 
lieved by  a pleasant  smile,  betokening  the 
amenity  of  his  disposition ; and  at  the  close  of 
his  official  career,  he  was  worn  with  care. 
He  was  an  intimate  personal  and  political 
friend  of  Gen.  Jackson. 

POLLTO,  Caius  Asinius,  a Roman  con- 
sul under  the  reign  of  Augustus,  who  distin- 
guished himself  as  much  by  his  eloquence 
and  writings,  as  by  his  exploits  in  the  field. 
He  was  with  Caesar  when  he  crossed  the  Ru- 
bicon. He  defeated  the  Dalmatians,  and 
favored  the  cause  of  Antony  against  Augus- 
tus. He  was  greatly  esteemed  by  Augustus, 
when  he  had  become  one  of  his  adherents, 
after  the  ruin  of  Antony.  He  died  in  the 
eightieth  year  of  his  age,  a.d.  4. 

POLO,  Marco,  was  a Venetian  merchant 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  Commercial  enter- 
prise led  his  father  and  uncle  to  the  court  of 


Kublai  Khan,  the  great  Mongol  emperor,  and 
Marco  accompanied  them.  He  dw'elt  at  the 
Mongol  court  in  China  from  1275  to  1292. 
As  he  enjoyed  the  eminent  favor  of  the  great 
monarch,  and  was  often  sent  on  missions  to 
remote  princes,  he  had  great  advantages  for 
becoming  acquainted  with  eastern  Asia,  then 
an  unknown  land  to  Europeans.  Kublai 
Khan  reluctantly  allowed  the  Poli  to  return. 
Marco  published  an  account  of  those  distant 
realms,  which  modern  discovery  has  shown 
to  be  wonderfully  accurate.  It  materially 
influenced  the  views  of  Columbus,  and  in- 
spired Vasco  de  Gama  to  seek  his  path  to 
India. 

POMPADOUR,  Jeanne  Antoinette  Pois- 
son, Marchioness  of  Pompadour,  the  mistress 
of  Louis  XV.,  was  the  daughter  of  a finan- 
cier, and  the  wife  of  M.  d’Etioles  when  she 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  king,  who  made 
her  a marchioness  in  1745.  She  liberally 
encouraged  the  arts,  and  collected  a valuable 
cabinet  of  curiosities.  She  died  in  1764, 
aged  forty -four. 


S -'4  ^ 


TEMPLE  OF  ISIS  AT  POMPEII. 


POMPEII.  This  ancient  city  of  Campania 
was  partly  demolished  by  an  earthquake  in 
a.d.  63.  It  was  afterward  rebuilt,  but  was 
swallowed  up,  like  Herculaneum,  by  an  awful 
eruption  of  Vesuvius,  accompanied  by  an 

42 


earthquake,  on  the  night  of  the  24th  of  Au- 
gust, a.d.  79.  Many  of  the  principal  citizens 
happened  at  the  time  to  be  assembled  at  a the- 
atre where  public  spectacles  were  exhibited. 
The  ashes  buried  the  whole  city,  and  covered 


POM 


658 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  surrounding  country.  After  a lapse  of 
fifteen  centuries,  a countryman,  as  he  was 
turning  up  the  ground,  accidentally  found  a 
bronze  figure ; and  this  discovery  attracting 
the  attention  of  the  learned,  further  search 
brought  numerous  productions  to  light,  and 
at  length  the  city  was  once  more  shone  on  by 
the  sun.  Different  monarchs  have  contrib- 
uted their  aid  in  uncovering  the  buried  city ; 
the  part  first  cleared,  a.d.  1750,  was  sup- 
posed to  be  the  main  street. 

POMPEY,  Cneius,  surnamed  the  Great, 
from  the  greatness  of  his  exploits,  was  the 
son  of  Cneius  Pompeius  Strabo  and  Lucilia, 
and  was  born  b.c.  106.  He  early  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  field  of  battle,  and 
fought  with  success  and  bravery  under  his 
father,  whose  courage  and  military  prudence 
he  imitated.  In  the  disturbances  which  agi- 
tated Rome,  by  the  ambition  and  avarice  of 
Marius  and  Sylla,  Pompey  followed  the  inter- 
est of  the  latter,  and  by  levying  three  legions 
for  his  service  gained  his  friendship  and  his 
protection.  In  the  twenty-sixth  year  of  his 
age,  he  conquered  Sicily,  which  was  in  the 
power  of  Marius  and  his  adherents,  and  in 
forty  days  he  regained  all  the  territories  of 
Africa  which  had  forsaken  the  interest  of 
Sylla. 

After  the  death  of  Sylla,  Pompey  supported 
himself  against  the  remains  of  the  Marian 
faction,  which  were  headed  by  Lepidus,  and 
afterward  by  Sertorius  in  Spain.  He  was 
soon  made  consul,  and  in  that  office  he  re- 
stored the  tribunitial  power  to  its  original 
dignity ; and  in  forty  days  he  removed  the 
pirates  from  the  Mediterranean,  where  they 
had  reigned  for  many  years,  and  by  their 
continual  plunder  and  audacity  almost  de- 
stroyed the  whole  naval  power  of  Rome. 

While  he  extirpated  these  maritime  rob- 
bers, Pompey  was  called  to  greater  under- 
takings, and  empowered  to  finish  the  war 
against  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  and 
Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia.  His  operations 
against  the  king  of  Pontus  were  bold  and 
vigorous ; and  in  a general  engagement  the 
Romans  so  totally  defeated  the  enemy,  that 
the  Asiatic  monarch  escaped  with  difficulty 
from  the  field  of  battle.  Pompey  did  not 
lose  sight  of  the  advantages  which  dispatch 
would  insure : he  entered  Armenia,  and  re- 
ceived the  submission  of  Tigranes. 


Part  of  Arabia  was  subdued ; Judea  became 
a Roman  province;  and  when  he  had  now 
nothing  to  fear  from  Mithridates,  who  had 
voluntarily  destroyed  himself,  Pompey  re- 
turned to  Italy  with  all  the  pomp  and  majesty 
of  an  eastern  conqueror.  The  Romans 
dreaded  his  approach ; they  knew  his  power, 
and  his  influence  among  his  troops,  and  they 
feared  the  return  of  another  tyrannical  Sylla. 
Pompey,  however,  banished  their  fears;  he 
disbanded  his  army,  and  the  conqueror  of 
Asia  entered  Rome  like  a private  citizen. 

Pompey  soon  after  united  his  interest  with 
that  of  Caesar  and  Crassus,  and  formed  the 
first  triumvirate,  all  solemnly  swearing  that 
their  attachment  should  be  mutual,  their 
cause  common,  and  their  union  permanent. 
But  this  powerful  confederacy  was  soon  after 
broken ; the  sudden  death  of  Julia,  the  wife 
| of  Pompey,  and  daughter  of  Caesar,  and  the 
total  defeat  and  death  of  Crassus  in  Syria  by 
the  Parthians,  shattered  the  political  bands 
which  held  the  jarring  interests  of  Caesar  and 
Pompey  united. 

Pompey  dreaded  his  father-in-law,  and  yet 
he  affected  to  despise  him  ; and,  by  suffering 
anarchy  to  prevail  in  Rome,  he  convinced 
his  fellow-citizens  of  the  necessity  of  invest- 
ing him  with  dictatorial  power.  The  ene- 
mies of  Caesar  unjustly  demanded  that  he 
should  resign  the  command  in  Gaul.  His 
friends  claimed,  either  that  the  consulship 
should  be  given  to  him,  or  that  he  should  be 
continued  in  the  government  of  Gaul.  This 
would  perhaps  have  been  granted,  but  Cato 
opposed  it.  The  breach  became  more  wide, 
and  a civil  war  was  inevitable. 

Caesar  was  privately  preparing  to  meet  his 
enemies,  while  Pompey  remained  indolent, 
and  gratified  his  pride  in  seeing  all  Italy  cel- 
ebrate his  recovery  from  an  indisposition  by 
universal  rejoicings.  But  he  was  soon  roused 
from  his  inactivity  ; and  it  was  now  time  to 
find  his  friends,  if  anything  could  be  obtained 
from  the  caprice  and  the  fickleness  of  a people 
which  he  had  once  delighted  and  amused  by 
the  exhibition  of  games  and  spectacles  in  a 
theatre  which  could  contain  twenty  thousand 
spectators. 

Caesar  was  near  Rome ; he  had  crossed  the 
Rubicon,  upon  hearing  of  the  hostile  meas- 
ures with  which  the  senate  threatened  him. 
Pompey,  who  had  once  boasted  that  he  could 


POM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


659 


raise  legions  to  his  assistance  by  stamping 
with  his  foot,  fled  from  the  city  with  precipi- 
tation, and  retired  to  Brundusium  with  the 
consuls  and  part  of  the  senators.  Caesar  was 
master  of  Rome;  in  sixty  days  all  Italy  ac- 
knowledged his  power,  and  the  conqueror 
hastened  to  Spain,  there  to  defeat  the  interest 
of -Pompey,  and  alienate  the  hearts  of  his 
soldiers.  He  was  too  successful ; and  when 
he  had  gained  to  his  cause  the  western  parts 
of  the  Roman  empire,  he  crossed  Italy,  and 
arrived  in  Greece,  whither  Pompey  had  re- 
tired, supported  by  all  the  power  of  the  east, 
the  wishes  of  the  conservative  Romans,  and 
a numerous  and  well-disciplined  army. 

Pompey  at  first  met  with  success ; and 
he  might  have  decided  the  war  if  he  had  con- 
tinued to  pursue  the  enemy  while  their 
confusion  was  great,  and  their  escape  almost 
impossible.  Want  of  provisions  obliged  Cae- 
sar to  advance  toward  Thessaly ; Pompey 
pursued  him,  and  in  the  plains  of  Pharsalia 
the  two  armies  engaged.  The  cavalry  of 
Pompey  soon  gave  way,  and  the  general 
retired  to  his  camp  overwhelmed  with  grief 
and  shame.  But  here  there  was  no  safety ; 
the  conqueror  pushed  on  every  side,  and 
Pompey  disguised  himself  and  fled  to  the  sea- 
coast,  whence  he  passed  to  Egypt,  where  he 
hoped  to  find  a safe  asylum,  till  better  and 
more  favorable  moments  returned,  in  the 
court  of  Ptolemy,  a prince  whom  he  had 
once  protected  and  insured  on  his  throne. 
When  Ptolemy  was  told  that  Pompey  claimed 
his  protection,  he  consulted  his  ministers,  and 
had  the  baseness  to  betray  and  deceive  him. 
A boat  was  sent  to  fetch  him  on  shore ; the 
Roman  general  left  his  galley  after  an  affec- 
tionate and  tender  parting  with  his  wife 
Cornelia.  The  Egyptian  sailors  sat  in  sullen 
silence  in  the  boat ; and  when  Pompey  disem- 
barked, Achillas  and  Septimius  assassinated 
him.  His  wife,  who  had  followed  him  with 
her  eyes  to  the  shore,  was  a spectator  of  the 
bloody  scene ; and  she  hastened  away  from 
the  bay  of  Alexandria,  not  to  share  his 
miserable  fate.  He  died  b.c.  48,  in  the 
fifty-eighth  year  of  his  age,  the  day  after  his 
birth-day. 

PONDICHERRY,  a city  on  the  sea-coast 
of  the  Carnatic  in  India,  since  1672  a French 
colony.  Ineffectually  besieged  by  the  Brit- 
ish, under  Admiral  Boscawen,  in<*1748.  In 


1761  it  was  taken,  after  a tedious  siege  and 
blockade,  by  the  English  under  Colonel 
Coote,  when  2,000  Europeans  were  made 
prisoners,  and  5,000  pieces  of  cannon  and  100 
mortars  taken.  In  1763  it  was  restored  to 
the  French.  Subsequently  it  has  been  sev- 
eral times  taken  by  the  British,  but  in  1814 
it  was  finally  restored  to  France.  Pondi- 
cherry is  the  principal  seat  of  the  French 
power  in  the  East  Indies.  The  population 
of  the  town  and  district  is  80,000. 

PONIATOWSKI,  Joseph,  a nephew  of 
Stanislaus  Augustus,  the  last  king  of  Poland, 
was  born  at  Warsaw  in  1763.  He  stood  by 
the  side  of  Kosciusko  in  the  resistance  to  the 
dismemberment  of  his  native  land.  Prince 
Poniatowski  commanded  the  Polish  forces 
which  joined  the  army  of  Napoleon,  and  par- 
ticipated in  the  varied  campaign  of  1812  in 
Russia.  After  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  during 
which  Napoleon  made  him  a marshal  of  the 
empire,  he  was  ordered  to  cover  the  retreat. 
The  enemy  were  already  in  possession  of  the 
suburbs,  and  had  thrown  light  troops  over 
the  Elster,  when  Prince  Poniatowski  ar- 
rived wth  a few  followers  at  the  river.  The 
bridge  had  already  been  blown  up  by  the 
French.  The  brave  Pole,  wounded  as  he  was, 
spurred  his  steed  into  the  rapid  current,  and 
was  drowned,  Oct.  19th,  1814.  His  body 
was  found  on  the  24th,  and  having  been 
embalmed,  was  buried  at  Warsaw,  with  all 
the  honors  of  his  rank,  by  order  of  the  Em- 
peror Alexander. 

PONTUS,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor. This  country  came  into  subjection  to 
Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  about  560  b.c.,  and 
underwent  the  revolutions  of  the  Lydian  and 
Persian  empires  till  about  300  b.c.,  when  it 
became  independent  of  the  Macedonians 
under  Mithridates  II.  It  grew  very  consid- 
erable under  Mithridates  VI.,  who  extended 
his  empire  over  all  Asia  Minor,  but  could  not 
retain  his  conquests  against  the  Romans,  be- 
ing defeated  successively  by  Sylla,  Lucullus, 
and  Pompey.  The  Roman  conquest  was 
complete  on  his  death  in  63  b.c.  Upon  the 
taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  in 
1204,  Alexius  Comnenus  established  atTrebi- 
zond,  in  this  country,  a new  empire  of  the 
Greeks,  which  continued  till  Mohammed  II. 
put  an  end  to  it  in  1459. 

POPES.  The  title  of  pope  was  origin- 


660 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


ally  given  to  all  bishops.  It  was  first  adopted 
by  Hyginus,  Bishop  of  Rome,  a.d.  138.  Bon- 
iface III.  induced  Phocas,  Emperor  of  the 
East,  to  confine  it  to  the  prelates  of  Rome, 
and  by  the  connivance  of  Phocas,  also,  the 
Romish  bishop’s  supremacy  over  the  Chris- 
tian church  was  established.  The  custom 
of  kissing  the  pope’s  toe  was  introduced  in 
708.  The  first  sovereign  act  of  the  popes  of 
Rome  was  by  Adrian  I.,  who  caused  money 
to  be  coined  with  his  name,  780.  Sergius  II. 
was  the  first  pope  who  changed  his  name  on 
his  election,  in  844.  Some  contend  that  it 
was  Sergius  I.,  and  others  John  XII.  or  XIII. 
John  XVIII.,  a layman,  was  made  pope, 
1024.  The  first  pope  who  kept  an  army  was 
Leo  IX.,  1054.  The  pope’s  authority  was 
firmly  fixed  in  England,  1079.  Appeals  from 
English  tribunals  to  the  pope  were  introduced 
19  Stephen,  1154.  The  pope  collected  the 
tenths  of  the  whole  kingdom  of  England, 
1226.  The  papal  seat  was  removed  to  Avig- 
non, in  France,  in  1308,  for  seventy  years. 
The  holy  see’s  demands  on  England  were 
refused  by  parliament,  1363.  Appeals  to 
Rofne  from  England  were  abolished,  1533. 
The  words  “ Lord  Pope”  were  struck  out  of 
all  English  books,  1541.  The  papal  author- 
ity declined  about  1600.  Kissing  the  pope’s 
toe,  and  other  ceremonies,  were  abolished  by 
Clement  XIV.,  1773.  The  pope  became  des- 
titute of  all  political  influence  in  Europe, 
1787.  Pius  VI.  was  burned  in  effigy  at 
Paris,  1791.  He  made  submission  to  the 
French  republic,  1796;  was  expelled  from 
Rome,  and  deposed,  Feb.  22d,  1798,  and 
died  at  Valence,  Aug.  19th,  1799.  Pius 
VII.  was  elected  in  exile,  March  13th,  1800; 
was  dethroned,  May  13th,  1809 ; remained 
a prisoner  at  Fontainebleau  till  Napoleon’s 
overthrow  ; and  was  restored  May  24th,  1814. 

752.  Stephen  IT. ; the  first  who  was  carried  to 
the  Lateran  on  men’s  shoulders. 

757.  Paul  I. 

768.  Stephen  III. 

772.  Adrian  I.;  sanctioned  images;  caused 
money  to  be  coined  with  his  name,  780. 
795.  Leo  III.  $ 

816.  Stephen  IV. 

817.  Pascal  I. 

824.  Eugenius  II. 

827.  Valentine. 

828.  Gregory  IV. 

844.  Sergius  II. ; the  first  that  changed  his 
name  on  his  election. 

847.  Leo  IV. ; defeated  the  Saracens. 


855.  Benedict  III.  opposed  by  an  anti-pope 
called  Anastasius. 

858.  Nicholas  I.,  styled  the  Great. 

867.  Adrian  II. 

872.  John  VIII. 

882.  Martin  II. 

884.  Adrian  III. 

885.  Stephen  V. 

891.  Formosus;  died  detested;  his  corpse 
thrown  into  the  Tiber. 

896.  Boniface  VI. ; deposed. 

897.  Romanus,  anti-pope. 

897.  Stephen  VI.;  strangled  in  prison. 

898.  John  IX. 

900.  Benedict  IV. 

903.  Leo  V. ; deposed  in  a few  months,  and 

died  in  prison. 

904.  Sergius  III. ; disgraced  by  his  vices. 

911.  Anastasius  III. 

913.  Landonius,  or  Lando. 

914.  John  X.;  resigned,  and  was  stifled  by 

Guy,  Duke  of  Tuscany. 

928.  Leo  VI. 

929.  Stephen  VII. 

931.  John  XI.;  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  St. 

Angelo,  where  he  died. 

936.  Leo  VII. ; great  in  zeal  and  piety. 

939.  Stephen  VIII. ; of  ferocious  character. 
942.  Martin  III. 

946.  Agapetus  II. ; of  holy  life. 

956.  John  XII.,  the  Infamous;  deposed  for 
adultery  and  cruelty,  and  finally  mur- 
dered. By  some  he  is  said  to  be  the 
first  that  changed  his  name  upon  com- 
ing to  the  papal  chair. 

963.  Benedict  V.  chosen,  but  opposed  by  Leo 
VIII.,  who  was  successfully  supported 
by  the  Emperor  Otho. 

965.  John  XIII. ; elected  by  the  imperial  au- 
thority. 

972.  Benedict  VI. ; murdered  in  prison. 

974.  Boniface  VII. 

974.  Domnus  II. 

975.  Benedict  VII. 

983.  John  XIV. 

984.  John  XV. 

985.  John  XVI. 

996.  Gregory  V. 

999.  Silvester  II. 

1003.  John  XVII.;  died  same  year. 

1003.  John  XVIII.;  abdicated. 

1009.  Sergius  IV. 

1012.  Benedict  VIII. 

1024.  John  XIX. ; a layman,  made  pope  by  dint 
of  money. 

1033.  Benedict  IX. ; became  pope,  by  purchase, 
at  twelve  years  of  age;  expelled.* 

1044.  Gregory  VI. ; abdicated. 

1046.  Clement  II. ; died  next  year. 

1047.  Benedict  IX.  again;  again  deposed. 

1048.  Damasus  II. ; died  soon  after. 

1048.  Leo  IX.;  canonized;  the  first  pope  that 
kept  an  army. 

1054.  [The  throne  vacant  one  year.] 

1055.  Victor  II. 

1057.  Stephen  IX. 

1058.  Bewdict  X. ; anti-pope,  who  was  expelled 
1058.  Nicholas  II. 


POP 


HISTORY  AN] 

1061.  Alexander  II.;  the  papal  power  greatly 
increased. 

1073.  Gregory  VII.,  the  celebrated  Hildebrand. 
Now  began  the  pretensions  to  the  power 
of  excommunicating  and  deposing  sov- 
ereigns. Gregory  VII.  obliged  Henry 
IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  to  stand  three 
days  in  the  depth  of  winter,  barefooted, 
at  his  castle-gate,  to  implore  his  pardon, 
1077. 

1085.  [Throne  vacant  one  year.] 

1086.  Victor  III. 

1088.  Urban  II. ; in  whose  pontificate  commenced 
the  great  crusade. 

1099.  Pascal  II. 

1118.  Gelasius  II. ; retired  to  a monastery. 

1119.  Calixtus  II. 

1124.  Ilonorius  II. 

1130.  Innocent  II. 

1143.  Celestine  II. ; ruled  five  months.  % 

1144.  Lucius  II. ; killed  by  accident  in  a popular 

commotion. 

1145.  Eugenius  III. ; canonized. 

1153.  Anastasius  IV. 

1154.  Adrian  IV.;  Nicholas  Brakespeare,  the 

only  Englishman  that  ever  obtained  the 
tiara.  He  arrogantly  obliged  Frederick 
I.  to  prostrate  himself  before  him,  kiss 
his  foot,  hold  his  stirrup,  and  lead  the 
white  palfrey  on  which  he  rode. 

1159.  Alexander  III. ; avenger  of  the  murder  of 
Thomas  a Becket;  Henry  II.  of  England 
held  the  stirrup  for  him  to  mount,  in 
token  of  repentance. 

1181.  Lucius  III. 

1185.  Urban  III. 

1187.  Gregory  VIII.;  ruled  only  two  months. 

1187.  Clement  III. 

1191.  Celestine  III. ; kicked  the  Emperor  Henry 
VI.’s  crown  off  his  head,  while  kneeling, 
to  show  his  prerogative  of  making  and 
unmaking  kings. 

1198.  Innocent  III.  (Lothario  Conti);  excommu- 
nicated King  John  of  England. 

1216.  Honorius  III. ; demanded  an  annual  sum 
for  every  cathedral  and  monastery  in 
Christendom,  but  was  refused,  1226; 
collected  the  tenths  of  the  whole  king- 
dom of  England,  1226. 

1227.  Gregory  IX. ; caused  a new  crusade  to  be 
undertaken. 

1241.  Celestine  IV. ; died  in  eighteen  days  after 
his  election. 

1241.  [The  throne  vacant  one  year  and  seven 
months.] 

1243.  Innocent  IV. ; first  bestowed  the  red  hat 
upon  cardinals,  and  made  them  princes 
of  the  church. 

1254.  Alexander  IV. 

1261.  Urban  IV. 

1265.  Clement  IV.;  an  enlightened  Frenchman, 
previously  cardinal  and  legate  to  Eng- 
land; discouraged  the  crusades. 

1268.  [Throne  vacant  two  years  and  nine  months.] 

1271.  Gregory  X.;  elected  while  he  was  with 
Edward  I.  of  England  in  Palestine. 

1276.  Innocent  V.;  died  soon. 


BIOGRAPHY.  661 

1276.  Adrian  V.;  legate  to  England  in  1254 ; died 
soon. 

1276.  Vicedominus;  died  the  next  day. 

1277.  John  XX.  or  XXI. ; died  in  eight  months. 

1277.  Nicholas  III. ; died  in  1280. 

1281.  Martin  IV. 

1285.  Honorius  IV.;  promoted  the  crusades. 

1288.  Nicholas  IV.;  endeavored  in  vain  to  stir 
up  a new  crusade. 

1292.  [Throne  vacant  two  years,  three  months.] 

1294.  Celestine  V. ; resigned  from  fear. 

1294.  Boniface  VIII. ; proclaimed  that  “God  had 
set  him  over  kings  and  kingdoms,”  im- 
prisoned his  predecessor,  and  laid  France 
and  Denmark  under  interdict. 

1303.  Benedict  XI. ; a pious  and  liberal  pontiff, 

poisoned  by  ambitious  cardinals  shortly 
after  his  election. 

1304.  [Throne  vacant  eleven  months.] 

1305.  Clement  V.;  Bertrand  the  Goth;  he  re- 

moved the  papal  court  from  Rome  to 
Avignon. 

1314.  [Throne  vacant  two  years  and  four  months.] 

1316.  John  XXII. 

1334.  Benedict  XII.  [Nicholas  V.  anti-pope  at 
Rome.] 

1342.  Clement  VI. ; eulogized  by  Petrarch  as  a 
learned  prelate,  a generous  prince,  and 
an  amiable  man. 

1352.  Innocent  VI. 

1362.  Urban  V.;  illustrious  as  a patron  of  learning. 

1370.  Gregory  XI. ; also  an  eminent  protector  of 
learning ; he  restored  the  papal  chair  to 
Rome. 

1378.  Urban  IV. ; so  severe  and  cruel  that  the 
cardinals  chose  Robert  of  Geneva,  under 
the  name  of  Clement  VII.,  which  led  to 
great  violence. 

1389.  Boniface  IX. 

1394.  Benedict  (called  XIII.),  anti-pope  at  Avig- 
non. 

1404.  Innocent  VII. ; died  in  1406. 

1406.  Gregory  XII. ; elected  during  the  schism 
in  the  east,  Benedict  XIII.  being  the 
other  pope.  Both  were  deposed. 

1409.  Alexander  V.;  supposed  to  have  been 

poisoned. 

1410.  John  XXIII.;  elected  during  the  great 

schism;  deposed. 

1417.  Martin  V.  (Otho  Colonna). 

1431.  Eugenius  IV.  (Gabriel  Condolmera);  de- 
posed by  the  council  of  Basle,  and  Ama- 
deus of  Savoy  chosen  as  Felix  V.  in  1439. 

1447.  Nicholas  V. 

1455.  Calixtus  III. 

1458.  Pius  II.  (iEneas  Silvius  Piccolomini). 

1464.  Paul  II.,  a noble  Venetian. 

1471.  Sixtus  IV. 

1484.  Innocent  VIII.,  a noble  Genoese. 

1492.  Alexander  VI. ; the  infamous  Roderic  Bor- 
gia, poisoned  at  a feast  by  quaffing  a 
bowl  he  had  prepared  for  another. 

1503.  Pius  III.  (Francis  Todeschini);  died  in 
twenty-one  days. 

1503.  Julius  II.  (Julian  de  la  Ruvere). 

1513.  Leo  X.  (John  de  Medici);  he  was  made 
cardinal  while  a lad  of  fourteen:  his 


662 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


grant  of  indulgences  for  crime  hurried 
on  the  Reformation. 

1522.  Adrian  VI. 

1523.  Clement  VII.  (Julius  de  Medici);  refused 

to  divorce  Catharine  of  Aragon  from 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and  denounced 
the  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn;  he 
brought  pluralities  to  their  cousumma- 

/ tion,  making  his  nephew  Hippolito,  Cardi- 

nal de  Medici,  commendatory  universal, 
granting  to  him  all  the  vacant  benefices 
in  the  world,  for  six  months,  and  ap- 
pointing him  usufructuary  from  the  first 
day  of  his  possession.  Rome  sacked, 
and  Clement  imprisoned,  1527 ; moved 
his  residence  to  Avignon,  1531. 

1534.  Paul  III.  (Alexander  Farnese). 

1550.  Julius  III. 

1555.  Marcellus  II. ; died  soon  after  election. 

1555.  Paul  IV.  (John  Peter  Caraffa).  When 
Elizabeth  of  England  sent  him  an  ambas- 
sador to  announce  her  accession,  he  an- 
swered, “ that  to  the  holy  see,  and  not 
to  her,  belonged  the  throne,  to  which 
she  had  no  right,  as  being  a bastard;” 
by  which  impolitic  arrogance  the  queen 
was  confirmed  in  her  father’s  opposition 
to  papal  supremacy. 

1559.  Pius  IV.  (Cardinal  de  Medici). 

1566.  Pius  V. 

1572.  Gregory  XIII.;  the  greatest  civilian  and 
canonist  of  his  time,  under  whom  the 
calendar  was  reformed. 

1585.  Sixtus  V. ; an  extraordinary  man. 

1590.  Urban  VII. ; died  twelve  days  after  election. 

1590.  Gregory  XIV.  (Nicolas  Sfondrate). 

1591.  Innocent  IX. ; died  in  two  months. 

1592.  Clement  VIII. ; learned  and  just. 

1605.  Leo  XI.;  died  same  month. 

1605.  Paul  V.  (Camille  Borghese). 

1621.  Gregory  XV.  (Alexander  Ludovisio). 

1623.  Urban  VIII. ; gave  the  title  of ‘eminence’ 
to  cardinals. 

1614.  Innocent  X.  (John  Baptist  Pamphilus). 

1655.  Alexander  VII.  (Fabio  Chigi). 

1667.  Clement  IX. 

1670.  Clement  X.  (John  Baptiste  Emile  Altieri). 

1676.  Innocent  XI. 

1689.  Alexander  VIII. 

1691.  Innocent  XII.  (Antonio  Pignatelli). 

1700.  Clement  XI.  (John  Francis  Albani). 

1721.  Innocent  XIII.  (Michael  Angelo  Conti); 
the  eighth  pontiff  of  his  family. 

1724.  Benedict  XIII. 

1730.  Clement  XII. 

1740.  Benedict  XIV. ; the  amiable  Lambertini. 

1758.  Clement  XIII.  (Charles  Rezzonico). 

1769.  Clement  XIV. ; the  illustrious  Ganganelli; 

he  abolished  kissing  the  toe,  and  some 
other  ridiculous  ceremonies,  in  1773,  and 
suppressed  the  Jesuits. 

1775.  Pius  VI.  (Angelo  Braschi);  dethroned  by 
Napoleon. 

1800.  Pius  VII.  (Cardinal  Chiaramonte);  deposed 
by  Napoleon  in  1809;  restored  in  1814. 

1823.  Leo  XII.  (Annibal  della  Ganga),  Sept.  28th. 


1829.  Pius  VIII.  (Francis  Xavier  Castiglioni), 
March  31st. 

1831.  Gregory  XVI.  (Mauro  Capellari),  Feb.  2d; 
died  June  1st,  1846. 

1846.  Pius  IX.  (Mastai  Fere tti), elected  June  16th. 
Pius  IX.  fled  in  disguise  to  Gaeta  from 
an  insurrection  at  Rome,  Nov.  24th, 
1848.  The  provisional  government  de- 
clared him  divested  of  all  temporal  power, 
Feb.  8th,  1849.  French  bayonets  put 
down  the  republic,  and  the  pope  returned 
April  12th,  1850. 

POPE,  Alexander,  a celebrated  English 
poet,  born  in  London,  May  22d,  1688.  His 
application  and  talent  for  versification  were 
manifested  at  an  early  age,  his  “Pastorals” 
being  written  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  His 
translation  of  Homer’s  Iliad,  his  “Epistle  from 
Eloisa  to  Abelard,”  the  “Essay  on  Man,”  and 
“The  Dunciad,”  are  well  known  to  every 
English  scholar.  He  died  at  Twickenham, 
May  30th,  1744.  His  temper  was  soured  by 
his  bodily  infirmities,  for  he  was  sickly  and 
deformed  from  youth.  Yet  there  is  nothing 
finer  in  literary  biography  than  his  undeviat- 
ing affection  and  reverence  for  his  venerable 
parents. 

PORSENNA,  a powerful  Etrurian  prince, 
who  declared  war  against  the  Romans  because 
they  refused  to  restore  Tarquin  to  his  throne, 
and  to  his  royal  privileges.  He  was  at  first 
successful,  the  Romans  were  defeated,  and 
Porsenna  would  have  entered  the  gates  of 
Rome,  had  not  Codes  stood  at  the  head  of  a 
bridge  over  the  Tiber,  and  supported  the  fury 
of  the  whole  Etrurian  army,  while  his  com- 
panions behind  were  cutting  off  the  commu- 
nication with  the  opposite  shore.  This  act  of 
bravery  astonished  Porsenna;  but  when  he 
had  seen  Mutius  Scaevola  enter  his  camp  with 
an  intention  to  murder  him,  and  when  he  had 
seen  him  burn  his  hand  without  emotion,  to 
convince  him  of  his  fortitude  and  intrepidity, 
he  no  longer  dared  to  make  head  against  a 
people  so  £>rave  and  so  generous.  He  made 
a peace  with  the  Romans,  and  never  after 
supported  the  claims  of  Tarquin.  The  gen- 
erosity of  Porsenna’s  behavior  to  the  captives 
was  admired  by  the  Romans,  and  to  reward 
his  humanity  they  raised  a brazen  statue  to 
his  honor. 

PORSON,  Richard,  professor  of  the  Greek 
language,  in  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
had  the  reputation  of  being  the  best  Greek 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


663 


scholar  in  England,  yet  his  learning  scarcely 
produced  him  a living ; born  in  1759,  and  died 
in  1808.  Porson  had  wit  as  well  as  scholar- 
ship. He  once  said  that  he  could  pun  on  any 
subject;  he  was  defied  to  do  so  upon  the  Latin 
gerunds,  which,  however,  he  immediately  did 
in  this  admirable  couplet: — 

“When  Dido  found  ACneas  would  not  come, 

She  mourned  in  silence,  and  was  di-do-dum.” 

PORTA,  John  Baptist,  a philosopher  and 
mathematician  of  Naples,  invented  the  camera 
obscura,  born  in  1540,  died  in  1616. 

PORTER,  David,  a brave  commodore  in 
our  navy,  was  born  in  Boston,  February,  1780. 
During  the  w'ar  of  1812  with  Great  Britain, 
he  commanded  the  frigate  Essex,  and  made  a 
brilliant  cruise  in  the  Pacific,  ending  in  his 
capture  off  Valparaiso  by  a British  frigate  and 
two  sloops  of  war.  He  afterward  served  a 
while  under  the  Mexican  flag,  and  was  our 
minister  at  Constantinople  from  1831  till  his 
death  in  1843. 

PORTUGAL,  a kingdom  of  Europe,  having 
an  area  of  35,189  square  miles,  and  a popula- 
tion of  3,500,000.  The  separation  of  Brazil 
deprived  Portugal  of  its  most  important  colo- 
nial possession.  It  still  retains  the  Azores, 
Madeira,  and  the  Cape  Verde  Isles,  Macao  in 
China,  Goa,  &c.,  in  India,  and  various  estab- 
lishments on  the  coast  of  Africa  in  Guinea, 
Angola,  Benguela,  and  Mozambique. 

Portugal  is  a mountainous  country,  several 
bold  ranges  crossing  it  from  east  to  west. 
The  principal  rivers  have  the  same  direction, 
entering  from  Spain  and  flowing  to  the  Atlan- 
tic ; the  Douro,  the  Tagus,  and  the  Guadiana 
are  the  chief.  The  warm  clime  of  the  valleys, 
and  the  generally  fertile  soil,  are  abused  by  a 
slovenly  husbandry.  The  cultivation  of  the 
vine  is  the  most  important  branch  of  industry. 
Salt  is  made  in  large  quantities  by  evaporation 
in  the  marshes  on  the  coast.  Wine  is  the 
great  export : fruits  and  cork  rank  next. 

The  religion  of  the  state  is  Roman  Catholic, 
but  other  creeds  are  tolerated.  The  govern- 
ment is  a constitutional  monarchy,  the  parlia- 
ment consisting  of  a chamber  of  peers  and  a 
chamber  of  deputies.  Education  is  at  a low 
ebb.  The  peasantry  in  the  northern  and 
mountainous  districts  are  active  and  spirited : 
in  the  lower  districts  they  are  indolent  and 
dejected,  dirty  in  their  persons  and  dwellings, 
and  ill  fed  with  coarse  bread,  dried  fish,  goat- 


milk  cheese,  chestnuts,  garlic,  and  oil.  The 
educated  classes  are  polished  and  courteous. 
The  provincial  nobility  are  very  numerous, 
but  mostly  poor. 

Lisbon  (Lisboa),  the  capital,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Tagus,  whose  broad  estuary  gives  it  a 
safe  and  spacious  harbor,  has  280,000  inhab- 
itants. The  city  rises  from  the  river  on  a 
succession  of  hills,  like  an  amphitheatre, 
massive  buildings  that  were  convents  in  former 
time  crowning  the  summits.  The  streets  are 
steep,  irregular,  and  crooked,  shadowed  by 
high,  old-fashioned  houses.  Exception  must 
be  made  for  the  section  rebuilt  since  the  great 
earthquake,  which  is  regular  and  handsome. 
Of  that  terrible  throe  of  the  earth  we  have 
already  spoken.  [See  Earthquakes,  1755.] 
The  Moors  are  said  to  have  called  the  city 
Lisboa.  It  became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 
in  1506.  Oporto  (O  Porto,  ‘the  port’),  the 
second  city  of  Portugal,  lies  on  both  sides  of 
the  Douro,  about  175  miles  north  of  Lisbon. 
It  contains  80,000  inhabitants.  It  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  French  in  1808  and  1809 ; 
and  its  commerce  suffered  much  from  the  ty- 
rannical regulations  of  Don  Miguel.  Its  prin- 
cipal trade  is  in  wines,  the  red  wine  of  the 
adjacent  districts  taking  from  Oporto  the  name 
of  ‘ port.’  Abrantes,  in  the  province  of  Estre- 
madura,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus,  has 
a population  of  5,000.  The  abruptness  of  the 
hills,  the  strength  of  the  castle,  and  the  state 
of  the  river,  render  it  a place  of  great  impor- 
tance in  a military  point  of  view.  In  1762 
the  Portuguese  defended  it  against  the  Span- 
iards ; and  in  1808  it  was  garrisoned  by  Junot, 
one  of  Napoleon’s  generals,  who,  from  the 
perseverance  with  which  he  marched  to  this 
place,  in  spite  of  many  obstacles,  and  the  gal- 
lantry with  which  he  made  himself  master  of 
Lisbon  with  1,500  grenadiers,  was  named 
Duke  of  Abrantes.  When  the  place  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  English,  they  strengthened  it 
to  such  a degree  that  it  was  believed  to  be 
almost  impregnable. 

The  Romans  knew  Portugal  by  the  name 
of  Lusitania.  After  their  day  it  was  success- 
ively subject  to  the  Suevi,  the  Goths,  and  the 
Moors.  About  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century,  it  regained  its  liberty  by  the  valor  of 
Henry  of  Lorraine  (grandson  of  Robert,  King 
of  France),  who  possessed  it  with  the  title  of 
count.  His  son,  Alphonso  Henriquez,  having 


POR 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


6GJ 

obtained  a decisive  victory  at  Ourique  over 
five  Moorish  kings,  was  proclaimed  king  by 
the  soldiers.  On  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  in 
1383,  the  states  gave  the  crown  to  his  natural 
brother  John,  surnamed  the  Bastard,  who 
was  equally  politic  and  enterprising,  and  in 
whose  reign  the  Portuguese  first  projected 
discoveries  in  the  western  ocean.  In  the  reign 
of  his  great-grandson,  John  II.,  who  was  a 
prince  of  profound  sagacity  and  extensive 
views,  the  Portuguese  made  conquests  in  the 
interior  of  Africa,  and  discovered  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  Emmanuel  adopted  the  plan  of 
his  predecessors,  and  sent  out  a fleet  under 
Vasco  de  Gama,  which,  ranging  through  un- 
known seas,  arrived  at  the  city  of  Calicut  on 
the  coast  of  Malabar.  Others  of  his  vessels 
discovered  Brazil,  in  1501. 

These  princes  had  the  merit  of  exciting  that 
spirit  of  discovery  which  begot  many  subse- 
quent improvements  of  navigation  and  com- 
merce. Their  discoveries  on  the  coast  of  Af- 
rica led  to  the  voyage  of  Columbus  and  the 
disoovery  of  America.  They  also  established 
valuable  colonies  in  Africa  and  America,  and 
an  extensive  empire  in  India.  John  III.,  the 
son  of  Emmanuel,  extended  the  Indian  discov- 
eries and  commerce  still  further.  But  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Inquisition,  in  1536,  and  the 
admission  of  the  Jesuits,  were  fatal  errors, 
and  aided  on  the  commencing  decadence  of 
the  realm,  already  evinced  by  the  maladmin- 
istration of  the  colonies.  To  the  Jesuits  was 
intrusted  the  education  of  John’s  grandson 
Sebastian,  the  heir  to  the  throne ; and  thus 
he  imbibed  the  fanaticism  which  buried  him 
in  an  early  grave.  He  led  an  army  against 
the  Moors  in  Africa,  where  he  perished  in 
battle. 

Sebastian,  leaving  no  issue,  was  succeeded 
by  his  uncle,  Cardinal  Henry,  who  also  dying 
without  children,  Philip  of  Spain  obtained 
the  crown,  a.d.  1580.  In  1604  Portugal  ren- 
dered itself  independent  of  Spain  ; and  John, 
Duke  of  Braganza,  a descendant  of  the  old 
royal  line,  ascended  the  throne,  by  the  title  of 
John  IV.  His  son,  Alphonso  VI.,  was  deposed 
on  account  of  his  cruelties ; and  the  sceptre 
was  transferred  to  his  brother.  Peter  II. 
reigned  peaceably  thirty  years ; and  under 
the  mild  government  of  his  son,  John  V.,  the 
arts  began  to  flourish.  In  the  reign  of  Joseph 
I.,  in  1755,  the  city  of  Lisbon  was  laid  in  ruins 


by  an  earthquake,  in  which  ten  thousand  per- 
sons lost  their  lives.  In  this  reign,  too,  the 
Jesuits  were  banished.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  daughter,  Mary  Frances  Isabella ; who  for 
many  years  was  so  infirm  in  body  and  mind 
that  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  were  managed 
by  a regency.  In  1807,  when  in  consequence 
of  the  Portuguese  alliance  with  England,  the 
French  mastered  the  country,  the  prince  re- 
gent retired  with  the  queen,  his  mother,  and 
the  rest  of  the  royal  family,  to  the  Brazils,  in 
South  America.  Rio  de  Janeiro  then  became 
the  seat  of  the  Portuguese  government.  Por- 
tugal was,  however,  wrested  by  the  English 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  French  in  1808. 

John  VI.  returned  to  Portugal  in  1821. 
The  people  succeeded  in  substituting  a con- 
stitutional government  for  the  old  absolutism. 
Brazil  became  an  independent  empire,  John 
retaining  only  the  imperial  title.  John  died 
in  March,  1826.  His  son  Pedro,  after  grant- 
ing a new  constitution,  very  soon  abdicated 
the  Portuguese  throne  in  favor  of  his  daugh- 
ter Dona  Maria  da  Gloria  (he  remaining  king 
during  her  minority),  on  condition  of  her 
marrying  her  uncle  Dom  Miguel.  But  a fac- 
tion secretly  favored  by  Spain,  aimed  at  the 
overthrow  of  the  constitution.  At  its  head 
was  Dom  Miguel,  who  during  the  life  of  his 
father  John  VI.,  had  clutched  at  supreme 
power.  He  assumed  the  royal  title,  claiming 
that  Pedro  had  forfeited  all  right  to  the 
crown,  as  well  as  to  the  appointment  of  a 
successor,  by  becoming  a Brazilian  citizen, 
and  not  residing  in  Portugal.  The  civil  war 
ended  in  1834  with  the  expulsion  of  Miguel* 

KINGS  OF  PORTUGAL. 

1093.  Henry,  Count  or  Earl  of  Portugal. 

1111.  Alfonso,  his  son,  and  Theresa. 

1 1 28.  Alfonso,  Count  of  Portugal,  alone. 

1139.  Alfonso  declared  king,  having  obtained  a 
signal  victory  over  a prodigious  army 
of  Moors  on  the  plains  of  Ourique. 

1185.  Sancho  I.,  son  of  Alfonso. 

1212.  Alfonso  II.,  surnamed  Crassus,  or  the  Fat. 
1223.  Sancho  II.,  or  the  Idle:  deposed. 

1248.  Alfonso  III. 

1279.  Denis  or  Dionysius,  styled  the  Father  of 
his  country. 

1325.  Alfonso  IV. 

1357.  Peter  the  Severe:  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1367.  Ferdinand  I.:  succeeded  by  his  natural 
brother. 

1384.  John  I.,  the  Bastard,  and  the  Great:  mar* 
ricd  Philippa,  daughter  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster. 


POR 


HISTORY  AND 

1433.  Edward. 

1438.  Alfonso  V.,  the  African. 

1481.  John  II.,  whose  actions  procured  him  the 
titles  of  the  Great,  and  the  Perfect: 
succeeded  by  his  cousin. 

1495.  Emmanuel,  the  Fortunate. 

1521.  John  III.,  son  of  Emmanuel ; he  admitted 
into  his  kingdom  the  religious  institu- 
tion of  the  Inquisition. 

1557.  Sebastian;  slain  in  the  great  battle  of  Al- 
cazar, in  Africa,  Aug.  4th,  1578 ; when 
the  crown  reverted  to  his  great-uncle. 
1578.  Henry,  the  Cardinal,  son  of  Emmanuel. 
1580.  Anthony,  Prior  of  Crato,  son  of  Emman- 
uel : deposed  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
who  united  Portugal  to  his  other  do- 
minions, till  1640. 

1640.  John  IV.,  Duke  of  Braganza : dispos- 
sessed the  Spaniards  in  a bloodless 
revolution,  and  was  proclaimed  king, 
Dec.  1st. 

1656.  Alfonso  VI.:  deposed  in  1668,  and  his 
brother  and  successor  Peter  made  re- 
gent; the  latter  ascended  the  throne  in 
1683.  Peter  II.:  succeeded  by  his  son. 

1706.  John  V. : succeeded  by  his  son. 

1750.  Joseph.  The  daughter  and  successor  of 
this  prince  married  his  brother,  by  dis- 
pensation from  the  pope,  and  they  as- 
cended the  throne  as 

1777.  Maria  (Frances  Isabella)  and  Peter  III., 
jointly. 

1786.  Maria,  alone:  this  princess  afterward  falls 
into  a state  of  melancholy  and  derange- 
ment. 

1792.  Regency.  John,  son  of  the  queen,  and 
afterward  king,  declared  regent  of  the 
kingdom. 

1816.  John  VI.,  previously  regent.  He  had 
withdrawn  in  1807,  owing  to  the  French 
invasion  of  Portugal,  to  his  Brazilian 
dominions;  but  the  discontent  of  his 
subjects  obliged  him  to  return  in  1821 ; 
died  in  1826. 

1826.  Peter  IV.  (Dom  Pedro),  son  of  John  VI. : 
making  his  election  of  the  empire  of 
Brazil,  abdicated  the  throne  of  Portu- 
gal in  favor  of  his  daughter. 

1826.  Maria  II.  (da  Gloria),  who  became  queen 
at  seven  years  of  age. 

1828.  Dom  Miguel,  brother  to  Peter  IV.,  usurp- 
ed the  crown,  which  he  retained,  amid 
civil  contentions^  until  1 833. 

1833.  Maria  II.  restored:  declared  in  September, 
1834  (being  then  fifteen),  to  be  of  age, 
and  hence  ascended  the  throne  ; died 
Nov.  15th,  1853  : succeeded  by  her  son. 
1853.  Peter  V.  (Dom  Pedro),  born  Sept.  16th, 
1837. 

1861.  Louis  I. 

POTEMKIN,  Gregory  Alexandrovitsch, 
a Russian  prince  and  field-marshal.  He  suc- 
ceeded Orloff  as  the  favorite  of  Catharine  II., 
and  died  in  1791,  aged  fifty- five. 

POTTER,  Paul,  a celebrated  Dutch  pain- 


BIOGRAPHY.  665 

ter  of  cattle  and  landscapes,  born  in  1625, 
died  in  1654. 

POUSSIN,  Nicholas,  was  born  at  Andely 
in  Normandy.  He  studied  painting  at  Paris 
and  Rome,  and  after  various  vicissitudes 
gained  great  fame  and  fortune  by  his  art. 
He  excelled  in  landscapes  as  well  as  figures, 
and  an  antique  simplicity  marks  his  works. 
He  died  at  Rome,  Nov.  19th,  1665.  His 
brother-in-law  and  pupil,  Gaspard  Duchet 
(1613-1675),  commonly  called  Poussin,  was 
also  an  eminent  painter  of  sombre  landscapes. 

POWHATAN,  a pow  erful  Indian  chief  in 
Virginia,  hostile  to  the  English ; he  was  the 
father  of  Pocahontas,  and  on  her  marriage 
became  reconciled  to  the  whites ; he  died  in 
1618. 

PRAGA,  a towrn  of  Poland,  taken  by 
storm  by  Suwarrow7,  Oct.  10th,  1794,  when 
it  wras  plundered,  set  on  fire,  and  the  inhab- 
itants and  the  troops  of  the  Polish  insurgents 
w7ho  had  taken  refuge  there,  together  amount- 
ing to  30,000,  w ere  barbarously  massacred. 

PRAGUE,  the  ancient  capital  of  Bohemia ; 
population,  143,000.  In  size  and  beauty  it 
is  the  third  city  in  Germany,  and  at  a dis- 
tance its  commanding  site,  its  many  and  lofty 
steeples,  and  its  fine  palaces  and  public 
edifices,  produce  a striking  effect..  It  has 
been  a memorable  spot  in  warfare.  The 
great  battle  of  Prague  was  fought  May  6th, 
1757,  w7hen  the  Austrians  wrere  defeated  by 
Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  their  whole  camp 
taken,  their  illustrious  commander  General 
Browne  mortally  wounded,  and  the  brave 
Prussian  marshal  Schwerin  killed.  After  this 
victory  the  Prussian  king  besieged  Prague, 
but  was  soon  compelled  to  raise  the  siege. 

PREBLE,  Edw7ard,  a celebrated  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  in  Falmouth  (now 
Portland),  Maine,  Aug.  15th,  1761.  In 
1779  he  obtained  a midshipman’s  warrant 
on  board  the  Protector,  a state  ship  of  twen- 
ty-six guns,  which  was  captured  by  the 
English.  Preble,  how'ever,  w’as  released  at 
New  York,  and  returned  home.  When  first 
lieutenant  of  the  Winthrop  sloop  of  war,  he 
displayed  great  gallantry,  in  cutting  out  a 
hostile  brig  of  war  in  Penobscot  harbor. 
After  performing  various  services,  in  1803, 
he  w\as  invested  with  the  command  of  the 
Constitution,  and  being  stationed  in  the 
Mediterranean,  he  not  only  prevented  a wTar 


PRA 


666 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


between  Morocco  and  the  United  States, 
but  bombarded  Tripoli,  and  brought  the 
bashaw  to  terms.  For  this  service  he  receiv- 
ed the  thanks  of  Congress,  and  an  emblemati- 
cal medal.  He  died  Aug.  25th,  1807,  in  the 
forty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

PRESCOTT,  William,  one  of  the  heroes 
of  the  American  Revolution,  was  born  at 
Groton,  Mass.,  in  1726.  He  was  a lieuten- 
ant in  the  provincial  forces  at  the  taking  of 
Cape  Breton  in  1758,  and  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  on  that  occasion.  He  com- 
manded in  the  redoubt  at  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  and  was  the  last  to  leave  the 
intrenchments.  He  resigned  his  colonel’s 
commission  in  1777,  but  was  present  at  the 
capture  of  Burgoyne,  as  a volunteer  under 
Gates.  He  died  Oct.  13th,  1795. 

William  II.  Prescott,  the  eminent  histo- 
rian, is  his  grandson. 

PRESTON-PANS,  a Scotch  village  ten 
miles  east  of  Edinburgh,  memorable  for  the 
defeat  of  the  royalists  under  Sir  John  Cope, 
by  the  troops  of  the  Pretender,  Sept.  21st, 

1745. 

PRETENDER.  The  person  known  in 
English  history  by  this  name,  or  as  the  Chev- 
alier de  St.  George,  was  the  son  of  James  II., 
born  in  1688,  and  acknowledged  by  Louis 
XIV.  as  James  III.  of  England  in  1701. 
He  was  proclaimed,  and  his  standard  set  up, 
at  Braemar  and  Castletown,  in  Scotland, 
Sept.  6th,  1715  ; and  he  landed  at  Peterhead, 
in  Aberdeenshire,  from  France,  to  encourage 
the  rebellion  that  the  Earl  of  Mar  and  his 
other  adherents  had  promoted,  Dec.  26th  the 
same  year.  This  rebellion  was  soon  sup- 
pressed. The  Pretender  died  at  Rome,  Dec. 
30  th,  1765. 

His  son,  Prince  Charles  Edward,  the 
Young  Pretender,  was  born  in  1720.  Ho 
landed  in  Scotland,  and  proclaimed  his  father 
king,  in  June,  1745.  His  arms  were  victo- 
rious at  Preston  Pans  and  Falkirk,  but  after 
the  disastrous  defeat  of  Culloden,  April  16th, 

1746,  he  .sought  safety  in  flight,  and  finally 
escaped  to  the  continent.  He  died  March 
3d,  1788.  His  natural  daughter  assumed  the 
title  of  Duchess  of  Albany;  she  died  in 
1789.  His  brother,  the  Cardinal  York,  call- 
ing himself  Henry  IX.  of  England,  born 
March,  1725,  died  at  Rome  in  August,  1807. 

PRICE,  Richard,  an  eminent  dissenting 


divine  in  England,  born  in  Wales,  died  in 
1791,  aged  sixty -eight. 

PRIESTLY,  Joseph,  a very  celebrated  dis- 
senting clergyman,  philosopher,  and  chemist. 
His  religious  and  political  views  forced  him 
to  leave  his  native  England,  and  he  died  in 
1804  in  Pennsylvania,  aged  seventy-one.  He 
was  the  discoverer  of  oxygen,  among  many 
important  services  he  rendered  for  science. 

PRINCETON,  Battle  of.  Gen.  Wash' 
ington,  withdrawing  at  night  from  his  camp 
at  Trenton,  where  he  was  threatened  with  an 
attack  by  Cornwallis,  fell  suddenly  upon  a 
corps  of  the  British  at  Princeton,  Jan.  3d, 
1777.  In  the  brief  but  brilliant  action  the 
British  were  routed.  Gen.  Mercer  was 
among  the  slain  of  the  Americans. 

PRINTING.  The  honor  of  the  invention 
of  this,  the  greatest  of  all  the  arts,  has  been 
claimed  by  Mentz,  Strasburg,  Haerlem,  Ven- 
ice, Rome,  Basle,  and  Augsburg;  but  only 
the  three  first  are  entitled  to  attention.  Lau- 
renzes  John  Roster,  of  Haerlem,  is  said  to 
have  printed,  with  blocks,  a book  of  images 
and  letters,  Speculum  Humana  Salvationist 
and  compounded  an  ink  more  viscous  and 
tenacious  than  common  ink  (which  blotted), 
about  1438.  The  leaves  of  this  book,  being 
printed  on  one  side  only,  were  afterward 
pasted  together.  John  Faust  printed  the 
Tractatus  Petri  Hispani  at  Mentz  in  1442. 
John  Guttenberg  invented  cut  metal  types, 
and  used  them  in  printing  the  earliest  edition 
of  the  Bible,  which  was  commenced  in  1444, 
and  finished  in  1460.  Peter  Schaeffer  cast  the 
first  metal  types  in  matrices,  and  was  there- 
fore the  inventor  of  complete  printing,  1452. 
[See  Books.] 

Book  of  Psalms,  printed  a.d.  1457.  The 
Durandi  Rationale , first  work  printed  with 
cast  metal  types,  1459.  The  types  were  uni- 
formly Gothic,  or  old  German  (whence  our 
old  English,  or  Black  Letter),  until  1465. 
Greek  characters  (quotations  only)  first  used 
in  the  same  year.  Cicero  de  OJficiis  printed, 
1466.  Roman  characters,  first  used,  at 
Rome,  1468. 

William  Caxton,  a mercer  at  London,  set 
up  the  first  press  at  Westminster,  1471. 
He  printed  “Willyam  Caxton’s  Recuyel  of 
the  Hystoryes  of  Troy,  by  Raoul  le  Feure,” 
1471.  His  first  pieces  were,  “A  Treatise  on 
the  Game  of  Chess”  and  “Tully’s  Offices” 
PRI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


667 


FAUST  TAKING  FIRST  PROOF  FROM  MOVEABLE  TYPES. 


1474.  “ JEsop’s  Fables,”  printed  by  Caxton, 

is  supposed  to  be  the  first  book  with  its 
leaves  numbered. 

Aldus  cast  the,  Greek  alphabet,  and  a 
Greek  book  was  printed,  1476.  He  intro- 
duced the  Italic.  The  Pentateuch,  in  He- 
brew, 1482.  Homer,  in  folio,  beautifully 
done  at  Florence,  eclipsing  all  former  printing, 
by  Demetrius,  1488. 

Printing  used  in  Scotland,  1509.  The  first 
edition  of  the  whole  Bible  was,  strictly  speak- 
ing, the  Complutensian  Polyglot  of  Cardinal 
Ximenes,  1517.  The  Liturgy,  the  first  book 
printed  in  Ireland,  by  Humphrey  Powell, 
1550.  Printing  in  Irish  characters  intro- 


duced by  Nicholas  Walsh,  Chancellor  of  St. 
Patrick’s,  1571.  The  first  newspaper  printed 
in  England,  1588.  First  patent  granted  for 
printing,  1591.  First  printing-press  im- 
proved by  William  Blaeu,  at  Amsterdam, 
1601.  First  printing  in  America,  in  New 
England,  when  the  Freeman’s  Oath  and  an 
Almanac  were  printed,  1639.  First  Bible 
printed  in  Ireland  was  at  Belfast,  1704. 
First  types  cast  in  England  by  Caslon,  1720. 
Stereotype  printing  suggested  bjr  William 
Ged,  of  Edinburgh,  1735.  The  present  mode 
of  stereotype  invented  by  Mr.  Tilloch,  about 
1779.  By  others  the  invention  is  ascribed  to 
Francis  Ambrose  Didot,  of  Paris,  about  the 


PRI 


6,68 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


same  year ; and  still  others  say  that  stereo- 
type  printing  was  in  use  in  Holland,  in  the 
last  century.  The  invention  is  also  claimed 
for  Cadwallader  Colden,  of  New  York,  who 
sent  the  details  of  his  plan  in  1779  to  Dr. 
Franklin,  then  in  Paris.  Franklin  commu- 
nicated the  plan  to  Didot,  the  famous  printer, 
and  Herbau,  a German,  who  had  been  an 
assistant  to  Didot,  took  it  up  in  opposition  to 
him. 

In  the  oldest  mode  of  printing,  the  writ- 
ing is  carved  on  wooden  tables ; they  are 
then  covered  with  ink,  the  paper  is  put  upon 
them,  and  an  impression  is  taken.  This 
ancient  method  of  printing,  is  still  in  use 
in  China,  Japan,  and  Thibet.  The  Chi- 
nese, even  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Wu- 
Wang,  who  lived  abo-ut  1100  b.c.,  are  said  to 
have  been  well  acquainted  with  this  way  of 
printing;  but  the  Japanese  assume  the  merit 
of  the  invention.  In  Thibet,  also,  according 
to  the  accounts  of  various  travelers,  this  art 
has  been  exercised  from  time  immemorial. 
Although  it  had  been  the  custom,  for  thou- 
sands of  years,  to  make  impressions  with  seals 
on  wax,  which  might  have  easily  led  to  the 
invention  of  the  art  of  printing,  Guttenberg 
first  made  this  discovery  about  three  centuries 
and  a half  ago ; for  it  may  justly  be  ques- 
tioned whether  the  Europeans  had  then  any 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  printing  among  the 
Chinese:  although  it  is  not  to  be  denied, 
that  before  the  time  of  Guttenberg,  and  even 
in  1423,  the  art  of  cutting  images  on  wood 
with  a few  lines  of  text,  was  well  known. 

Caxton  and  Wynkyn  de  Worde  were  the 
earliest  English  printers.  The  titles  of  some 
of  their  books  may  not  be  uninteresting. 

The  Game  and  Playe  of  the  Chesse.  Translated 
out  of  the  Frenche  and  emprynted  by  me 
William  Caxton  Fynysshid  the  last  day  of 
Marche  the  yer  of  our  Lord  God  a thousand 
foure  hondrea  and  Ixxiiij. 

TULLY. 

The  Boke  of  Tulle  of  Olde  age  Emprynted  by  me 
simple  persone  William  Caxton  in  to  Englyshe 
as  the  plaijsir  solace  and  reverence  of  men 
growyng  in  to  o'd  age  the  xij  day  of  August 
the  yere  of  our  lord  M.cccc dxxxj. 

THE  POLYCRONYCON. 

The  Polycronycon  conteyning  the  Berynges  and 
Dedes  of  many  Tymes  in  eyght  Boles.  Im- 
printed by  William  Caxton  after  having  some- 
what chnunged  the  rude  and  olde  Englysshe,  that 
is  to  wete  [to  witj  certayn  Words  wlitch  in  these 


Bayes  be  neither  vsyd  ne  understanden.  Ended 
the  second  day  of  Juyll  at  Westmestre  the  xxij 
yere  of  the  Regne  of  Kynge  Edward  the  fourth, 
and  of  the  Incarnacion  of  oure  Lord  a Thou- 
sand four  Hondred  four  Score  and  tweyne 
[1482]. 

THE  CHRONICLES. 

The  Cronicles  of  Englond  Empnted  by  me  Wyll- 
yam  Caxton  thabbey  of  Westmynstre  by  london 
the  v day  of  Juyn  the  yere  of  thincarnacion  of 
our  lord  god  m.cccc. lxxx. 

POLYCRONYCON. 

Polycronycon.  Ended  the  thyrtenth  daye  of 
Apryll  the  tenth  yere  of  the  reyne  of  kinge 
Harry  the  seuenth  And  of  the  Jncarnacyon  of 
our  lord  mcccclxxxxv  Emprynted  by  Wynkyn 
Tkeworde  at  Westmestre. 

HILL  OF  PERFECTION. 

The  Ilylle  of  Perfection  emprynted  at  the  instance 
of  the  reverend  relygyous  fader  Tho.  Prior  of 
the  hous  of  St.  Ann , the  order  of  the  charterouse 
Accomplysshe\d\  and  fynysslie\d\  att  West- 
mynster  the  uiii  day  of  janeuer  the  yere  of  our 
lord  Thousande  cccc.lxxxxvii.  And  in  the 
xii  yere  of  kynge  Henry  the  vii  by  me  wynkyn 
de  worde. 

ENGLAND. 

The  Descripcyon  of  Englonde  Walys  Scotland  and 
Irlond  speaking  of  the  Noblesse  and  Worthy- 
nesse  of  the  same  Fynysshed  and  enprynted 
in  Flete  strete  in  the  syne  of  the  Sonne  by  me 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  the  yere  of  our  lord  a 
m.ccccc  and  ij.  mensis  May  Us  [mense  Maii]. 

THE  FESTIVAL. 

The  Festyvall  or  Sermons  on  sondays  and  holi- 
dais  taken  out  of  the  golden  legend  enprynted 
at  london  in  Fletestrete  at  ye  syne  of  ye  Sonne 
by  wynkyn  de  wrorde.  In  the  yere  of  our  lord 
m.ccccc.  viii.  And  ended  the  xi  daye  of  May  e 

THE  LORD’S  PRAYER. 

[As  printed  by  Caxton  in  1483.] 

Father  our  that  art  in  heavens , hallowed  be  thy 
name:  thy  kingdome  come  to  us;  thy  will  be 
done  in  earth  as  is  in  heaven : oure  every  days 
bred  give  ws  to  day ; and  forgive  us  oure  tres- 
passes, as  we  forgive  them  that  trespass  against 
us;  and  lead  us  not  in  to  temptation , but 
deliver  us  from  all  evil  sin,  amen. 

Among  the  early  printers,  the  only  points 
used  were  the  comma,  parenthesis,  interroga- 
tion, and  full  stop.  To  these  succeeded  the 
colon  ; afterward  the  semicolon ; and  last  the 
note  of  admiration.  The  sentences  were  full 
of  abbreviations  and  contractions ; and  there 
were  no  running  titles,  numbered  leaves,  or 
catch-words.  Our  punctuation  appears  to 
have  been  introduced  with  the  art  of  printing. 

PRIOR,  Matthew,  an  English  poet  and 
statesman,  born  1664,  and  died  in  1721. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


669 


PRUSSIA  consists  of  two  great  divisions, 
unconnected  with  one  another.  The  western 
and  smaller,  comprising  Westphalia  and 
Rhenish  Prussia,  lies  on  both  sides  of  the 
Rhine,  between  Belgium  and  Hanover;  the 
main  portion  borders  upon  Russia.  The  en- 
tire kingdom  has  an  area  of  107,954  square 
miles,  and  a population  of  17,203,000.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Rhine,  Elbe,  Oder, 
Vistula,  and  Niemen.  The  situation  of  Prus- 
sia debars  her  from  prominence  in  maritime 
commerce,  but  her  transit  and  inland  traffic 
is  extensive.  There  is,  properly  speaking, 
no  state  religion  in  Prussia ; that  of  the  royal 
family,  and  of  a majority  of  the  people,  is 
Calvinism,  but  men  of  all  denominations  are 
equally  admissible  to  all  public  employments. 
In  1817,  the  three  hundredth  year  of  the 
Reformation,  the  Calvinists,  Lutherans,  and 
other  Protestant  sects  in  Prussia,  and  in  some 
other  parts  of  Germany,  united  themselves 
into  one  religious  body,  under  the  name  of 
Evangelical  Christians.  The  system  of  edu- 
cation maintained  by  the  state  is  thorough, 
extending  from  primary  schools  to  the  great 
universities  of  Berlin,  Bonn,  Greifswald, 
Halle,  Mii  ns  ter,  and  Konigsberg.  The  at- 
tendance of  children  at  school  is  enforced  by 
law.  All  male  subjects  are  bound  to  military 
service.  The  government  was  until  recently 
an  unlimited  monarchy.  Various  struggles 
for  greater  freedom  have  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing from  the  king  a species  of  constitutional 
liberty  based  upon  representation. 

Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  Prussian  domin- 
ions, is  situated  in  the  provence  of  Branden- 
burg, on  the  Spree.  It  is  twelve  miles  in 
circuit,  including  six  quarters,  and  four  sub- 
urbs. In  1852  it  contained  441,931  inhabit- 
ants. Berlin  Proper  was  built  in  1163,  by 
the  Margrave  Albert  the  Bear.  Koln  or 
Cologne , on  the  Spree,  was  so  called  from  the 
Icollnen  (piles),  on  which  the  Vandals  had  built 
their  huts.  Friedrichswerder  was  founded  by 
the  Elector  Frederick  William  the  Great. 
Neu  or  Dorotheenstadt  was  built  by  the  same 
elector  and  named  in  honor  of  his  wife. 
Friedrichsstadt,  founded  in  1688  by  the 
Elector  Frederick  III.,  is  the  most  extensive 
and  handsome  division  of  this  vast  city.  The 
number  of  its  public  establishments  of  va- 
rious kinds,  makes  Berlin  very  interesting. 


The  university  of  Berlin,  founded  in  1809, 
when  Prussia  was  groaning  beneath  the  yoke 
of  the  French,  is  at  present  one  of  the  first 
literary  institutions  of  the  continent.  Berlin 
has  thirty  squares  and  market-places,  sixteen 
gates  (that  of  Brandenburg,  modeled  on  the 
Propylsea  at  Athens,  but  larger,  being  the 
most  beautiful),  forty  bridges,  &c.  On  the 
top  of  the  Mountain  of  the  Cross,  before  the 
Halle  gate,  a monument  of  iron  was  erected 
in  1820  in  commemoration  of  the  wars  against 
France.  In  the  Dorothenstadt  is  the  cele- 
brated street  called  Unter-den-Linden,  2,744 
feet  long,  174  broad,  and  shaded. by  two 
double  lines  of  linden-trees.  Berlin  is  one 
of  the  finest  cities  in  Europe.  Besides  its 
numerous  public  edifices  of  elegance,  it  has 
many  literary,  scientific,  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions. Its  manufactures  and  commerce 
are  also  important. 

Dantzic  (Danzig),  on  the  Vistula  near  the 
Baltic,  population  70,000,  is  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  and  most  flourishing 
towns  in  Prussia.  It  was  founded  in  the 
tenth  century,  and  formerly  belonged  to  Po- 
land. In  1709  it  was  ravaged  by  the  plague, 
and  in  1734  taken  by  the  Russians  and  Sax- 
ons. May,  1807,  the  French  captured  it 
after  a long  siege.  It  was  occupied  by  a 
French  garrison  until  Napoleon’s  disastrous 
campaign  in  Russia,  after  which  it  was  block- 
aded, and  bravely  defended  by  Gen.  Rapp. 
It  surrendered,  however,  and  in  1814  re- 
verted to  Prussia. 

Prussia  was  anciently  inhabited  by  the  Bo- 
russi,  who  denominated  it  Prussia,  which  has 
been  corrupted  to  Prussia.  They  were  con- 
quered by  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order ; 
whom  Casimir  IV.  of  Poland  compelled  to 
acknowledge  themselves  his  vassals,  and  to 
allow  Polish  Prussia  to  continue  under  the 
protection  of  Poland.  Albert,  Margrave  of 
Brandenburg  and  grand-master  of  the  order, 
renounced  his  vows,  embraced  Protestantism, 
and  had  the  dukedom  of  East  Prussia  given 
to  hinj,  by  Sigismund  I.  of  Poland,  1525. 
It  was  united  with  Brandenburg  in  1594. 

Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg, surnamed  the  Great,  was  freed  from 
paying  any  homage  to  the  crown  of  Poland. 
His  son  Frederick  raised  the  duchy  of  Prus- 
sia to  a kingdom,  1701.  His  son,  Frederick 


PRU 


670 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


William,  was  a wise  and  politic  prince,  who 
amassed  a prodigious  treasure,  though  he 
maintained  an  army  of  60,000  men. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Frederick 
IT.,  one  of  the  first  military,  political,  and 
literary  characters  that  ever  filled  a throne, 
but  very  despotic  in  his  administration.  His 
reign  was  pregnant  with  striking  historical 
events.  In  1756,  Russia,  Austria,  and  France 
leagued  against  him,  and  he  maintained 
against  them  the  famous  seven  years’  war. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Frederick 
William  II.,  a weak  and  unwise  prince. 

Dying  in  1797,  he  was  succeeded  by  Fred- 
erick William  III.,  who  unhappily  revived 
some  obsolete  pretensions  to  Hanover,  in 
1805.  Napoleon  proposing  to  restore  that 
electorate  to  England,  in  1806,  Frederick  took 
the  field ; but  being  totally  defeated  at  Jena, 
his  kingdom  was  conquered  by  Napoleon. 
Prussia,  in  conjunction  with  the  other  powers 
of  Europe,  twice  assisted  in  deposing  Napo- 
leon, and  recovered  the  conquered  provinces. 

The  revolutionary  wave  of  1848  rolled 
through  Prussia,  but  the  king,  by  bowing  to 
the  popular  will  for  a time,  allayed  the  tumult. 

As  the  result  of  the  war  with  Austria  in 
1866,  (see  Austria  p.  90,)  Prussia,  that  on 
the  14th  of  June  was  the  tail  of  the  Pentar- 
chy,  had,  on  the  4th  of  July,  by  a sudden 
and  brilliant  stride,  leaped  to  a commanding 
place  among  European  nations.  Her  cam- 
paign was  a swift  and  splendid  success.  This 
was  achieved  by  the  statesmanship  of  Count 
Bismarck,  premier  of  William  I,  and  by  the 
aid  of  a gallant  soldiery.  Since  1866  Prus- 
sia has  been  enlarged  by  the  Duchy  of 
Schleswig-Holstein  and  by  Lauenburg;  by 
the  electorate  of  Cassel,  and  by  the  free  city 
of  Frankfort.  A small  part  of  the  northern 
portion  of  Bavaria  has  also  been  added. 

PRUSSIA.  See  Appendix,  p.  000. 

ELECTORS  AND  DUKES. 

1616.  John  Sigismond. 

1619.  George  William. 

1640.  Frederick  William,  his  son,  generally 
styled  the  great  elector. 

1688.  Frederick,  his  son ; crowned  king,  Jan. 
18th,  1701. 

KINGS. 

1701.  Frederick  I. 

1713.  Frederick  William  I.,  his  son. 


1740.  Frederick  the  Great,  his  son. 

1786.  Frederick  William  £ II.,  nephew  of  the 
great  Frederick. 

1797.  Frederick  William  III. 

1840.  Frederick  William  IV.,  his  son. 

1861.  William  I.,  his  brother. 

PAYNNE,  William,  an  eminent  Puritan 
lawyer  and  a writer  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I., 
born  in  1600;  tried  by  the  star  chamber, 
1633  ; stood  in  the  pillory,  and  was  heavily 
fined,  May,  1634  ; again,  1637  ; took  his  seat 
in  the  long  parliament,  Nov.  28th,  1640 ; 
died  Oct.  24th,  1669. 

PTOLEMY  I.,  surnamed  Soter,  was  the 
natural  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon  by  Arsi- 
noe.  When  Alexander  invaded  Asia,  the  son 
of  Arsinoe  attended  him  as  one  of  his  gener- 
als. During  the  expedition,  he  behaved  with 
uncommon  valor,  and  killed  one  of  the  In 
dian  monarchs  in  single  combat.  After  the 
conqueror’s  death,  in  the  general  division  of 
the  Macedonian  empire,  Ptolemy  obtained, 
as  his  share,  the  government  of  Egypt,  with 
Libya  and  part  of  the  neighboring  territo- 
ries of  Arabia.  He  made  himself  master  of 
Coelosyria,  Phoenicia,  and  the  neighboring 
coast  of  Syria;  and  when  he  had  reduced 
Jerusalem,  he  carried  about  100,000  prison- 
ers to  Egypt,  to  people  the  extensive  city  of 
Alexandria,  which  became  the  capital  of  his 
dominions.  He  made  war  with  success 
against  Demetrius  and  Antigonus,  who  dis- 
puted his  right  to  the  provinces  of  Syria. 
The  bay  of  Alexandria  being  dangerous  of 
access,  he  built  a tower  to  conduct  the  sailors 
in  the  obscurity  of  the  night;  and  that  his 
subjects  might  be  acquainted  with  literature, 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  a library,  which, 
under  the  succeeding  reigns,  became  the  most 
celebrated  in  the  world.  He  also  established 
in  the  capital  of  his  dominions,  a society 
called  Museum, , of  which  the  members,  main- 
tained at  the  public  expense,  were  employed 
in  philosophical  researches,  and  in  the  ad- 
vancement of  science  and  the  liberal  arts. 
Ptolemy  died  in  the  eighty-fourth  year  of 
his  age,  after  a reign  of  thirty-nine  years, 
about  b.c.  284. 

PTOLEMY  II.,  the  second  son  of  Ptolemy 
1.,  succeeded  his  father  on  the  Egyptian 
throne,  and  was  called  Philadelphus  by 
antiphrasis,  because  he  killed  two  of  his 


PTO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


671 


brothers.  While  he  strengthened  himself 
by  alliances  with  foreign  powers,  the  inter- 
nal peace  of  his  kingdom  was  disturbed  by 
the  revolt  of  Magas,  his  brother,  king  of 
Cyrene.  The  sedition,  however,  was  stopped, 
though  kindled  by  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria ; 
and  the  death  of  the  rebellious  prince  re-es- 
tablished peace  for  some  time  in  the  family 
of  Philadelphus.  Philadelphus  died  in  the 
sixty -fourth  year  of  his  age,  b.c.  246.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  of  his  reign,  Philadelphus  was 
employed  in  exciting  industry,  and  in  encour- 
aging the  liberal  arts  and  useful  knowledge 
among  his  subjects.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
adjacent  countries  were  allured  by  promises 
and  presents,  to  increase  the  number  of  the 
Egyptian  subjects  ; and  Ptolemy  could  boast 
of  reigning  over  33,339  well-peopled  cities. 
He  gave  every  possible  encouragement  to 
commerce ; and  by  keeping  two  powerful 
fleets,  one  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
other  in  the  Red  Sea,  he  made  Egypt  the 
mart  of  the  world.  His  army  consisted  of 
200,000  foot,  and  40,000  horse,  besides  300 
elephants,  and  2,000  armed  chariots.  His 
palace  was  the  asylum  of  learned  men,  whom 
he  admired  and  patronized.  He  increased 
the  library  wrhich’his  father  had  founded, 
and  showed  his  taste  for  learning  and  his 
wish  to  encourage  genius.  This  celebrated 
library,  at  his  death,  contained  200,000  vol- 
umes of  the  best  and  choicest  books  ; and  it 
was  afterward  increased  to  700,000.  Part  of 
it  was  burnt  by  the  flames  of  Caesar’s  fleet, 
when  he  set  it  on  fire  to  save  himself ; a cir- 
cumstance, however,  not  mentioned  by  the 
general ; the  remainder  was  again  magnifi- 
cently repaired  by  Cleopatra,  who  added  to 
the  Egyptian  library  that  of  the  kings  of 
Pergamus.  It  is  said  that  the  Old  Testament 
was  translated  into  Greek  during  this  reign  ; 
a translation  which  has  been  called  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  because  translated  by  the  labors  of 
seventy  different  persons. 

PTOLEMY  III.,  surnamed  Euergetes,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Philadelphus  on  the  Egyp- 
tian throne.  He  early  engaged  in  a war 
against  Antiochus  Theus,  for  his  unkindness 
to  Berenice,  the  Egyptian  king’s  sister,  whom 
he  had  married  with  the  consent  of  Philadel- 
phus. With  the  most  rapid  success  he  con- 
quered Syria  and  Cilicia,  and  advanced  as  far 
as  the  Tigris ; but  a sedition  at  home  stopped 


his  progress,  and  he  returned  to  Egypt  loaded 
with  the  spoils  of  conquered  nations.  The 
last  years  of  Ptolemy’s  reign  were  passed  in 
peace,  if  we  except  the  refusal  of  the  Jews  to 
pay  the  tribute  of  twenty  silver  talents,  which 
their  ancestors  had  always  paid  to  the  Egyp- 
tian monarchs.  Euergetes  (as  he  was  called 
by  the  Egyptians)  died  b.c.  221,  after  a reign 
of  twenty -five  years.  Like  his  two  illustrious 
predecessors,  he  was  the  patron  of  learning, 
and,  indeed,  he  is  the  last  of  the  Lagides  wTho 
gained  popularity  among  his  subjects  by  clem- 
ency, moderation,  and  humanity,  and  wTho 
commanded  respect  even  from  his  enemies,  by 
valor,  prudence,  and  reputation. 

PTOLEMY  IV.  succeeded  his  father  Euer- 
getes, and  received  the  surname  of  Philopator 
by  antiphrasis;  because,  according  to  some 
historians,  he  destroyed  his  father  by  poison. 
He  began  his  reign  with  acts  ol  the  greatest 
cruelty  and  debauchery.  In  the  midst  of  his 
pleasures,  Philopator  was  called  to  war  against 
Antiochus,  king  of  Sjrria;  at  the  head  of  a 
powerful  army,  he  soon  invaded  his  enemy’s 
territories,  and  might  have  added  the  kingdom 
of  Syria  to  Egypt,  if  he  had  made  a prudent 
use  of  the  victories  which  attended  his  arms. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  the  Romans, 
whom  a dangerous  war  with  Carthage  had 
weakened,  but  at  the  same  time  roused  to  su. 
perior  activity,  renewed,  for  political  reasons, 
the  treaty  of  alliance  which  had  been  made 
with  the  Egyptian  monarchs.  Philopator  at 
last,  weakened  and  enervated  by  intemperance 
and  continual  debauchery,  died  in  the  thirty- 
seventh  year  of  his  age,  after  a reign  of  seven- 
teen years,  b.c.  204. 

PTOLEMY  V.  was  the  son  of  Philopator, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  king  of  Egypt,  though 
only  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  age.  The  Ro- 
mans renewed  their  alliance  with  him  after 
their  victories  over  Hannibal,  and  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  second  Punic  war.  When  Ptolemy 
had  reached  his  fourteenth  }7ear,  according  to 
the  laws  and  customs  of  Egypt,  the  years  of 
his  minority  expired.  He  received  the  sur- 
name of  Epiphanes,  or  Illustrious,  and  wTas 
crowned  at  Alexandria,  with  the  greatest  so- 
lemnity. Young  Ptolemy  was  no  sooner  de- 
livered from  the  shackles  of  his  guardian,  than 
he  betrayed  the  same  vices  which  had  charac- 
terized his  father.  His  cruelties  raised  sedi- 
tions among  his  subjects;  but  these  were 


PTO 


672 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


twice  quelled  b}T  tlie  prudence  and  the  mod- 
eration of  Polycrates,  the  most  faithful  of  his 
corrupt  ministers.  In  the  midst  of  his  ex- 
travagance, Epiphanes  did  not  forget  his  alli- 
ance with  the  Romans ; above  all  others,  he 
showed  himself  eager  to  cultivate  friendship 
with  a nation  from  whom  he  could  derive  so 
many  advantages;  and  during  their  war 
against  Antiochus,  he  offered  to  assist  them 
with  money  against  a monarch  whose  daugh- 
ter Cleopatra  he  had  married,  but  whom  he 
hated  on  account  of  the  seditions  he  raised  in 
the  very  heart  of  Egypt.  After  a reign  of 
twenty-four  years,  b.c.  180,  Ptolemy  was 
poisoned  by  his  ministers,  whom  he  had 
threatened  to  rob  of  their  possessions,  to  carry 
on  a war  against  Seleucus,  king  of  Syria. 

PTOLEMY  VI.,  the  son  of  Epiphanes,  re- 
ceived the  surname  of  Philometor,  on  account 
of  his  hatred  against  his  mother  Cleopatra. 
He  made  war  against  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
king  of  Syria,  to  recover  the  provinces  of  Pal- 
estine and  Coelosyria,  and  after  several  suc- 
cesses, he  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemy, 
who  detained  him  in  confinement.  During 
the  captivity  of  Philometor,  the  Egyptians 
raised  to  the  throne  his  younger  brother, 
Ptolemy  Physcon  ; but  he  was  no  sooner  es- 
tablished in  his  power,  than  Antiochus  turned 
his  arms  against  Egypt,  drove  out  the  usurper, 
and  restored  Philometor  to  all  his  rights  and 
privileges  as  king  of  Egypt.  This'  artful  be- 
havior of  Antiochus  was  soon  comprehended 
by  Philometor ; and  when  he  saw  that  Pelu- 
sium,  the  key  of  Egypt,  had  remained  in  the 
hands  of  his  Syrian  aily,  he  recalled  his 
brother  Physcon,  made  him  partner  on  the 
throne,  and  concerted  with  him  how  to  repel 
their  common  enemy.  This  union  of  interest 
in  the  two  royal  brothers  incensed  Antiochus ; 
he  entered  Egypt  with  a large  army,  but  the 
Romans  checked  his  progress,  and  obliged  him 
to  retire.  No  sooner  were  they  delivered  from 
tire  impending  war,  than  Philometor  and 
Physcon,  -whom  the  fear  of  danger  had  united, 
began  with  mutual  jealousy  to  oppose  each 
other’s  views.  Physcon  was  at  last  banished 
by  the  superior  power  of  his  brother ; and  as 
he  could  find  no  support  in  Egj^pt,  he  imme- 
diately repaired  to  Rome.  To  excite  more 
effectually  the  compassion  of  the  Romans,  and 
to  gain  their  assistance,  he  appeared  in  the 
meanest  dress,  and  took  his  residence  in  the 


most  obscure  corner  of  the  city.  He  received 
an  audience  from  the  senate ; and  the  Romans 
settled  the  dispute  between  the  two  royal 
brothers,  by  making  them  independent  of  one 
another,  and  giving  the  government  of  Libya 
and  Cyrene  to  Physcon,  and  confirming  Phi- 
lometor in  the  possession  of  Egypt  and  the 
island  of  C}^prus.  The  death  of  Philometor, 
b.c.  145,  left  Physcon  master  of  Egypt  and 
all  the  dependent  provinces. 

PTOLEMY  VII.,  surnamed  Physcon,  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Egypt  after  the  death  of 
his  brother  Philometor ; and  as  he  had  reigned 
for  some  time  conjointly  with  him,  his  succes- 
sion was  approved,  though  Cleopatra,  the  wife, 
and  Ptotemy  Eupator,  the  young  son,  of  the 
deceased  monarch,  laid  claim  to  the  crown. 
Physcon  wedded  the  one  and  slew  the  other ; 

: Cleopatra  was  also  the  sister  of  Philometor 
and  Physcon.  He  ordered  himself  to  be  called 
Euergetes , but  the  Alexandrians  refused  to  do 
it,  and  stigmatized  him  with  the  appellation 
of  Kakergetes , or  evil-doer,  a surname  which 
he  deserved  by  his  tyranny  and  oppression. 
A series  of  barbarities  rendered  him  odious ; 
but  as  no  one  attempted  to  rid  Egypt  of  her 
tyranny,  the  Alexandrians  abandoned  their 
habitations,  and  fled  from  a place  which  con- 
tinually streamed  with  the  blood  of  their  mas- 
sacred fellow-citizens.  Physcon  endeavored 
to  repeople  the  city  which  his  cruelty  had  laid 
desolate ; but  the  fear  of  sharing  the  fate  of 
the  former  inhabitants,  prevailed  more  than 
the  promise  of  riches,  rights,  and  immunities. 
He  died  at  Alexandria  in  the  sixty-seventh 
year  of  his  age,  after  a reign  of  twenty -nine 
years,  about  b.c.  116. 

PTOLEMY  VIII.,  surnamed  Lathyrus,  from 
an  excrescence,  like  a pea,  on  the  nose,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Physcon  as  king  of  Egypt. 
He  had  no  sooner  ascended  the  throne,  than 
his  mother  Cleopatra,  who  reigned  conjointly 
with  him,  expelled  him,  and  placed  the  crown 
on  the  head  of  his  brother,  Ptolemy  Alexan- 
der, her  favorite  son.  Lathyrus,  after  he  had 
exercised  the  greatest  cruelty  upon  the  Jews, 
by  his  conquest  of  Judea,  and  made  vain  at- 
tempts to  recover  the  kingdom  of  Egypt,  re- 
tired to  Cyprus  till  the  death  of  his  brother 
Alexander  restored  him  to  his  native  domin- 
ions. In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  Lathyrus 
was  called  upon  to  assist  the  Romans  with  a 
navy  for  the  conquest  of  Athens ; but  Lucal- 


PTO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


673 


lus,  who  had  been  sent  to  obtain  the  wanted 
supply,  though  received  with  kingly  honors, 
was  dismissed  with  evasive  and  unsatisfactory 
answers,  and  the  monarch  refused  to  part  with 
troops  which  he  deemed  necessary  to  preserve 
the  peace  of  his  kingdom.  Lathyrus  died  b.c. 
81,  after  a reign  of  thirty-six  years  since  the 
death  of  his  father  Physcon ; eleven  of  which 
he  had  passed  with  his  mother  Cleopatra  on 
the  Egyptian  throne,  eighteen  in  Cyprus,  and 
seven  after  his  mothers  death.  He  left  the 
crown  to  his  daughter  Berenice,  called  also 
Cleopatra. 

PTOLEMY  IX.,  who  was  surnamed  Alex- 
ander, usurped  the  kingdom  a short  time  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  his  brother  Lathyrus,  and 
was  dethroned,  after  murdering  his  mother 
Cleopatra,  b.c.  88. 

PTOLEMY  X.,  son  of  the  preceding  and 
also  surnamed  xYlexander,  succeeded  Ptolemy 
VIII.  under  the  protection  of  the  Romans  in 
the  time  of  Sylla.  He  wedded  his  cousin  Ber- 
enice Cleopatra,  and  had  her  assassinated,  for 
which  he  was  himself  massacred,  after  a reign 
of  nineteen  days. 

PTOLEMY  XI.  After  the  above  tragedy 
the  only  scion  of  the  race  of  Ptolemy  wras  an 
illegitimate  son  of  Lathyrus.  He  was  not 
acknowledged  king  till  b.c.  59.  He  received 
the  surname  of  Auletes,  because  he  played 
skillfully  on  the  flute.  His  rise  showed  great 
marks  of  prudence  and  circumspection ; and 
as  his  predecessor,'  by  his  will,  had  left  the 
kingdom  of  Egypt  to  the  Romans,  Auletes 
knew  that  he  could  not  be  firmly  established 
on  his  throne,  without  the  approbation  of  the 
Roman  senate.  When  he  had  suffered  the 
Romans  quietly  to  take  possession  of  Cyprus, 
the  Egyptians  revolted,  and  Auletes  was 
obliged  to  fly  from  his  kingdom,  and  seek 
protection  among  the  most  powerful  of  his 
allies.  The  senators  of  Rome  decreed  to  re- 
establish Auletes  on  his  throne.  He  was  no 
sooner  restored  to  power,  than  he  sacrificed 
to  his  ambition  his  daughter  Berenice,  and 
behaved  with  the  greatest  ingratitude  and  per- 
fidy to  Rabirius,  a Roman  who  had  supplied 
him  with  money  when  expelled  from  his  king- 
dom. Auletes  died  four  years  after  his  resto- 
ration, about  b.c.  51. 

PTOLEMY  XII.,  surnamed  Dionysius,  or 
Bacchus,  ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt  con- 
jointly with  his  sister  Cleopatra,  whom  he 

43  PI 


had  married,  according  to  the  directions  of 
his  father.  He  was  in  the  thirteenth  year  of 
his  age,  when  Pompey,  who  had  aided  his 
father  Auletes  to  the  throne,  came  to  the 
shores  of  Egypt,  after  the  fatal  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  and  claimed  his  protection.  He  refused 
to  grant  the  required  assistance ; and  by  the 
advice  of  his  ministers,  he  basely  murdered 
Pompey,  after  he  had  brought  him  to  shore 
under  the  mask  of  friendship  and  cordiality. 
To  obtain  the  favor  of  the  conqueror  of  Phar- 
salia,  Ptolemy  cut  off  the  head  of  Pompey ; 
but  Csesar  turned  with  indignation  from  such 
perfidy,  and  when  he  arrived  at  Alexandria, 
he  found  the  Egyptian  king  as  faithless  to  his 
cause  as  to  that  of  his  fallen  enemy.  Caesar 
sat  as  judge  to  hear  the  various  claims  of  the 
brother  and  sister  to  the  throne ; to  satisfy 
the  people,  he  ordered  the  will  of  Auletes  to 
be  read,  and  confirmed  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra 
in  the  possession  of  Egypt,  and  appointed  the 
two  younger  children  masters  of  the  island  of 
Cyprus.  This  fair  and  candid  decision  might 
have  left  no  room  for  dissatisfaction ; but 
Ptolemy  refused  to  acknowledge  Caesar  as  a 
judge  or  a mediator.  The  Roman  enforced 
his  authority  by  arms,  and  three  victories 
were  obtained  over  the  Egyptian  forces. 
Ptolemy,  who  had  been  for  some  time  a pris- 
oner in  the  hands  of  Caesar,  now  headed  his 
armies ; but  a defeat  was  fatal,  and  as  he  at- 
tempted to  save  his  life  by  flight,  he  was 
drowned  in  the  Nile,  about  b.c.  46,  and  three 
years  and  eight  months  after  the  death  of 
Auletes.  [, See  Cleopatra.] 

PUFFENDORF,  Samuel,  a celebrated  civil- 
ian, a native  of  Saxony,  was  for  a time  in  the 
diplomatic  service  of  Sweden.  He  died  at 
Berlin  in  1674,  aged  sixty-three. 

PULASKI,  Count  Casimir,  a noble-minded 
Pole,  who  having  been  banished  from  his 
native  land,  entered  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  was  made  a brigadier,  and  was  mor- 
tally wounded  in  the  attack  on  Savannah, 
Oct  9th,  1779. 

Pulaski  was  as  chivalrous  as  a baron  of  ro- 
mance. He  landed  upon  our  shores  an  exile, 
and  threw  the  energies  of  his  character  into 
our  cause — the  cause  of  freedom  and  man. 
He  preferred  the  wilds  of  America  to  the  re- 
finements of  European  courts,  to  most  of 
which  he  would  have  been  welcome.  With 
the  enthusiasm  of  a crusader,  he  drew  his 


674 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


sword  in  our  cause.  Military  glory  and  love 
of  freedom  were  the  strong  passions  of  his 
soul.  His  ancestors  were  soldiers  ; and  many 
of  them  fell,  foremost  in  the  fight,  while  the 
glow  of  early  manhood  was  upon  them,  and 
slept  in  the  bed  of  honor.  He  felt  and  de- 
clared, that  to  be  alive  with  a head  white  with 
the  snows  of  age,  was  a stain  on  his  family 
name ; and  he  feared,  in  the  wild  and  romantic 
valor  of  his  soul,  that  a winding-sheet  unstained 
with  blood  would  be  disgraceful  to  him.  If 
Pulaski  saw  not  the  close  of  the  contest,  he 
died  as  he  wished,  in  the  fury  of  the  fight, 
and  rests  in  his  grave  in  a warrior’s  shroud. 
No  solemn  dirge,  no  peaceful  requiem,  soothed 
the  hero’s  shade ; the  hasty  funeral  rites  of 
the  battle-field  were  his.  Such  honors  only 
were  suited  to  the  genius  of  the  dead. 

PULTOWA,  a fortified jtown  of  Russia,  450 
miles  south-west  of  Moscow,  with  16,000  in- 
habitants, before  which  Peter  the  Great  de- 
feated Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  July  8th,  1709. 
Charles,  who  had  been  wounded  in  a former 
engagement,  was  much  indisposed.  The  litter 
in  which  he  caused  himself  to  be  carried  was 
twice  overturned,  and  the  second  time  broken 
by  the  enemy’s  cannon.  After  an  obstinate 
and  bloody  engagement,  the  Swedish  army 
was  entirely  routed  and  dispersed;  9,000  of 
the  vanquished  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of 
battle,  and  a great  number  surrendered  them- 
selves prisoners  of  war.  Charles,  with  300 
of  his  guards,  escaped  with  difficulty  to  Ben- 
der, a Turkish  town  in  Moldavia. 

PULTENEY,  William,  Earl  of  Bath,  was 
born  of  an  ancient  family,  in  1682.  After 
traveling  through  Europe,  he  was  elected  into 
parliament,  and  became  distinguished  as  a 
zealous  whig.  On  the  accession  of  George  I. 
he  was  appointed  a privy-councilor  and  secre- 
tary at  war,  being  then  the  friend  of  Sir  Rob- 
ert Walpole ; but  afterward  a difference  arose 
between  them,  and  Pulteney became  the  leader 
of  opposition.  He  also  joined  Bolingbroke  in 
conducting  a paper  called  The  Craftsman , the 
object  of  which  was  to  annoy  the  minister. 
This  produced  a duel  between  Pulteney  and 
Lord  Hervey ; and  the  king  was  so  much  dis- 
pleased with  the  conduct  of  the  former,  that 
he  struck  his  name  out  of  the  list  of  privy- 
councilors,  and  also  from  the  commission  of 
the  peace.  On  the  resignation  of  Walpole,  in 
1741,  Pulteney  was  created  Earl  of  Bath ; but 


from  that  time  his  popularity  ceased.  He  died 
June  8th,  1764. 

PUNIC  WARS.  The  first  Punic  war  was 
undertaken  by  the  Romans  against  Carthage, 
b.c.  264.  Sicily,  an  island  of  the  highest  con- 
sequence to  the  Carthaginians  as  a commercial 
nation,  was  the  seat  of  the  first  dissensions. 
The  Mamertini,  a body  of  Italian  mercenaries, 
were  appointed  by  the  king  of  Syracuse  to 
guard  the  town  of  Messana ; but  this  tumult- 
uous tribe,  instead  of  protecting  the  citizens, 
basely  massacred  them,  and  seized  their  pos- 
sessions. This  act  of  cruelty  raised  the  indig- 
nation of  all  the  Sicilians  against  the  Mamer- 
tini ; Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  who  had  em- 
ployed them, prepared  to  punish  their  perfidy ; 
and  the  Mamertini,  besieged  in  Messana,  with- 
out friends  or  resources,  resolved  to  throw 
themselves  for  protection  into  the  hands  of 
the  first  power  that  could  relieve  them.  They 
were,  however,  divided  in  their  sentiments ; 
while  some  implored  the  assistance  of  Car- 
thage, others  called  upon  the  Romans  for  pro- 
tection. Without  hesitation  or  delay,  the 
Carthaginians  entered  Messana,  and  the  Ro- 
mans also  hastened  to  give  to  the  Mamertini 
that  aid  which  had  been  claimed  from  them 
with  as  much  eagerness  as  from  the  Cartha- 
ginians. At  the  approach  of  the  Roman 
troops,  the  Mamertini,  who  had  implored  their 
assistance,  took  up  arms,  and  forced  the  Car- 
thaginians to  Evacuate  Messana. 

From  a private  quarrel  the  war  became 
general.  The  Romans  obtained  a victory  in 
Sicily,  but  as  their  enemies  were  masters  at 
sea,  the  advantages  which  they  gained  were 
small  and  inconsiderable.  Duilius  at  last  ob- 
tained a naval  victory,  and  he  was  the  first 
Roman  who  ever  received  a triumph  after  a 
battle  by  sea.  The  losses  which  they  sus- 
tained induced  the  Carthaginians  to  sue  for 
peace;  the  Romans,  whom  an  unsuccessful 
descent  upon  Africa,  under  Regulus,  and  other 
defeats,  had  rendered  diffident,  listened  to  the 
proposal,  and  the  first  Punic  war  was  con- 
cluded b.c.  241,  on  the  following  terms.  The 
Carthaginians  pledged  themselves  to  pay  to 
the  Romans,  within  ten  years,  the  sum  of 
3,200  Euboic  talents;  they  promised  to  re- 
lease all  the  Roman  captives  without  ransom, 
to  evacuate  Sicily7",  and  the  other  islands  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  not  to  molest  Hiero, 
king  of  Syracuse,  or  his  allies. 


PUN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


675 


The  Romans,  to  stop  the  progress  of  the 
Carthaginians  toward  Italy,  made  stipulations 
with  them  by  which  they  were  not  permitted 
to  cross  the  Iberus,  or  to  molest  the  cities  of 
their  allies  the  Saguntines.  When  Hannibal 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  Carthaginian 
armies  in  Spain,  he  spurned  the  boundaries 
which  the  jealousy  of  Rome  had  set  to  his 
arms,  and  immediately  formed  the  siege  of 
Saguntum.  The  Romans  were  apprised  of 
the  hostilities  which  had  been  begun  against 
their  allies,  but  Saguntum  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  active  enemy  before  they  had  taken 
any  steps  to  oppose  him. 

Without  delay,  b.c.  218,  Hannibal  marched 
an  army  of  90,000  foot  and  12,000  horse, 
toward  Italy,  resolved  to  carry  on  the  war  to 
the  gates  of  Rome.  The  battles  of  Trebia,  of 
Ticinus,  and  of  the  lake  of  Thrasymenus,  threw 
Rome  into  the  greatest  apprehensions,  but  the 
prudence  and  dilatory  measures  of  the  dictator 
Fabius  soon  taught  them  to  hope  for  better 
times..  Yet  the  conduct  of  Fabius  was  uni- 
versally censured  as  cowardice,  and  the  two 
consuls  who  succeeded  him  in  the  command, 
pursuing  a different  plan  of  operations, 
brought  on  a decisive  action  at  Cannae,  b.c. 
21 6,  in  which  45,000  Romans  were  left  on  the 
field  of  battle.  This  bloody  victory  caused 
so  much  consternation  at  Ronje,  that  some 
authors  have  declared  that  if  Hannibal  had 
immediately  marched  from  the  plains  of  Can- 
nae to  the  city,  he  would  have  met  with  no 
resistance,  but  could  have  terminated  a long 
and  dangerous  war  with  glory  to  himself,  and 
the  most  inestimable  advantages  to  his  coun- 
try. The  news  of  this  victory  was  carried  to 
Carthage  by  Mago,  and  the  Carthaginians  re- 
fused to  believe  it,  till  three  bushels  of  golden 
rings  were  spread  before  them,  which  had 
been  taken  from  the  Roman  knights  in  the 
field  of  battle. 

Affairs  now  took  a different  turn,  and 
Marcellus,  who  had  the  command  of  the  Ro- 
man legions  in  Italy,  taught  his  countrymen 
that  Hannibal  was  not  invincible  in  the  field. 
In  different  parts  of  the  world  the  Romans 
were  making  very  rapid  .conquests.  Hanni- 
bal no  longer  appeared  formidable  in  Italy ; 
if  he  conquered  towns  in  Campania  or  Magna 
Grsecia,  he  remained  master  of  them  only 
while  his  army  hovered  in  the  neighborhood ; 
and  if  he  marched  toward  Rome,  the  alarm 


he  occasioned  was  but  momentary ; the  Ro- 
mans were  prepared  to  oppose  him,  and  his 
retreat  was  therefore  the  more  dishonorable. 
The  conquests  of  young  Scipio  in  Spain  raised 
the  expectations  of  the  Romans,  and  he  had 
no  sooner  returned  to  Rome  than  he  proposed 
to  remove  Hannibal  from  the  capital  of  Italy 
by  carrying  the  war  to  the  gates  of  Carthage. 
This  was  a bold  and  hazardous  enterprise,  but 
though  Fabius  opposed  it,  it  was  universally 
approved  by  the  Roman  senate,  and  young 
Scipio  was  empowered  to  sail  to  Africa. 

The  conquests  of  the  young  Roman  were  as 
rapid  in  Africa  as  they  had  been  in  Spain,  and 
the  Carthaginians,  apprehensive  for  the  fate 
of  their  capital,  recalled  Hannibal  from  Italy. 
Hannibal  received  their  orders  with  indigna- 
tion, and  with  tears  in  his  eyes  he  left  Italy, 
where  for  sixteen  years  he  had  known  no  su- 
perior in  the  field  of  battle.  At  his  arrival  in 
Africa,  the  Carthaginian  general  soon  collect- 
ed a large  army,  and  met  his  exulting  adver- 
sary in  the  plains  of  Zama.  The  battle  was 
long  and  bloody ; one  nation  fought  for  glory, 
and  the  other  for  the  dearer  sake  of  liberty ; 
the  Romans  obtained  the  victory,  and  Hanni- 
bal, who  had  sworn  to  the  gods  eternal  hatred 
of  Rome,  fled  from  Carthage,  after  he  had  ad- 
vised his  countrymen  to  accept  the  terms  of 
the  conqueror.  This  battle  of  Zama  wras 
decisive ; the  Carthaginians,  sued  for  peace, 
which  the  haughty  conquerors  granted  with 
difficulty,  201  b.c. 

During  the  fifty  years  which  followed  the 
conclusion  of  the  second  Punic  war,  the  Car- 
thaginians were  employed  in  repairing  their 
losses  by  unwearied  application  and  indus- 
try ; but  they  found  still  in  the  Romans  a 
jealous  rival  and  a haughty  conqueror,  and 
in  Masinissa,  the  Numidian  ally  of  Rome, 
an  intriguing  and  ambitious  monarch.  The 
king  of  Numidia  made  himself  master  of  one 
of  their  provinces  ; but  as  they  were  unable  to 
make  war  without  the  consent  of  Rome,  the 
Carthaginians  sought  relief  by  embassies,  and 
made  continual  complaints  in  the  Roman 
senate  of  the  tj^ranny  and  oppression  of  Mas- 
inissa. Commissioners  were  appointed  to 
examine  the  cause  of  their  complaints ; but 
as  Masinissa  was  the  ally  of  Rome,  the  in- 
terest of  the  Carthaginians  was  neglected, 
and  whatever  seemed  to  depress  their  repub- 
lic was  agreeable  to  the  Romans.  Cato,  who 


PUN 


676 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


was  in  the  number  of  the  commissioners, 
examined  the  capital  of  Africa  with  a jealous 
eye;  he  saw  it  with  concern,  rising  as  it 
were  from  its  ruins ; and  when  he  returned 
to  Rome,  he  declared  in  full  senate,  that  the 
peace  of  Italy  would  hever  be  established 
while  Carthage  was  in  being.  Henceforth  he 
concluded  all  his  speeches  in  the  senate  with 
these  words,  “ I also  think  that  Carthage 
should  be  destroyed.”  Most  of  the  senators 
agreed  with  him,  and  waited  only  for  a pre- 
text to  make  war.  A few  were  for  moderate 
measures. 

But  while  the  senate  were  debating  about 
the  existence  of  Carthage,  and  while  they 
considered  it  a dependent  power,  and  not  as 
an  ally,  the  wrongs  of  Africa  were  without 
redress,  and  Masinissa  continued  his  depre- 
dations. Upon  this  the  Carthaginians  re- 
solved to  do  their  cause  that  justice  which 
the  Romans  had  denied  them ; they  entered 
the  field  against  the  Numidians,  but  they 
were  defeated  in  a bloody  battle  by  Masinissa, 
who  was  then  ninety  years  old.  In  this  bold 
measure  they  had  broken  the  peace ; and  as 
their  late  defeat  had  rendered  them  desperate, 
they  hastened  with  all  possible  speed  to  the 
capital  of  Italy  to  justify  their  proceedings, 
and  to  implore  the  forgiveness  of  the  Roman 
senate.  The  news  of  Masinissa’s  victory  had 
already  reached  Italy,  and  immediate!}?-  forces 
were  sent  to  Sicily,  and  thence  ordered  to 
pass  into  Africa.  The  ambassadors  of  Car- 
thage received  evasive  and  unsatisfactory 
answers  from  the  senate : and  when  they  saw 
the  Romans  landed  at  Utica,  they  resolved 
to  purchase  peace  by  the  most  submissive 
terms  which  even  the  most  abject  slaves  could 
offer. 

The  Romans  acted  with  the  deepest- policy  : 
no  declaration  of  war  had  been  made,  though 
hostilities  appeared  inevitable ; and  in  answer 
to  the  submissive  offers  of  Carthage  the  con- 
suls replied,  that  to  prevent  every  cause  of 
quarrel,  the  Carthaginians  must  deliver  into 
their  hands  three  hundred  hostages,  all  chil- 
dren of  senators,  and  of  the  most  noble  and 
respectable  families.  The  demand  was  great 
and  alarming ; yet  it  was  no  sooner  granted, 
than  the  Romans  made  another  demand,  and 
the  Carthaginians  were  told  that  peace  could 
not  continue,  if  they  refused  to  deliver  up  all 
their  ships,  their  arms,  engines  of  war,  with 


all  their  naval  and  military  stores.  The  Car- 
thaginians complied;  40,000  suits  of  armor, 
20,000  large  engines  of  war,  with  a plentiful 
store  of  ammunition  and  missile  weapons, 
were  surrendered.  After  this  duplicity  had 
succeeded,  the  Romans  laid  open  the  final 
resolutions  of  the  senate,  and  the  Carthagin- 
ians were  then  told,  that,  to  avoid  hostilities, 
they  must  leave  their  ancient  habitations, 
retire  into  the  inland  parts  of  Africa,  and 
found  another  city,  at  the  distance  of  not  less 
than  ten  miles  from  the  sea.  This  was  heard 
with  horror  and  indignation ; the  Romans 
were  fixed  and  inexorable,  and  Carthage  was 
filled  with  tears  and  lamentations. 

But  the  spirit  of  liberty  and  independence 
was  not  yet  extinguished  in  the  capital  of 
Africa,  and  the  Carthaginians  determined  to 
sacrifice  their  lives  for  the  protection  of  their 
gods,  the  tombs  of  their  forefathers,  and  the 
place  which  had  given  them  birth.  Before 
the  Roman  army  approached  the  city,  prepa- 
rations to  support  a siege  were  made,  and  the 
ramparts  of  Carthage  were  covered  with 
stones,  to  compensate  for  the  weapons  and 
instruments  of  war  which  they  had  igno- 
rantly betrayed  to  the  duplicity  of  their 
enemies.  The  town  was  blocked  up  by  the 
Romans,  and  a regular  siege  begun.  Two 
years  wTere  spent  in  useless  operations,  and 
Carthage  seemed  still  able  to  rise  from  its 
ruins,  to  dispute  for  the  empire  of  the  world  ; 
when  Scipio,  the  descendant  of  the  great 
Scipio  who  finished  the  second  Punic  war, 
was  sent  to  conduct  the  siege.  Despair  and 
famine  now  raged  in  the  city,  and  Scipio 
gained  access  to  the  city  walls  wdiere  the  bat- 
tlements were  low  and  unguarded.  His 
entrance  into  the  streets  was  disputed  with 
uncommon  fury  ; the  houses,  as  he  advanced, 
were  set  on  fire,  to  stop  his  progress ; but 
when  a body  of  50,000  persons,  of  either  sex, 
had  claimed  quarter,  the  rest  of  the  inhabit- 
ants were  disheartened,  and  such  as  disdained 
to  be  prisoners  of  war,  perished  in  the  flames, 
which  gradually  destroyed  their  habitations, 
146  b.c.,  after  a continuation  of  hostilities  for 
three  years.  During  seventeen  days  Car- 
thage was  in  flames ; the  soldiers  were  per- 
mitted to  redeem  from  the  fire  whatever 
plunder  they  could.  The  news  of  this  vic- 
tory caused  the  greatest  rejoicings  at  Rome ; 
and  immediately  commissioners  were  ap- 


PUN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


677 


pointed  by  the  Roman  senate,  not  only  to 
raze  the  walls  of  Carthage,  but  even  to  de- 
molish and  burn  the  very  materials  with 
which  they  were  made.  In  a few  days,  that 
city  which  had  been  once  the  seat  of  com- 
merce, the  model  of  magnificence,  the  common 
store  of  the  wealth  of  nations,  and  one  of  the 
most  powerful  states  of  the  world,  left  behind 
no  traces  of  its  splendor,  of  its  power,  or  even 
of  its  existence.  [ See  Carthage.] 

PURCELL,  Henry,  an  eminent  English 
musician,  was  born  in  Westminster,  1658. 
He  died  Nov.  21st,  1695.  His  epitaph  in 
Westminster  Abbey  (written  by  Dry  den) 
tells  that  “Here  lies  Henry  Purcell,  Esq., 
who  left  this  life,  and  is  gone  to  that  blessed 
place  where  only  his  own  harmony  can  be 
exceeded.” 

PUTNAM,  Israel,  a distinguished  Amer- 
ican officer,  who  served  both  in  the  French 
and  English  wars,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass., 
Jan.  7th,  1718.  In  1739  he  settled  at  Pom- 
fret,  Conn.,  where  he  had  purchased  a tract 
of  land.  Here  he  descended  into  a dark 
cavern,  and  killed  a wolf  which  had  com- 
mitted great  depredations  upon  the  flocks  of 
the  farmers.  He  entered  on  his  first  cam- 
paign in  the  war  of  1755,  being  then  appointed 
to  command  a company,  and  he  received  a 
major’s  commission  in  1757.  His  services 
prior  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution- 
ary war  were  various  and  valuable.  The 
news  of  the  battle  of  Lexington  found  Put- 
nam at  the  plough.  He  unyoked  his  oxen, 
and  set  off  at  once  for  the  scene  of  action. 
Having  levied  a regiment,  he  was  appointed 
major-general,  and,  on  the . retreat  of  the 
Americans  from  Bunker  Hill,  in  which  he 
commanded,  he  checked  the  pursuing  forces. 
He  was  indefatigable  and  ardent  in  the 
discharge  of  his  duty,  and  his  value  was 
properly  appreciated,  as ' we  see  from  the 
important  duties  which  were  intrusted  to  him. 

After  the  battle  of. Monmouth,  he  was 
posted  at  Reading,  Conn.,  with  orders  to  pro- 
tect the  sound  and  the  garrison  at  West 
Point.  On  a visit  to  one  of  his  outposts, 
attended  by  only  150  men,  he  was  closely 
pursued  by  Gov.  Tryon,  at  the  head  of  1,200 
royal  troops,  and  escaped  by  plunging  on 
horseback  down  a precipice  so  steep  that 
foot-passengers  descended  only  by  an  artificial 
stairway.  Putnam  commanded  the  Maryland 


line,  stationed  near  West  Point,  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1779.  This  ended  his  military 
career.  A paralytic  affection  seized  upon 
his  right  side,  but  did  not  impair  his  cheer- 
fulness and  spirit.  He  died  at  Brooklyn, 
Conn.,  May  29th,  1790,  aged  seventj^-two 
years. 

PYRRHUS,  a king  of  Epirus,  was  saved 
when  an  infant,  by  the  fidelity  of  his  ser- 
vants, from  the  pursuit  of  the  enemies  of  his 
father,  who  had  been  banished  from  his  king- 
dom. He  was  carried  to  the  court  of  Glau- 
tias,  king  of  Ulyricum,  who  educated  him 
with  great  tenderness.  Cassander,  king  of 
Macedonia,  wished  to  dispatch  him,  as  he  had 
so  much  to  dread  from  him.  Glautias  not 
only  refused  to  deliver  him  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemy,  but  he  even  went  with  an  army 
and  placed  him  on  the  throne  of  Epirus, 
though  only  twelve  j’ears  of  age. 

About  five  years  after,  the  absence  of  Pyr- 
rhus to  attend  the  nuptials  of  one  of  the  daugh- 
ters of  Glautias,  raised  new  commotions. 
The  monarch  was  expelled  from  his  throne 
by  his  great-uncle,  Neoptolemus,  who  had 
usurped  it  after  the  death  of  iEacides ; and 
being  still  without  resources,  he  applied  to 
his  brother-in-law  Demetrius  for  assistance. 
He  accompanied  Demetrius  at  the  battle  of 
Ipsus,  and  afterward  passed  into  Egypt, 
where,  by  his  marriage  with  Antigone,  the 
daughter  of  Berenice,  he  soon  obtained  a suffi- 
cient force  to  attempt  the  recovery  of  his 
throne.  He  was  successful  in  the  undertak- 
ing, but  to  remove  all  causes  of  quarrel,  he 
took  the  usurper  to  share  with  him  the  roy- 
alty, and  some  time  after  he  put  him  to  death 
under  pretense  that  he  had  attempted  to 
poison  him. 

In  tfie  subsequent  years  of  his  reign,  Pyr- 
rhus engaged  in  the  quarrels  which  disturbed 
the  peace  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy.  He 
marched  against  Demetrius.  By  dissimula- 
tion he  ingratiated  himself  into  the  minds  of 
his  enemy’s  subjects,  and  when  Demetrius 
labored  under  a momentary  illness,  P}Trhus 
made  an  attempt  upon  the  crown  of  Macedo- 
nia, which,  if  not  then  successful,  soon  after 
rendered  him  master  of  the  kingdom.  This 
he  shared  with  Lysimachus  for  seven  months, 
till  the  jealousy  of  the  Macedonians,  and  the 
ambition  of  his  colleague,  obliged  him  to 
retire.  Pyrrhus  was  meditating  new  con- 


678 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


quests,  when  the  Taren tines  invited  him  to 
Italy  to  assist  them  against  the  encroaching 
power  of  Rome.  He  gladly  accepted  the  in- 
vitation, but  his  passage  across  the  Adriatic 
proved  nearly  fatal,  and  he  reached  the 
shores  of  Italy  after  the  loss  of  the  greatest 
part  of  his  troops  in  a storm. 

At  his  entrance  into  Tarentum,  b.c.  280, 
he  began  to  reform  the  manners  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  by  introducing  the  strictest 
discipline  among  their  troops,  to  accustom 
them  to  bear  fatigue  and  to  despise  dangers. 
In  the  first  battle  which  he  fought  with  the 
Romans,  he  obtained  the  victory,  but  for  this 
he  was  more  particularly  indebted  to  his 
elephants,  whose  bulk  and  uncommon  appear- 
ance astonished  the  Romans  and  terrified 
their  cavalry.  The  number  of  the  slain  was 
equal  on  both  sides,  and  the  conqueror  said 
that  such  another  victory  would  totally  ruin 
him.  He  also  sent  Cineas,  his  chief  minister, 
to  Rome,  and  though  victorious,  he  sued  for 
peace.  These  offers  of  peace  were  refused. 

A second  battle  was  fought  near  Asculum, 
but  the  slaughter  was  so  great,  and  the  valor 
so  conspicuous  on  both  sides,  that  each  claim- 
ed the  victory  as  their  own.  Pyrrhus  still 
continued  the  war  in  favor  of  the  Tarentines, 
when  he  was  invited  into  Sicily  by  the  inhab- 
itants, who  labored  under  the  yoke  of  Car- 
thage and  the  cruelty  of  their  own  petty 
tyrants.  His  fondness  for  novelty  soon  de- 
termined him  to  quit  Italy ; he  left  a garrison 
at  Tarentum,  and  crossed  over  to  Sicily, 
where  he  obtained  two  victories  over  the 
Carthaginians,  and  took  many  of  their  towns. 
He  was  a while  successful,  and  formed  the 
project  of  invading  Africa;  but  soon  his 
popularity  vanished. 

He  had  no  sooner  returned  to  Tarentum  than 


he  renewed  hostilities  with  the  Romans  with 
great  acrimon}T,  but  when  his  army  of  80,000 
men  had  been  defeated  by  20,000  of  the 
enemy,  under  Curius,  he  left  Italy  with  pre- 
cipitation, b.c.  274,  ashamed  of  the  enterprise. 

In  Epirus  he  attacked  Antigonus,  who  was 
then  on  the  Macedonian  throne.  He  gained 
some  advantages  over  his  enemy,  and  was  at 
last  restored  to  the  throne  of  Macedonia. 
He  afterward  marched  agaifist  Sparta,  at  the 
request  of  Cleonymus,  but  when  all  his  vig- 
orous operations  were  insufficient  to  take  the 
capital  of  Laconia,  he  retired  to  Argos,  where 
the  treachery  of  Aristeus  invited  him.  The 
Argives  desired  him  to  retire  and  not  to  inter- 
fere in  the  affairs  of  their  republic,  which  were 
confounded  by  the  ambition  of  two  of  their 
nobles.  He  complied  with  their  wishes,  but 
in  the  night  he  marched  his  forces  into  the 
town,  and  might  have  made  himself  master  of 
the  place  had  he  not  retarded  his  progress  by 
entering  it  with  his  elephants.  The  combat 
that  ensued  was  obstinate  and  bloody,  and 
the  monarch,  to  fight  with  more  boldness,  and 
to  encounter  dangers  with  more  facility,  ex- 
changed his  dress.  He  wafe  attacked  by  one 
of  the  enemy,  and  as  he  was  going  to  run 
him  through  in  his  own  defense,  the  mother 
of  the  Argive,  who  saw  her  son’s  danger  from 
the  top  of  the  house,  threw  down  a tile,  and 
brought  Pyrrhus  to  the  ground.  His  head 
was  cut  off,  and  carried  to  Antigonus,  who  gave 
his  remains  a magnificent  funeral,  and  pre- 
sented his  ashes  to  his  son  Helenus,  b.c.  272. 
Pyrrhus  was  about  forty -six  years  old  when 
he  was  slain. 

PYTHAGORAS,  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious philosophers  of  ancient  Greece,  died 
b.c.  497,  at  the  age  of  eighty-nine.  He  held 
the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis. 


PYT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


679 


Q. 


QUARLES,  Francis,  the  author  of  “ The 
Divine  Emblems  ” and  other  poems,  was  born 
in  1592.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  Charles 
I.,  and  was  sorely  harassed  by  the  opposite 
party,  who  injifred  his  property  and  plun- 
dered him  of  his  books  and  rare  manuscripts, 
which  afflictions  brought  him  to  ill  health, 
and  that  to  the  next  and  last  stage,  the  grave, 
in  1644. 

QUATRE-BRAS,  Battle  of,  June  16th, 
1815,  between  the  allied  army  under  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
and  Sir  Thomas  Picton,  and  the  French  under 
Marshal  Ney,  two  days  before  the  great  con- 
test of  Waterloo.  The  Duke  of  Brunswick 
was  mortally  wounded. 

QUEENSTOWN,  Battle  of,  between  the 
Americans  and  British,  in  Canada,  Oct.  13tli, 
1812.  The  former  were  victorious. 

QUEVEDO,  Francisco,  an  eminent  Span- 
ish author,  born  in  1570,  died  in  1645. 

QUIN,  James,  a famous  English  comedian, 
born  in  1693,  died  in  1766. 

QUINCEY,  Edmund,  a judge  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  Massachusetts,  and  agent  for 


the  colony  at  the  court  of  St.  James ; died 
in  London,  October,  1738,  aged  fifty -seven. 

QUINCY,  Josiaii,  was  born  in  Boston, 
Feb.  23d,  1744,  and  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1763,  after  which  he  studied  law, 
and  raised  himself  to  eminence  in  his  pro- 
fession. Together  with  John  Adams,  Mr. 
Quincy  defended  the  soldiers  who  fired  upon 
the  Bostonians  on  the  5th  of  March,  and  pro- 
cured the  acquittal  of  all  but  two,  who  were 
punished  by  a slight  branding.  In  May, 
1774,  he  published  his  “ Observations  on  the 
Act  of  Parliament  commonly  called  the  Bos- 
ton Port  Bill,  with  Thoughts  on  Civil  Soci- 
ety and  Standing  Armies,”  a work  of  great 
power.  In  September,  1774,  Mr.  Quincy 
sailed  for  London,  in  the  hopes  of  benefiting 
his  country  by  his  patriotic  exertions  in  Eng- 
land. His  services  were  indeed  valuable ; 
but  his  application  completed  the  prostration 
of  his  bodily  powers,  which  had  been  pre- 
viously sapped  by  long  and  hopeless  disease. 
He  died  just  at  the  close  of  his  voyage  home. 
•April  20th,  1775. 


RAAB,  a town  of  Hungary,  where  the 
Austrians,  commanded  by  the  Archduke 
John,  were  defeated  by  the  French  under 
Eugene  Beauharnais,  viceroy  of  Italy,  June 
14th,  1809. 

RABELAIS,  Francis,  the  great  French 
humorist,  was  born  of  poor  parentage,  at 
Chinon  in  Touraine,  about  1483.  He  led  a 
varied  life  in  youth,  settled  at  last  into  a par- 
ish priest  at  Mudon  near  Paris,  and  continued 
such  till  his  death  in  1553,  despite  the  gibes 
and  jeers  at  church,  and  state,  and  all  else, 
in  his  “Inestimable  Life  of  the  Great  Gar- 
gantua,  Father  of  Pantagruel,  a book  full  of 
Pantagruelism.” 

RACHEL.  Elizabeth  Rachel  Felix,  the 
greatest  actress  of  modern  times,  was  of 


humble  origin.  Her  father  was  a hawker 
of  the  Hebrew  persuasion,  and  she  was  born 
on  the  24th  of  March,  1820,  at  the  Swiss 
village  of  Munf,  while  her  parents  were 
engaged  on  a professional  tour.  The  family 
afterward  settled  for  some  time  at  Lyons, 
where  the  eldest  child,  Sarah,  pursued  the 
vocation  of  a vocalist  at  the  various  cafes, 
while  Rachel  (the  future  actress)  collected 
money  from  the  admiring  connoisseurs.  In 
1830  Paris  became  the  residence  of  the  Felix 
family,  and  little  Rachel,  rising  from  her 
merely  financial  department,  joined  with  her 
sister  as  a singer  at  the  cafes  on  the  Boule- 
vards. While  thus  employed,  it  seems  she 
attracted  the  attention  of  M.  Choron,  founder 
of  the  royal  institution  for  the  study  of 


680 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


sacred  music,  who  at  once  took  charge  of  her 
fortunes.  He  soon  discovered  that  she  was 
more  suited  for  the  dramatic  than  the  musical 
profession,  and  he  placed  her  under  the  tui- 
tion of  M.  St.  Aulaire.  In  1886  she  was 
admitted  as  a pupil  at  the  Conservatoire. 

Her  first  appearance  in  public  as  an  actress 
was  in  April,  1837,  at  the  Gymnase,  without 
making  any  particular  sensation.  It  is  from 
her  performance  of  Camille  at  the  Theatre 
Fran^ais,  on  the  24th  of  June,  1838,  that  her 
European  reputation  is  to  be  dated,  and  to 
the  end  this  character  ever  remained  the 
most  celebrated  in  her  repertoire.  In  1850 
she  made  her  first  appearance  in  London. 
In  1855  she  came  upon  a professional  visit 
to  the  United  States.  The  fatal  malady  of 
which  she  died  was  contracted  at  Boston  in 
the  autumn  of  that  year.  It  was  greatly 
aggravated  at  Philadelphia,  where  she  played 
a single  night  in  a cold  theatre,  the  perform- 
ance being  followed  by  a violent  pneumonic 
attack.  Her  last  appearance  on  the  stage 
was  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  where  she  played 
Adrienne  le  Couvreur.  She  died  at  Cannes, 
France,  Jan.  5th,  1858.  Her  disease  was  at 
first  an  affection  of  the  throat,  to  which  there 
came  to  be  appended  a complication  of  dis- 
orders. 

RACINE,  Jean,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
the  tragic  dramatists  of  France,  was  the  son 
of  a tax-collector  in  Picardy,  and  born  in 
1639.  He  died  in  1699. 

RADCLIFFE,  John,  an  English  physician 
of  uncommon  eminence,  born  in  1650,  and 
died  in  1714.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Radcliffe  Library  at  Oxford. 

RADETZKY,  Marshal,  a distinguished 
Austrian  general,  was  born  in  Bohemia  in 
1766.  He  began  his  military  career  as  a 
cadet  in  a cavalry  regiment,  Aug.  1st,  1781. 
He  tendered  his  resignation  as  field-marshal 
in  1857.  In  the  seventy-six  years  between, 
he  had  borne  a conspicuous  part  on  most  of 
the  fields  where  Austrian  troops  had  been 
called  to  battle.  He  died  Jan.  5th,  1858. 

RAGLxAN.  Lord  Fitzroy  Somerset,  born 
in  1788,  was  a cadet  of  the  ducal  house 
of  Beaufort.  He  was  the  military  secre- 
tary of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  (whose 
niece  he  married)  through  the  peninsular 
campaign,  and  lost  his  right  arm  at  Water- 
loo. In  1852  he  was  created  Baron  Raglan. 


The  command  of  the  British  troops  dis- 
patched to  Turkey  was  given  to  Lord  Raglan. 
He  died  in  the  camp  before  Sebastopol,  June 
28th,  1855. 

RAIKES,  Robert,  was  born  in  1736.  In 
1781  he  planned  the  institution  of  Sunday 
schools.  He  died  at  Gloucester,  England, 
his  native  place,  in  1811.  Mr.  Raikes  was 
proprietor  of  the  Gloucester  Journal,  a paper 
of  extensive  circulation. 

RALEIGH  or  RALEGH,  Walter,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  men  in  the  brilliant 
constellation  that  adorned  the  reigns  of  Eliz- 
abeth and  James,  was  born  of  ancient  lineage 
in  Devonshire  in  1552.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford  and  the  Temple,  and  in  early  youth 
evinced  great  acuteness  of  intellect  and  a dis- 
position for  adventure.  He  became  a soldier 
at  seventeen,  and  fought  for  the  Protestant 
cause  in  France,  as  a volunteer  under  Coligni 
and  Conde.  Subsequently  he  served  a short 
time  in  the  Netherlands  under  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  In  1579  he  accompanied  his  half- 
brother,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  in  a voyage 
to  America.  The  design  was  to  plant  a colony 
in  Newfoundland,  but  the  expedition  was 
driven  back  by  a superior  Spanish  force.  On 
his  return,  he  served  in  Ireland  against  the 
revolt  headed  by  the  Earl  of  Desmond. 

In  1582  he  appeared  at  Elizabeth’s  court, 
speedily  became  a favorite  with  his  sover- 
eign, was  knighted  at  her  hand,  and  re- 
warded by  her  with  wealth  and  honors.  The 
well  known  anecdote  illustrates  his  gallantry 
and  tact  as  a courtier.  One  day,  when  he 
was  attending  the  queen  on  a walk,  she  came 
to  a miry  spot  in  the  way,  and  for  a moment 
hesitated  to  proceed.  Raleigh  instantly  pull- 
ed off  his  rich  plush  cloak,  and,  by  spreading 
it  at  her  feet,  enabled  her  to  pass  on  unsoiled. 
This  mark  of  attention  delighted  the  queen, 
from  whom,  it  was  afterward  facetiously  re- 
marked, his  soiled  cloak  was  the  means  of 
procuring  him  many  a good  suit. 

In  1584  he  obtained  letters  patent  for  col- 
onizing America,  and  two  expeditions,  each 
unsuccessful,  were  dispatched  to  Virginia, 
which  then  received  its  name  in  honor  of  the 
virgin  queen.  The  last  expedition  is  said 
to  have  been  the  means  of  introducing  to- 
bacco into  England,  and  also  of  making  known 
the  potato,  which  was  first  cultivated  in  Eu- 
rope on  Raleigh’s  land.  At  Youghal,  Ireland, 


RAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


681 


he  had  a quiet  mansion,  and  in  its  garden 
there,  he  is  said  to  have  planted  the  potato, 
which  he  brought  from  South  America.  His 
gardener,  imagining  that  the  apple  on  the 
stalk  was  the  part  to  be  used,  gathered  it. 
He  did  not  like  its  taste,  and  so  neglected  the 
roots,  till  the  ground  being  dug  to  sow  grain, 
the  potatoes  were  found  to  have  increased 
vastly. 

Raleigh  bore  an  active  part  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  armada,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  he  served  in  the  expedition  to  aid 
the  King  of  Portugal  in  recovering  his  domin- 
ions from  the  Spaniards.  The  young  Earl 
of  Essex  was  also  in  the  expedition;  Raleigh 
and  he  quarreled  on  a military  question  ; 
and  thus  their  unhappy  jealousy  began.  On 
his  Irish  estates  he  met  Spenser,  the  author 
of  the  “Faery  Queen,”  befriended  and  en- 
couraged him,  and  presented  him  at  court. 
An  amour  with  Elizabeth  Throgmorton,  maid 
of  honor  to  the  queen,  drew  down  upon  him 
his  sovereign’s  displeasure,  though  he  had 
married  the  lady,  and  he  was  imprisoned  sev- 
eral months.  While  banished  from  court,  he 
fitted  out  an  expedition  at  his  own  cost,  and 
sailed  in  search  of  the  fabled  El  Dorado.  He 
visited  Guiana,  explored  the  Orinoco  four  hun- 
dred miles  from  its  mouth,  and  wrote  a glow- 
ing account  of  his  voyage  and  the  marvelous 
regions  he  had  found. 

He  was  now  restored  to  the  queen’s  favor, 
and  held  a command  in  the  expedition  of  1596 
against  Cadiz.  In  1597  he  was  rear-admiral 
of  the  armament  which  sailed  under  Essex  to 
intercept  the  Spanish  fleet  from  the  West 
Indies.  By  capturing  Fayal,  one  of  the 
Azores,  before  the  earl  arrived,  he  gave  great 
offense  to  Essex,  who  thought  himself  robbed 
of  glory  that  should  have  been  his.  Raleigh 
joined  Cecil  in  intrigues  against  Essex,  and 
the  latter  was  brought  to  the  scaffold.  Eliza- 
beth’s death  and  the  accession  of  James  I.  soon 
came.  Raleigh’s  fortune  ebbed.  The  hypo- 
critical Cecil  poisoned  the  king’s  ear,  and  Sir 
Walter  was  accused  of  complicity  in  Lord 
Cobham’s  plot  to  set  Lady  Arabella  Stuart  on 
the  throne,  and  likewise  of  being  in  the  pay 
of  Spain  to  establish  popery.  Coke,  then  at- 
torney-general, virulently  conducted  the  pros- 
ecution, assailing  the  prisoner  in  court  with 
the  grossest  abuse,  and  the  servile  jury  con- 
victed him  upon  the  paltriest  testimony.  His 


property  was  confiscated,  and  he  was  sen- 
tenced  to  die.  The  king  reprieved  him,  how- 
ever, and  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
twelve  years,  during  which  he  wrote  his 
“History  of  the  World,”  vastly  superior  to 
all  his  previous  historical  productions  in  the 
language,  and  a work  of  great  merit.  In  1715 
the  king  released  but  did  not  pardon  him, 
and  permitted  him  to  sail  on  a second  expe- 
dition to  Guiana,  where  his  purpose  was  to 
colonize,  and  work  gold  mines.  Upon  his 
return  to  England  he  found  himself  again 
under  the  ban,  and  was  committed  to  the 
Tower.  A match  was  pending  between 
Prince  Charles  and  the  Infanta  of  Spain.  In 
the  last  Guiana  expedition  a portion  of  Ra- 
leigh’s forces  had  attacked  the  Spanish  town 
of  St.  Thomas  and  burned  it ; Raleigh’s  eld- 
est son  was  killed  in  the  affair.  For  other 
causes,  too,  he  was  obnoxious  to  the  Spanish 
government,  and  to  smooth  Prince  Charles’s 
wooing,  James  sacrificed  him.  The  old  sen- 
tence of  death  was  revived,  and  he  was 
beheaded  Oct.  29th,  1618. 

His  behavior  in  his  last  hours  was  calm 
and  manly.  The  morning  of  the  fatal  day, 
taking  a cup  of  sack,  he  remarked  that  he 
liked  it  as  well  as  the  prisoner  who  drank  of 
St.  Giles’s  bowl  in  passing  through  Tyburn 
and  said,  “ It  is  good  to  drink  if  a man  might 
tarry  by  it.”  He  turned  to  his  old  friend, 
Sir  Hugh  Ceeston,  who  was  repulsed  by  the 
sheriff  from  the  scaffold,  saying,  “ Never  fear 
but  I shall  have  a place.”  When  an  extremely 
bald  man  pressed  forward  to  see  and  to  pray 
for  him,  Sir  Walter  took  from  his  own  head 
a richly  embroidered  cap,  and  placing  it  on 
the  aged  spectator,  said,  “Take  this,  good 
friend,  to  remember  me,  for  you  have  more 
need  of  it  than  I.”  “ Farewell,  my  lords,”  he 

exclaimed  to  a courtly  group  who  took  an 
affectionate  leave  of  him ; “ I have  a long 
journey  before  me,  and  must  say  good-bye.” 
After  a few  last  words  to  the  people  in  justi- 
fication of  his  character  and  conduct,  “ Now 
I am  going  to  God,”  he  said,  and  gently  touch- 
ing the  axe,  continued,  “ This  is  a sharp  med- 
icine, but  a sound  cure  for  all  diseases.” 
Having  tried  how  the  block  fitted  his  head, 
he  told  the  executioner  that  he  would  give 
the  signal  by  lifting  up  his  hand ; “And  then,” 
he  added,  “ fear  not,  but  strike  home ! ” He 
laid  himself  down,  but  was  requested  by  the 


6S2 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


headsman  to  alter  the  position  of  his  head. 
“So  the  heart  be  right,”  he  said,  “it  is  no 
matter  which  way  the  head  lies.”  When  the 
signal  was  given,  the  executioner  failed  to 
strike  promptly,  and  Sir  Walter  exclaimed, 
“ Why  dost  thou  not  strike  ? Strike,  man  ! ” 
Two  strokes  were  given;  he  received  them 
without  shrinking ; and  all  was  over. 

The  night  before  execution  he  composed 
these  verses,  in  prospect  of  death : — 

“Even  such  is  Time,  that  takes  on  trust 
Our  youth,  our  joys,  our  all  we  have, 

And  pays  us  but  with  age  and  dust; 

Who  in  the  dark  and  silent  grave, 

When  we  have  wandered  all  our  ways, 

Shuts  up  the  story  of  our  days.” 

The  versatility  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh’s 
genius  was  remarkable.  He  was  a brilliant 
scholar,  a vigorous  writer,  an  adventurous 
voyager,  and  a brave  warrior.  He  was  inde- 
fatigable in  schemes  for  extending  the  com- 
merce and  colonial  power  of  his  country.  As 
a statesman  he  was  in  advance  of  his  age, 
though  his  fame  is  not  altogether  unsullied 
by  the  prevailing  selfishness  and  worldliness 
of  ambition.  He  was  illustrious  in  all  his 
varied  enterprises. 

RAMILLIES,  a village  of  Belgium,  twenty- 
six  miles  south-east  of  Brussels,  celebrated 
for  a victory  gained  over  the  French  and  Ba- 
varians, by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  May 
23d,  1706.  The  victories  obtained  about  this 
time  by  the  allies  in  Spain  determined  Louis 
to  assemble  all  his  forces  in  Flanders  and  on 
the  Rhine.  Villeroi  was  sent  to  check  the 
conquests  of  Marlborough.  His  army  was 
attacked  by  Marlborough  near  the  village  of 
Ramillies  with  such  impetuosity,  that  scarcely 
were  the  French  assailed,  when  they  were 
vanquished.  The  troops  of  the  royal  house- 
hold, however,  on  the  right,  forced  the  Dutch 
and  Danish  cavalry  to  retreat  toward  the  left, 
and  would  have  completely  routed  them  had 
not  Marlborough  hastened  to  their  succor. 
The  French  troops  were  driven  back,  and 
their  ranks  broken.  The  detachments  sta- 
tioned in  the  village  were  either  put  to  death 
or  made  prisoners ; and  Villeroi  and  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria  escaped  with  great  diffi- 
culty. In  the  tumultuous  disorder  of  the 
French,  the  fugitives  who  were  pursued  b}^ 
the  enemy’s  cavalry  were  impeded  in  their 
retreat  by  the  baggage,  and  great  numbers  of 


them  were  slain.  The  field  of  battle  was 
strewed  with  8,000  killed,  and  6,000  were 
made  prisoners.  Thus  the  most  formidable 
army  which  Louis  XIV.  had  raised  for  a con- 
siderable time,  as  the  last  effort  of  his  despair, 
melted  away  with  the  glory  of  the  nation,  of 
which  it  was  the  sole  resource. 

RAMMOHUN  ROY,  a learned  Hindoo,  was 
born  in  1774,  in  Bengal,  his  paternal  ancestors 
being  Brahmins  of  a high  order.  He  studied 
several  years  at  the  celebrated  seminary  of 
Benares,  and  traveled  in  Persia  and  other  ori- 
ental countries.  He  was  acquainted  more  or 
less  with  ten  languages,: — Sanscrit,  Arabic, 
Persian,  Hindostanee,  Bengalee,  English,  He- 
brew, Greek,  Latin,  and  French.  The  two 
first  he  knew  critically,  as  a scholar;  the 
third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  he  spoke  and 
wrote  fluently ; in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
perhaps  his  studies  did  not  extend  much  be- 
yond the  originals  of  the  Christian  Scriptures ; 
and  in  the  latter  two,  his  knowledge  was  ap- 
parently limited.  He  published  w'orks  in 
Sanscrit,  Arabic,  Persian,  Bengalee,  and  Eng- 
lish. He  held  important  posts  under  the  East 
India  company,  and  secured  various  adminis- 
trative reforms.  In  1830  he  came  to  England 
as  the  agent  of  the  Mogul  emperor,  and  at- 
tracted much  attention.  In  politics  he  was  a 
zealous  republican ; he  expressed  warmly  his 
hearty  approbation  of  all  liberal  institutions, 
associated  chiefly  with  the  liberal  portion  of 
the  community,  and  took  a very  deep  interest 
in  the  progress  of  the  measure  of  English  par- 
liamentary reform.  He  died  suddenly  at  Bris- 
tol, Sept.  27th,  1833. 

RAMSAY,  Allan,  a Scotch  poet,  born  in 
1686,  died  in  1758. 

RAMSAY,  David,  eminent  physician,  his- 
torian, and  statesman  of  South  Carolina,  died 
in  1815,  aged  sixty -six. 

RANDOLPH,  Edmund,  eminent  lawyer  of 
Virginia,  member  of  Congress  in  1779  ; after- 
ward governor  of  Virginia;  first  attorney- 
general  of  the  United  States ; second  secretary 
of  state  of  the  United  States;  died  in  1813. 

RANDOLPH,  John,  or,  as  he  himself  wrote 
his  name,  John  Randolph  of  Roanoke,  a man 
distinguished  for  genius,  eloquence,  and  ec- 
centricity, was  born  in  Virginia,  on  the  2d  of 
June,  1773,  and  was  descended  from  Poca- 
hontas, the  daughter  .of  Powhatan,  a great 
Indian  chief,  through  his  grandmother,  whose 


RAN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


683 


maiden  name  was  Jane  Bolling,  the  great- 
grand-daughter  of  Jane  Rolfe  (married  to  Rob- 
ert Bolling),  the  daughter  of  John  Rolfe  and 
Pocahontas ; so  that  he  was  of  the  seventh 
generation  from  Pocahontas.  His  father  died 
in  1775,  leaving  three  sons  and  a large  estate ; 
and  his  mother  was  married  in  1783  to  St. 
George  Tucker,  w^io  was  the  guardian  to  Ran- 
dolph during  his  minority.  Mr.  Randolph’s 
early  life  was  spent  at  different  places  under 
different  instructors,  of  most  of  whom  he  said 
he  “never  learned  anything.”  He  passed  a 
short  time  at  Princeton  College,  at  Columbia 
College,  and  at  William  and  Mary  College, 
and  was  a little  while  a student  at  law  under 
Edmund  Randolph.  Of  himself  he  remarks, 
“ With  a superficial  and  defective  education, 
I commenced  politician.”  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1799,  and  continued 
a member  of  the  house  of  representatives,  with 
the  exception  of  three  intervals  of  two  years 
each  (during  one  of  these  intervals  he  was  in 
the  United  States  senate),  till  1829 ; and  he 
was  afterward  appointed  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary to  Russia.  Mr.  Randolph  was  never 
married.  He  was  possessed  of  a large  and 
valuable  estate  on  the  Roanoke,  and  had,  at 
the  time  of  his  death,  318  slaves,  and  180 
horses,  of  which  about  120  were  blood  horses. 
He  died  at  Philadelphia,  May  24th,  1833,  aged 
sixty.  He  arrived  in  Philadelphia  a few  days 
before  his  death,  in  a state  of  extreme  debility, 
purposing  to  proceed  to  Europe,  with  the  hope 
of  a partial  restoration  of  his  health. 

RANDOLPH,  Peyton,  president  of  the  first 
congress,  was  born  in  Virginia,  and  received 
his  education  in  England.  In  1748,  having 
returned  to  Virginia,  he  was  appointed  king’s 
attorney-general  for  the  colony,  although  but 
twentjr-five  years  of  age.  Apr.  12th,  1766, 
he  was  chosen  speaker  of  the  house  of  bur- 
gesses, and  resigned  the  office  of  attorney- 
general.  As  soon  as  he  joined  the  first  con- 
tinental congress,  he  was  chosen  its  president. 
His  patriotic  exertions  were  unfortunately  ter- 
minated by  a stroke  of  apoplexy,  Oct.  21st, 
1775,  at  the  age  of  fifty -two. 

RAPHAEL  SANTI,  or  SANZIO,  was  born 
at  Urbino,  in  the  Contrada  del  Monte,  April 
6th,  1483.  His  father  was  his  first  instructor 
in  painting,  and  afterward  Pietro  Perugino. 
From  1504  to  1508  Raphael  dwelt  chiefly  at 
Florence.  Thence  he  went  to  Rome,  which 


was  his  residence  till  his  death,  on  his  birth- 
day, April  6th,  1520.  After  tying  in  state, 
his  corpse  was  interred  with  great  pomp  in 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  ad  Marty  res,  the 
ancient  Pantheon.  This  eminent  artist  was 
of  a sallow  complexion,  brown  eyes,  slight  in 
form,  and  about  five  feet  eight  inches  in  height. 
He  was  never  married,  but  is  said  to  have  been 
betrothed  to  Maria  Bibiena,  niece  of  Cardinal 
Bibiena : she  preceded  him  to  the  grave. 

RAUCH,  Christian,  was  born  in  the  prov- 
ince ofWaldeck,  Westphalia,  Jan.  2d,  1777? 
and,  after  preliminary  studies  at  Cassel  and 
Dresden,  in  1804  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
gained  the  friendship  of  Baron  William  von 
Humboldt  and  the  sculptors  Thorwaldsen  and 
Canova.  Under  the  guidance  and  influence 
of  such  men  he  made  great  progress  in  his 
art,  and  previous  to  his  return  to  Berlin,  in 
1811,  had  executed,  among  other  works,  a 
noble  bust  of  his  kind  patroness,  Queen  Louisa 
of  Prussia.  He  was  afterward  commissioned 
by  Frederick  William  III.  to  erect  a monu- 
ment to  the  queen,  which  occupied  him  for 
several  years.  For  the  next  thirty  years 
Rauch  labored  in  his  art  with  such  activity  as 
to  distribute  his  works  all  over  Germany. 
Besides  an  immense  number  of  busts  and  mis- 
cellaneous works,  he  executed  statutes  of  Blu- 
cher,  Scharnhorst,  Bulow,  King  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria,  Goethe,  and  the  colossal  Victory 
for  the  Walhalla.  The  monument  to  Albert 
Diirer  at  Nuremberg  is  also  one  of  his  finest 
works.  But  his  crowning  work  and  master- 
piece is  the  monument  to  Frederick  the  Great 
in  Berlin.  Rauch  was  called  the  Prussian 
Phidias.  He  died  at  Dresden,  Dec.  3d,  1857. 
His  remains  were  borne  with  great  honor  to 
Berlin  for  interment. 

RAVAILLAC,  Francis,  a fanatic  who  as- 
sassinated Henry  IV.  of  France,  May  14th, 
1610.  The  king  had  got  into  his  carriage  at 
four  in  the  afternoon,  to  pay  a visit  to  his 
minister  Sully.  He  had  been  followed  eight 
days  by  the  regicide,  who  had  a poniard  in 
his  hand,  and  had  not  quitted  the  side  of  the 
carriage  since  its  departure  from  the  palace  of 
the  Louvre.  In  a very  narrow  street  there 
was  a stoppage  which  induced  the  monarch 
to  alight  from  his  carriage.  While  he  was 
stepping  out,  the  assassin  stabbed  him  twice 
with  his  poniard ; the  second  blow  was  fatal, 
and  the  corpse  was  conveyed  to  the  Louvre. 


RAV 


684 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


Ravaillac  was  seized,  and  put  to  death  by  the 
most  horrid  tortures  which  cruelty  could 
devise. 

RAWDON,  Lord  Francis,  was  an  active 
British  commander  in  the  South  during  the 
Revolution.  He  afterward  succeeded  his  father 
as  Earl  of  Moira,  served  several  years  as  gov- 
ernor-general of  India,  and  was  created  Mar- 
quis of  Hastings.  He  died  in  1825,  aged  sev- 
enty-one. 

READ,  George,  a signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Cecil  county, 
Maryland,  in  1734,  and  educated  at  Philadel- 
phia. In  1753  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
though  but  nineteen  years  of  age ; he  com- 
menced practicing  law  at  Newcastle,  Del.  He 
was  a member  of  Congress  from  1774  to  1777, 
was  a member  of  the  convention  to  frame  the 
federal  constitution,  was  admiralty  judge  in 
1782,  was  president  of  the  convention  which 
framed  the  constitution  of  Delaware,  and  rep- 
resented Delaware  in  the  United  States  senate 
from  1780  to  1793,  when  he  was  made  chief- 
justice  of  the  state.  He  died  in  the  autumn 
of  1798. 

REBELLION,  Southern.  Began  in  form 
by  the  secession  of  South  Carolina,  Dec.  20, 
1860 ; ended  in  fact  by  the  overwhelming 
defeat  and  rout  of  Lee  by  Gen.  Grant,  in 
the  first  week  of  April,  1865.  For  the  dates 
of  its  chief  occurrences,  see  chronological 
table  at  close  of  this  work. 

REED,  Joseph,  was  born  in  New  Jersey, 
Aug.  27,  1741.  Through  part  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary war  he  served  with  distinction,  in 
the  rank  of  Adjutant-General.  He  first  de- 
tected and  exposed  the  character  of  Arnold, 
whom  he  brought  to  trial  for  malpractiees. 
He  died  March  5,  1785.  He  was  long  held 
in  high  repute  for  having  refused  a British 
bribe;  later  researches  have  thrown  some 
doubts  upon  his  character  for  patriotism  and 
for  bravery  also. 

REFORMATION,  that  great  change  in  the 
corrupted  system  of  Christianity,  begun  by 
Luther  in  the  year  1517.  Leo  X.,  when 
raised  to  the  papal  throne,  found  the  revenues 
of  the  church  exhausted  by  the  vast  projects 
of  his  two  ambitious  predecessors,  Alexander 
VI.  and  Julius  II.  His  own  temper,  natu- 
rally liberal  and  enterprising,  rendered  him 
incapable  of  that  severe  and  patient  economy 
which  the  situation  of  his  finances  required. 


On  the  contrary,  his  schemes  for  aggrandizing 
the  family  of  Medici,  his  love  of  splendor,  his 
taste  for  pleasure,  and  his  magnificence  in 
rewarding  men  of  genius,  involved  him  daily 
in  new  expenses ; in  order  to  provide  a fund 
for  which,  he  tried  every  device  that  the  fer- 
tile invention  of  priests  had  fallen  upon,  to 
drain  the  credulous  multitude  of  their  wealth. 
Among  others,  he  had  recourse  to  a sale  of 
indulgences. 

The  right  of  promulgating  these  indulgen- 
ces in  Germany,  together  with  a share  in  the 
profits  arising  from  the  sale  of  them,  was 
granted  to  Albert,  Elector  of  Mentz  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg,  who,  as  his  chief  agent 
for  retailing  them  in  Saxony,  employed  Tetzel, 
a Dominican  friar  of  licentious  morals,  but  of 
an  active  spirit,  and  remarkable  for  his  noisy 
and  popular  eloquence.  Assisted  by  the 
monks  of  his  order,  he  executed  the  commis- 
sion with  great  zeal  and  success,  but  with  little 
discretion  or  decency ; and  though  by  magni- 
fying excessively  the  benefit  of  tf^ir  indul- 
gences, and  by  disposing  of  them  at  a very 
low  price,  they  carried  on  for  some  time  an 
extensive  and  lucrative  traffic  among  the  cred- 
ulous and  the  ignorant,  the  extravagance  of 
their  assertions,  as  well  as  their  irregularities 
in  conduct,  came  at  last  to  give  general  offense. 

Whilst  Luther  was  at  the  height  of  his  rep- 
utation and  authority  as  a preacher,  Tetzel 
began  to  publish  indulgences  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Wittemberg,  and  to  ascribe  to  them 
the  same  imaginary  virtues  which  had  in 
other  places  imposed  on  the  credulity  of  the 
people.  As  Saxony  was  not  more  enlightened 
than  the  other  provinces  of  Germany,  Tetzel 
met  with  prodigious  success  there.  It  was 
with  the  utmost  concern  that  Luther  beheld 
the  artifices  of  those  who  sold,  and  the  sim- 
plicity of  those  who  bought. 

The  opinions  of  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the 
other  schoolmen,  on  which  the  doctrine  of  in- 
dulgences was  founded,  had  already  lost  much 
of  their  authority  with  him ; and  the  Scrip- 
tures, which  he  began  to  consider  as  the  great 
standard  of  theological  truth,  afforded  no 
countenance  to  a practice  equally  subversive 
of  faith  and  of  morals.  His  warm  and  impet- 
uous temper  did  not  suffer  him  long  to  conceal 
such  important  discoveries,  or  to  continue  a 
silent  spectator  of  the  delusion  of  his  country- 
men. 


REF 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  685 


From  the  pulpit,  in  the  great  church  at 
Wittemberg,  he  inveighed  bitterly  against  the 
irregularities  and  vices  of  the  monks  who 
published  indulgences ; he  ventured  to  exam- 
ine the  doctrines  which  they  taught,  and 
pointed  out  to  the  people  the  danger  of  relying 
for  salvation  upon  any  other  means  than  those 
appointed  by  God  in  his  word.  The  boldness 
and  novelty  of  these  opinions  drew  great  at- 
tention ; and  being  recommended  by  the  au- 
thority of  Luther’s  personal  character,  and 
delivered  with  a popular  and  persuasive  elo- 
quence, they  made  a deep  impression  on  his 
hearers.  Encouraged  by  the  favorable  recep- 
tion of  his  doctrines  among  the  people,  he 
wrote  to  Albert,  Elector  of  Mentz  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg,  to  whose  jurisdiction 
that  part  of  Saxony  was  subject,  and  remon- 
strated warmly  against  the  false  opinions,  as 
well  as  wicked  lives,  of  the  preachers  of  in- 
dulgences; but  he  found  that  prelate  too 
deeply  interested  in  their  success  to  correct 
their  abuses.  His  next  attempt  was  to  gain 
the  suffrage  of  men  of  learning.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  published  ninety-five  theses,  contain- 
ing his  sentiments  with  regard  to  indulgences. 
These  he  proposed,  not  as  points  fully  es- 
tablished, or  of  undoubted  certainty,  but  as 
subjects  of  inquiry  and  disputation;  he  ap- 
pointed a day,  on  which  the  learned  were  in- 
vited to  impugn  them,  either  in  person  or  by 
writing;  to  the  whole  he  subjoined  solemn 
protestations  of  his  high  respect  for  the  apos- 
tolic see,  and  of  his  implicit  submission  to  its 
authority.  No  opponent  appeared  at  the  time 
fixed;  the  theses  spread  over  Germany  with 
astonishing  rapidity ; they  were  read  with  the 
greatest  eagerness ; and  all  admired  the  bold- 
ness of  the  man,  who  had  ventured  not  only 
to  call  in  question  the  plenitude  of  papal 
power,  but  to  attack  the  Dominicans,  armed 
with  all  the  terrors  of  inquisitorial  authority. 

The  friars  of  St.  Augustine,  Luther’s  own 
order,  gave  no  check  to  the  publication  of 
these  uncommon  opinions.  Luther  had,  by 
his  piety  and  learning,  acquired  extraordinary 
authority  among  his  brethren ; he  professed 
the  highest  regard  for  the  authority  of  the 
pope ; his  professions  were  at  that  time  sin- 
cere ; and  as  a secret  enmity  subsisted  among 
all  the  monastic  orders  of  the  Romish  church, 
the  Augustines  were  highly  pleased  with  his 
invectives  against  the  Dominicans,  and  hoped 


to  see  them  exposed  to  the  hatred  and  scorn 
of  the  people. 

Ilis  sovereign,  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  the 
wisest  prince  at  that  time  in  Germany,  se- 
cretly encouraged  his  attempts,  and  flattered 
himself  that  this  dispute  among  the  ecclesias- 
tics themselves  might  put  some  stop  to  the 
exactions  of  the  court  of  Rome,  which  the  sec- 
ular princes  had  long,  though  without  suc- 
cess, been  endeavoring  to  oppose. 

Several  theses  appeared  in  opposition  to  the 
ninety-five  published  by  Luther;  the  argu- 
ments produced  for  his  confutation  were  the 
sentiments  of  schoolmen,  the  conclusions  of 
the  canon  law,  and  the  decrees  of  popes. 
Meantime,  those  novelties  in  Luther’s  doc- 
trines which  interested  all  Germany,  excited 
little  attention  and  no  alarm  in  the  court  of 
Rome.  Leo,  fond  of  elegant  and  refined  pleas- 
ures, intent  upon  great  schemes  of  policy,  a 
stranger  to  theological  controversies,  and  apt 
to  despise  them,  regarded  with  the  utmost  in- 
difference the  operations  of  an  obscure  friar, 
who,  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  carried  on  a 
scholastic  disputation  in  a barbarous  style. 
He  imputed  the  whole  to  monastic  enmity 
and  emulation,  and  seemed  inclined  not  to  in- 
terpose in  the  contest,  but  to  allow  the  Au- 
gustines and  Dominicans  to  W'rangle  about 
the  matter  with  their  usual  animosity. 

The  solicitations,  however,  of  Luther’s  ad- 
versaries, together  with  the  surprising  prog- 
gress  which  his  opinions  made  in  different 
parts  of  Germany,  roused  at  last  the  attention 
of  the  court  of  Rome,  and  obliged  Leo  to  take 
measures  for  the  security  of  the  church  against 
an  attack  that  now  appeared  too  serious  to  be 
despised.  For  this  end  he  summoned  Luther 
to  appear  at  Rome,  within  sixty  days,  before 
the  auditor  of  the  chamber,  and  the  inquisi- 
tor-general, who  had  written  against  him, 
whom  he  empowered  jointly  to  examine  his 
doctrines,  and  to  decide  concerning  them.  He 
wrote,  at  the  same  time,  to  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  beseeching  him  not  to  protect  a man 
whose  heretical  and  profane  tenets  were  so 
shocking  to  pious  ears,  and  enjoined  the  pro- 
vincial of  the  Augustines  to  check,  by  his  au- 
thority, the  rashness  of  an  arrogant  monk, 
which  brought  disgrace  upon  the  order  of  St. 
Augustine  and  gave  offense  and  disturbance 
to  the  whole  church.  The  professors  in  the 
university  of  Wittemberg,  anxious  for  Lu.- 


REF 


686 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ther’s  safety,  wrote  to  the  pope,  and,  after 
employing  several  pretexts  to  excuse  Luther 
from  appearing  at  Rome,  entreated  Leo  to 
commit  the  examination  of  his  doctrines  to 
some  persons  of  learning  and  authority  in 
Germany.  The  elector  requested  the  same 
thing  of  the  pope’s  legate  at  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burg; and  as  Luther  himself,  who  at  that 
time  did  not  entertain  even  the  smallest  sus- 
picion concerning  the  divine  origin  of  papal 
authority,  had  written  to  Leo  a submissive 
letter,  promising  an  unreserved  compliance 
with  his  will,  the  pope  gratified  them  so  far 
as  to  empower  his  legate  in  Germany,  Cardi- 
nal Cajetan,  a Dominican,  eminent  for  scho- 
lastic learning,  and  passionately  devoted  to 
the  Roman  see,  to  hear  and  determine  the 
cause. 

Luther,  having  obtained  the  emperor’s  safe- 
conduct,  immediately  repaired  to  Augsburg. 
The  cardinal  required  him,  by  virtue  of  the 
apostolic  powers  with  which  he  was  clothed, 
to  retract  his  errors  with  regard  to  indulgen- 
ces and  the  nature  of  faith,  and  to  abstain  for 
the  future  from  the  publication  of  new  and 
dangerous  opinions.  Luther,  fully  persuaded 
of  the  truth  of  Ins  own  tenets,  and  confirmed 
in  the  belief  of  them  by  the  approbation  which 
they  had  met  with  among  persons  conspicuous 
both  for  learning  and  piety,  was  surprised  at 
this  abrupt  mention  of  a recantation,  before 
any  endeavors  were  used  to  convince  him  that 
he  was  mistaken.  He  declared  with  the  ut- 
most firmness,  that  he  could  not,  with  a safe 
conscience,  renounce  opinions  which  he  be- 
lieved to  be  true ; nor  should  any  considera- 
tion ever  induce  him  to  do  what  would  be  so 
b ise  in  itself  and  so  offensive  to  God.  At  the 
same  time,  he  continued  to  express  no  less 
reverence  than  formerly  for  the  authority  of 
the  apostolic  see;  he  signified  his  willingness 
to  submit  the  whole  controversy  to  certain 
universities  which  he  named,  and  promised 
neither  to  write  nor  preach  concerning  indul- 
gences for  the  future,  provided  his  adversaries 
were  likewise  enjoined  to  be  silent  with  re- 
spect to  them.  All  these  offers  Cajetan  dis- 
regarded or  rejected,  and  still  insisted  per- 
emptorily on  a simple  recantation,  threatening 
him  with  ecclesiastical  censures,  and  forbid- 
ding him  to  appear  again  in  his  presence,  un- 
less he  resolved  instantly  to  comply  with  what 
had  been  required. 


The  judges  before  whom  Luther  had  been 
required  to  appear  at  Rome,  without  waiting 
for  the  expiration  of  the  sixty  days  allowed 
him  in  the  citation,  had  already  condemned 
him  as  a heretic.  Leo  had,  in  several  of  his 
briefs  and  letters,  stigmatized  him  as  a child 
of  iniquity,  and  a man  given  up  to  a repro- 
bate sense.  As  every  step  which  was  taken 
by  the  court  of  Rome  convinced  Luther  that 
Leo  would  soon  proceed  to  the  most  violent 
measures  against  him,  he  had  recourse  to  the 
only  expedient  in  his  power,  in  order  to  pre 
vent  the  effect  of  the  papal  censures.  He  ap- 
pealed to  a general  council,  which  he  affirmed 
to  bethe  representative  of  the  Catholic  church, 
and  superior  in  power  to  the  pope,  who,  being 
a fallible  man,  might  err,  as  St.  Peter,  the 
most  perfect  of  his  predecessors,  had  erred. 

It  soon  appeared  that  Luther  had  notformed 
rash  conjectures  concerning  the  intentions  of 
the  church  of  Rome.  A bull,  of  a date  prior 
to  his  appeal,  was  issued  by  the  pope,  in 
which  he  magnified  the  virtue  and  efficacy  of 
indulgences  ; he  required  all  Christians  to  as- 
sent to  what  he  delivered  as  the  doctrine  of 
the  Catholic  church,  and  subjected  those  who 
should  hold  or  teach  any  contrary  opinion  to 
the  heaviest  ecclesiastical  censures.  Among 
Luther’s  followers,  this  bull,  which  they  con- 
sidered as  an  unjustifiable  effort  of  the  pope 
in  order  to  preserve  that  rich  branch  of  his 
revenue  which  arose  from  indulgences,  pro- 
duced little  effect.  But  among  the  rest  of  his 
countrymen,  such  a clear  decision  of  the  sov- 
ereign pontiff  against  him,  and  enforced  by 
such  dreadful  penalties,  must  have  been  at- 
tended with  consequences  very  fatal  to  his 
cause,  if  these  had  not  been  prevented,  in  a 
great  measure,  by  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian,  whom  both  principles  and  inter- 
est prompted  to  support  the  authority  of  the 
holy  see.  To  this  event  was  owing  the  sus- 
pension of  any  farther  proceedings  against 
Luther  for  eighteen  months.  Perpetual  ne- 
gotiations, however,  in  order  to  bring  the 
matter  to  some  amicable  issue,  were  carried 
on  during  that  space.  The  manner  in  which 
these  were  conducted  having  given  Luther 
many  opportunities  of  observing  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  court  of  Rome,  he  began  to  utter 
some  doubts  with  regard  to  the  divine  original 
of  the  papal  authority.  A public  disputation 
was  held  upon  this  important  question  at 


REF 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


687 


Leipsic,  between  Luther  and  Eccius,  one  of 
his  most  learned  and  formidable  antagonists ; 
but  it  was  fruitless  and  indecisive. 

Nor  did  this  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  doc- 
trines and  usurpations  of  the  Romish  church 
break  out  in  Saxony  alone : an  attack  no  less 
violent,  and  occasioned  by  the  same  causes, 
was  made  upon  thereabout  this  time  in  Swit- 
zerland. The  Franciscans  being  intrusted 
with  the  promulgation  of  indulgences  in  that 
country,  executed  their  commission  with  the 
same  indiscretion  which  had  rendered  the 
Dominicans  so  odious  in  Germany.  They 
proceeded,  nevertheless,  with  uninterrupted 
success  till  they  arrived  at  Zurich.  There 
Zuinglius,  a man  not  inferior  to  Luther  in  zeal 
and  intrepidity,  ventured  to  oppose  them  ; and 
being  animated  with  a republican  boldness, 
he  advanced  with  more  daring  and  rapid  steps 
to  overturn  the  whole  fabric  of  the  established 
religion.  The  appearance  of  such  a vigorous 
auxiliary,  and  the  progress  which  he  made, 
was  at  first  matter  of  great  joy  to  Luther. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  decrees  of  the  univer- 
sities of  Cologne  and  Louvaine,  which  pro- 
nounced his  opinions  to  be  erroneous,  afforded 
great  cause  of  triumph  to  his  adversaries. 

But  the  undaunted  spirit  of  Luther  acquired 
additional  fortitude  from  every  instance  of 
opposition ; and  he  began  to  shake  the  firmest 
foundations  on  which  the  wealth  or  power  of 
the  church  was  established.  At  last,  on  the 
15th  of  June,  1520,  the  bull  so  fatal  to  the 
church  of  Rome  was  issue?!.  Forty-one  prop- 
ositions, extracted  out  of  Luther’s  works,  were 
therein  condemned  as  heretical,  scandalous, 
and  offensive  to  pious  ears ; all  persons  were 
forbidden  to  read  his  writings,  upon  pain  of 
excommunication ; such  as  had  any  of  them 
in  their  custody,  were  commanded  to  commit 
them  to  the  flames ; he  himself,  if  he  did  not, 
within  sixty  daj^s,  publicly  recant  his  errors, 
and  burn  his  books,  was  pronounced  an  obsti- 
nate heretic, — was  excommunicated,  and  de- 
livered unto  Satan  for  the  destruction  of  his 
flesh ; and  all  secular  princes  were  required, 
under  pain  of  incurring  the  same  censure,  to 
seize  his  person,  that  he  might  be  punished 
as  his  crimes  deserved. 

This  sentence,  which  he  had  for  some  time 
expected,  .did  not  disconcert  or  intimidate  Lu- 
ther. After  renewing  his  appeal  to  the  gen- 
eral council,  he  published  remarks  upon  the 


bull  of  excommunication ; and  being  now  per- 
suaded that  Leo  had  been  guilty  of  both  im- 
piety and  injustice  in  his  proceedings  against 
him,  he  boldly  declared  the  pope  to  be  that 
man  of  sin,  or  antichrist,  whose  appearance  is 
foretold  in  the  New  Testament ; he  declaimed 
against  his  tyranny  and  usurpations  with 
greater  vehemence  than  ever;  he  exhorted 
all  Christian  princes  to  shake  off  such  an 
ignominious  yoke,  and  boasted  of  his  own 
happiness  in  being  marked  out  as  the  object 
of  ecclesiastical  indignation  because  he  had 
ventured  to  assert  the  liberty  of  mankind. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  requested  to  ap- 
pear before  his  avowed  enemy,  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  in  the  diet  at  Worms.  Unmoved 
by  the  apprehensions  of  his  friends,  who  re- 
minded him  of  the  fate  of  Huss,  he  instantly 
obeyed,  and  there  acknowledged  that  his 
writings  had  occasionally  been  violent  and 
acrimonious;  but  he  refused  to  retract  his 
opinions,  until  they  should  be  proved  errone- 
ous by  the  Scriptures.  An  edict,  pronouncing 
him  an  excommunicated  criminal,  and  com- 
manding the  seizure  of  his  person  as  soon  as 
the  duration  of  the  safe-conduct  which  he  had 
obtained  should  have  expired,  was  immedi- 
ately promulgated.  Frederick  the  Wise, 
Elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  all  along  counte- 
nanced him  without  professing  his  doctrines, 
now  withdrew  him  from  the  storm.  As  Lu- 
ther was  returning  from  Worms,  a troop  of 
horsemen,  in  masks,  rushed  from  a wood, 
seized  him,  and  conveyed  him  to  the  castle  of 
Wartburg,  where  he  was  concealed  nine 
months,  encouraging  his  adherents  by  his 
pen,  and  cheered  in  return  by  accounts  of  the 
rapid  diffusion  of  his  doctrines. 

John,  the  successor  of  Frederick,  took  a 
decisive  step,  and  established  the  reformed 
religion  in  1527  throughout  his  dominions. 
In  a diet  at  Spires,  held  about  the  same  time, 
the  execution  of  the  edict  of  Worms  against 
the  Lutherans,  now  too  formidable  to  be  op- 
posed with  impunity,  was  suspended  until 
the  convocation  of  a general  council  to  rem- 
edy the  disorders  of  the  church.  But  in 
another  diet  held  in  the  same  place,  in  1529, 
the  suspension  was  revoked  by  a decree  ob- 
tained through  the  influence  of  Charles  V., 
who  then  found  himself  at  more  leisure  to 
push  forward  his  views  against  the  supporters 
of  the  Reformation.  Against  this  new  de- 


REF 


688 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


cree,  six  princes,  and  the  deputies  of  thir- 
teen imperial  cities  and  towns,  solemnly  pro- 
tested ; and  from  this  the  appellation  of 
Protestants  became  common  to  all  who  em- 
braced the  reformed  religion.  At  the  diet  of 
Augsburg,  in  Suabia,  the  following  year,  a 
clear  statement  of  the  reformed  faith,  drawn 
up  by  Luther  and  Melancthon,  was  presented 
to  Charles  and  the  diet,  in  behalf  of  the  Prot- 
estant members  of  the  empire ; and  hence 
it  obtained  the  name  of  the  confession  of 
Augsburg.  This  confession  was  received  as 
the  standard  of  the  Protestant  faith  in  Ger- 
many. The  same  or  next  year,  the  Protestant 
princes  made  the  famous  league  of  Smalkalde, 
for  the  mutual  defense  of  their  religion,  which 
obliged  the  emperor  to  grant  the  Protestant 
Lutherans  a toleration,  till  the  differences  in 
religion  should  be  settled  in  a council,  which 
he  engaged  himself  to  call  in  six  months. 
The  Protestant  party  gaining  strength  every 
day,  instead  of  being  viewed  only ‘as  a relig- 
ious sect,  as  hitherto,  soon  came  to  be  consid- 
ered as  a political  body  of  no  small  conse- 
quence ; and  having  refused  the  bull  for 
convening  a council  at  Mantua,  Charles  sum- 
moned a general  diet  at  Ratisbon,  where  a 
scheme  of  religion,  for  reconciling  the  two 
parties,  was  examined  and  proposed,  but 
without  effect. 

At  length,  in  1545,  the  famous  council  of 
Trent  was  opened  for  accommodating  the 
differences  in  religion ; but  the  Protestants 
refused  to  attend  or  obey  a council  convoked 
in  the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  the 
pope,  and  governed  by  his  legates.  The  fol- 
lowing year  Luther  died ; but  the  work  of 
reformation  which  he  had  begun,  did  not 
die  with  him;  for  though  Charles,  having 
concluded  a treaty  with  the  pope  for  the  de- 
struction of  the  reformed  religion  and  its 
adherents,  assembled  troops  on  all  sides,  and 
was  at  first  successful  in  the  field,  yet  on  the 
appearance  of  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony,  in 
arms  against  him,  with  a force  which  he  was 
wholly  unprepared  to  resist,  he  was  checked 
in  his  career,  and  the  consequences  were,  the 
“religious  peace,”  concluded  at  Passau,  in 
Bavaria,  in  1552,  and  the  complete  security 
of  religious  freedom  to  the  Protestant  states 
in  Germany,  which  they  have  enjoyed  ever 
since. 

During  the  course  of  these  events  the 


reformed  opinions  were  extending  their  in- 
fluence in  various  other  countries.  Before 
this  time,  they  were  completely  adopted  in 
Sweden,  and  had  likewise  obtained  perfect 
toleration  in  Denmark,  where  they  were 
adopted  soon  after  as  the  doctrines  of  the 
national  church.  They  were,  also,  daily 
gaining  converts  in  other  kingdoms  of  Eu- 
rope. They  acquired  many  friends  even  in 
Italy.  They  privately  diffused  themselves  in 
Spain,  notwithstanding  the  crowded  dun- 
geons and  busy  flames  of  the  inquisition. 

In  France  they  had  still  more  ample  suc- 
cess, where  their  abettors  were  contemptu- 
ously termed  Huguenots.  This  appellation 
was  given  to  the  Protestants  in  France  in 
1560,  and  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived 
from  a gate  in  Tours  called  Huguon,  where 
they  first  assembled.  According  to  others, 
the  name  is  taken  from  the  first  words  of 
their  original  protest,  or  confession  of  faith, 
Hue  nos  venimm , &c.  At  Geneva,  the  Prot- 
estant doctrines  were  firmly  established  by 
Calvin.  In  England,  the  papal  power  and 
jurisdiction  were  abolished  by  Parliament; 
the  king  was  declared  supreme  head  of  the 
church,  and  all  the  authority  of  which  the 
popes  were  deprived  was  vested  in  him. 
That  vast  fabric  of  ecclesiastical  dominion, 
which  had  been  raised  with  such  art,  and  of 
wThich  the  foundations  seemed  to  have  been 
laid  so  deep,  being  no  longer  supported  by 
the  veneration  of  the  people,  was  overturned 
in  a moment.  In  ftie  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  a 
total  separation  was  made  from  the  church 
of  Rome  in  articles  of  doctrine,  as  well  as  in 
matters  of  discipline  and  jurisdiction. 

The  force  of  the  secular  arm,  and  the  fire 
of  the  inquisition,  were  employed  to  support 
the  tottering  edifice  of  papacy.  In  the  Neth- 
erlands, particularly,  the  most  grievous  per- 
secutions took  place ; so  that,  by  the  Empe- 
ror Charles  V.,  upward  of  100,000  were 
destroyed,  whilst  still  greater  cruelties  were 
exercised  upon  the  people  there  by  his  son, 
Philip  II.  The  formidable  ministers  of  the 
inquisition  put  so  many  to  death,  and  perpe- 
trated such  horrid  acts  of  cruelty  and  op- 
pression in  Italy,  &c.,  that  most  of  the  re- 
formed consulted  their  safety  by  a voluntary 
exile,  while  others  returned  to  the  religion 
of  Rome,  at  least  in  external  appearance. 
In  France,  too,  the  Huguenots  were  perse- 


REF 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


689 


cuted  with  unparalleled  fury;  and  though 
many  princes  of  the  blood,  and  of  the  first 
nobility,  had  embraced  their  sentiments,  yet 
in  no  part  of  the  world  did  the  reformers 
suffer  more. 

Luther  was  not  the  first  who  attempted  to 
renovate  the  church.  Wickliffe  in  England, 
and  Jerome  of  Prague  and  John  Huss  in  Bo- 
hemia, had  before  him  denounced  the  errors 
and  corruptions  that  had  crept  into  the  sys- 
tem. 

REGULUS,  Marcus  Attilius,  a Roman 
consul  during  the  first  Punic  war.  In  his  sec- 
ond consulship  he  took  sixty-four  galleys  of 
the  Carthaginian  fleet  on  the  coast  of  Sicily, 
and  sunk  thirty.  Afterward  he  landed  in 
Africa ; and  so  rapid  was  his  success,  that 
in  a short  time  he  defeated  three  generals, 
and  made  himself  master  of  about  two  hun- 
dred places  of  consequence  on  the  coast.  The 
Carthaginians  sued  for  peace,  but  the  con- 
queror haughtily  refused  to  grant  it.  Soon 
after,  he  was  defeated  in  battle  by  Xanth ip- 
pus  ; 30,000  of  his  men  were  left  on  the  field 
of  battle,  and  15,000  taken  prisoners.  Reg- 
ulus  was  in  the  number  of  the  captives,  and 
he  was  carried  in  triumph  to  Carthage.  He 
was  afterward  sent  by  the  Carthaginians  to 
Rome  to  propose  an  accommodation,  and  an 
exchange  of  prisoners ; and  if  his  commis- 
sion was  unsuccessful,  he  was  bound  by  the 
most  solemn  oaths  to  return  to  Carthage 
without  delay.  When  he  came  to  Rome, 
Regulus  dissuaded  his  countrymen  from  ac- 
cepting the  terms  which  the  enemy  proposed ; 
and  when  his  opinion  had  had  due  influence  on 
the  senate,  he  then  retired  to  Carthage,  agreea- 
bly to  his  engagements.  The  Carthaginians, 
when  told  that  their  offers  of  peace  had  been 
rejected  at  Rome  by  means  of  Regulus,  pre- 
pared to  punish  him  with  the  greatest  sever- 
ity. His  eyelids  were  cut  off,  and  he  was 
exposed  for  some  days  to  the  excessive  heat  of 
the  meridian  sun,  and  afterward  confined  in  a 
barrel  whose  sides  were  everywhere  filled 
with  large  iron  spikes,  till  he  died  in  the 
greatest  agonies.  His  sufferings  were  known 
at  Rome,  and  the  senate  permitted  his  widow 
to  inflict  whatever  punishments  she  pleased, 
on  some  of  the  most  illustrious  captives  of 
Carthage  who  were  in  their  hands.  She  con- 
fined them  also  in  presses  filled  with  sharp 
iron  points,  and  was  so  exquisite  in  her  cru- 

44  RI 


elty,  that  the  senate  at  iast  interfered,  and 
stopped  the  barbarity.  Regulus  died  about 
250  b.c. 

REID,  Thomas,  a distinguished  Scottish 
metaphysician,  born  in  1710,  died  in  1796. 
Dr.  Reid  in  1752  was  appointed  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  in  King’s  College  at  Aber- 
deen, and  in  1765  succeeded  Adam  Smith  in 
the  corresponding  chair  at  Glasgow. 

REMBRANDT  GERRITZ,  commonly  call- 
ed Rembrandt  van  Rhyn,  from  the  circum- 
stance of  his  having  been  bred  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine,  was  born  in  his  father’s  mill,  near 
Leyden,  June  15th,  1606.  The  boy’s  pas- 
sion for  art  disappointed  the  father’s  desire  to 
make  him  a scholar.  After  some  instruction 
in  art  at  Amsterdam  and  Haarlem,  he  re- 
turn sd  home,  and  became  a diligent  and 
exclusive  student  of  nature.  He  met  with 
very  early  success.  In  his  twenty-fourth 
year,  he  settled  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  con- 
tinued until  his  death.  In  1634  he  married 
a handsome  peasant  girl,  who  often  sat  to 
him  as  a model.  Her  frugality  hoarded  up 
his  earnings,  which  he  increased  by  many 
unworthy  tricks  to  enhance  the  demand  for 
his  works.  But  after  her  death  he  lived  as 
lavishly  as  in  her  time  miserly,  so  that  he 
died  bankrupt.  His  death  occurred  at  Am- 
sterdam in  October,  1669.  Rembrandt  was 
equally  great  as  a painter  and  an  etcher.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  acquired  his  taste  for  the 
concentration  and  unity  of  light  and  shade, 
which  mark  his  works,  from  the  peculiar 
light  to  which  he  must  have  been  early 
accustomed  in  his  father’s  mill. 

RESACA  DE  LA  PALMA.  This  battle 
was  fought  May  9th,  1846,  two  days  after 
the  contest  of  Palo  Alto.  General  Arista, 
the  Mexican  commander,  fell  back  from  that 
field  to  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and  awaited  the 
advance  of  Gen.  Taylor.  In  the  gallant 
charge  of  May’s  dragoons  on  the  Mexican 
artillery,  Gen.  La  Vega  was  captured.  The 
engagement  ended  in  the  precipitate  flight  of 
the  Mexicans  beyond  the  Rio  Grande.  The 
American  loss  was  39  killed  and  71  wounded ; 
that  of  the  Mexicans  was  estimated  at  1,000  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 

REVOLUTION,  American.  For  an  ac- 
count of  the  causes  which  produced  this  great 
event,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article 
United  States.  In  the  present  article  we 


690 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


shall  present  a somewhat  detailed  account  of 
the  war,  touching  briefly,  however,  on  those 
events  which  have  been  noticed  under  their 
respective  heads. 

The  first  conflict  in  which  blood  was  spill- 
ed, at  Lexington  and  Concord,  Mass.,  April 
19th,  1775,  we  have  elsewhere  described. 
The  news  of  this  first  battle  produced  a tre- 
mendous excitement  throughout  the  country. 
The  dead  were  buried  with  great  ceremony 
and  pomp.  Great  bodies  of  militia  marched 
toward  Boston.  Agreements  were  entered 
into  by  thousands  of  people,  to  defend  the 
Bostonians  to  the  last  gasp.  The  English 
forts,  arsenals,  magazines,  and  public  money 
were  seized  upon  by  the  people ; more  money 
was  coined,  and  more  troops  were  raised. 

Everybody  was  armed,  and  ready  for  bat- 
tle. When  the  news  from  Lexington  reached 
Barnstable,  a company  of  militia  started  off 
for  Cambridge  at  once.  In  the  front  rank 
was  a young  man,  the  only  child  of  an  old 
farmer.  As  they  came  to  the  old  gentleman’s 
house,  they  halted  a moment.  The  drum  and 
fife  ceased.  The  farmer  came  out,  with  his 
gray  head  bare.  “God*be  with  you  all,” 
said  he ; “and  you,  John,  if  you  must  fight, 
fight  like  a man,  or  never  let  me  see  you 
again.”  The  old  man  gave  his  boy  his  bless- 
ing. The  poor  fellow  brushed  a tear  from 
his  eye,  and  the  company  marched  on. 

The  news  of  the  battle  reached  a small  town 
in  Connecticut,  on  the  morning  of  the  Sab- 
bath. It  was  nearly  time  to  go  to  meeting, 
when  the  beating  of  a drum  and  the  ringing 
of  the  bell  attracted  the  attention  of  the  peo- 
ple. In  expectation  that  some  great  event 
was  about  to  happen,  every  unusual  signal 
had  then  a startling  effect  upon  the  public 
ear.  When  the  drum  and  the  bell  were 
heard,  therefore,  the  men  came  running  to 
the  meeting-house  green,  in  breathless  haste. 
Soon  the  clergyman  was  among  them,  and 
they  were  all  told  that  some  of  their  country- 
men had  been  shot  by  the  British  soldiers,  at 
Lexington.  The  faces  of  the  men,  as  they 
heard  it,  were  pale,  but  not  from  fear;  it 
was  immediately  resolved  that  thirty  persons 
should  be  equipped,  and  set  out  for  Boston. 
Those  who  could  best  go,  were  selected,  and 
went  home  to  make  preparations. 

At  noon,  they  had  all  returned  to  the  little 
lawn  in  .front  of  the  meeting-house.  There 


was  a crowd  of  people  around ; there  were 
friends  and  acquaintances,  and  wives  and 
children.  Such  as  were  not  well  provided 
with  clothes  and  equipments  were  imme- 
diately supplied  by  their  neighbors.  There 
was  a rich  old  miser,  never  known  to  part 
with  his  money  but  with  extreme  reluctance. 
On  the  present  occasion  his  nature  seemed 
changed.  He  took  several  of  the  soldiers 
apart,  whom  he  supposed  likely  to  be  desti- 
tute, and  put  into  their  hands  about  thirty 
dollars  in  hard  cash ; at  the  same  time  saying, 
in  a low  voice,  “ Shoot  the  rascals ! shoot 
them  ! If  you  come  back,  perhaps  you  will 
pay  me ; if  not,  God  bless  you.” 

After  all  the  arrangements  were  made,  the 
soldiers  entered  the  broad  aisle  of  the  church. 
An  affecting  and  fervent  prayer  was  then 
offered  by  the  clergyman,  in  behalf  of  the 
country,  and  in  behalf  of  these  brave  men 
that  were  about  to  enter  upon  the  dangerous 
chances  of  war.  After  the  prayer,  he  made  a 
short  but  animated  address,  encouraging  the 
men  to  do  their  duty.  He  pronounced  a 
blessing,  and  then  they  departed. 

Israel  Putnam  was  ploughing  in  a field 
when  the  tidings  from  Lexington  were 
brought  to  him.  He  did  not  stay  even  to 
unharness  his  cattle  : but,  leaving  the  plough 
in  the  unfinished  furrow,  he  went  to  his 
house,  gave  some  hasty  directions  respecting 
his  affairs,  mounted  his  horse,  and  with  rapid 
pace  proceeded  to  Boston. 

The  Massachusetts  assembly  was,  at  this 
time,  sitting  at  Watertown,  a few  miles  from 
Boston.  They  addressed  a letter,  explaining 
the  whole  affair,  to  the  English  people.  They 
complained  that  the  troops  had  long  been  in- 
sulting the  provincials,  and  had  now  under- 
taken to  murder  them.  They  begged  the 
government  to  interfere,  and  prevent  war,  de- 
claring they  would  submit  to  no  more  tyr- 
anny. They  called  God  to  witness  the  justice 
of  their  cause,  and  pledged  themselves  to 
defend  each  other  to  the  last  drop  of  blood. 

Letters  were  sent  also  to  other  colonies. 
They  voted  to  raise  a large  army,  and,  in  a 
short  time,  30,000  militia  were  assembled 
about  Boston  ; thousands,  who  were  not  need- 
ed, were  sent  home.  General  Putnam  com- 
manded at  Cambridge,  and  General  Thomas 
at  Roxbur}r.  All  intercourse  between  the 
English  troops  and  the  country  ended  at  once. 


BEY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


691 


It  must  be  considered,  however,  that  this 
collection  of  people  was  very  different  from  a 
well-trained  army.  They  were  brave,  and 
heartily  devoted  to  the  cause.  But  they  went 
and  came  as  they  pleased.  They  had  few 
uniforms ; their  muskets  were  of  all  sizes  and 
shapes ; they  had  only  sixteen  cannon,  and 
half  of  these  were  not  fit  for  use ; and,  though 
all  the  men  were  good  marksmen,  only  a few 
regiments  had  been  trained  enough  to  appear 
like  regular  soldiers. 

The  same  might  be  said  of  the  militia 
throughout  the  country.  But  they  deter- 
mined to  make  the  best  of  themselves,  of 
their  heavy  old  cannon  and  rusty  muskets, 
and  were  in  great  hopes  that,  by  a few  short 
battles,  the  English  would  be  entirely  driven 
from  the  country.  The  English,  on  the  other 
hand,  especially  in  England,  had  a mean 
opinion  of  the  American  courage.  One  of 
their  generals  promised,  if  they  would  give 
him  five  or  six  regiments,  he  would  drive  the 
whole  of  these  cowardly  rebels  from  one  end 
of  the  continent  to  the  other. 

The  British  troops  soon  began  to  feel  a 
little  uncomfortable  in  Boston.  The  provin- 
cials had  surrounded  them  so  completely  that 
no  provisions  could  enter  the  city.  Fresh 
meat  and  vegetables  were  very  scarce ; and 
though  they  had  vessels  enough,  they  could 
get  no  supplies  on  the  coast  of  New  England. 
The  people  everj^where  had  driven  their  cattle 
into  the  back  country. 

The  governor  would  not  suffer  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Boston  to  leave  the  town.  He  feared 
that,  if  they  left,  the  Americans  would  fell 
upon  him  at  once.  But  he  promised  them, 
at  last,  that  if  all  their  arms  should  be  handed 
in  at  Faneuil  Hall,  or  some  other  place,  they 
should  be  allowed  to  go  away,  and  thirty 
carts  should  be  admitted  from  the  country  to 
carry  off  their  furniture. 

About  eighteen  hundred  muskets,  and  a 
great  many  pistols  and  bayonets,  were  given 
up  accordingly ; and  several  of  the  citizens 
received  passports,  and  left  the  town.  But 
the  governor  soon  after  pretended,  that  the 
people  had  deceived  him,  in  keeping  back 
part  of  their  arms,  and  he  refused  any  more 
passports.  The  poor  and  sick  only  were  suf- 
fered to  go.  Among  these,  there  were  several 
who  were  ’terribly  afflicted  with  the  small- 
pox. The  disease  spread  among  the  militia 


about  Boston,  and  the  Americans  were  now 
more  angry  than  ever,  for  they  suspected  this 
to  be  a matter  of  design  on  the  part  of  Gen- 
eral Gage. 

While  these  things  were  passing,  the  other 
provinces  were  also  preparing  for  war.  The 
people  of  New  York  refused  the  English 
troops  there  all  supplies.  They  armed  and 
trained  themselves,  seized  upon  the  ammu- 
nition in  the  arsenals,  removed  the  women  and 
children,  and  determined,  if  nothing  else  would 
do,  to  burn  the  whole  of  that  large  and  beauti- 
ful city.  In  New  Jersey,  at  the  news  of  the 
Lexington  battle,  the  people  seized  upon  the 
public  treasure ; and  at  Baltimore  they  pos- 
sessed themselves  of  fifteen  hundred  English 
muskets.  Similar  steps  were  taken  in  South 
Carolina,  where  two  regiments  of  infantry  and 
one  of  cavalry  were  raised  in  a few  days. 

There  was,  at  this  time,  a great  deal  of  diffi- 
culty in  Virginia,  between  the  English  gover- 
nor, Dunmore,  and  the  assembly.  He  feared 
the  people  would  seize  on  the  powder  of  the 
public  magazine  at  Williamsburgh,  and  or- 
dered it  to  be  carried  on  board  a vessel  called 
the  Jasper,  tying  at  anchor  in  the  river  James. 
The  mob  crowded  about  the  house ; and  he 
began  to  talk  of  setting  free  the  negro  slaves 
and  destroying  the  city.  On  the  whole,  it 
was  clear  that  both  the  governor  and  the 
people  were  in  a humor  for  fighting. 

In  Connecticut  it  was  resolved  to  under- 
take an  expedition  to  Ticonderoga,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  near  Canada.  As  this  fortress 
was  full  of  stores,  and  stood  upon  the  great 
route  between  Canada  and  the  provinces,  it 
was  important  to  conquer  it.  The  Connecti- 
cut assembly  voted  $1,800  for  the  purpose; 
and  powder,  ball,  and  whatever  would  be 
needed  for  a siege,  were  provided. 

The  troops  assembled  with  as  little  display 
as  possible,  at  Castleton,  on  the  banks  of 
Wood  Creek,  on  the  great  road  to  Ticonde- 
roga. Some  of  these  troops  were  from  Con- 
necticut, some  from  the  Boston  army,  and 
some  were  people  from  the  Green  Mountains, 
in  Vermont.  These  latter  were  called  Green 
Mountain  Boys,  and  were  famous  for  skill  in 
the  use  of  the  rifle. 

The  captain  of  one  of  these  companies  cap- 
tured an  English  officer,  a year  or  two  after 
the  time  of  which  we  are  speaking.  The 
Englishman  complained  to  the  American 
REV 


692 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


captain  that  these  riflemen  gave  the  regulars 
a great  deal  of  trouble.  “ They  aim,”  said  he, 
“ at  an  English  officer  as  far  as  they  can  see 
his  uniform  plainly,  and  shoot  him  dead. 
They  hardly  condescend  to  kill  anything  less 
than  a corporal.”  “ They  can  do  better  still,” 
said  the  American  captain ; and  he  ordered 
up  two  of  his  riflemen.  “ Is  your  piece  in 
good  order  ? ” said  he  to  the  first.  “ Yes, 
sir,”  answered  the  Green  Mountaineer.  The 
captain  stuck  a knife  in  a tree,  about  fifty 
paces  distant,  and  ordered  the  man  to  split 
his  ball.  He  fired,  and  the  ball  was  cut  in 
two  pieces  on  the  edge  of  the  knife.  The 
other  was  ordered  to  shoot  the  ace  of  clubs 
out  of  a card ; and  he  did  so.  The  English- 
man was  amazed.  These  sharp-shooters  had 
only  been  four  weeks  from  their  ploughs  in 
Vermont. 

The  leaders  of  the  expedition  against  Ti- 
conderoga  were  Colonel  Ethan  Allen  and  Col- 
onel Easton.  They  were  joined  at  Castle- 
town by  Colonel  Arnold,  from  the  Boston 
army.  They  marched  on  quietly,  and  ar- 
rived in  the  night  on  the  bank  of  the  lake, 
opposite  Ticonderoga.  They  crossed  over, 
and  landed  on  the  other  side,  close  by  the 
fortress. 

They  entered  it  under  the  covered  way,  by 
daybreak,  with  a tremendous  shout.  The 
soldiers  of  the  garrison  were  roused,  ran  out, 
half  dressed,  and  began  firing.  A hot  scuffle, 
with  gun-breeches  and  bayonets,  hand  to 
hand,  ensued.  Colonel  Allen  ordered  the 
commander  of  the  fort  to  surrender.  “To 
whom?”  said  the  officer,  in  great  astonish- 
ment. “To  the  American  congress!”  said 
Allen,  in  a voice  of  thunder.  The  commander 
saw  it  was  in  vain  to  resist,  and  he  gave  up 
the  fort.  Here  were  found  124  fine  brass 
cannon  and  a large  quantity  of  ammunition. 

A hundred  cannon  more  were  taken  by  the 
Americans  at  Crown  Point,  another  fort  on 
the  same  lake,  defended  by  a small  garrison. 
The  next  plan  was  to  seize  upon  an  English 
armed  vessel,  called  a corvette,  which  lay 
anchored  near  fort  St.  John.  The  Ameri- 
cans soon  rigged  out  a schooner.  Arnold 
commanded  it,  and  sailed  with  a fair  wind 
for  the  fort,  while  Allen  followed  slowly,  with 
his  troops  in  flat-boats.  The  former  came 
upon  the  corvette,  and  captured  it  without 
the  least  difficulty.  The  wind  suddenly 


shifted,  and  he  was  far  on  his  way  back,  with 
the  prize,  when  he  met  Allen  and  the  boats. 
After  taking  another  fort  at  Skenesborough, 
(now  Whitehall),  the  party  returned. 

Meanwhile,  the  English  were  skirmishing 
with  the  provincials  at  Boston.  There  were 
some  islands  in  the  harbor,  where  the  Eng- 
lish found  forage  for  their  horses  and  cattle. 
The  Americans  undertook  to  carry  off  these 
cattle  from  Noddle’s  Island  and  Hog  Island, 
and  succeeded  after  some  fighting.  They 
scoured  Pettick’s  Island  and  Deer  Island, 
soon  after,  in  the  same  way.  The  English 
were  put  to  a good  deal  of  trouble  to  get 
food. 

They  were  finally  so  much  pressed  by  the 
American  army,  that  General  Gage  found 
himself  obliged  to  make  a new  effort  against 
them.  The  provincials  sent  a thousand  men, 
under  Putnam  and  Prescott,  to  fortif}1.  Bunk- 
er’s Hill,  in  Charlestown.  Instead  of  doing 
so,  however,  by  some  mistake,  they  forti- 
fied Breed’s  Hill,  which  is  nearer  the  city. 
The  Americans  took  possession  of  it  in  the 
evening,  and  worked  so  well,  that,  before 
morning,  they  had  thrown  up  a redoubt 
eight  rods  square,  and  so  silently,  that  the 
British  knew  nothing  of  it  till  daybreak. 

The  latter,  when  they  discovered  the  re- 
doubt, began  firing  upon  its  daring  occu- 
pants ; but  the  Americans  worked  on,  till  the}7, 
raised  a breastwork,  reaching  from  the  east 
side  of  the  redoubt  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill. 
As  Breed’s  Hill  commands  the  city,  the  Brit- 
ish saw  they  must  either  be  driven  off,  or  drive 
off  the  provincials.  They  opened  a tremen- 
dous fire  from  the  batteries  and  armed  vessels 
that  floated  on  all  the  waters  about  Boston. 
Showers  of  bombs  and  balls  were  fired.  A 
terrible  battery  was  raised  upon  Copp’s  Hill, 
opposite  Breed’s ; but  all  in  vain.  The  Amer- 
icans worked  on,  and  had  finished  a trench 
or  ditch  before  noon,  which  reached  to  the 
bottom  of  the  hill. 

It  was  the  17th  of  June,  and  the  famous 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  The  British  were 
determined  to  make  a great  effort.  The  pro- 
vincials lay  ready  for  them  on  the  hill.  Gen- 
eral Putnam,  of  Connecticut,  commanded  the 
whole  force.  They  had  muskets,  but  few  of 
them  bayonets  or  rifles.  They  were  sharp- 
shooters, however,  and  were  brave  men  as 
ever  breathed. 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


693 


About  noon  of  a terribly  hot  day,  the  whole 
British  camp  seemed  to  be  in  motion.  A 
vast  multitude  of  sloops  and  boats  started 
from  the  Boston  shore,  covering  the  water 
far  and  wide.  The  soldiers  landed  at  More- 
ton’s  Point,  in  Charlestown,  protected  by 
their  batteries  behind  them.  Here  they  pa- 
raded in  fine  order.  They  were  the  flower 
of  the  English  army,  and  were  commanded 
by  General  Howe  and  General  Pigot.  But 
the  Americans  appeared  a little  too  strong 
and  too  cool  for  them  ; and  they  waited  for  a 
few  more  companies  to  join  them. 

The  Americans  took  this  opportunity  to 
protect  themselves  still  more,  by  pulling  up 
post  and  rail  fences,  which  they  set  before 

them,  in  two  rows,  filling  the  space  between 
with  fresh  hay  which  they  gathered  from  the 
hill.  The  British  began  to  march.  The  mi- 
litia left  to  defend  Charlestown,  retreated. 
The  British  entered  it,  and  set  fire  to  the 
buildings.  In  a few  moments  five  hundred 
wooden  buildings  were  in  flames.  The  wind 
blew  high,  and  the  fire  streamed  up,  and 
roared  in  a terrible  manner. 

Thousands  of  people  were  gazing  at  the 
scene,  from  the  Boston  steeples,  and  waiting 
with  great  anxiety  for  the  fate  of  the  battle. 
There  were  multitudes,  also,  on  all  the  high 
roofs  and  hills  roundabout.  Never  was  there 
such  a bustle  and  stir.  The  English  marched 
slowly  toward  the  redoubt,  halting  now  and 

then,  for  the  cannon  to  come  up  and  fire. 
They  came,  at  last,  within  musket-shot;  and 
the  redoubt,  which  had  been  as  still  as  the 
grave  till  this  moment,  blazed  all  at  once, 
with  a tremendous  volley. 

The  British  were  soon  thinned  off,  and 
compelled  to  retreat.  Many  fled  for  their 
lives,  and  threw  themselves  into  the  boats. 
The  green  slope  of  battle  was  covered  with 
dead  bodies.  The  officers  ran  hither  and 
thither,  to  rally  the  troops,  and,  after  some 
time,  persuaded  them  to  march  forward  again. 
The  Americans  waited  for  them  quietly,  and 
received  them  once  more  with  a flood  of  balls. 
The  British  fled  down  the  hill  to  the  shore. 

General  Howe  was  alone  upon  the  field; 
all  his  officers  being  killed  and  wounded 
around  him.  General  Clinton,  who  had  been 
watching  the  battle  from  Copp’s  Hill,  now 
came  to  his  aid  with  new  troops.  They  made 
a third  effort,  with  more  spirit  than  before. 


Clinton  led  on  the  whole  body ; the  cannon 
still  firing  from  the  ships  and  batteries,  and 
the  flames  and  smoke  of  the  burning  town 
sweeping  over  them  like  the  blast  of  a furnace. 

The  powder  of  the  Americans  was  exhaust- 
ed, and  they  were  compelled  to  draw  off. 
They  retired  to  Prospect  Hill,  fighting  with 
their  muskets  as  if  they  were  clubs,  and  there 
began  throwing  up  new  works.  The  British 
intrenched  themselves  on  Bunker  Hill,  and 
neither  army  seemed  willing  to  attack  the 
other.  They  had  had  fighting  enough  for 
one  day.  Of  3,000  British  troops,  1,054  were 
killed  or  wounded.  A large  part  of  these 
w'ere  officers.  The  sharp-shooters  had  taken 
the  poor  fellows  down  like  so  many  gray 
squirrels. 

The  Americans  lost  five  pieces  of  cannon. 
Their  killed,  of  about  1,500  engaged  in  the 
battle,  amounted  to  134;  their  wounded  to 
314.  Brave  General  Warren  was  among  the 
dead.  He  was  loved  and  lamented  by  all 
classes  of  people.  An  English  officer,  who 
knew  him  by  sight,  saw  him  in  the  retreat, 
rallying  the  Americans.  He  borrowed  a gun 
of  one  of  his  soldiers,  and,  taking  a fatal  aim, 
shot  him  in  the  head,  and  he  fell  dead  on  the 
spot. 

The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  (as  it  is  called, 
though  fought  on  Breed’s  Hill)  had  no  decisive 
effect ; yet  it  roused  the  country,  showed  the 
Americans  that  they  were  able  to  contend 
with  the  regulars,  and  taught  the  British  that 
the  provincials  were  not  exactly  the  cowards 
they  had  taken  them  for.  The  capture  of 
Breed’s  Hill  did  them  more  hurt  than  good. 
They  were  obliged  to  defend  it  now,  and  they 
had  not  too  many  men  before  to  defend  the 
town.  Their  soldiers  were  also  worn  out  with 
fatigue,  and  were  much  depressed  by  the  hot 
weather. 

The  Americans  began  now  to  fortify  the 
town  of  Roxbury.  Their  works  went  up  very 
fast,  notwithstanding  the  continual  fire  of  the 
British  cannon.  They  had  plenty  of  food, 
too,  while  the  British  were  nea-r  starving. 
The  latter  could  get  nothing  on  the  Boston 
islands,  or  along  the  Massachusetts  coast,  but 
by  hard  fighting;  and  very  little  by  that. 
They  were  at  last  obliged  to  let  most  of  the 
Bostonians  pass  out  of  the  town.  They  had 
not  provisions  enough  to  keep  them  alive. 

A British  sloop  of  war,  the  Falcon,  Captain 


REV 


694: 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Linzee,  one  day,  “hove  in  sight,”  as  the  sail- 
ors say,  off  the  coast.  She  had  been  in 
search  of  two  American  schooners  from  the 
West  Indies.  One  of  these,  Captain  Linzee 
had  just  captured,  and  he  followed  the  other 
into  Gloucester  harbor.  He  anchored,  and 
sent  two  barges,  with  fifteen  men  in  each, 
armed  with  muskets  and  swivels,  and  followed 
by  a whale-boat,  in  which  were  a lieutenant 
and  six  privates,  with  orders  to  seize  the 
schooner,  and  bring  her  off’.  The  Gloucester 
people  saw  what  was  going  on,  and  brought 
out  their  rusty  muskets  along  shore  in  great 
numbers.  The  lieutenant,  with  the  barge- 
men, boarded  the  schooner  at  the  cabin  win- 
dows. The  militia  began  to  blaze  away  at 
them  off  the  shore.  Three  of  the  British  were 
killed,  and  the  lieutenant  was  wounded  in  the 
thigh.  He  soon  made  off  for  the  Falcon,  as 
fast  as  his  boat  would  carry  him. 

Captain  Linzee  now  sent  a cutter  and  the 
schooner  he  had  taken,  with  orders  to  fire  on 
the  “saucy  rebels,”  wherever  they  should  see 
them.  He  amused  himself,  meanwhile,  by 
cannonading  the  town.  He  fired  a broadside 
into  the  thickest  part  of  the  settlement,  to 
begin  with.  “Now,”  said  he  to  the  crew, 
“now,  my  boys,  we’ll  aim  at  that  dirty  old 
church.  Well  done!  crack  away!  one  shot 
more!  knock  ’em  down!”  The  balls  went 
through  the  houses  in  every  direction ; but 
not  a man,  woman,  or  child  was  injured. 
Meanwhile  the  men  of  Gloucester  had  gone 
out  upon  the  water,  and  taken  possession  of 
both  schooners,  the  cutter,  the  two  barges, 
the  boat,  and  every  man  in  them  all.  They 
had  but  one  killed,  and  two  wounded.  The 
British  lost  about  forty  men. 

The  continental  congress  met  again  at  Phil- 
adelphia, May  7th,  1775.  There  were  dele- 
gates sent  from  all  the  colonies  but  Georgia; 
and  though  they  had  no  precise  right,  by  any 
law,  to  act  for  the  whole  country,  yet  the 
whole  country  was  ready  to  obey  them.  They 
chose  George  Washington,  of  Virginia,  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  American  army,  and 
appointed  many  other  officers  to  act  under 
him.  Among  these  were  Gates  and  Lee,  of 
Virginia ; Schuyler  and  Montgomery,  of  New 
York  ; Pomeroy,  Heath,  and  Thomas,  of  Mas- 
sachusetts ; Green,  of  Rhode  Island ; Putnam, 
Wooster,  and  Spencer,  of  Connecticut ; Ward 
and  Sullivan,  of  New  Hampshire.  These  were 


| some  of  the  bravest  and  best  men  of  the 
country. 

General  Washington  went  directly  to  the 
army  at  Cambridge.  He  arrived  there  on  the 
3d  of  July.  Though  he  used  no  parade,  wear- 
ing only  a small  sword  at  his  side,  epaulettes 
on  his  shoulders,  and  a black  cockade  on  his 
hat,  he  was  easily  known,  by  his  fine  figure 
and  noble  countenance.  He  was  treated  every 
where  with  the  greatest  respect. 

Having  reviewed  the  army,  he  found  only 
14,500  men  in  a condition  for  service ; these 
had  to  defend  a line  of  twelve  miles.  They 
were  now  arranged  and  trained  as  well  and  as 
fast  as  possible,  no  man  understanding  this 
business  better  than  General  Gates,  who  was 
an  old  soldier,  as  well  as  Washington.  They 
had  not  10,000  pounds  of  powder,  at  this  time, 
in  the  army,  being  only  nine  charges  to  a 
man.  Had  the  enemy  known  this,  and  at- 
tacked them,  they  must  have  fled  like  a flock 
of  deer.  Great  efforts  were  made,  however, 
and  several  tons  soon  arrived  from  New 
J ersey. 

The  provincials  had,  at  this  time,  no  corps 
of  riflemen ; though  light  troops  of  this  kind 
were  exceedingly  needed,  to  bring  in  recruits 
and  provisions,  and  to  scour  such  a wild  coun- 
try as  America  then  was,  abounding  in  rivers, 
swamps,  mountains,  and  woods.  Congress 
soon  raised  a few  companies  in  Pennsylvania 
and  Virginia ; and  1,400  of  them  arrived  at 
the  camp  early  in  August.  These  troops  had, 
some  of  them,  marched  five  or  six  hundred 
miles,  and  were  stout  and  hardy  men  ; many 
of  them  were  more  than  six  feet  tall.  They 
were  dressed  in  white  frocks,  or  rifle  shirts, 
and  round  hats.  They  were  terrible  fellows 
for  sharp-shooting ; equal  to  the  Green  Mount- 
ain Boys  already  mentioned.  At  a review,  a 
company  of  them,  on  a quick  march,  fired 
their  balls  into  marks  seven  inches  across,  at 
the  distance  of  250  yards.  They  often  shot 
down  the  British  officers,  in  Boston,  like  so 
many  wild  animals,  at  more  than  double  the 
common  musket  distance. 

More  powder  was  procured  about  this  time, 
from  the  coast  of  Africa,  in  exchange  for  New 
England  rum.  This  was  managed  so  shrewdly 
that  every  ounce  in  the  British  forts  there 
was  bought  up  fbr  the  American  army.  The 
Massachusetts  rulers  passed  a law,  also,- that 
no  powder  should  be  fired  at  any  beast,  bird, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  695 


or  mark ; they  wished  it  all  to  be  saved  for 
the  war. 

Congress  took  measures  for  the  coining  of 
money,  and  the  raising  of  troops  in  all  quar- 
ters. The  people  obeyed  the  directions  of 
Congress  with  alacrity.  Every  man,  from 
sixteen  years  of  age  to  fifty,  was  a member  of 
some  militia  company ; and  a fourth  part  of 
the  whole,  called  minute-men,  were  to  keep 
themselves  ready  for  action  at  a moment’s 
notice.  Captains  were  to  be  paid  twenty 
dollars  a month ; lieutenants  and  ensigns, 
thirteen ; corporals  and  sergeants,  eight ; and 
privates,-  six. 

No  province  was  more  active  than  Pennsyl- 
vania. Companies  were  raised  in  all  the 
country  towns.  Many  of  the  Quakers,  even 
though  they  did  not  approve  of  fighting,  were 
so  carried  away  with  the  general  feeling  as  to 
turn  out  and  train  with  the  rest.  Three  large 
battalions  were  raised  in  Philadelphia  alone, 
besides  artillery,  cavalry,  riflemen,  pioneers, 
and  others.  They  often  maneuvred  in  pres- 
ence of  Congress.  The  whole  city  was  full  of 
the  music  of  drums,  fifes,  and  bugles. 

Among  others,  a company  was  formed  of 
eighty  old  Germans,  who  had,  most  of  them, 
fought  a long  time  before  in  Europe.  It  was 
called  the  old  men’s  company.  Instead  of 
cockades,  they  wore  black  crape,  to  signify 
their  sorrow  at  the  need  of  taking  up  arms  at 
such  an  age.  The  captain  was  near  a hundred 
years  old,  and  had  been  in  seventeen  battles ; 
he  had  been  a soldier  forty  years.  The  drum- 
mer was  ninety-four,  and  the  youngest  in  the 
carps  was  about  seventy.  In  the  county  of 
Bristol,  a regiment  was  raised,  and  they  were 
clothed,  armed,  and  furnished  with  colors  by 
the  women. 

About  this  time,  Congress  took  the  neces- 
sary steps  to  keep  peace  with  the  Indian  tribes. 
But  they  never  employed  them  to  fight  against 
the  English,  though  the  English  hired  them 
to  fight  against  the  Americans.  The  Ameri- 
cans thought  the  Indian  way  of  fighting  en- 
tirely too  barbarous  and  cruel  to  be  suffered 
among  civilized  people.  Another  objection 
was  that  the  savages  could  not  be  depended 
on.  They  were  greedy  for  wages,  but  so  de- 
ceitful, that  they  could  not  be  safely  trusted. 
A story  told  of  a sergeant,  who  traveled 
through  the  woods  of  New  Hampshire,  on  his 


way  to  the  American  army,  will  show  the 
character  of  the  Indians. 

He  had  twelve  men  with  him.  Their  route 
was  far  from  any  settlement ; and  they  were 
obliged  every  night  to  camp  in  the  woods. 
The  sergeant  had  seen  a good  deal  of  the  In- 
dians, and  understood  them  well.  Early  in 
the  afternoon,  one  day,  as  they  w^ere  marching 
on,  over  bogs,  swamps,  and  brooks,  under  the 
great  maple  trees,  a body  of  Indians,  more 
than  their  own  number,  rushed  out  upon  a 
hill  in  front  of  them.  They  appeared  to  be 
pleased  at  meeting  with  the  sergeant  and  his 
men.  They  considered  them,  they  said,  as 
their  best  friends.  For  themselves,  they  had 
taken  up  the  hatchet  for  the  Americans,  and 
would  scalp  and  strip  those  rascally  English 
for  them,  like  so  many  wild-cats.  “How  do 
you  do,  pro?”  (meaning  brother)  said  one; 
and  “ How  do  ye  do,  pro  ?”  said  another ; and 
so  they  went  about,  shaking  hands  with  the 
sergeant  and  his  twelve  men. 

They  went  off,  at  last ; and  the  sergeant, 
having  marched  on  a mile  or  two,  halted  his 
men,  and  addressed  them.  “ My  brave  fel- 
lows,” said  he,  “ we  must  use  all  possible  cau- 
tion, or,  before  morning,  we  shall  all  of  us  be 
dead  men.  You  are  amazed;  but,  depend 
upon  me,  these  Indians  have  tried  to  put  our 
suspicion  to  sleep.  You  will  see  more  of  them 
by  and  by.” 

They  concluded,  finally,  to  adopt  the  follow- 
ing scheme  for  defense.  They  encamped  for 
the  night  near  a stream  of  water,  which  pro- 
tected them  behind.  A large  oak  was  felled, 
and  a brilliant  fire  kindled.  Each  man  cut  a 
log  of  wood  about  the  size  of  his  body,  rolled 
it  nicely  up  in  his  blanket,  placed  his  hat  on 
the  end  of  it,  and  laid  it  before  the  fire,  that 
the  enemy  might  take  it  for  a man.  Thirteen 
logs  were  fitted  out  in  this  way,  representing 
the  sergeant  and  his  twelve  men.  They  then 
placed  themselves,  with  loaded  guns,  behind 
the  fallen  tree.  By  this  time  it  was  dark ; 
but  the  fire  was  kept  burning  till  midnight. 
The  sergeant  knew  that  if  the  savages  ever 
came,  they  would  come  now. 

A tall  Indian  was  seen,  at  length,  through 
the  glimmering  of  the  fire,  which  was  getting 
low.  He  moved  cautiously  toward  them, 
skulking,  as  an  Indian  always  does.  He 
seemed  to  suspect,  at  first,  that  a guard  might 


REV 


696 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


be  watching ; but,  seeing  none,  he  came  for- 
ward more  boldly,  rested  on  his  toes,  and  was 
seen  to  move  his  finger,  as  he  counted  the 
thirteen  men,  sleeping,  as  he  supposed,  by 
the  fire. 

He  counted  them  again,  and  retired.  An- 
other came  up,  and  did  the  same.  Then  the 
whole  party,  sixteen  in  number,  came  up,  and 
glared  silently  at  the  logs,  till  they  seemed  to 
be  satisfied  they  were  fast  asleep.  Presently 
they  took  aim,  fired  their  whole  number  of 
guns  upon  the  logs,  yelled  the  horrid  war- 
whoop,  and  rushed  forward  to  murder  and 
scalp  their  supposed  victims.  The  sergeant 
and  his  men  were  ready  for  them.  They  fired 
upon  them  ; and  not  one  of  the  Indians  was 
left  to  tell  the  story  of  that  night.  The  ser- 
geant reached  the  army  in  safety. 

Treaties  having  been  made  with  the  Indi- 
ans, Congress  recommended  that  the  20th 
day  of  July,  1775,  should  be  observed,  in  all 
the  provinces,  as  a day  of  fasting  and  prayer ; 
and  it  was  so.  The  people  were  everywhere 
disposed  to  implore  Heaven  to  prevent  war, 
and  to  soften  the  hearts  of  their  enemies.  In 
Philadelphia,  Congress  attended  church  in  a 
body.  As  they  were  entering  the  house  of 
worship,  they  received  news  from  Georgia, 
that  this  province  had  at  last  concluded  to 
join  in  the  common  cause,  with  the  other 
twelve.  Until  this  time,  the  people  there  had 
said  and  done  but  little ; but  they  determined 
now  to  make  amends  for  lost  time. 

A declaration  of  rights  was  soon  after  put 
forth  by  Congress,  and  sent  over  every  part 
of  the  country.  It  gave  a history  of  the  whole 
difficulty,  from  first  to  last,  between  England 
and  America ; and  ended  with  an  account  of 
the  burning  of  Charlestown,  the  seizure  of  the 
provincial  vessels  by  the  British,  and  the  hir- 
ing of  the  savages  to  fight  against  the  Ameri- 
cans. “We  are  compelled,”  said  they,  “to 
submit  to  tyranny,  or  to  take  up  arms.  We 
have  counted  the  cost  of  this  war,  and  have 
determined  to  be  free,  as  our  fathers  have  been 
before  us,  and  as  we  trust  our  children  shall 
be  after  us.  W e declare,  before  God,  that  we 
will  defend  each  other,  and  the  liberties  of  the 
whole  country,  to  the  last  moment  of  life.” 
This  was  signed  by  John  Hancock,  president, 
and  by  Charles  Thompson,  secretary,  of  Con- 
gress. The  ministers  read  it  from  their  pul- 
pits in  all  parts  of  the  land.  It  was  read  in 


Cambridge,  to  a vast  multitude,  and  General 
Putnam  assembled  his  troops  on  Prospect 
Hill  to  hear  it.  This  was  followed  by  a prayer 
from  a clergyman.  All  the  troops  cried,  three 
times,  “ Amen  ; ” the  artillery  fired  a general 
salute,  and  a new  flag  was  unfurled,  with 
these  mottoes, — on  one  side,  “An  appeal 
to  Heaven,”  and,  on  the  other,  “ He  who  has 
brought  us  over  will  defend  us.” 

A petition  to  the  English  king  wTas  next 
drawn  up,  and  addresses  were  written  to  the 
people  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Canada. 
Congress  were  resolved  to  leave  nothing  un- 
said, or  undone,  that  offered  any  chance  of 
restoring  peace.  The  Canadians  were  per- 
suaded to  remain  neutral,  taking  no  part  on 
either  side.  The  British  general,  Carleton, 
used  efforts  to  make  them  enlist  as  soldiers. 
They  were  offered  two  hundred  acres  of  land 
in  any  part  of  America  they  should  choose, 
at  the  end  of  the  war.  Each  married  man 
was  to  have  fifty  acres  more  for  his  wife, 
and  fifty  for  each  of  his  children,  with  a 
guinea  as  a bounty  at  the  time  of  enlisting. 
A few  only  were  persuaded  in  this  way.  A 
good  many  Indians,  however,  were  hired. 
They  collected  at  Montreal,  in  great  numbers, 
in  July,  1775.  Among  the  rest  were  six 
famous  tribes  of  Western  New  York,  called 
the  Six  Nations.  They  swore,  in  the  presence 
of  Carleton,  to  fight  for  the  English  king ; 
and  thus,  soon  after,  the  Indian  war  began. 

It  may  seem  strange,  that,  during  the  dis- 
turbances in  the  various  colonies,  little  or 
nothing  should  have  been  done,  by  the  Eng- 
lish governors,  to  put  down  the  rebellion. 
The  truth  is,  they  had  no  troops,  and  not 
much  money  at  their  disposal ; and,  before 
these  could  be  supplied,  the  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence had  gone  too  far  to  be  repressed. 

In  Virginia,  Governor  Dunmore,  being  com- 
pelled to  leave  Williamsburg,  and  fearing  that 
it  would  not  be  safe  for  him  to  remain  upon 
the  land,  went  on  board  a royal  armed  vessel. 
Having  collected  a fleet,  he  resolved  to  har- 
ass the  Virginians  as  much  as  possible,  if  he 
could  not  govern  them.  He  was  joined  by 
the  Tories,  that  is,  the  Americans  who  favor- 
ed the  English. 

He  laid  waste  the  coast,  at  various  places, 
murdering  and  burning  like  a pirate.  He 
burnt  Hampton,  on  the  bay  of  Hampton, 
among  the  rest,  and  undertook  to  establish 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


697 


his  camp  there.  But  the  Virginians  soon 
drove  him  back  upon  the  water.  He  then 
declared  all  the  negro  slaves  to  be  free,  and 
invited  them  to  join  him.  A few  of  them 
succeeded  in  doing  so. 

He  landed  again  at  Norfolk,  where  the  To- 
ries were  numerous  ; and  a battle  was  fought, 
a few  miles  from  that  city,  at  a place  called 
Great  Bridge,  with  a regiment  of  Virginia 
militia  and  minute-men.  The  governor  had 
only  200  regulars  about  him.  The  rest  was 
a mere  mob,  of  black,  white,  and  gray. 

The  first  attack  was  made  by  the  British, 
on  the  American  intrenchment.  The  battle 
lasted  some  time,  with  a good  deal  of  spirit. 
At  last,  the  British  captain  was  killed,  and  the 
troops  fell  back  upon  the  bridge.  The  gov- 
ernor did  not  like  fighting ; so,  during  the 
battle,  he  contented  himself  with  looking  on 
at  a distance.  The  negroes  loved  fighting  as 
little  as  the  governor.  They  found  it  by  no 
means  pleasant  to  have  their  flesh  cut  to 
pieces  with  bullets  ; so,  after  a few  shots,  they 
ran  away  as  fast  as  they  could.  The  gov- 
ernor also  thought  it  best  to  retreat,  and, 
accordingly,  he  and  his  men  went  on  board 
of  their  vessels. 

This  affair  did  not  serve  to  sweeten  Gover- 
nor Dunmore’s  temper ; nor  did  it  put  him  in 
a better  humor,  to  find  that  his  friends,  the 
Tories  at  Norfolk,  had  been  handled  roughly 
by  the  people  there  after  his  retreat  with  his 
negro  allies.  He  returned  into  the  bay,  with 
a ship  of  war,  and  sent  a message  ashore, 
declaring,  that,  unless  the  people  furnished 
him  provisions,  he  should  batter  the  town 
down  about  their  ears.  They  refused  to  sup- 
ply him:  so  he  gave  them  notice,  in  the 
morning,  to  remove  the  women  and  children  ; 
and  then,  with  his  own  sloop  of  war,  the 
frigate  Liverpool,  and  two  corvettes,  he  blazed 
away  upon  the  place,  till  scarcely  one  stone 
was  left  upon  another.  The  provincials,  to 
disappoint  him  of  his  provisions,  burnt  the 
whole  country  round  about. 

In  South  Carolina,  Governor  Campbell  ar- 
rived at  Charleston,  from  England,  about  the 
same  time  with  the  news  of  the  bloodshed  at 
Lexington.  The  people  were  on  their  guard  ; 
and  he  tried  in  vain  to  get  the  better  of  them, 
by  inviting  the  Tories  to  assist  him ; but  the 
Tories  were  afraid  to  do  so.  He  began  to  be 
frightened  a little  himself,  being  a man  of  less 


courage  than  Governor  Dunmore ; so  he  said 
little  or  nothing  for  some  time.  To  unmask 
him,  the  American  leaders  sent  privately  to 
him  one  Adam  Macdonald,  captain  in  a mili- 
tia regiment.  He  called  himself  Dick  Wil- 
liams, and  offered  his  services  to  the  governor. 
The  latter  was  delighted,  and  told  him  all  his 
plans.  Having  heard  them  attentively,  Adam 
went  away,  and  told  the  whole  to  the  persons 
who  employed  him.  They  immediately  sent 
a committee,  Macdonald  among  the  number, 
to  wait  upon  his  excellency,  and  request  him 
to  show  his  royal  commission,  if  he  had  any, 
as  governor.  He  declined  this  proposal. 
There  were  some  hints  then  thrown  out, 
about  putting  him  in  confinement.  These 
came  to  his  ears,  and  he  retreated,  with  very 
little  ceremony  or  delay,  to  an  English  cor- 
vette in  the  harbor.  The  assembly  requested 
him  to  return;  but  he  refused.  Nothing 
more  was  seen  of  him,  or  his  government, 
in  Charleston.  The  Tories  were  numerous 
in  other  sections  of  the  province,  however, 
and  he  mustered  them  together  in  great 
force.  The  people  were  alarmed.  The  mili- 
tia were  ordered  out;  and  the  two  parties 
were  on  the  eve  of  an  engagement.  But  at 
length  the  Tories  were  dispersed,  and  they 
gave  no  more  trouble  at  that  time. 

The  provincials  in  South  Carolina  contin^ 
ued  to  be  very  active.  They  captured  Fort 
Johnson,  on  James’s  Island,  in  Charleston 
harbor,  and  placed  batteries  on  Point  Hud- 
drel.  The  English  ships  were  at  last  driven 
off*.  The  next  thing  with  the  people  was  to 
send  an  expedition  after  an  English  vessel 
laden  with  powder,  which  was  anchored  off* 
St.  Augustine,  a town  on  the  coast  of  East 
Florida.  She  was  taken,  and  15,000  pounds 
of  powder  were  carried  to  Charleston. 

In  North  Carolina,  the  provincial  congress 
raised  1,000  regular  militia,  and  3,000  min- 
ute-men. The  English  governor,  Martin, 
disliked  the  appearance  of  things,  and  en- 
deavored to  muster  a force  of  the  Irish  and 
Scotch  part  of  the  inhabitants.  He  also  for- 
tified his  own  house,  at  Newbern,  with  artil- 
lery. The  people  seized  upon  his  cannon ; 
and  he  fled  to  a fort  upon  Cape  Fear  River. 
The  provincials  marched  after  him,  led  on  by 
Colonel  Ashe.  He  retreated  on  board  a ves- 
sel, as  the  other  governors  had  done.  Colo- 
nel Ashe  burnt  the  fort  to  ashes  the  same 


REV 


698 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


night.  The  assembly  declared  the  governor 
a traitor.  He  answered  them'  in  a very  long 
letter,  which  they  ordered  burnt  by  the 
common  hangman.  A large  quantity  of  ball 
and  powder  was  found  in  his  cellar  and  gar- 
dens, at  Newbern. 

In  Pennsylvania,  the  people  prepared  ac- 
tively for  war.  A single  mill,  near  Phila- 
delphia, manufactured  five  hundred  pounds 
of  powder  a week.  Governor  Tryon,  after 
endeavoring  a long  time  to  manage  the  prov- 
ince, followed  the  example  of  the  other  gov- 
ernors. 

In  other  parts  of  the  country,  the  enemy  was 
not  asleep.  One  Captain  Wallace,  command- 
ing an  English  squadron  of  small  vessels  off 
Rhode  Island,  wTas  doing  all  the  damage  in  his 
power,  by  ravaging  the  coast,  and  making 
prize  of  the  merchant  vessels.  His  chief  ob- 
ject seemed  to  be  to  supply  himself  and  his 
force  with  provisions.  With  this  view,  he 
made  a furious  attack  upon  the  town  of  Bris- 
tol, and  fired,  from  morning  till  night,  upon 
their  houses  and  churches.  He  bored  them 
through  and  through,  till,  finally,  the  people 
supplied  him  and  his  squadron  with  fresh 
meat,  and  he  sailed  away. 

About  this  time,  a body  of  American  troops 
were  sent  from  Massachusetts  to  Rhode 
Island,  under  Gen.  Lee.  He  was  a man  of 
great  courage  and  warm  temper.  He  obliged 
all  the  inhabitants,  whom  he  went  to  defend, 
to  take  the  most  terrible  oaths  to  do  precisely 
what  Congress  should  command ; and,  at  all 
events,  to  break  off  all  intercourse  with  the 
tools  of  tyranny,  “vulgarly  called,”  as  the 
oath  said,  “ the  fleets  and  armies  of  the  king.” 
Congress  were  not  much  pleased  with  this 
maneuvre.  It  was  well  meant,  without 
doubt,  but  it  was  very  rough,  and  of  no  real 
use. 

On  the  18th  of  October,  1775,  Falmouth, 
now  Portland,  in  Maine,  was  bombarded  by 
Lieut.  Mowattt,  of  the  ship  Canceaux,  of  six- 
teen guns,  and  the  whole  town  was  consumed. 
He  had  formerly  received  some  affront  in  the 
place,  and  revenged  himself  in  this  way.  He 
sent  the  people  wTord  at  night  that  he  should 
destroy  the  town  in  the  morning ; they  re- 
moved their  furniture,  and  he  went  to  work 
early  the  next  day  with  his  cannon.  The 
town  had  been  twice  sacked  by  the  Indians, 
but  never  suffered  so  severely  before. 


The  most  important  affair  of  this  year  was 
an  expedition  to  Canada.  The  provincials 
had  done  so  well  upon  Lake  Champlain,  that 
the  scheme  of  another  expedition  in  the  same 
quarter  was  much  approved  of.  Congress 
hoped  that,  if  Canada  was  invaded  at  once, 
many  of  the  inhabitants  would  join  the  Amer- 
icans. 

Three  thousand  men,  commanded  by  Gen- 
erals Montgomery,  Wooster,  and  Schuyler, 
were  fitted  out.  Boats  were  built  for  them 
on  the  lake,  at  Crown  Point,  and  the  sum  of 
$50,000  was  collected  to  pay  the  expenses. 
Sir  Guy  Carleton,  governor  of  Canada,  in- 
trenched himself,  with  a strong  force,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  river  Sorel,  which  leads  out  of 
the  lake,  and  which  the  Americans  would  be 
obliged  to  pass. 

The  latter  took  possession  of  an  island  in 
the  lake,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and,  from 
that  place,  planned  an  attack  on  Fort  St. 
John,  where  the  governor  was.  This  fort 
stood  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sorel,  and  com- 
manded the  passage  to  Canada.  The  Amer- 
icans moved  on  without  cannon,  to  a swamp 
within  a mile  and  a half  of  the  fort.  They 
defeated  a body  of  Indians,  who  attacked  them 
in  crossing  a small  river,  waited  for  re-en- 
forcements,  and  laid  siege  to  the  fort. 

Farther  north,  on  the  Sorel,  was  a small 
fort,  called  Chambly.  The  English  had  no 
idea  of  the  provincials  passing  St.  John  to 
fall  upon  Chambly ; but  they  did  so ; took 
the  garrison  prisoners  ; obtained  124  barrels 
of  powder  for  the  siege  of  St.  John,  and  sent 
the  colors  they  had  captured  to  Congress. 
Other  detachments  scoured  the  country  be- 
tween, the  Sorel  and  the  St.  Lawrence;  the 
Canadians  supplying  them  everywhere  with 
arms  and  provisions. 

Just  at  this  time,  Colonel  Ethan  Allen  and 
Major  Brown  undertook  an  expedition  against 
the  city  of  Montreal,  which  stands  on  an 
island  in  the  St.  Lawrence.  Allen  found 
boats  ready  for  him  at  Longueville,  and  cross- 
ed the  river  in  the  night,  below  Montreal. 
Here  Brown  was  to  have  joined  with  his 
troops,  but  he  missed  his  way,  and  Allen  was 
left,  with  a small  force,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  city.  It  was  just  sunrise.  The  mur- 
mur of  the  city  was  heard  at  a few  miles’ 
distance,  and  by  and  by  the  roll  of  the  Eng- 
lish drums  came  upon  the  ear.  The  Ameri- 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  699 


cans  saw  that  they  were  discovered.  Before 
long,  a column  of  British  infantry  came 
marching  down  the  bank  of  the  river.  There 
was  an  almost  breathless  silence  in  Allen’s 
small  band,  as  they  came  up.  Even  Allen 
himself  stood  fast,  and  gazed  at  them.  “ To 
the  boats  ! to  the  boats ! ” cried  a dozen  of 
his  soldiers ; “ there’s  a thousand  of  them.” 
“Silence!  every  man  of  ye!”  roared  Allen, 
brandishing  a huge  horse-pistol.  “ The  first 
man  that  turns  his  back  upon  the  red  coats, 
shall  smell  gunpowder.”  They  were  satisfied 
with  this  arrangement,  on  the  whole,  exam- 
ined their  rifles,  and  stood  ready  for  the 
onset. 

“ Stand  your  ground,  boys ! ” shouted  Al- 
len. A party  of  British  soldiers  was  moving 
toward  them  from  the  main  body,  at  double 
quick  time.  “ Let  them  come ! ” cried  a tall, 
fine-looking  hunter  at  his  side;  “let  them 
come ! ” He  brought  his  rifle  to  his  eye,  as 
he  spoke.  “ Fire !”  shouted  the  British  offi- 
cer, and  instantly  the  hunter  dropped  dead 
at  the  feet  of  Allen.  His  hardy  followers 
shrunk  back;  they  were  sprinkled  with 
the  blood  of  the  poor  hunter.  “ Fire ! fire  1 " 
shouted  Allen,  with  a voice  of  thunder.  A 
hot  skirmish  ensued.  Allen  was  at  last  com- 
pelled to  surrender. 

He  was  kept  a prisoner  more  than  two 
years,  and  then  was  exchanged  for  some 
English  officer  whom  the  Americans  had 
taken.  The  irons  put  upon  him  were  so  fas- 
tened about  him,  and  so  heavy,  that  for  a 
long  time  he  could  lie  down  only  on  his  back. 
A chest  was  his  seat  by  day,  and  his  bed  by 
night.  He  was  sent  to  England,  to  be  tried 
as  a prisoner  of  state,  not  as  a fair  and  open 
enemy,  but  as  a rebel.  At  this  time,  all  the 
Americans  were  called  rebels,  and  the  Eng- 
lish used  to  speak  of  hanging  great  numbers 
of  them  when  the  war  was  over. 

Allen  was  a man  of  very  large  frame  and 
prodigious  strength.  He  possessed  great 
courage,  and  was  much  inclined  to  daring 
enterprise.  His  reputation,  it  seems,  had 
gone  before  him  to  England ; and  he  was 
therefore  kept  in  very  close  confinement. 
The  people  were  as  much  afraid  of  him  as  if 
he  had  been  a whale  or  a sea-serpent.  They 
sometimes  used  to  come  and  see  him  in  his 
prison ; but  they  were  very  shy,  and  if  he  so 


much  as  turned  round,  they  would  run  away 
like  a flock  of  startled  sheep. 

The  Americans  were  always  on  the  watch. 
They  thought  it  probable,  that  Carleton 
would  set  out  about  this  time,  and  were  ready 
for  him.  He  embarked  800  men  in  boats, 
and  undertook  to  cross  the  St.  Lawrence, 
precisely  where  Allen  had  crossed  it,  at 
Longueville.  But  Col.  Warner,  with  three 
hundred  of  the  Green  Mountain  sharp-shoot- 
ers, and  a few  cannon,  lay  among  the  bushes, 
on  the  river  bank,  as  the  governor’s  boats 
came  over.  The  Americans  waited  quietly 
till  they  were  fairly  within  reach,  and  then 
poured  out  upon  them  a tremendous  volley 
of  grape-shot.  The  governor’s  party  retreated 
in  great  haste,  with  some  loss  of  lives ; and 
nothing  more  was  seen  of  them. 

News  of  this  defeat  soon  came  to  Major 
Preston,  the  British  commander  of  the  be- 
sieged fort  of  St.  John.  He  began  to  think 
it  a desperate  case  with  him,  and  so  concluded 
to  surrender  to  the  American  general,  Mont- 
gomery. This  he  did  on  the  3d  of  Novem- 
ber, 1775.  He  had  held  out  like  a brave  man, 
the  siege  having  lasted  six  weeks.  The  Amer- 
icans found  in  this  fort  seventeen  brass  can- 
non, twenty-two  iron  ones,  and  a large  quan- 
tity of  balls  and  bombs.  The  powder  had 
been  used  to  the  last  kernel,  and  the  provis- 
ions to  the  last  morsel.  The  capture  was  an 
important  one.  St.  John,  standing  on  the 
Sorel,  which  leads  from  Lake  Champlain  to 
the  St.  Lawrence,  commanded  the  passage  to 
and  from  Canada,  and  was,  therefore,  called 
the  key  of  Canada. 

The  next  movement  of  the  Americans  was 
to  take  possession  of  the  mouth  of  the  Sorel, 
where  it  empties  into  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
point  of  land  that  is  formed  by  the  meeting 
of  the  two  rivers,  was  fortified  with  batteries, 
which  swept  the  river  in  such  a manner  that 
no  English  vessel  could  pass  without  being 
bored  through  and  through.  As  the  St.  Law- 
rence is  wide  here,  the  Americans  provided  a 
fleet  of  boats  and  floating  batteries  to  guard 
the  other  side,  and  thus  completely  stopped 
the  passage  up  and  down  that  river. 

Governor  Carleton  had  left  Montreal,  which 
stands  farther  up  the  St.  Lawrence  from  the 
sea,  with  a fleet  of  English  ships  under  his 
command,  without  having  dieard  of  these  for* 


REV 


700 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tifications.  What  added  to  the  difficulty  of 
his  situation  was  that,  the  very  day  after  he 
left  Montreal,  ^another  body  of  Americans, 
under  Montgomery  himself,  appeared  under 
the  walls  of  that  city,  and  called  upon  the 
people  to  surrender. 

This  detachment  had  marched  across  the 
country  from  Fort  St.  John.  The  land  is  flat 
and  marsh}T,  and  their  journey  had  been  slow 
and  difficult.  It  gave  them  great  satisfaction 
to  have  reached  Montreal  just  as  the  governor 
had  gone  off  with  his  force.  The  city,  having 
no  defense,  was  compelled  to  surrender.  Gen- 
eral Montgomery  treated  the  people  so  hand- 
somely, that  they  supplied  him  with  a large 
quantity  of  clothes  for  his  troops.  These  were 
very  much  needed.  It  was  now  the  middle 
of  November,  and  they  were  weary  of  a long, 
cold  march. 

Governor  Carleton  was  now  unpleasantly 
situated  on  the  river,  with  Montreal,  in  the 
possession  of  Montgomery,  above  him,  and 
the  fortifications  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sorel 
below.  If  he  could  have  been  taken,  all  Can- 
ada would  have  been  easily  conquered ; but 
he  contrived,  one  dark  night,  to  pass  through 
among  the  floating  batteries,  in  a small  boat, 
with  the  oars  muffled.  Thus  he  escaped  safely 
to  a town  on  the  northern  bank,  called  Trois 
Rivieres;  and  from  that  place  he  went  to 
Quebec. 

The  English  fleet,  which  the  governor  had 
left  behind,  surrendered  to  the  Americans,  in 
a day  or  two,  with  a large  number  of  soldiers 
and  officers  aboard.  General  Montgomery 
left  garrisons  in  Montreal,  and  Forts  Chambly 
and  St.  John,  on  the  Sorel,  to  keep  the  Indi- 
ans in  awe,  and  marched  on  to  Quebec,  with 
the  small  force  of  three  hundred  men. 

While  these  things  were  going  forward, 
General  Washington,  in  his  camp  at  Cam- 
bridge, had  conceived  the  plan  of  sending  an 
expedition  against  Quebec,  by  way  of  a rough, 
wild  route,  known  only  to  the  backwoodsmen 
and  hunters,  through  the  district  of  Maine. 
He  selected  Colonel  Arnold  to  command  the 
expedition ; a rash  but  brave  man,  who  had 
assisted  in  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point.  Fourteen  companies  were  put 
under  his  command;  three  of  riflemen,  and 
one  of  artillery,  under  Captain  Lamb,  being 
among  the  number;  in  all,  there  were  about 
eleven  hundred  men.  A few  others  joined 


them,  of  their  own  accord ; and  among  these 
volunteers  was  Aaron  Burr,  then  twenty  years 
of  age. 

Maine  is  crossed,  from  north  to  south,  as  a 
map  will  show,  by  the  river  Kennebec,  rising 
in  the  mountains  between  Maine  and  Canada, 
and  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  same  mountains,  and 
close,  therefore,  by  the  small  upper  streams 
of  the  Kennebec,  another  river  rises,  called 
the  Chaudiere,  which  empties  into  the  St. 
Lawrence,  nearly  opposite  Quebec.  In  cross- 
ing these  mountains,  between  the  sources  of 
the  two  rivers,  on  the  two  sides,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  pass  very  steep  and  wild  and  desolate 
places,  over  marshes  and  torrents.  Such  was 
the  route  Arnold  and  his  brave  soldiers  were 
to  travel. 

He  left  Boston  in  September,  1775,  and  ar- 
rived at  Nevvburyport.  The  vessels  that 
waited  for  him  here  conveyed  him  and  his 
men  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec.  With  a 
fresh  south  wind,  they  sailed  up  the  river  fifty 
miles,  to  the  town  of  Gardiner.  Here  were 
two  hundred  batteaux  ready  for  them.  These 
were  long,  light  flat-boats,  much  used  by  the 
Canadians,  hunters,  and  others  in  shoal  waters. 

Having  laden  these  with  his  arms  and  pro- 
visions, Arnold  proceeded  up  the  river  to  Fort 
Western,  on  the  right  bank.  Here  he  divided 
his  corps  into  three  detachments.  The  rifle- 
men, under  Capt.  Morgan,  moved  on  forward, 
as  a vanguard,  to  explore  the  country;  to 
sound  the  fords, — that  is,  ascertain  where  the 
river  might  be  crossed  easily ; and  to  look  out 
for  the  portages.  These  are  places  where  the 
river  ceases  to  be  navigable,  on  account  of 
shoals,  falls,  or  rocks.  The  lading  of  the 
boats  must,  therefore,  be  carried  forward  upon 
the  banks,  by  hand,  or  by  beasts  of  burden. 
The  batteaux  are  then  carried  on,  also,  till 
the  river  becomes  deeper  and  smoother. 

Arnold’s  second  detachment  marched  the 
next  day  after  the  first ; and  the  third  detach- 
ment the  day  after  that.  The  current  of  the 
river  was  rapid,  the  bottom  rocky,  and  often 
interrupted  by  falls.  Every  hour,  the  water 
entered  some  of  the  batteaux,  and  damaged 
the  provisions  and  arms.  At  every  portage, 
— and  these  occurred  very  often, — the  boats 
were  to  be  unladen,  and  carried  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  troops.  In  places  where  the  river 
was  rapid,  yet  free  of  rocks,  the  batteaux  were 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


701 


hauled  up  slowly  by  soldiers  on  the  banks, 
who  dragged  them  along  with  ropes. 

The  army,  however,  advanced,  and  at  length 
they  had  wild  mountains  to  cross,  steep  prec- 
ipices to  climb,  vast  shady  forests  to  pass  un- 
der, and  quagmires  to  wade  through.  They 
had  deep  valleys  to  traverse,  where  the  pine- 
trees  were  tossing  over  their  heads  in  the 
stormy  wind,  and  where  the  river  was  rushing 
and  foaming  over  the  rocks,  with  a noise  like 
the  ocean.  They  were  sometimes  a whole 
day  in  traveling  four  or  five  miles,  with  their 
baggage  lashed  on  their  backs,  and  axes  in 
their  hands  to  hew  a road  through  the  wil- 
derness. Some  of  the  men  died  at  last  with 
weariness many  others  fell  sick ; and  all  of 
them  were  at  length  sorely  pressed  for  food. 
Many  a young  soldier,  as  he  lay  down  at  night, 
hungry  and  tired,  on  his  pillow  of  green 
boughs,  thought  of  the  warm  bright  fireside, 
where  a mother  was  weeping  for  him.  But 
these  thoughts  were  vain.  They  rose  in  the 
morning,  and  pressed  on  patiently,  brave  men 
as  they  were. 

By  the  time  they  had  reached  the  source  of 
Dead  River,  a branch  of  the  Kennebec,  their 
provisions  were  almost  exhausted.  The  sol- 
diers were  living,  or  rather  starving,  now, 
upon  the  poor  lean  dogs  they  had  taken  with 
them,  and  even  this  food  was  a luxury.  At 
this  place,  Col.  Enos  received  orders  from  Ar- 
nold, to  send  back  the  sick  to  Boston.  He 
took  the  opportunity  to  return  himself,  with 
his  whole  detachment.  He  was  afterward 
tried  for  this  desertion,  by  a court-martial, 
and  acquitted,  for  the  reason  that  the  men 
must  otherwise  have  starved. 

But  Col.  Arnold  marched  on.  For  thirty- 
two  days,  not  a single  human  dwelling  was 
met  with.  The  army  arrived  at  last  upon  the 
mountains,  between  the  Kennebec  and  the 
Chaudiere.  The  little  food  still  left  was  di- 
vided equally,  and  then  the  troops  were  di- 
rected to  look  out  as  they  could  for  their  own 
living.  They  discovered,  finally,  with  incon- 
ceivable joy,  the  sources  of  the  Chaudiere, 
and  the  first  log-houses  of  the  Canadians. 

These  people  received  them  well,  and  as- 
sisted them.  Arnold  addressed  a proclama- 
tion to  the  Canadians,  waited  for  his  rear- 
guard to  overtake  him,  pressed  on,  and  ar- 
rived, Nov.  9th,  at  Point  Levy,  nearly  oppo- 
site Quebec.  The  people  of  the  city  were  as 


much  amazed  at  the  sight  of  him  and  his  men, 
as  if  they  had  been  so  many  goblins. 

The  English  colonel,  Maclean,  had  heard  of 
their  coming,  however,  by  a letter  which  Ar^ 
nold  had  given  to  an  Indian  on  the  Kennebec, 
to  carry  to  Gen.  Schuyler.  The  Indian  gave 
it  to  Maclean,  and  the  latter  removed  all  his 
batteaux  from  the  Point  Levy  side  of  the  river 
to  the  other  bank.  The  wind  blew  a gale, 
too ; and  thus  the  city  had  time  to  prepare 
for  defense.  All  the  people  of  Quebec  were 
immediately  armed,  and  brought  within  the 
walls,  soldiers  or  not  soldiers,  English,  French, 
Scotch,  and  Irish,  regulars  and  marines. 

The  wind  moderated,  and  Arnold  undertook 
to  pass  the  river  on  the  night  of  Nov.  13th, 
the  same  day  that  Montgomery  took  Montreal. 
One  hundred  and  fifty  men  remained  to  make 
ladders  for  scaling  the  city  walls.  The  rest 
succeeded  in  crossing  the  river.  The  banks 
being  very  steep  here,  Arnold  and  his  men 
marched  down  upon  the  edge  of  the  river 
toward  Quebec,  and  climbed  the  heights  of 
Abraham,  close  by  the  city,  and  almost  over- 
looking it.  Here  he  waited  for  his  150  ladder 
men,  and  hoped  that  the  city  wrould  surrender. 

They  were  prepared  for  him,  however ; and 
Maclean  not  only  refused  to  receive  the  mes- 
sage requiring  him  to  surrender,  but  fired 
upon  the  bearer  of  it.  Arnold  had  no  cannon, 
and  only  six  charges  of  powder  to  each  man. 
Hearing,  therefore,  that  Maclean  was  about  to 
sally  out  upon  him,  he  retired  twenty  miles 
up  the  river,  to  Point  au  Tremble.  He  met 
on  his  march  the  ship  in  which  Governor 
Carleton  was  sailing  down  to  Quebec;  and 
heard,  when  he  reached  the  Point,  that  he 
had  left  it  but  a few  hours  before. 

Montgomery  arrived  here,  and  joined  Ar- 
nold, on  the  1st  of  December,  1775,  after  a 
weary  march  from  Montreal.  The  weather 
was  excessively  cold,  and  the  roads  were 
blocked  up  with  snow.  His  force  was  about 
three  hundred  men ; and  never  were  people 
more  delighted  to  see  each  other,  than  were 
these  three  hundred,  and  the  little  band  of 
brave  fellows  who  had  followed  Arnold. 
Montgomery  had  brought  clothing  for  the 
latter;  and  they  stood  in  great  need  of  it, 
indeed. 

The  soldiers  now  marched  in  company,  and 
arrived  in  sight  of  Quebec  on  the  5th.  A 
summons  was  sent  to  Carleton  to  surrender ; 


702 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


but  he  ordered  his  troops  to  fire  upon  the 
bearer.  Montgomery  then  planted  a battery 
of  six  cannon  within  seven  hundred  paces  of 
the  walls.  They  were  laid  upon  banks  of 
snow  and  ice ; the  pieces  were  small ; and  the 
fire  had  little  effect.  The  snow  had  now  fallen 
in  huge  drifts,  and  the  weather  was  excess- 
ively cold.  A council  of  war  was  called,  and 
an  immediate  assault  on  the  city  was  resolved 
upon. 

Two  detachments,  under  Montgomery  and 
Arnold,  were  to  attack  the  walls  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  town.  This  taken,  the  rest  would 
probably  submit  without  fighting.  On  the 
last  day  of  the  year  1775,  between  four  and 
five  in  the  morning,  in  the  midst  of  a heavy 
snow-storm,  the  American  columns  advanced. 

An  Irish  captain,  going  his  rounds  upon 
the  walls  of  the  town,  observed  the  guns  fired 
by  the  Americans  as  a signal,  and  at  once 
caused  the  drums  to  beat,  and  roused  the  gar- 
rison to  arms.  Montgomery,  with  his  detach- 
ment, passing  along  under  Cape  Diamond, 
came  to  a small  battery  of  cannon.  The 
guard  threw  down  their  arms,  and  fled.  The 
Americans  had  nearly  taken  possession  of  it, 
but  the  road  was  impeded  with  immense 
masses  of  snow.  Montgomery,  with  his  own 
hands,  opened  a path  for  his  troops.  Two 
hundred  of  them  came  up  at  last,  and  rushed 
on.  Just  then,  a cannoneer,  who  had  fled, 
on  seeing  the  Americans  halt,  returned  to  his 
post,  at  the  little  battery,  and,  taking  a match, 
which  happened  to  be  still  burning,  fired  a 
cannon  charged  with  grape-shot.  The  Amer- 
icans were  within  forty  pace£.  Montgomery 
dropped  dead  upon  the  spot,  and  his  troops 
soon  fled. 

Arnold  had  made  an  assault,  meanwhile,  at 
another  point.  But  he  soon  received  a mus- 
ket ball  in  the  leg,  which  splintered  the  bone ; 
and  he  was  carried  off  to  the  hospital,  almost 
by  force,  as  he  was  unwilling  to  quit  the  field. 
Captain  Morgan,  with  two  companies  of  rifle- 
men, now  advanced  upon  the  battery.  His 
sharp-shooters  killed  many  of  the  English 
through  the  embrasures.  The  guard  fled. 
Morgan  rushed  forward,  and  some  prisoners 
were  taken.  But  here  the  courage  of  his 
troops  failed  them.  Morgan  alone  stood  firm. 
As  the  morning  dawned,  he  rallied  his  rifle- 
men with  a voice  of  thunder,  and  they  pushed 
forward.  A detachment  sallied  out  upon 


them,  at  this  moment,  from  the  walls;  and 
the  English  captain  summoned  them  to  lay 
down  their  arms.  Morgan  aimed  a musket  at 
him,  and  shot  him  dead.  The  English  re- 
treated; a hot  skirmish  ensued.  Ladders 
were  planted  against  the  walls,  but  a terrible 
fire  was  poured  down  upon  the  men  who  at- 
tempted to  ascend  them.  A detachment  of 
the  British  now  assaulted  the  Americans  on 
another  side,  and  they  were  compelled,  at 
last,  to  surrender. 

Arnold,  with  his  remaining  force,  retreated 
three  miles  from  the  city,  and  intrenched  him- 
self. Governor  Carleton  kept  within  the 
walls  of  Quebec,  satisfied  with  waiting  till  re- 
enforcements should  reach  him  from  England, 
in  the  spring.  So  ended  the  famous  assault 
upon  Quebec. 

A braver  man  than  Montgomery  never  fell 
on  a field  of  battle.  The  whole  country  wept 
for  his  loss.  Even  the  Canadians  lamented 
him,  and  Carleton  buried  his  body  with  all 
the  honors  of  war.  Colonel  Barre,  and  Fox 
and  Burke,  the  great  orators  of  England,  pro- 
nounced his  praises  in  the  English  parliament. 
Congress  ordered  a monument  to  be  procured 
from  France,  and  erected  to  his  memory. 

We  come  now  to  1776.  In  the  winter  and 
spring  of  this  year,  Boston  was  still  surrounded 
by  the  American  army  under  Washington. 
The  British  in  the  town,  meanwhile,  were 
reduced  to  great  extremity.  For  fuel,  they 
used  the  timber  of  houses,  which  they  pulled 
down  for  the  purpose.  They  were  in  want  of 
food.  Armed  ships  were  ordered  to  Georgia, 
to  buy  up  rice ; but  the  people  of  that  prov- 
ince opposed  them  with  so  much  success, 
that,  of  eleven  vessels,  only  two  got  off  with 
their  cargoes. 

The  old  South  church,  in  Washington  street, 
was  entirely  destroj^cd  inside,  and  used  as  a 
riding-room  for  a regiment  of  dragoons.  The 
pulpit  and  pews  were  taken  out,  and  the  floor 
covered  with  earth.  The  frame-work  of  one 
pew,  carving,  silk  furniture,  and  all,  was  taken 
out,  and  used  for  a pig-sty.  The  North 
church,  so  called,  was  entirely  demolished. 

All  this  time,  notwithstanding  there  was 
much  suffering  in  the  town,  the  English  of- 
ficers and  the  Tories  contrived  to  pass  the 
time,  when  they  were  not  fighting  the  Amer- 
icans, in  dancing  and  other  amusements. 
They  had  a small  theatre,  and  in  the  evening 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


703 


of  Feb.  8th  were  acting  a farce,  called  “ The 
Blockade  of  Boston.”  One  figure,  meant  to 
ridicule  Washington,  was  rigged  out  in  the 
most  uncouth  style,  with  a large  wig,  and  a 
long  rusty  sword.  Another  character  was  an 
American  sergeant,  in  his  country  dress,  with 
an  old  gun  on  his  shoulder,  eight  feet  long. 
At  the  moment  this  figure  appeared,  one  of 
the  British  sergeants  came  running  on  the 
stage,  and  cried  out,  “ The  Yankees  are  at- 
tacking our  works  on  Bunker  Hill.”  The  au- 
dience took  it  for  a part  of  the  play  ; but  Gen. 
Howe  knew  it  was  no  joke,  and  called  out, 
“ Officers,  to  your  alarm-posts  ! ” 

The  American  army  at  this  time  about 
Boston  was  but  little  better  provided  for  than 
the  English.  Many  fell  sick  with  fatigue  and 
exposure.  They  had  provisions  enough  from 
the  counhy,  to  be  sure,  while  the  English 
troops  were  said  to  be  living  wholly  on  salt 
meat,  and  the  Boston  Tories  upon  horse-flesh. 
But  the  whole  number,  in  Januar}',  was  re- 
duced to  less  than  ten  thousand  ; and  these, 
having  enlisted  for  a few  months  only,  were 
every  day  going  home. 

At  one  time,  there  were  hardly  men  enough 
to  man  the  lines.  As  for  powder,  they  had 
but  four  rounds  to  a man ; and  but  four  small 
brass  cannon,  and  a few  old  iron  pieces  full 
of  holes,  with  the  wood-work  broken  off. 
These  were  fitted  into  logs,  like  the  barrel  of 
a gun  into  the  stock,  and  lifted  up  and  down, 
and  wheeled  about,  in  this  way,  but  to  some 
good  purpose.  The  British  laughed  at  these 
machines,  at  first,  but  they  soon  found  them 
no  laughing  matter.  They  kept  up  a contin- 
ual cannonade,  in  return;  firing  about  two 
thousand  shot  and  bomb-shells,  it  is  said,  in 
the  course  of  a few  months.  But  the  whole 
of  this  firing  killed  only. twelve  Americans. 

There  were  two  cannon  kept  in  a gun-house 
opposite  the  Mall,  in  Boston,  at  the  corner  of 
West  street,  in  the  care  of  one  Paddock.  The 
British  found  it  out,  and  Paddock  promised 
to  deliver  them  up.  A party  of  school-boys 
undertook  to  prevent  him  from  doing  it.  The 
school-house  was  the  next  building  to  the 
gun-house,  separated  only  by  a 3~ard,  com- 
mon to  both,  and  surrounded  by  a high 
fence.  The  boys  contrived  to  enter  the  gun- 
house  windows,  in  the  rear,  in  spite  of  an 
English  guard  which  had  bee  n placed  before 
the  building.  The  guns  were  taken  off  their 


carriages,  carried  into  the  school-room,  and 
placed  in  a large  box  under  the  master’s 
desk,  in  which  wood  was  kept.  The  English 
soon  missed  the  guns,  and  began  to  search 
the  yard.  They  entered  the  school-house, 
and  examined  it  all  over,  excepting  the  box, 
which  the  master  placed  his  lame  foot  upon. 
They  were  too  polite  to  disturb  him,  and 
excused  him  from  rising.  The  boys  looked 
on,  but  lisped  not  a word.  The  guns  re- 
mained in  the  box  for  a fortnight,  when  one 
of  th^  largest  boys  carried  them  away  in  a 
trunk,  one  evening,  on  a wheelbarrow.  A 
blacksmith  at  the  south  end  kept  them  some 
time  under  a pile  of  coal ; and  they  were  at 
last  put  into  a boat  at  night,  and  conveyed 
safely  to  the  American  camp. 

The  condition  of  the  American  army  in  the 
early  part  of  the  year  1776  was  miserable. 
They  soon  after  received  five  brass  cannon, 
small  arms  of  all  kinds,  cargoes  of  provisions, 
&c.  These  were  all  captured  from  the  Brit- 
ish, off  the  coast,  by  American  privateers. 

In  England,  the  year  1776  opened  with 
new  resolutions,  on  the  part  of  the  ministry, 
and  the  majorit}’-  of  parliament,  to  continue 
the  war.  The  party  called  the  Whigs  were 
violently  opposed  to  it ; but  the  Tories,  the 
ministry,  and  the  king  regarded  the  Amer- 
icans as  rebels,  and  resolved  to  spare  no 
pains  to  punish  them  severely.  They  found 
it  difficult  to  enlist  soldiers  in  England,  for 
the  war  was  unpopular  with  the  lower  classes. 
Recruiting  officers  were  sent  about,  the  royal 
standard  was  raised  in  all  the  cities,  and  large 
bounties  and  wages  were  promised ; but  to 
little  purpose.  In  Scotland,  some  thousands 
were  raised ; and  a bargain  was  made  with 
some  of  the  small  states  of  Germany,  for 
about  seventeen  thousand  German  troops. 
These  mercenaries  were  called  Hessians,  be- 
cause a part  of  them  came  from  Hesse. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  American  army  at 
Boston  began  to  form  plans  for  seizing  upon 
the  town,  for  taking  the  British  garrison  pris- 
oners, and  for  destroying  their  fleet  in  the 
harbor.  But  they  kept  quiet  in  their  quar- 
ters till  March,  1776  ; the  British  now  and 
then  sallying  out  on  the  American  lines ; 
and  the  latter  returning  the  compliment, 
by  playing  upon  the  town  with  their  rusty 
cannon. 

During  this  month,  the  news  came  of  the 


REV 


704 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


doings  of  the  ministry  in  England,  and  of  the 
king’s  violent  speech  at  the  close  of  the  ses- 
sion of  parliament.  The  whole  American 
army  was  greatly  excited.  The  speech  was 
publicly  burnt  in  the  camp.  At  the  same  time, 
the  red  ground  of  the  American  flag  was 
changed,  and,  in  place  of  it,  thirteen  blue  and 
white  stripes  were  inserted,  as  an  emblem  of 
the  thirteen  colonies  that  were  united  in  the 
struggle  for  liberty.  These  stripes  are  still 
retained  in  our  national  flag. 

There  was  the  same  feeling  in  Congress  as 
in  the  army.  Stimulated  by  the  conduct  of 
the  king  and  parliament,  they  resolved,  from 
this  time,  to  follow  up  the  war,  at  all  haz- 
ards. Hearing  that  an  attack  would  be  made 
upon  New  York,  they  urged  General  Washing- 
ton to  press,  as  closely  as  possible,  the  siege  of 
Boston,  so  that  the  British  might  not  he  able 
to  spare  troops  to  send  against  New  York. 
He  wished  to  attack  the  town  at  once,  but 
most  of  his  generals  opposed  this  plan ; and 
he  concluded  to  fortify  the  heights  of  Dor- 
chester, which  commanded  the  entire  city  on 
the  south  side. 

Heavy  batteries  were  opened  from  the 
American  works  in  Cambridge,  Roxbury,  and 
Lechmere  Point.  The  bombs  fell  into  the 
town  every  hour,  and  houses ‘were  constantly 
set  on  fire  by  them.  All  this  was  to  employ 
the  British  upon  that  side,  while  the  Amer- 
icans, on  the  night  of  the  4th  of  March, 
secretly  marched  over  Dorchester  neck. 

The  frost  rendered  the  roads  good,  and 
such  was  the  silence  of  the  march,  and  the 
tremendous  roar  kept  up  by  the  batteries, 
that  2,000  troops  passed  over,  with  three 
hundred  loaded  carts,  and  nothing  was  known 
of  it  till  morning.  Had  the  British  suspected 
this  maneuvre,  they  would  have  taken  meas- 
ures to  prevent  it.  By  four  o’clock  in  the 
morning,  two  fortifications  wrere  raised  upon 
the  heights. 

The  British  were  amazed.  “ These  rebels 
have  done  more  in  one  night,”  said  General 
Howe,  who  now  commanded,  “ than  my  army 
would  have  done  in  a week.”  A terrible  can- 
nonade now  opened  from  the  British  forts 
and  the  shipping,  upon  the  heights.  But  few 
men,  however,  were  killed ; and  the  Amer- 
icans worked  on  in  high  spirits,  taking  no 
notice  of  the  cannon-balls,  as  they  came 
ploughing  the  ground  about  them. 


General  Howe  saw  that  he  must  either 
leave  the  town,  or  dislodge  the  Americans 
from  the  heights.  He  resolved  upon  the  lat- 
ter ; but  a long  storm  and  a very  high  sea 
prevented  his  troops  from  crossing  over.  He 
finally  concluded  to  give  up  the  town,  and 
transport  his  whole  force  to  Halifax,  in  Nova 
Scotia. 

Knowing  that  his  shipping  might  be  pre- 
vented from  passing  out  of  the  harbor,  by  the 
American  fortifications,  he  prepared  a great 
mass  of  stuff  for  setting  fire  to  the  town,  and 
then  proposed  to  Washington  and  the  select- 
men, that  if  his  troops  were  suffered  to  pass 
safely,  the  town  should  be  left  standing. 
This  was  agreed  to. 

He  had  150  transports  in  the  harbor;  and 
he  embarked  on  board  these,  on  the  17th  of 
March,  taking  with  him  1,500  of  the  Amer- 
ican Tories.  Never  was  such  a scene  of 
confusion,  plunder,  hurrying,  crying,  and 
quarreling ; there  were  fathers  bearing  their 
baggage,  mothers  leading  their  children, 
beasts  of  burden  loaded  with  furniture.  The 
vessels  were  crowded.  The  British  were 
some  days  getting  out  of  the  bay ; and  had 
the  pleasure,  meanwhile,  of  seeing  the  Amer- 
ican army  march  into  Boston,  with  great 
rejoicing. 

The  siege  had  lasted  sixteen  months.  Pro- 
visions had  become  so  scarce  that  fresh  fish 
sold  at  a shilling  a pound ; geese  at  nine 
shillings  apiece ; turkeys  at  two  dollars ; 
hams  at  two  shillings  a pound  ; sheep  at  six 
dollars  each  ; and  apples  at  six  dollars  a bar- 
rel. Two  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon 
were  left  behind  -,  also  a quantity  of  wheat 
and  other  grain,  a good  deal  of  coal  for  fuel, 
and  150  horses. 

The  English  soldiers  now  began  to  think 
that  the  Americans  were  an  enemy  worth 
conquering,  and  that  powder  was  not  abso- 
lutely wasted  upon  them,  as  upon  so  many 
crows.  They  were  provoked  by  the  treat- 
ment they  had  received  from  the  sharp- 
shooters at  Breed’s  Hill,  and  the  rough  com- 
pliments of  the  old  cannon. 

The  Americans,  on  the  other  hand,  now 
entered  upon  the  war  with  their  whole  hearts. 
They  were  irritated  more  than  ever  at  the 
conduct  of  the  English  ministry,  in  hiring  the 
Hessian  soldiers.  This  irritation  was  not 
allayed  by  the  bill  which  had  just  passed 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


705 


through  parliament,  compelling  all  persons 
found  in  American  vessels,  to  serve  on  board 
his  majesty’s  ships  of  war. 

Thus  from  this  time,  the  war,  on  both 
sides,  assumed  a more  determined  character. 
A strong  English  force  was  sent  to  relieve 
Carleton,  in  Canada.  Arnold’s  whole  force 
before  Quebec  now  amounted  to  only  3,000 
men.  Many  of  these  were  sick  of  the  small- 
pox. General  Thomas  died  of  the  disease. 
The  river  was  clear  of  ice,  April,  1776,  and 
English  re-enforcements  were  expected  every 
day  by  the  governor.  An  attack  was  made 
upon  Quebec,  but  it  failed  of  success ; and 
Arnold  was  obliged  to  break  up  his  camp 
and  retreat,  leaving  his  baggage  behind. 
Governor  Carleton  pursued,  till  the  Amer- 
icans reached  the  mouth  of  the  river  Sorel. 

About  the  last  of  May,  English  forces  ar- 
rived at  Quebec,  amounting  to  13,000  men, 
commanded  by  Burgoyne,  Phillips,  and  a 
German  general,  called  Reidesel.  Arnold, 
meanwhile,  was  skirmishing  with  the  Cana- 
dians and  Indians,  about  Montreal  and  the 
Sorel.  In  a short  time,  he  went  down  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  Trois  Rivieres,  where  there 
was  a large  body  of  English. 

He  expected  to  surprise  them  in  the  night, 
but  was  misled  by  his  guide ; and  when  he 
arrived  late  in  the  morning,  the  enemy  was 
drawn  up  in  battle  array.  A skirmish  be- 
gan, and  the  Americans  were  defeated.  They 
fled  over  a wild,  swampy  country  of  woods, 
leaving  many  prisoners  behind  them,  and, 
having  crossed  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  last  ar- 
rived at  Fort  St.  John,  on  the  Sorel.  The 
English  pursued  them  to  this  place.  Ar- 
nold’s force  was  too  small  to  resist  a siege. 
He  therefore  set  fire  to  the  magazine  and  bar- 
racks, and  retreated  farther  south  to  Crown 
Point.  The  English,  having  lost  their  bat- 
teaux,  could  pursue  him  no  farther,  and  soon 
after  returned  to  Quebec. 

The  Americans  had  suffered  exceedingly 
in  the  retreat.  They  sometimes  waded  in  the 
water  to  the  waist,  and  dragged  the  loaded 
batteaux  up  the  rapids  by  main  strength. 
Two  regiments,  at  one  time,  had  not  a single 
man  in  health  ; another  had  only  six,  and  a 
fourth  only  forty.  On  the  first  of  July,  they 
reached  Crown  Point.  And  thus  ended  the 
courageous  but  unfortunate  expedition  to 
Canada. 


During  the  summer  of  1776,  Crown  Point 
was  taken  by  the  British ; and  the  Americans, 
now  commanded  by  Gen.  Gates,  withdrew  to 
Ticonderoga.  A fleet  was  built  on  the  lake, 
at  Skenesborough,  consisting  of  a sloop,  three 
schooners,  and  six  gondolas,  which  were  large 
flat  vessels.  They  carried,  in  the  whole,  more 
than  100  guns,  and  more  than  400  men.  Ar- 
nold commanded  the  fleet. 

By  the  month  of  October  the  British  had 
collected  a much  larger  naval  force ; and,  as 
nothing  could  be  done,  by  way  of  invading 
the  provinces  from  Canada,  till  Lake  Cham- 
plain should  be  cleared  of  the  Americans, 
they  sailed  up  the  lake  and  engaged  them. 
The  two  fleets  fought  till  night.  Arnold  then 
very  skillfully  made  his  escape,  and  in  the 
morning  not  an  American  sail  was  to  be  seen. 

The  British  fleet  followed  on,  however,  and 
found  them  again  off  Crown  Point.  Some  of 
the  American  vessels  escaped  to  Ticonderoga. 
Seven  of  them  remained.  They  were  attack- 
ed, and  the  action  continued  some  hours. 
Arnold  was  determined  that  his  vessels  should 
not  be  taken.  He  contrived,  therefore,  to 
run  them  on  shore,  and  there  they  were 
blown  up.  He  did  not  leave  his  own  vessel 
till  she  was  wrapped  in  flames.  Lake  Cham- 
plain was  now  in  the  power  of  the  British ; 
but  Gates  and  Arnold  had  prevented  them, 
strong  as  their  force  was,  from  invading  the 
provinces  farther  south.  It  was  now  too  late 
in  the  season  to  attempt  it. 

The  British,  finding  that  the  provinces  of 
North  Carolina  and  Virginia  were  too  strong 
for  them,  determined  to  make  an  attack  upon 
the  city  of  Charleston,  in  South  Carolina. 
Admiral  Parker  and  General  Clinton  reached 
Charleston  harbor  on  the  28th  of  June,  and 
with  eleven  large  vessels  of  war  commenced 
a tremendous  attack  upon  Fort  Moultrie. 
This  stood  upon  Sullivan’s  Island,  six  miles 
from  the  city,  and  was  built  of  a kind  of  wood 
called  palmetto,  so  spongy  and  soft  that  the 
balls  were  buried  in  it,  and  no  splinters  were 
thrown  off. 

The  fort  was  defended  by  sixty  pieces  of 
cannon.  Ship  after  ship  poured  in  their  stun- 
ning broadsides.  The  whole  harbor  seemed 
but  a sheet  of  flame.  The  Americans  aimed 
well,  and  every  shot  had  its  effect.  Some  of 
the  English  vessels  were  soon  stranded.  The 
Thunderer,  after  firing  more  than  sixty 


REV 


45 


706 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


bombs,  was  disabled.  The  Bristol  was  al- 
most destroyed,  and  a great  number  of  men 
were  killed. 

The  fire  of  the  fort  suddenly  stopped.  The 
powder  was  exhausted.  The  enemy  thought 
themselves  sure  of  the  victory,  and  the  ships 
moved  nearer,  with  their  flags  flying  and 
their  drums  beating.  But  the  Americans 
were  soon  supplied  from  the  shore,  and  the 
battle  lasted,  hotter  than  ever,  till  seven  in 
the  evening.  The  English  drew  off  in  the 
night,  and  the  enterprise  was  abandoned. 
This  defense  of  Fort  Moultrie  was  one  of  the 
most  gallant  actions  of  the  war.  Every  man 
and  every  officer  fought  like  a hero.  Con- 
gress voted  thanks  to  the  whole  garrison,  and 
to  several  of  the  officers  by  name.  A sword 
was  presented  to  Sergeant  Jasper.  In  the 
heat  of  the  battle,  the  staff  of  the  fort  flag  had 
been  cut  down  by  a ball.  It  fell  from  the 
parapet  to  the  ground  below.  Jasper  sprang 
after  it,  fastened  it  to  the  rammer  of  a cannon, 
and  hoisted  it  again,  amid  the  fire  of  the 
enemy. 

General  Clinton  arrived  at  Staten  Island, 
off  the  harbor  of  New  York,  about  the  12th 
of  July.  General  Howe,  with  the  army 
which  left  Boston  for  Halifax  in  March,  had 
taken  possession  of  the  island  on  the  second 
of  the  month.  Two  hundred  of  the  inhabit- 
ants enlisted  under  his  banner.  Some  of  the 
New  Jersey  people  came  into  his  camp,  and 
Governor  Tryon  of  New  York  visited  him, 
informed  him  of  the  state  of  the  province,  and 
encouraged  him  to  believe  that  everything 
must  soon  yield  to  his  army. 

The  British  plan  now  was,  to  direct  the 
whole  English  force  upon  the  province  of  New 
York,  and  to  make  it,  with  the  city  of  New 
York,  the  centre  of  all  their  operations  in 
America.  From  this  point,  they  could  march 
south  upon  the  southern  provinces ; here 
they  could  receive  stores  from  England  by 
water,  and  provisions  from  Staten  and  Long 
Islands ; and  here  they  could  ascend  the 
Hudson,  and  meet  Burgoyne,  in  his  route 
south  from  Canada. 

The  revolution  in  America  had  reached  a 
point  from  \^hich  it  could  not  turn  backward. 
The  feelings  of  a great  part  of  the  people 
were  alienated  from  England,  and  a deep  hos- 
tility was  planted  in  their  bosoms.  They  had 
originally  asked  for  justice,  and  that  was  de- 


"f 

nied.  Oppression  followed,  and  that  they 
resisted.  Then  came  the  British  armies,  with 
fire  and  sword,  to  consume  their  dwellings, 
and  shed  their  blood.  A high-spirited  people 
were  not  likely  to  look  on  these  things  but 
with  resentment.  Their  love  and  respect  for 
England  were  originally  very  strong.  These, 
indeed,  lasted  up  to  the  period  of  which  we 
are  now  speaking.  But  now  all  thoughts  of 
reconciliation  were  abandoned.  The  people 
no  longer,  asked  for  redress ; they  cast  off 
their  allegiance  to  the  king,  and  determined 
to  be  free ; the  “ spirit  of  ’76,”  which  is  often 
alluded  to,  was  the  earnest  voice  of  a nation, 
resolving  that  they  would  risk  everything 
for  independence. 

In  June,  1776,  Congress  had  chosen  five  of 
their  members  to  consider  the  great  question, 
whether  the  colonies  should  declare  them- 
selves a free  and  independent  nation.  These 
were  Jefferson,  Adams,  Franklin,  Sherman, 
and  Livingston.  They  reported  in  favor  of 
so  doing;  and  Congress  agreed  with  them. 
Independence  was  solemnly  declared  on  the 
4th  of  July.  The  declaration  was  signed  by 
John  Hancock,  president,  and  afterward  by 
every  other  member  of  Congress. 

This  declaration  has  become  famous  among 
all  nations.  It  was  drawn  up  by  Thomas 
Jefferson ; and  then  it  was  a great  deal  dis- 
cussed by  the  members  of  Congress,  and 
amendments  and  alterations  were  made.  It 
was  a long  time  before  Congress  could  satisfy 
themselves.  One  gentleman  objected  to  one 
word,  and  another  to  another  word,  till,  as 
Franklin  said  to  Mr.  Jefferson,  it  fared  like 
the  sign  of  a hatter  in  Philadelphia,  composed 
in  these  words,  “ John  Thompson,  hatter, 
makes  and  sells  hats  for  ready  money,”  with 
a figure  of  a hat  at  the  end.  Before  nailing 
it  over  his  door,  the  hatter  submitted  it  to  his 
friends  for  correction.  One  thought  the  word 
“hatter”  of  no  use,  it  being  followed  by  the 
words  “makes  hats.”  So  “hatter”  was 
struck  out.  A second  said  that  “makes” 
might  as  well  be  omitted;  his  customers 
would  not  care  who  made  the  hats.  A third 
thought  “ ready  money  ” was  useless ; it  was 
not  the  custom  of  the  place  to  sell  for  any- 
thing but  money.  These  were  brushed  out, 
and  it  now  read,  “John  Thompson  sells 
hats.”  “Sells  hats!”  said  the  next  man  the 
hatter  met ; “ why,  nobody  will  expect  you 


KEY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


707 


to  give  them  away.”  “Sells”  was  knocked 
out,  and  then  “hats,”  because  there  was 
one  painted  on  the  board.  This,  with  “ John 
Thompson,”  was  all  that  remained.  The 
declaration  was  not  trimmed  quite  so  badly 
as  this.  It  satisfied  everybody  at  last. 

This  story,  therefore,  only  applies  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence was  discussed  in  Congress.  As  it  was 
finally  passed  and  signed  by  the  members 
of  Congress,  it  was  one  of  the  most  noble 
efforts  of  the  human  mind.  The  people  re- 
ceived and  read  it  with  great  joy.  Independ- 
ence was  proclaimed,  with  great  parade,  at 
Philadelphia,  on  the  8th.  Cannon  were 
fired,  the  bells  rung,  bonfires  were  kindled, 
and  the  people  seemed  to  be  mad  with  joy. 
On  the  11th,  the  declaration  was  read  to  each 
brigade  of  the  American  army,  then  assem- 
bled at  New  York,  and  received  with  pro- 
digious peals  of  applause.  The  same  eve- 
ning, the  statue  of  George  III.,  erected  in 
1770,  wTas  dragged  through  the  streets,  by 
the  ‘ sons  of  liberty  ; ’ and  the  lead  it  was  made 
of  was  melted  into  musket-balls. 

At  Baltimore,  an  immense  multitude  re- 
ceived the  declaration  in  similar  manner ; the 
air  ringing  writh  shouts  and  the  roar  of  can- 
non. The  king’s  effigy  was  made  the  sport 
of  the  populace,  and  burnt  in  the  public 
square. 

In  Boston,  the  declaration  was  read  from 
the  gallery  of  the  state-house,  to  an  immense 
crowd,  gathered  from  all  quarters.  Men,  wo- 
men, and  children  assembled  to  hear  it,  and 
every  moment  the  air  resounded  with  the 
shouts  of  the  multitude.  The  troops  were 
drawn  up,  finely  dressed  and  armed,  in  King 
street,  which  from  that  time  was  called  State 
street.  The  bells  rang,  the  people  shouted, 
the  cannon  thundered  and  blazed,  and  the 
striped  banners  waved  from  the  steeples,  till 
the  whole  air  seemed  to  be  alive.  In  the 
evening,  all  the  ensigns  of  royalty,  English 
lions,  sceptres,  or  crowns,  whether  graven 
or  painted,  were  torn  in  pieces,  and  burnt  in 
State  street. 

The  Virginian  convention  voted  that  the 
king’s  name  should  be  struck  from  all  the  pub- 
lic prayers.  They  ordered  that  the  great  seal 
of  that  commonwealth  should  represent  Vir- 
tue as  the  guardian  genius  of  the  province, 
resting  one  hand  upon  her  lance,  holding 


with  the  other  a sword,  and  Trampling  upon 
Tyranny,  in  the  shape  of  a prostrate  man, 
with  a crown  fallen  from  his  head,  and  a 
broken  chain  in  his  hand. 

Such  was  the  manner  in  which  the  declara- 
tion of  independence  was  received  by  the 
Americans.  They  had  now  declared  them- 
selves to  the  world  as  a free  people ; but  ere 
their  freedom  could  be  established,  they  had 
yet  to  pass  through  a long,  bloody,  and  deso- 
lating war. 

General  Washington  now  occupied  New 
York  and  the  opposite  shore  of  Long  Island, 
with  seventeen  thousand  troops.  On  the 
22d  of  August,  the  English  landed,  in  great 
force,  on  the  island,  and  a very  hot  battle  was 
fought  among  the  hills  and  woods.  A whole 
regiment  of  fine  young  men  from  Maryland 
were  killed,  some  cannon  w*ere  lost,  and  the 
Americans  retreated  to  the  northern  p^rt  of 
the  island. 

Here  the  stormy  weather  kept  the  enemy 
from  attacking  the  camp  again.  But,  fearing 
an  assault  every  moment,  the  Americans  con- 
cluded to  pass  over  to  New  York,  and  join 
the  rest  of  the  army.  This  was  done  in  the 
night  of  August  29th.  They  kindled  up  cir- 
cles of  bright  fires  in  their  camp,  to  deceive 
the  enemy,  and  started  off  in  their  boats  at 
eleven  o’clock  in  the  evening. 

They  were  so  near  the  British  all  the  while, 
as  to  hear  the  sound  of  their  pickaxes,  and 
now  and  then  the  shout  of  a British  soldier, 
as  he  walked  on  guard.  They  were  neither 
seen  nor  heard,  however.  The  fleet  of  boats 
moved  off  from  the  shore,  like  an  army  of 
ghosts ; not  a word  was  said,  no  drums  beat, 
no  bugles  rang,  no  colors  waved  in  the  breeze. 

A fair  wind  favored  the  enterprise,  and 
bore  the  boats  fleetly  across.  In  the  morn- 
ing, at  eight,  when  the  fog  cleared  up  which 
had  covered  them  in  the  passage,  and  the  sun 
shone  out  bright  and  warm  upon  the  green 
shores,  the  wooded  hill-tops  of  the  islands, 
and  the  smooth  surface  of  the  bay,  the  Amer- 
ican army  had  vanished.  The  camp  was  de- 
serted, the  fires  had  gone  down,  and  nothing 
was  to  be  seen  but  a few  distant  boats,  which 
had  come  back  for  the  cannon. 

Previous  to  the  retreat  of  the  Americans, 
several  skirmishes  were  fought  between  the 
two  armies.  Two  posts,  one  belonging  to  the 
English,  and  the  other  to  the  Americans, 


REV 


708 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


were  within  half  gun-shot  of  each  other,  and 
only  separated  by  a small  creek.  It  was  at 
last  agreed  between  the  British  and  Amer- 
ican officers,  that  the  sentinels  should  not 
fire  upon  each  other,  as  they  went  their 
rounds.  So  they  became  very  civil.  “ Give 
us  a quid  of  your  tobacco,  my  good  friend,” 
cried  the  English  guard  to  the  American  sen- 
tinel. “ Oh ! certainly,”  said  the  latter.  He 
drew  his  twisted  roll  from  his  pocket,  and 
tossed  it  across  the  creek  to  the  Englishman, 
who  gnawed  off  a quid,  and  threw  it  back 
again. 

The  British  army  now  pressed  the  Amer- 
icans with  great  activity;  the  latter  were 
driven  back  from  point  to  point.  They  left 
the  city  of  New  York,  at  last,  and  the  British 
entered  it.  A few  days  after,  a terrible  fire 
raged  in  the  place,  and  consumed  more  than 
a thousand  houses.  Washington  retreated 
into  the  back  country.  The  British  scoured 
the  province  of  New  York  with  their  troops, 
and  covered  all  the  shores  with  their  vessels. 
Several  strong  forts  were  taken,  together  with 
their  garrisons.  Nothing  could  be  done  to 
oppose  them.  The  Americans  were  never  so 
much  discouraged. 

General  Washington  with  his  army  march- 
ed into  New  Jersey,  and  attempted  to  harass 
the  British  army  there,  under  Cornwallis. 
But  they  were  too  strong,  and  Washington 
was  obliged  to  retreat  night  and  day : over 
mountain  and  valley,  he  fled  before  them. 
The  time  the  militia  had  enlisted  for  was 
short,  and  many  of  them  went  home.  Whole 
companies  deserted,  and  the  army  was  so 
small  in  December,  that  Washington  knew 
every  man  by  his  name.  They  were  so 
nearly  naked  and  ragged,  too,  and  looked  so 
miserable,  that  their  own  countrymen  would 
not  join  them.  They  were  driven,  week  after 
week,  up  and  down  the  banks  of  the  Dela- 
ware. The  infantry  left  the  frozen  ground 
bloody  behind  them,  with  their  bare  and  sore 
feet.  They  were  so  closely  pursued  that  they 
could  scarcely  cross  a stream,  and  beat  down 
the  bridges  after  crossing  it,  before  the  enemy 
came  galloping  up  on  the  other  side. 

The  British  cavalry  traversed  the  country, 
with  their  large,  fine  horses,  and  elegant  uni- 
forms. The  hundred  or  two  horsemen  of  the 
American  army  were  mounted  upon  wretched, 
worn-out  horses,  so  lean  and  frightful  as  to 


be  the  constant  theme  of  ridicule  with  the 
British  soldiers.  The  riders  were  not  much 
better.  Ragamuffins  had  become  a common 
name  for  them. 

These  were  gloomy  times ; and  the  Amer- 
ican people  began  to  fear  that  they  would  be 
crushed  in  their  struggle  for  freedom.  Many 
were  entirely  disheartened.  Some  persons 
basely  deserted  the  cause  of  their  country, 
in  this  hour  of  trouble,  and  went  over  to  the 
enemy.  But  Washington  remained  firm  and 
undismayed.  While  other  minds  were  sha- 
ken with  doubt  and  fear,  he  remained  stead- 
fast and  resolved.  Looking  deeply  into  the 
future,  and  placing  his  trust  in  Heaven,  he 
seemed  to  penetrate  the  clouds  that  shed  their 
gloom  upon  the  land,  and  to  see  beyond  them 
a brighter  and  a happier  day. 

He  always  appeared  before  his  soldiers 
with  a smile,  and  fought  or  fasted  with  them, 
as  necessity  required.  He  inspired  all  around 
him  with  courage,  and  wrote  many  letters  to 
Congress,  entreating  them  to  make  great  ex- 
ertions to  send  him  assistance.  They  endeav- 
ored to  rouse  the  country,  by  representing  to 
the  people  the  necessity  of  an  immediate  in- 
crease of  the  army.  This  appeal  was  not 
without  its  effect.  Philadelphia,  in  a very 
short  time,  furnished  Washington  with  a 
regiment  of  fifteen  hundred  noble  fellows  who 
were  resolved  to  support  him  to  the  last. 
They  had  been  accustomed  to  the  gay  com- 
pany and  high  living  of  the  city ; but  they 
shouldered  the  musket, — slept,  with  a mere 
blanket  around  them,  on  the  frozen  ground, 
or  in  sheds  and  barns,  and  suffered  every- 
thing with  the  poorest  of  the  army. 

The  British  withdrew  into  winter  quarters. 
They  occupied  the  villages  for  many  miles, 
up  and  down,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Del- 
aware. Washington  was  below  them,  on  the 
other  side.  They  were  tired  of  pursuing  him  ; 
and  they  believed  that  his  army  would  soon 
dwindle  away,  and  the  whole  country  be  con- 
quered. They  scarcely  took  the  trouble  to 
set  guards  at  night. 

But  Washington  watched  them  like  a lynx. 
On  the  night  of  the  25th  of  December,  1776, 
he  crossed  the  Delaware  with  a large  part  of 
his  army.  The  night  was  dark,  stormy,  and 
cold.  The  river  was  crowded  with  broken 
ice,  rushing  together,  and  sweeping  down 
upon  its  swift  current.  But,  notwithstand- 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


709 


ing  these  difficulties  and  dangers,  the  river 
was  passed  by  the  American  troops,  and  they 
inarched  on  to  Trenton,  which  place  they 
entered  at  eight  in  the  morning.  A large 
body  of  Hessians  were  stationed  there.  They 
were  completely  surprised  ; but  they  fought 
bravely  for  a short  time.  Five  hundred  cav- 
alry made  their  escape;  but  some  fine  can- 
non and  more  than  a thousand  prisoners 
were  taken  by  the  Americans.  Cornwallis, 
who  lay  a few  miles  off,  thought  so  little  of 
the  American  ‘ragamuffins,’  at  this  time,  that 
he  mistook  the  noise  of  the  cannon  at  Trenton 
for  thunder. 

The  British  army  were  amazed  at  this  un- 
expected event.  Washington  started  off  for 
the  mountains  of  New  Jersejr,  the  British 
elose  upon  his  rear.  They  encamped  so  near 
him  one  evening  that  they  thought  it  impos- 
sible for  him  to  escape.  They  put  off  attack- 
ing him,  however,  till  the  next  morning. 
The  Americans  kindled  up  their  fires,  as 
usual,  posted  sentinels  enough  to  keep  up  the 
6how  of  a camp,  and  then  marched  off  at  one 
o’clock  without  noise.  They  reached  Prince- 
ton at  daybreak,  and  fell  upon  the  British 
there  so  suddenly  and  so  fiercely,  that  sixty 
were  killed,  and  three  hundred  taken  pris- 
oners. Their  commanding  officer  had  some 
fears  of  an  attack,  and  had  written  to  the 
commander  of  the  British  army,  a day  or  two 
before,  for  a re-enforcement.  “Don’t  be 
alarmed,”  was  the  answer;  “with  a corporal 
and  six  men,  you  may  scour  the  whole  coun- 
try ; don’t  be  alarmed.”  They  found  them- 
selves mistaken,  however,  as  we  have  seen. 
Washington  now  formed  a camp  at  Morris- 
town, and  militia  came  to  him  from  all  parts. 

The  British  treated  their  prisoners  with 
cruelty.  Hundreds  were  confined  in  the 
New  York  prisons.  They  were  often  insulted 
as  rebels.  A party  of  them  was  once  brought 
before  Gen.  Howe,  to  be  tried.  An  English 
gentleman  pleaded  their  youth  in  their  favor. 
“ It  won’t  do,”  said  the  general ; “ hang  up 
the  rascals ! hang  them  up  ! ” They  were 
only  carted  through  the  streets,  however, 
seated  on  coffins.  Halters  were  tied  about 
their  necks,  and  the  British  soldiers  hooted 
at  tlfem. 

While  these  things  were  going  on,  late  in 
the  year  1776,  Sir  Peter  Parker  scoured  the 
coasts  of  Rhode  Island  with  a large  squadron, 


and  overrran  the  whole  province.  Mean- 
while, too,  a man  by  the  name  of  Stuart  was 
sent,  by  the  British,  among  the  Indians  in 
the  high,  wild  lands  back  of  Virginia  and 
the  other  southern  colonies.  The  Cherokees 
were  persuaded  by  him  to  make  war ; and 
they  rushed  in  upon  the  settlements  of  the 
whites,  burning  the  villages,  and  scalping 
men,  women,  and  children.  But  a large 
American  force  soon  marched  into  their  own 
country.  Their  wigwams  were  burnt  to  the 
ground,  and  their  cornfields  trampled  under 
foot.  They  were  frightened  at  last,  and  beg- 
ged for  peace. 

It  once  happened,  during  the  expedition 
against  the  Indians,  that  the  Americans  hav- 
ing marched  a long  way  among  the  hills, 
Major  Pickens  was  sent  ahead  with  twenty- 
five  men,  as  a scouting  party,  to  examine  the 
country.  One  morning,  as  he  and  his  party 
waded  through  the  tall  grass  on  the  bank  of 
a stream  called  Little  River,  more  than  two 
hundred  Indians  came  rushing  out  on  a ridge 
of  land  just  above  them.  “Let  us  scalp 
them,”  cried  the  Indian  leader  to  his  men  ; 
“they  are  too  few  to  shoot.”  But  Major 
Pickens  was  prepared  for  their  onset.  His 
men  were  sharp-shooters,  and  each  had  his 
rifle.  He  ordered  them  not  to  fire  until  he 
did ; to  take  sure  aim ; and  having  fired,  to 
bury  themselves  in  the  grass,  and  load  their 
rifles.  The  Indian  chief  soon  came  up  within 
twenty-five  yards  of  the  little  band,  yelling, 
and  shaking  his  tomahawk.  Pickens  stretch- 
ed out  his  rifle,  took  deliberate  aim,  and  shot 
him  dead.  The  twenty-five  brave  riflemen 
fired.  The  Indians  fell  on  all  sides.  They 
yelled  more  than  ever,  with  fury  and  terror, 
dropped  their  tomahawks,  and  fell  back 
among  the  trees.  Even  there  the  rifles  were 
too  sure  for  them.  Not  an  Indian  could 
show  himself  over  a log  or  a rock,  but  a bullet 
instantly  whistled  through  him.  One  of 
them  was  seen  running  his  gun  through  the 
roots  of  a fallen  tree : a rifleman  aimed  at  him 
as  coolly  as  if  he  had  been  a wooden  mark, 
hit  him  precisely  in  the  nose,  and  laid  him 
flat  on  his  back.  Another  Indian  lifted  the 
dead  body,  and  was  running  off  with  it,  when 
another  rifleman  fired,  and  killed  him. 
Dozens  of  them  were  picked  off*  in  this  way, 
and  the  rest  fled. 

A few  such  skirmishes  as  these  made  the 


REV 


'710 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Indians  soon  tired  of  fighting  the  Americans, 
to  which  they  had  been  instigated  by  the 
British.  The  next  year,  when  an  attempt 
was  made  to  set  them  upon  the  white  inhab- 
itants along  the  frontiers,  they  replied  to  the 
British  emissaries,  that  “the  hatchet  was 
buried  so  deep  that  they  could  not  find  it.” 

In  the  spring  of  1777,  General  Howe 
amused  himself  by  sending  out  detachments 
from  his  camp  to  ravage  various  parts  of  the 
country.  On  the  26th  of  April,  Governor 
Tryon  embarked  at  New  York  with  a detach- 
ment, sailed  through  the  sound,  and  landed 
at  Fairfield,  Conn.  His  forces  marched 
through  the  country  in  battle  array,  and 
Teached  Danbury  in  twenty  hours.  As  they 
came,  the  few  militia  who  were  there  fled  at 
full  speed.  The  British  began  to  burn  and 
demolish  everything  except  the  houses  of  the 
Tories.  Eighteen  houses  were  consumed ; 
and  eight  hundred  barrels  of  pork  and  beef, 
two  thousand  barrels  of  flour,  and  seventeen 
hundred  tents  were  carried  off  or  destroyed. 
But  the  militia  began  to  muster  from  the 
country  roundabout. 

At  Ridgefield,  Gen.  Arnold  blocked  up  the 
road  in  front  of  the  British,  who  were  now 
returning.  He  had  with  him  about  five 
hundred  men.  These  brave  fellows,  who  had 
marched  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  in  the  rain, 
kept  up  a brisk  fire  upon  the  enemy  as  they 
came  on,  and  stood  their  ground  till  the 
British  formed  a lodgment  upon  a hill  at 
their  left  hand.  They  were  then  obliged  to 
give  way.  The  British  rushed  on,  and  a 
whole  platoon  fired  at  Gen.  Arnold,  who  was 
not  more  than  thirty  yards  distant.  His 
horse  was  killed.  A soldier  advanced  to  run 
him  through  with  his  bayonet ; Arnold  shot 
him  dead  with  his  pistol,  and  escaped.  The 
British  lost  more  than  two  hundred  men,  but 
made  good  their  retreat  to  the  sound.  Con- 
gress presented  Gen.  Arnold  with  a fine  war- 
horse,  richly  caparisoned,  for  his  gallantry. 

By  way  of  retaliation,  on  the  24th  of  May, 
Col.  Meigs,  an  American,  crossed  the  sound 
with  one  hundred  and  seventy  men,  in  whale- 
boats, and  fell  upon  the  enemy  at  Sag  Harbor, 
on  Long  Island.  They  burned  twelve  vessels, 
destroyed  a large  quantity  of  forage,  killed 
six  men,  and  brought  off  ninety  prisoners, 
without  losing  one  of  their  own  men.  They 
^returned  to  Guilford,  having  traversed  the 


distance  of  ninety  miles  in  twenty-five  hours 
from  the  time  of  their  departure.  Congress 
ordered  an  elegant  sword  to  be  presented  to 
Colonel  Meigs. 

Gen.  Howe  made  great  efforts,  in  the  spring 
of  1777,  to  persuade  the  Americans  to  enlist 
under  him.  They  were  promised  large  wages 
and  bounties ; but  very  few  of  them  could  be 
wheedled  in  this  way.  They  hated  the  Ger- 
man mercenaries  even  more  than  they  did 
the  English.  But  great  numbers  of  militia 
crowded  to  Washington’s  camp,  at  Middle 
Brook,  New  Jersey.  His  army  amounted  to 
fifteen  thousand  men. 

He  was  so  strongly  intrenched  among  the 
hills,  that  Howe  dared  not  attack  him.  The 
summer  was  spent  in  marching  to  and  fro,  in 
New  Jersey,  without  effecting  much.  But 
in  July,  the  British  mustered  a force  of  six- 
teen thousand  men,  at  New  York.  These 
left  there,  soon  after,  with  a large  fleet.  An 
attack  was  expected  everywhere  upon  the 
coast ; but  no  one  knew  whither  they  were 
bound.  Having  been  off  at  sea,  with  high 
winds,  for  a long  time,  they  entered  Chesa- 
peake Bay  at  last,  and  landed  at  Turkey 
Point.  They  left  that  place  Sept.  3d,  and, 
marching  toward  Philadelphia,  came  up  with 
Washington’s  army  at  a place  called  Chad’s 
Ford,  on  the  river  Brandywine.  On  the  11th, 
they  had  a warm  skirmish,  and  the  Ameri- 
cans were  driven  back.  Congress  removed 
to  Yorktown,  Virginia ; and  Howe  entered  * 
Philadelphia,  in  great  triumph,  Sept.  26th. 

The  Americans  were  defeated  again  at  Ger- 
mantown, on  the  4th  of  October.  The  battle 
began  early  in  the  morning,  when  nothing 
could  be  seen  farther  than  thirty  yards. 
During  the  whole  action,  which  lasted  nearly 
three  hours,  the  firing  on  both  sides  was 
directed  by  the  flash  of  each  other’s  guns. 
The  smoke  of  the  cannon  and  musketrjr, 
mingled  with  the  thick  fog,  rested  over  the 
armies  in  clouds.  The  Americans  saved  their 
artillery,  even  to  a single  cannon,  which  had 
been  dismounted.  This  piece  belonged  to 
Gen.  Greene’s  division ; he  stopped  in  the 
midst  of  the  retreat,  and  coolly  ordered  it  to 
be  placed  in  a wagon.  In  this  manner  it  was 
carried  off. 

Gen.  Greene’s  aide-de-camp,  Major  Burnet, 
wore  a long  cue  in  this  battle,  as  the  fashion 
then  was  in  the  army.  As  he  turned  round 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


711 


to  attend  to  the  cannon  just  mentioned,  his 
cue  was  cut  off  by  a musket-ball  from  the 
enemy.  “Don’t  hurry,  my  dear  major,” 
cried  Greene,  laughing;  “pray  dismount, 
and  get  that  long  cue  of  yours ; don’t  be  in 
haste.”  The  English  were  driving  after  them 
at  a tremendous  rate,  cavalry,  cannon,  and 
all.  The  major  jumped  from  his  horse,  how- 
ever, and  picked  up  his  cue.  Just  at  that 
moment,  a shot  took  off  a large  powdered  curl 
from  the  head  of  Greene.  The  major,  in  turn, 
advised  him  to  stop  and  pick  it  up ; but  he 
rode  on  quietly,  and  was  the  last  man  on  the 
field. 

About  this  time,  a smart  action  was  fought 
at  Red  Bank,  on  the  Jersey  side  of  the  Dela- 
ware, seven  miles  below  Philadelphia.  The 
Americans  had  erected  batteries  here,  and 
upon  Mud  Island,  half  a mile  distant,  in  the 
middle  of  the  river.  Nothing,  therefore, 
belonging  to  the  British,  could  pass  up  and 
down  between  their  camp,  which  was  now  at 
Philadelphia,  and  their  fleet  in  the  river 
below.  Two  ranges  of  chevaux-de-frise  were 
placed  in  the  channel.  They  stretched  from 
the  island  nearly  to  the  bank. 

Howe  sent  down  two  thousand  Germans, 
under  Col.  Donop,  to  attack  the  Red  Bank 
redoubt.  This  was  defended  by  four  hun- 
dred men.  This  number  was  so  small  that 
half  the  redoubt  was  left  vacant,  and  a line 
was  drawn  through  the  middle  of  it.  The 
enemy  came  on  fiercely  enough,  with  a brisk 
cannonade;  entered  the  empty  part  of  the 
redoubt,  and  shouted  for  victory.  But  it  was 
now  the  garrison’s  turn.  They  poured  out 
such  a tremendous  fire  that  the  Germans, 
after  a brief  conflict,  fled,  with  the  loss  of  four 
hundred  men.  Their  brave  commander, 
Donop,  was  killed.  Late  in  the  season,  these 
fortifications  in  the  river  were  abandoned. 

Washington  retired  into  winter  quarters, 
at  Yalley  Forge,  sixteen  miles  from  Philadel- 
phia. His  army  might  have  been  tracked, 
by  the  blood  of  their  feet,  in  marching,  with- 
out shoes  or  stockings,  over  the  hard,  frozen 
ground.  Thousands  of  them  had  no  blank- 
ets, and  were  obliged  to  spend  the  night  in 
trying  to  get  warm,  instead  of  sleeping. 
They  erected  log-huts  for  lodgings.  For  a 
fortnight,  they  nearly  starved.  They  were 
sometimes  without  bread  and  without  meat. 
A person  passing  by  the  huts  of  these  poor 


fellows  in  the  evening,  might  have  seen  them, 
through  the  crevices,  stretching  their  cold 
hands  over  the  fire,  and  a soldier  occasionally 
coming  in  or  going  out,  with  nothing  but  a 
blanket  on  his  shoulders.  “No  pay,  no 
clothes,  no  provisions,  no  rum,”  said  they  to 
each  other.  But  they  loved  Washington  and 
their  country  too  well  to  desert  them  in  these 
trying  times. 

While  a British  force  lay  on  the  west  side 
of  Rhode  Island,  under  haughty  and  oppress- 
ive Gen.  Prescott,  during  this  last  season 
(1777),  one  Barton,  a militia  major,  learned 
their  situation  from  a deserter,  and  planned 
an  adventure.  He  collected  his  regiment, 
and  asked,  which  of  them  would  risk  their 
lives  with  him.  If  any  were  willing,  they 
should  advance  two  paces.  Every  man  came 
forward ; they  knew  Barton  well  for  a brave 
and  trusty  leader.  He  chose  thirty-six  of 
them,  mustered  five  whale-boats,  and  started 
off  at  nine  o’clock  in  the  evening.  The  men 
promised  to  follow  him  at  all  hazards.  He 
directed  them  to  sit  perfectly  still,  like  statues, 
and  obey  his  orders.  Barton’s  boat  went 
ahead,  distinguished  by  a long  pole  run  out 
from  the  stem,  with  a handkerchief  tied  to  it. 

As  they  rowed  by  Prudence  Island,  they 
heard  the  English  guard  cry  “All’s  well.” 
A noise  was  heard  on  the  main  land,  like  the 
trampling  of  horses  ; but,  as  the  night  was 
very  dark,  nothing  could  be  seen,  and  no  man 
whispered  a word.  They  now  landed,  and 
set  off  silently  for  Prescott’s  lodgings,  which 
were  a mile  from  the  shore.  Their  way  led 
by  a house  occupied  by  a company  of  troop- 
ers. “ Who  comes  there  ? ” cried  the  sentinel. 
They  said  nothing ; and  a few  trees  standing 
before  them,  their  number  could  not  be  seen. 
They  moved  on.  “ Who  comes  there  ? ” mut- 
tered the  sentinel  again. — “Friends,”  replied 
Barton. — “Friends,”  said  the  soldier,  “ad- 
vance, and  give  the  countersign.” — “Poh! 
poh ! ” said  Barton ; we  have  no  countersign. 
Have  you  seen  any  rascals  to-night?”  He 
rushed  upon  the  guard,  at  this  moment,  like 
a lion,  and  threatened  to  blow  his  brains  out, 
if  he  uttered  a syllable.  The  poor  fellow  was 
horribly  frightened,  and  they  took  him  along 
with  them.  They  soon  reached  the  house, 
burst  in  the  door,  and  rushed  forward.  A 
British  soldier,  with  only  a shirt  on,  rushing 
out  at  the  same  time,  ran  for  the  cavalry 


REV 


712 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


house,  to  give  the  alarm.  The  men  would 
not  believe  him,  but  laughed  at  him  for  being 
frightened  at  ghosts.  He  confessed  that  the 
creature  (Barton)  was  clothed  in  white ; and 
so  it  passed  off. 

“Is Gen.  Prescott  here?”  shouted  Barton, 
to  the  masteY  of  the  house. — “No,  sir!  oh 
no,  sir ! ” said  the  poor  fellow,  scared  almost 
out  of  his  wits*  Nobody  in  the  house  seemed 
to  know  anything  about  Prescott. — “Then,” 
shouted  Barton,  at  the  head  of  the  staircase, 
“I  will  burn  the  house  down  about  your 
ears.”  And  he  seized  a flaming  brand  from 
the  fireplace. — “What  noise  is  this ? ” cried 
somebody  in  the  next  chamber.  Barton 
opened  the  door,  and  found  an  elderly  gentle- 
man sitting  up  in  bed.  “Are  you  Gen. 
Prescott,  sir  ? ” — “Yes,  sir.” — “You  are  my 
prisoner,  then,”  said  Barton.  Prescott  was 
half  dressed  by  the  soldiers  in  a moment,  and 
carried  off  to  the  shore,  with  a Major  Barring- 
ton, who  had  leaped  from  a chamber  window. 

The  captors  had  scarcely  rowed  through 
the  English  fleet,  when  a discharge  of  cannon 
gave  the  alarm.  Fifty  boats  pursued  them  in 
the  dark.  They  escaped,  however,  and,  in 
six  hours  from  the  time  of  starting,  landed  at 
Warwick  Point.  “You  have  made  a mon- 
strous bold  push,  major,”  said  Prescott,  as 
they  stepped  ashore. — “ Thank  you,  sir,”  said 
Barton,  with  a bow;  “we  have  done  as  well 
as  we  could.”  This  capture  occasioned  great 
joy  throughout  the  country. 

Having  seen  Washington’s  army  in  their 
winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  we  shall  now 
follow  the  northern  army,  under  Gates,  and 
the  English  under  Burgoyne,  through  the 
campaign  of  1777.  The  latter  intended  to 
break  his  way  from  Canada,  up  the  river 
Sorel,  through  Lakes  Champlain  and  George, 
and  the  river  Hudson,  to  New  York.  He 
had  under  his  command  one  of  the  finest 
armies  ever  seen.  The  Americans  were 
driven  before  him,  from  Champlain  almost 
to  Albany.  Burgoyne  pressed  after  them  ; 
but  his  route  lay  through  the  woods,  and  the 
Americans  cut  large  trees  on  both  sides  of 
the  road,  so  that  they  fell  across  it,  and 
blocked  it  up  entirely.  The  country  was  so 
covered  with  marshes,  and  crossed  by  creeks, 
that  the  British  were  obliged  to  build  no  less 
than  forty  bridges ; one  of  them  was  a log 
bridge,  extending  two  miles  across  a swamp. 


July  30th,  Burgoyne  reached  Fort  Edward, 
on  the  Hudson. 

He  had  with  his  army  a large  number  of 
Indian  warriors,  who  ravaged  the  country  in 
a horrible  manner.  One  of  them  murdered 
a beautiful  American  girl.  Miss  McRea.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  a Tory,  and  was  to  be 
married  to  a young  English  officer.  The 
latter  sent  two  Indians  to  guide  her  across 
the  wood  from  the  fort  to  his  own  station. 
They  quarreled  on  the  way,  which  should 
have  special  charge  of  her,  and  one  of  them, 
to  terminate  the  dispute,  sunk  his  tomahawk 
in  her  head. 

The  spirit  of  the  whole  country  was  greatly 
excited  by  these  things ; and  an  army  of 
thirteen  thousand  men  was  collected  under 
Gen.  Schuyler,  to  oppose  Burgoyne.  The 
command  was  afterward  given  to  Gen.  Gates. 
Meanwhile,  a British  force,  under  Gen.  St. 
Leger,  had  crossed  Lake  Ontario,  from  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  laid  siege  to  Fort  Schuyler, 
on  the  southern  side.  Gen.  Herkimer  march- 
ed northward  with  eight  hundred  militia,  to 
relieve  it.  He  fell  into  an  ambuscade,  how- 
ever, in  the  woods,  and  was  killed.  In  his  last 
moments,  though  mortally  wounded,  he  was 
seen  sitting  on  a stump,  still  encouraging  his 
men.  They  stood  firm,  and  several  of  the 
British  Indians  fell  at  their  first  fire.  The  rest 
were  so  enraged,  that  they  turned  upon  the 
Tories  and  the  British,  and  murdered  several 
of  them.  The  battle  was  heard  at  the  fort,  and 
two  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  Americans  came 
out  to  re-enforce  the  detachment.  The  Brit- 
ish were  wholly  routed.  The  Indians  fled, 
howling  like  wild  beasts,  and  left  their  ket- 
tles, blankets,  tomahawks,  and  deer-skins 
behind. 

But  St.  Leger,  with  his  Indians  and  Tories, 
still  besieged  Fort  Schuyler.  Gen.  Arnold 
was  sent,  with  one  thousand  men,  to  attack 
them.  But  this  force  was  too  small,  and  the 
Americans  had  recourse  to  a laughable  strat- 
agem. Col.  Brooks,  afterward  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  seized  upon  one  Cuyler,  a 
Tory,  who  owned  a large  farm-house.  He 
was  in  great  terror  lest  the  Americans  should 
plunder  him ; but  Brooks  agreed  to  let  him 
go,  and  spare  his  property,  if  he  would  travel 
to  Fort  Schuyler,  and  tell  the  British  force 
there,  that  Arnold  was  coming  upon  them 
with  an  immense  army.  Cuyler  consented. 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


713 


He  bored  his  coat  through  in  two  or  three 
places,  in  the  skirts,  and  made  all  haste 
across  the  woods  to  the  British  camp.  He 
informed  the  Indians  that  Arnold  was  rush- 
ing upon  them  with  a tremendous  force  ; he 
said  he  had  fled  before  them  for  his  life,  and 
showed  the  bullet-holes  in  his  old  coat,  in 
proof  of  his  story.  The  Indians  were  fright- 
ened. Nothing  could  persuade  them  to  stay 
■with  St.  Leger.  “ You  told  us,”  said  they, 
“ there  would  be  no  fighting  for  us  ; that  we 
should  smoke  our  pipes ; and  when  you  had 
taken  the  prisoners  in  the  fort,  we  were  to 
have  the  pleasure  of  cutting  their  throats. 
But  this  won’t  do.”  Accordingly,  seven  or 
eight  hundred  immediately  left  him.  lie 
was  himself  so  alarmed  that  he  fled  with  his 
troops,  and  left  his  baggage  behind  him. 
Two  Indian  chiefs,  who,  it  seems,  understood 
the  plot,  followed  them  in  their  march,  and 
played  jokes  upon  the  officers.  One  of  the 
chiefs  had  loitered  behind  ; and  just  as  the 
officers  reached  a deep,  muddy  place,  he  came 
running  up  to  them,  out  of  breath,  and  cried 
out,  “They  are  coming!  they  are  coming  !” 
The  soldiers  threw  down  their  knapsacks, 
and  plunged  through  the  mire  as  fast  as  they 
could  go.  St.  Leger  himself  was  plastered 
with  mud  from  head  to  foot.  In  this  way, 
Fort  Schuyler  wras  relieved  from  the  siege 
without  bloodshed. 

About  the  middle-  of  August,  Burgovne 
sent  a detachment  of  five  hundred  Hessians 
and  one  hundred  Indians,  under  Col.  Baum, 
to  take  possession  of  a collection  of  Ameri- 
can provisions,  at  Bennington,  in  Vermont. 
But  Gen.  Stark  was  on  hand,  luckily,  with 
eight  hundred  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont 
militia.  Col.  Baum,  finding  this  force  greater 
than  his  own,  threw  up  temporary  breast- 
works for  defense,  and  sent  to  Burgoyne  for 
re-enforcements.  Several  skirmishes  follow- 
ed, in  which  the  Americans  had  the  advan- 
tage. Animated  by  success,  they  at  length 
ventured  to  make  a general  attack  upon  the 
breastworks  of  the  enemy,  though  they  were 
without  cannon,  and  destitute  even  of  bayo- 
nets. The  Hessians  fought  very  bravely  for 
two  hours.  But  they  were  now  opposed  by 
still  braver  men.  The  Americans  rushed  into 
the  very  flash  of  their  cannon  and  musketry. 
Stark  had  said,  at  the  outset  of  the  battle, 
“My  fellow-soldiers,  we  conquer  to-day,  or 


this  night  Moll  Stark  is  a widow.”  Such 
deep  resolution  seemed  to  be  in  the  breast  of 
every  man.  They  could  not  be  resisted. 
Multitudes  of  the  enemy  fell  before,  their 
keen  and  well  directed  fire.  Baum  himself 
was  killed,  and  most  of  his  detachment  either 
lost  their  lives,  or  were  taken  prisoners. 

The  Americans,  not  expecting  another  ene- 
my, had  dispersed  themselves  after  the  battle. 
Suddenly,  a re-enforcement  of  several*  hun- 
dred British  troops,  under  Col.  Breyman, 
arrived  at  Bennington.  The  Americans  were 
now  near  losing  all  they  had  gained.  But  it 
happened  that  a regiment,  under  Col.  War- 
ner, reached  the  place  soon  after.  These, 
with  the  militia,  immediately  made  an  attack 
upon  the  enemy.  They  fought  till  sunset, 
when  the  British  retreated,  and,  under  cover 
of  the  night,  the  greater  part  effected  their 
escape.  In  these  two  engagements,  four 
hundred  of  the  enemy  were  killed  and  wound- 
ed, six  hundred  were  taken  prisoners,  and 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dragoon  swords,  eight 
loads  of  baggage,  and  twenty  horses  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Americans. 

A Vermont  clergyman,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  first  day’s  battle,  mounted  a 
stump,  and  prayed  for  the  Americans.  The 
British  heard  him,  and  fired  at  him.  The 
stump  was  bored  through  with  their  bullets, 
but  the  clergyman  was  unhurt.  He  stepped 
down.  “Now  give  me  a gun,”  said  he;  and 
he  fired  the  first  shot  on  the  American  side. 

An  old  farmer  in  the  neighborhood  had 
five  sons  in  the  battle.  He  was  told  the  next 
day  that  one  of  them  had  come  to  a miserable 
end.  “ What ! ” cried  the  gray-headed  pat- 
riot, “did  he  leave  his  post  ? did  he  run  from 
the  enemy?”  “Oh  no,  sir;  worse  than 
that : he  fell  among  the  slain,  fighting  like  a 
hero.” — “ Then  I am  satisfied,”  said  the  old 
man;  “bring  him  in  ; let  me  look  upon  my 
noble  boy.”  The  corpse  was  brought  in  ; 
he  wept  over  it.  He  then  called  for  a bowl 
of  water  and  a napkin,  washed  the  blood 
away  with  his  own  trembling  hands,  and 
thanked  God  that  his  son  had  died  for  his 
country. 

By  the  middle  of  September,  the  Ameri- 
can army  under  Gates  was  within  three  miles 
of  the  great  army  of  Burgoyne,  on  the  Hud- 
son. The  latter  was  severely  pressed  for 
provisions,  and  undertook  to  march  on  toward 


REV 


714 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Albany.  The  Americans  met  him  at  Still- 
water, on  the  19th;  a fierce  battle  was 
fought;  and  the  British  could  advance  no 
farther.  They  pitched  their  camp  on  the 
plains  of  Saratoga,  three  miles  above  the 
village,  within  cannon-shot  of  the  American 
lines. 

General  Clinton  was  at  this  time  attempt- 
ing to  force  a passage  up  the  Hudson,  from 
New 'York  to  re-enforce  .Burgoyne.  Spies 
and  scouts  were  constantly  passing  between 
the  two  armies.  One  Palmer  was  at  last 
caught  in  this  business,  and  brought  into  the 
camp  of  Gen.  Putnam,  at  Peekskill.  He  was 
found  to  be  an  American  Tory,  whom  the 
British  had  made  a lieutenant  for  his  pains. 
Gov.  Tryon  wrote  for  his  release,  and  threat- 
ened vengeance  if  he  were  executed. 

Putnam  addressed  the  following  note  to 
the  governor,  in  reply  : — 

“Sir:  Nathan  Palmer,  a lieutenant  in 
your  service,  was  taken  in  my  camp  as  a spy ; 
he  was  tried  as  a spy ; he  was  condemned  as 
a spy ; and  you  may  rest  assured,  sir,  he 
shall  be  hanged  as  a spy. 

“ I have  the  honor  to  be,  &c., 

“ Israel  Putnam. 

“ To  his  excellency,  Governor  Tryon. 

“ P.  S.  Afternoon.  He  is  hanged.” 

Hot  skirmishes  now  took  place  every  day 
between  the  two  armies  at  Saratoga.  Sept. 
23d,  a cannonade  was  kept  up,  with  a tre- 
mendous roar  and  blaze,  for  three  hours. 
The  field  was  strewn  with  the  killed.  An 
English  captain,  with  forty-eight  men,  had 
the  command  of  four  fine  cannon.  He  fought 
till  thirty-six  of  his  men  were  killed.  His 
horses  being  shot  down  at  last,  the  cannon 
were  left  to  the  Americans. 

Some  of  the  American  soldiers,  during 
these  skirmishes,  often  placed  themselves  in 
the  boughs  of  high  trees,  the  country  being 
wild  and  woody,  and  played  with  their  rifles 
upon  the  rear  and  flanks  of  the  enemy.  The 
British  officers  wrere  picked  off  like  birds. 
Burgoyne  himself  once  narrowly  escaped. 
His  aide-de-camp,  Gen.  Phillips,  was  deliver- 
ing a message  to  him,  when  he  received  a 
rifle  ball  in  his  arm.  His  saddle  was  fur- 
nished with  very  rich  lace,  and  a sharp-shoot- 
er had  taken  him  for  Burgoyne. 

Oct.  7th,  the  wrhole  British  line  was  driven 
back  by  a tremendous  charge.  The  German 


lines  stood  firm  to  the  last,  and  Col.  Brooks 
was  ordered  to  attack  them.  He  galloped 
toward  them  at  the  head  of  his  regiment, 
wraving  his  sword  ; and  Gen.  Arnold  (who 
fought  this  day  as  a volunteer)  rushed  on 
with  him.  Arnold  wras  wounded,  and  car- 
ried off*.  Brooks  kept  on,  and  the  Germans 
were  driven  back.  Col.  Cilley,  of  New 
Hampshire,  captured  a cannon  with  his  own 
hands,  and  was  seen  astride  upon  it  in  the 
heat  of  the  battle,  shouting  to  his  soldiers. 

In  this  battle,  Burgoyne  had  a bullet  pass 
through  his  hat,  and  another  through  the 
edge  of  his  vest.  The  English  general  Fra- 
zer fought  nobly  for  a long  time.  Col.  Mor- 
gan observed  him  at  last,  called  up  one  of  his 
best  riflemen,  and  pointed  him  out.  “ Do 
you  see  that  tall,  fine-looking  fellow,”  said 
he,  “fighting  like  a lion?  It  is  Frazer.  I 
honor  the  man — but  he  must  die.”  This  was 
enough  for  the  rifleman.  He  aimed,  and 
Frazer  was  shot  dead. 

On  the  18th  of  October,  1777,  the  whole 
British  army  under  Burgoyne  surrendered  to 
General  Gates.  There  were  nearly  ten  thou- 
sand men,  including  Indians  ; forty  cannon, 
seven  thousand  muskets,  and  a vast  quantity 
of  tents  and  cartridges.  The  whole  country 
was  filled  with  rejoicing.  The  thanks  of 
Congress  were  voted  to  Gates  and  his  army. 

But  the  best  effect  of  the  victory  was  that 
the  French  now  concluded  to  fight  with  the 
Americans  against  England.  Treaties  be- 
tween the  two  nations  wTere  signed  Feb.  6th, 
1778,  and  a fast-sailing  schooner  from  France 
reached  Casco  Bay,  in  Maine,  in  about  a 
month  with  the  news.  It  occasioned  pro- 
digious joy  in  Congress,  in  the  army  at  Val- 
ley Forge,  and  over  the  whole  country.  A 
French  fleet  arrived  on  the  coast  early  in  July. 

General  Clinton  knew  that  they  were  com- 
ing, and  therefore  thought  it  necessary  to 
remove  to  New  York.  He  left  Philadelphia 
on  the  18th  of  June,  and  marched  through 
New  Jersey,  toward  the  latter  place.  The 
British  army  had  been  in  possession  of  Phil- 
adelphia for  many  months.  Their  departure 
was  a most  welcome  event  to  the  inhabitants. 
The  business  of  the  city  was  very  much 
interrupted  while  they  were  there,  and  the 
intercourse  of  the  inhabitants  with  the  neigh- 
boring towns  and  villages,  was  attended  with 
much  difficulty  and  vexation. 


REY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


715 


Captain  Plunkett  escaped  from  the  British, 
while  they  were  at  Philadelphia,  in  a curious 
manner.  He  was  an  American  officer,  who 
was  taken  prisoner,  carried  to  that  city,  and 
kept  in  confinement.  Some  years  before  he 
had  formed  a very  pleasant  acquaintance  with 
a young  Quakeress.  She  became  apprised  of 
his  situation,  and  determined  to  effect  his 
release.  Accordingly,  she  privately  sent  him 
the  uniform  of  a British  officer.  The  captain 
put  it  on,  and  ordered  the  guard  to  open  the 
door.  The  latter,  taking  him  for  a British 
officer,  allowed  him  to  pass  into  the  streets. 
He  immediately  went  to  the  house  of  the 
young  Quakeress,  where  he  remained  con- 
cealed for  some  time.  His  benefactress  then 
procured  him  an  old  market-woman’s  gown, 
bonnet,  and  shawl.  The  captain  dressed 
himself  in  these,  and,  thus  disguised,  set  out 
to  leave  the  city.  The  British  soldiers  on 
guard  at  the  gate,  taking  him  for  a market- 
woman,  allowed  him  to  pass;  and  thus  he 
escaped  from  the  enemy. 

The  Americans  contrived  some  machines, 
which  were  filled  with  gunpowder,  and  sent 
down  the  river  Delaware,  near  to  the  city. 
They  expected  that  these  would  explode,  and 
annoy  the  British  shipping ; they  did,  in  fact, 
no  damage,  but  the  British  were  very  much  | 
alarmed;  accordingly,  they  fired  cannon  at 
every  thing  they  saw  floating  in  the  river. 
The  Americans  heard  of  all  this,  and  they 
were  very  much  amused  with  it.  Francis 
Hopkinson,  a man  of  great  wit,  wrote  a ballad 
on  the  subject,  which  follows.  Sir  William, 
spoken  of  in  the  poem,  was  Sir  William 
Howe,  then  the  British  commander. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  THB  KEGS. 

Gallants,  attend,  and  hear  a friend 
Trill  forth  harmonious  ditty: 

Strange  things  I’ll  tell,  which  late  befell 
In  Philadelphia  citv. 

’Twas  early  day,  as  poets  say, 

Just  when  the  sun  was  rising, 

A soldier  stood  on  log  of  wood, 

And  saw  a thing  surprising. 

As  in  a maze  he  stood  to  gaze, — 

The  truth  can’t  be  denied,  sir, — 

He  spied  a score  of  kegs,  or  more, 

Come  floating  down  the  tide,  sir. 

A sailor  too,  in  jerkin  blue, 

This  strange  appearance  viewing, 

First  rubbed  his  eyes,  in  great  surprise, 

Then  said,  “ Some  mischiefs  brewing.” 


“ These  kegs  do  hold  the  rebels  bold, 
Packed  up  like  pickled  herring; 

And  they’re  come  down  to  attack  the  town, 
In  this  new  way  of  ferrying.” 

The  soldier  flew,  the  sailor  too, 

And,  scared  almost  to  death,  sir, 

Wore  out  their  shoes,  to  spread  the  news, 
And  ran  till  out  of  breath,  sir. 

Now  up  and  down,  throughout  the  town, 
Most  frantic  scenes  were  acted ; 

And  some  ran  here,  and  others  there, 

Like  men  almost  distracted. 

Some  fire  cried,  which  some  denied, 

But  said  the  earth  had  quaked; 

And  girls  and  boys,  with  hideous  noise. 

Ran  through  the  streets  hall  naked. 

Sir  William  he,  snug  as  a flea, 

Lay  all  this  time  a snoring, 

Nor  thought  of  harm,  as  he  lay  warm, 

The  land  of  dreams  exploring. 

Now  in  a fright  he  starts  upright, 

Awaked  by  such  a clatter: 

He  rubs  both  eyes,  and  boldly  cries, 

“Alas,  what  is  the  matter?” 

At  his  bedside  he  then  espied 
Sir  Erskine  at  command,  sir; 

Upon  one  foot  he  had  one  boot, 

And  the  other  in  his  hand,  sir. 

“Arise,  arise!”  Sir  Erskine  cries; 

“The  rebels — more’s  the  pity — 

Without  a boat,  are  all  afloat, 

And  ranged  before  the  city. 

“The  motley  crew,  in  vessels  new, 

With  Satan  for  their  guide,  sir, 

Packed  up  in  bags,  or  wooden  kegs, 

Come  driving  down  the  tide,  sir. 

“Therefore  prepare  for  bloody  war,-' 

These  kegs  must  all  be  routed, 

Or  surely  we  despised  shall  be, 

And  British  courage  doubted.” 

The  royal  band  now  ready  stand, 

All  ranged  in  dread  array,  sir, 

With  stomach  stout,  to  see  it  out, 

And  make  a bloody  day,  sir. 

The  cannons  roar  from  shore  to  shore, 

The  small  arms  make  a rattle ; 

Since  wars  began,  I’m  sure  no  man 
E’er  saw  so  strange  a battle. 

The  rebel  dales,  the  rebel  vales, 

With  rebel  trees  surrounded, 

The  distant  woods,  the  hills  and  floods, 

With  rebel  echoes  sounded. 

The  fish  below  swam  to  and  fro, 

Attacked  from  every  quarter; 

“ Why  sure,”  thought  they,  “ the  devil’s  to  pay, 
’Mongst  folks  above  the  water.” 

The  kegs,  ’tis  said,  though  strongly  made, 

Of  rebel  staves  and  hoops,  sir, 

Could  not  oppose  their  powerful  foes, 

The  conquering  British  troops,  sir. 

% 


REV 


716  COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


From  morn  to  night,  these  men  of  might 
Displayed  amazing  courage, 

Aud  when  the  sun  was  fairly  down, 

Retired  to  sup  their  porridge. 

An  hundred  men,  with  each  a pen, 

Or  more,  upon  niy  word,  sir, 

It  is  most  true,  would  be  too  few, 

Their  valor  to  record,  sir. 

Such  feats  did  they  perform  that  day, 

Against  these  wicked  kegs,  sir, 

That  years  to  come,  if  they  get  home, 

They’ll  make  their  boasts  and  brags,  sir. 

As  soon  as  Washington  heard  that  Clinton 
had  left  Philadelphia,  he  broke  up  his  quarters 
at  Valley  Forge,  and  followed  hard  after  him. 
A hot  battle  was  fought  on  the  28th,  near 
Monmouth  court-house,  in  New  Jersey.  It 
did  not  cease  till  the  evening.  Washington 
slept  upon  his  cloak  under  a tree,  expecting 
more  fighting  in  the  morning ; but  the  Brit- 
ish marched  off  in  the  night.  Sixty  of  their 
soldiers  were  found  dead  on  the  battle-field, 
without  wounds.  Fatigue  and  the  excessive 
heat  had  killed  them. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  battle,  one  Molly 
Pitcher  was  occupied  in  carrying  water  from 
a spring  to  a battery,  where  her  husband  was 
emplo}^ed  in  loading  and  firing  a cannon. 
He  was  shot  dead  at  last,  and  she  saw  him 
fall.  An  officer  rode  up,  and  ordered  off  the 
cannon.  “ It  can  be  of  no  use,  now,”  said  he ; 
but  Molly  stepped  up,  offered  her  services, 
and  took  her  husband’s  place,  to  the  aston- 
ishment of  the  army.  She  fought  well,  and 
half-pay  for  life  was  given  her  by  Congress. 
She  wore  an  epaulette,  and  was  called  Captain 
Molly,  ever  after. 

In  the  midst  of  the  fight,  there  was  a soldier 
whose  gun-lock  was  knocked  off  by  a bullet. 
At  the  same  instant,  a soldier  at  his  side  was 
killed.  He  picked  up  the  dead  man’s  musket, 
and  was  preparing  to  fire,  when  a bullet 
entered  the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  and  twisted 
the  barrel  into  the  shape  of  a corkscrew. 
Although  the  bullets  were  flying  around  him 
like  hail-stones,  he  deliberately  knelt  down 
upon  the  spot,  unscrewed  the  lock  from  the 
musket  in  his  hand,  and  fastened  it  to  his 
own  gun,  which  he  had  thrown  away.  In  a 
few  minutes,  he  was  again  prepared,  and 
then  engaged  in  the  deadly  conflict 

No  other  great  battles  were  fought  during 
the  campaign  of  1778.  The  armies  only 


molested  each  other  by  sending  out  small 
detachments.  Col.  McLane,  of  Lee’s  famous 
legion  of  troopers,  had  a narrow  escape.  He 
had  planned  an  attack  on  a small  British  force 
stationed  on  a turnpike  road,  eight  miles 
from  Philadelphia,  and  rode  ahead  with  a 
single  soldier,  to  point  out  the  way  for  his 
men.  It  was  in  the  gray  of  the  morning. 
His  comrade  suddenly  shouted,  “ Colonel,  the 
British ! ” spurred  his  horse,  and  was  out  of 
sight  in  a moment.  There,  indeed,  were  the 
enemy  all  about  him.  They  had  lain  in 
ambuscade,  and  thus  suddenly  came  upon 
him.  A dozen  shots  were  fired,  but  his  horse 
only  was  wounded,  in  the  flank.  This  spur- 
red the  animal  on  at  a furious  rate.  A num- 
ber of  British  officers  at  a farm-house  by  the 
road-side  observed  the  colonel  as  he  passed. 
They  thought  he  was  on  his  way  to  the  Eng- 
lish army,  which  was  directly  ahead.  He 
dashed  by;  they  soon  found  out  their  mis- 
take, and  pursued  him.  His  horse  went  with 
such  speed,  however,  over  fences  and  fields, 
and  every  obstacle,  that,  at  last,  only  two 
men  continued  to  follow  him.  These  came 
up  with  him  at  the  ascent  of  a small  hill,  the 
three  horses  so  exhausted,  that  neither  could 
be  forced  out  of  a walk.  One  of  the  soldiers 
cried,  “Surrender,  you  rebellious  rascal,  or 
we  will  cut  you  to  pieces.”  The  colonel 
made  no  reply,  but  laid  his  hand  on  his  pis- 
tols. The  man  came  up,  and  seized  him  by 
the  collar,  without  drawing  his  sword.  The 
colonel  drew  a pistol  from  his  hojster,  aimed 
it  at  the  Englishman’s  heart,  and  killed  him. 
The  other  now  seized  him  on  the  other  side ; 
a fierce  struggle  ensued.  The  colonel  received 
a severe  sword-gash  in  his  left  atm ; but  he 
drew  his  second  pistol  that  moment  with  his 
right,  placed  it  between  the  Englishman’s 
eyes,  and  killed  him  by  a shot  in  the  head. 
He  then  stopped  the  flow  of  his  own  blood, 
by  crawling  into  a mill-pond,  and  at  last 
reached  the  American  camp. 

In  the  camp  at  Morristown,  during  the 
winter  and  the  spring  of  1779,  the  Americans 
were  often  without  meat  or  bread ; and  they 
ate  peas,  barley,  and  almost  every  kind  of 
horse-food  but  hay.  Salt  could  only  be  got 
for  eight  dollars  a bushel.  The  snow  was 
four  feet  deep.  They  had  nothing  but  a bed 
of  straw  and  a blanket  at  night  They  made 
log  huts  in  February,  which  were  tolerably 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


717 


comfortable.  But  many  deserted,  and  the 
rest  were  almost  discouraged. 

Little  was  done  on  either  side  during  this 
year.  The  British  main  army,  under  Clinton, 
was  at  New  York ; and  the  Americans,  under 
Washington,  were  among  the  Highlands, 
above  that  city,  on  the  river  Hudson.  In  the 
spring,  a British  force  was  sent  to  ravage  the 
coast  of  Virginia.  They  destroyed  every- 
thing in  their  way,  villages,  shipping,  and 
stores.  The  Virginians  sent  to  the  British 
general  to  ask  what  sort  of  warfare  this  was. 
He  replied  that  “ all  rebels  must  be  so 
treated.” 

A month  or  two  afterward,  Governor  Try  on 
was  sent  to  commit  similar  havoc  in  Connect- 
icut. Col.  Whiting  had  mustered  the  mili- 
tia at  Fairfield.  Try  on  came  to  that  place, 
and  commanded  him  to  surrender.  He  gave 
him  an  hour  for  consideration ; but,  before 
that  time  had  elapsed,  his  soldiers  set  the 
town  on  fire,  and  a great  part  of  it  was  laid 
in  ashes.  At  New  Haven,  all  possible  dam- 
age was  done.  The  harbor  was  covered  over 
with  feathers  from  the  beds  of  the  people. 
Desks,  trunks,  closets,  and  chests  were  bro- 
ken open ; the  women  were  robbed  of  their 
buckles,  rings,  bonnets,  and  aprons.  East 
Haven  was  afterward  burnt,  and  Norwalk 
shared  a similar  fate.  At  a place  near  Stam- 
ford, the  British  came  upon  General  Putnam, 
who  had  one  hundred  and  fifty  militia-men 
with  him,  and  two  cannon.  With  these  he 
kept  the  enemy  at  bay  for  some  time.  He  then 
ordered  the  soldiers  into  a swamp  hard  by, 
where  the  British  troopers  could  not  follow ; 
and  he  himself  rode  at  full  gallop  down  a 
steep  rock  behind  the  meeting-house.  Nearly 
one  hundred  steps  had  been  hewn  in  it,  like 
a flight  of  stairs,  for  the  people  to  ascend  in 
going  to  meeting.  The  troopers  stopped  at 
the  brink,  and  dared  not  follow  him.  He 
escaped  with  a bullet-hole  through  his  hat. 

In  July,  a fleet  of  thirty -seven  small  ves- 
sels was  fitted  out  from  Boston,  with  fifteen 
hundred  militia  on  board,  under  Gen.  Wads- 
worth and  Gen.  Lovell.  The  object  was  to 
drive  the  British  from  the  Penobscot  river, 
in  Maine,  where  they  had  built  a fort  at  a 
place  called  Bagaduce  then,  now  Castine. 
They  were  near  succeeding,  when  a British 
fleet  appeared  off  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
They  were  obliged  to  leave  their  vessels,  and 


most  of  the  troops,  after  some  fighting,  es- 
caped across  the  wild  lands  of  Maine,  to  the 
settlements  on  the  river  Kennebec. 

On  the  Hudson,  the  Americans  were  more 
successful.  On  the  15th  of  July,  Washing- 
ton sent  Gen.  Wayne  up  the  river  with  twelve 
hundred  men,  to  attack  a strong  British  fort 
called  Stony  Point.  At  eleven  in  the  evening, 
Wayne  arrived  within  a mile  or  two  of  the 
fort.  The  troops  were  formed  into  two  col- 
umns. Col.  Fleury  marched  on  in  front,  with 
one  hundred  and  fifty  volunteers,  guided  by 
twenty  picked  men.  They  marched  silently, 
with  unloaded  guns  and  fixed  bayonets.  A 
disorderly  fellow,  who  persisted  in  loading 
his  gun,  was  run  through  the  body  by  his 
captain.  No  man  was  suffered  to  fire.  The 
fort  was  defended  by  a deep  swamp,  covered 
with  water.  The  troops  marched  through  it, 
waist  deep.  They  proceeded  with  charged 
bayonets,  under  a tremendous  fire  of  cannon 
and  musketry  from  the  British,  till  the  two 
columns  met  in  the  centre  of  the  fort.  The 
garrison,  six  hundred  in  number,  were  taken 
prisoners,  with  fifteen  cannon,  and  a large 
quantity  of  stores.  The  Americans  lost  a 
hundred  men : seventeen  of  the  twenty  picked 
men  who  marched  in  front,  were  among  the 
number. 

Gen.  Lincoln  commanded  in  the  South  dur- 
ing 1779,  the  British  still  holding  possession 
of  Savannah.  He  besieged  them  there  with 
the  help  of  the  French  fleet,  but  was  driven 
off.  Prevost,  the  British  general,  met  with 
the  same  bad  luck  in  besieging  Charleston, 
South  Carolina.  The  people  resisted  him 
nobly,  with  some  assistance  from  Lincoln, 
and  the  siege  was  abandoned.  But  Prevost 
ravaged  the  country,  burning  and  plunder- 
ing without  mercy.  The  Tories  joined  him, 
and  the  negro  slaves  were  hired  to  serve  him 
as  spies  and  scouts.  Peter  Francisco,  an 
American  trooper,  made  himself  famous  at 
this  time.  A plundering  British  dragoon 
entered  a hut  in  the  country,  where  he  hap- 
pened to  be,  and  ordered  him  to  “ deliver  up 
everything,  or  die.”  “ I have  nothing  to  de- 
liver,” said  Peter,  who  was  unarmed ; “do 
as  you  please.”  “ Off  with  those  great  silver 
buckles  on  your  shoes,  you  scoundrel ! ” said 
the  dragoon.  “ Take  them,  if  you  like,”  an- 
swered Peter  ; “ I will  not  give  them.”  The 
soldier  stooped  to  cut  them  off  with  his  knife, 


REV 


718 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


placing  his  sword  under  his  arm,  with  the 
hilt  toward  Peter.  He  seized  upon  it,  and 
struck  the  dragoon  with  such  force  as  to 
sever  his  head  from  his  body  at  a single  blow. 

Sergeant  Jasper  was  another  brave  fellow, 
who  has  been  mentioned  before.  He  once 
went,  secretly,  with  a young  friend  of  his,  by 
the  name  of  Newton,  to  visit  his  brother,  a 
soldier  at  a British  fort.  As  he  stayed  there 
a day  or  two,  his  brother  took  him  to  see 
some  American  prisoners,  just  brought  in. 
They  were  all  handcuffed.  There  was  a 
young  woman  among  the  rest,  with  her  hus- 
band, and  a beautiful  little  boy,  five  years 
old,  leaning  his  head  on  her  bosom,  and 
weeping.  Jasper  and  Newton  wTere  hardly 
able  to  bear  this.  They  walked  to  a wood 
near  by.  “ I shall  not  live  long,”  said  Jas- 
per. “Why  so?”  said  the  other.  “Why, 
the  thought  of  that  poor  woman  haunts  me. 
I shall  die,  if  I do  not  save  them.”  “That 
is  my  mind,  exactly,”  said  Newrton,  grasping 
Jasper’s  hand.  Go  on,  my  brave  friend; 
I will  stand  by  you  to  the  last.” 

After  breakfast,  the  prisoners  were  sent  on 
toward  Savannah,  under  a guard  of  ten  armed 
men.  The  two  friends  followed  them  through 
the  woods,  but  without  arms.  Thinking  the 
party  would  stop  at  the  Spa,  a famous  spring 
two  miles  from  Savannah,  they  went  secretly 
round  to  that  place,  and  concealed  themselves 
in  the  bushes.  By  and  by,  the  prisoners  and 
guard  came  up,  and  the  former  were  suffered  to 
rest  at  the  spring.  Two  men  kept  guard 
with  their  muskets,  while  two  more  came  to 
the  spring  for  water.  The  others  piled  their 
arms  up,  and  sat  down  at  a distance.  The 
two  guards  now  rested  their  guns  against  a 
tree,  and  began  drinking  from  their  canteens. 
“Now’s  the  time,”  cried  Jasper.  At  the 
instant,  the  two  heroes  sprang  from  the  bushes, 
snatched  the  two  muskets,  and  shot  down  the 
two  guards.  By  this  time,  two  of  the  soldiers 
had  seized  upon  their  guns.  But  they  were 
instantly  knocked  dowTn.  Jasper  and  New- 
ton stood  over  the  pile  of  guns,  and  ordered 
the  other  six  to  surrender.  They  were  glad 
to  do  so.  The  American  prisoners  were 
armed ; the  handcuffs  were  taken  from  them, 
and  put  upon  the  British  soldiers,  and  the 
party  soon  reached  the  American  camp. 

During  the  year  1780,  nothing  of  great 
consequence  was  done  in  the  northern  prov- 


inces. The  two  armies  lay  near  each  other, 
the  British  being  in  New  York,  and  the 
Americans  on  the  Hudson;  but  no  battles 
were  fought  The  most  important  event  of 
this  year  was  the  treason  of  Arnold.  He 
commanded  the  very  strong  fort  at  West 
Point,  and  he  undertook  to  deliver  it  into  the 
possession  of  the  British.  Major  Andre,  a 
young  British  officer,  went  on  shore  in  the 
night  from  a British  ship  in  the  river,  to  ar- 
range the  business  with  Arnold.  The  two 
officers  met  privately  at  some  distance  from 
the  fort.  Arnold  agreed,  for  a certain  sum 
of  money,  and  other  considerations,  to  sur- 
render the  fort,  with  the  garrison,  cannon, 
and  ammunition,  into  the  hands  of  the  Brit- 
ish commander.  In  settling  the  details  of  this 
business,  Andre  was  detained  till  the  next 
day ; and  then  the  boatmen  refused  to  carry 
him  back  to  his  vessel.  He  had  to  return  by 
land,  and  to  pass  by  the  American  camp,  on 
his  way  to  New  York.  He  was  furnished 
with  a horse,  and  exchanged  his  uniform  for 
a common  coat.  He  thought  himself  already 
out  of  danger,  when,  as  he  trotted  quietly  on 
through  the  woods,  he  was  stopped  by  three 
Americans,  who  were  scouting  between  the 
outposts  of  the  two  armies.  “Who  goes 
there?”  cried  the  first,  seizing  the  bridle. 
Andre  was  startled,  and  asked  the  scout 
where  he  belonged.  “Below,”  answered  he, 
meaning  New  York.  “ So  do  I,”  said  Andre, 
deceived;  “I’m  a British  officer,  in  great 
haste ; don’t  stop  me.”  “ Are  you,  indeed  ?” 
said  the  scouts  ; “ then  we’ll  see  about  that ! ” 
They  found  his  papers  in  his  boots.  He  offer- 
ed them  his  gold  watch,  horse,  and  purse,  if 
they  would  release  him ; but  they  told  him 
the}r  knew  their  business  too  well,  and  he 
was  carried  to  the  camp. 

Arnold  escaped  from  West  Point  in  great 
haste.  Andre  had  contrived  to  send  him  no- 
tice of  his  capture.  He  was  dining  with 
some  of  his  friends,  when  the  letter  came. 
They  saw  he  was  very  much  agitated.  He 
started  up,  and  looked  wild,  made  an  excuse 
to  go  out,  and  they  saw  nothing  more  of  him. 
He  went  to  New  York,  joined  the  British 
army,  and  was  appointed  a general.  His 
name  was  covered  with  everlasting  shame  and 
disgrace.  Even  his  gallantry  and  decided 
military  talents  were  overlooked  and  forgot- 
ten in  his  infamy.  The  British  themselves 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


719 


despised  him.  After  the  war,  he  went  to 
England,  where  he  lived  in  obscurity  and 
contempt. 

The  head-quarters  of  Washington  were  at 
Tappan,  on  the  Hudson,  at  the  time  he  heard 
of  Arnold’s  treason.  Having  taken  measures 
to  put  the  fort  in  a state  of  securit}^  he  ap- 
pointed a court-martial  to  try  Andre.  After 
a very  deliberate  examination,  he  was  found 
guilty,  and  condemned,  according  to  the 
usages  of  war,  to  be  hanged  as  a spy.  When 
the  gallant  young  officer  heard  that  he  was 
condemned  to  be  hanged,  he  wrote  a very  pa- 
thetic letter  to  Washington,  praying  that  he 
might  be  shot,  and  die  as  a soldier,  rather 
than  be  executed  like  a felon.  No  man  had 
a kinder  heart  than  General  Washington; 
and  he  would  gladly  have  granted  the  re- 
quest of  the  unfortunate  young  Englishman. 
But  duty  to  his  country  would  not  permit 
him  to  soften  the  sentence  of  the  law.  He 
was  very  anxious  to  bring  Arnold  to  justice, 
and  imagined  that,  if  he  could  be  taken,  An- 
dre might  be  set  free.  He  resolved  to  make 
an  attempt  to  effect  these  desirable  objects, 
and,  having  formed  his  plan,  sent  to  Major 
Lee  to  repair  to  head-quarters,  at  Tappan. 
“I  have  sent  for  you,”  said  Washington,  “in 
the  expectation  that  you  have  some  one  in 
your  corps,  who  is  willing  to  undertake  a del- 
icate and  hazardous  project.  Whoever  comes 
forward  will  confer  great  obligations  upon  me 
personally,  and,  in  behalf  of  the  United  States, 
I will  reward  him  amply.  No  time  is  to  be 
lost;  he  must  proceed,  if  possible,  to-night. 
I desire  to  seize  Arnold,  and  save  Andre.” 

Major  Lee  named  a sergeant-major  of  his 
corps,  by  the  name  of  Champe,  a native  of 
Virginia,  a man  full  of  bone  and  muscle,  writh 
a countenance  grave,  thoughtful,  and  taci- 
turn,— of  tried  courage  and  inflexible  perse- 
verance. 

Champe  was  sent  for  by  Major  Lee,  and  the 
plan  proposed.  This  was  for  him  to  desert ; 
to  escape  to  New  York ; to  appear  friendly 
to  the  enemy ; to  watch  Arnold,  and,  upon 
some  fit  opportunity,  with  the  assistance  of 
some  one  whom  he  could  trust,  to  seize  him, 
and  conduct  him  to  an  appointed  place  on  the 
river,  where  boats  should  be  in  readiness  to 
bear  them  away. 

Champe  listened  to  the  plan  attentively ; 
but,  with  the  spirit  of  a man  of  honor  and 


integrity,  replied,  that  it  was  not  danger  nor 
difficulty  that  deterred  him  from  immediately 
accepting  the  proposal,  but  the  ignominy  of 
desertion,  and  the  hypocrisy  of  enlisting  with 
the  enemy.  To  those  objections  Lee  replied, 
that  although  he  would  appear  to  desert,  yet, 
as  he  obeyed  the  call  of  his  commander-in- 
chief, his  departure  could  not  be  considered 
as  criminal ; and  that,  if  he  suffered  in  repu- 
tation for  a time,  the  matter  would  one  day 
be  explained  to  his  credit.  As  to  the  second 
objection,  it  was  urged  that  to  bring  such  a 
man  as  Arnold  to  justice,  loaded  with  guilt  as 
he  was ; and  to  save  Andre,  so  young,  so 
accomplished,  so  beloved ; to  achieve  so  much 
good  in  the  cause  of  hiscountry, — was  more 
than  sufficient  to  balance  a wrong  existing 
onty  in  appearance. 

The  objections  of  Champe  were  at  length 
surmounted,  and  he  accepted  the  service. 
It  was  now  eleven  o’clock  at  night  With 
his  instructions  in  his  pocket,  the  sergeant 
returned  to  camp ; and,  taking  his  cloak,  va- 
lise, and  orderly  book,  drew  his  horse  from 
the  picket,  and  mounted,  putting  himself 
upon  fortune.  Scarcely  had  half  an  hour 
elapsed,  before  Capt.  Carnes,  the  officer  of  the 
day,  waited  upon  Lee,  who  was  vainly  at- 
tempting to  rest,  and  informed  him  that  one 
of  the  patrol  had  fallen  in  with  a dragoon, 
who,  being  challenged,  put  spurs  to  his  horse 
and  escaped.  Lee,  hoping  to  conceal  the  flight 
of  Champe,  or  at  least  to  delay  pursuit,  com- 
plained of  fatigue,  and  told  the  captain  that 
the  patrol  had  probably  mistaken  a country- 
man for  a dragoon.  Carnes,  however,  was 
not  thus  to  be  quieted ; and  he  withdrew  to 
assemble  his  corps.  On  examination,  it  was 
found  that  Champe  was  absent.  The  captain 
returned,  and  acquainted  Lee  with  the  dis- 
covery, adding,  that  he  had  detached  a party 
to  pursue  the  deserter,  and  begged  the  major’s 
written  orders.  After  making  as  much  de- 
lay as  practicable  without  exciting  suspicion, 
Lee  delivered  his  orders,  in  which  he  direct- 
ed the  party  to  take  Champe,  if  possible. 
“Bring  him  alive,”  said  he,  “that  he  may 
suffer  in  the  presence  of  the  army ; but  kill 
him  if  he  resists,  or  tries  to  escape  after 
being  taken.” 

A shower  of  rain  fell  soon  after  Champe’s 
departure,  which  enabled  the  pursuing  dra- 
goons to  take  the  trail  of  his  horse,  w’hose 


KEY 


720 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


shoes,  in  common  with  those  of  all  the  horses 
of  the  corps,  were  made  in  a peculiar  form, 
and  each  had  a private  mark  which  was  to  be 
seen  in  the  path.  Middleton,  the  leader  of 
the  pursuing  party,  left  the  camp  a few  min- 
utes past  twelve,  so  that  Champe  had  the 
start  of  but  little  more  than  an  hour, — a 
period  b}'-  far  shorter  than  had  been  contem- 
plated. During  the  night,  the  dragoons  were 
often  delayed  in  the  necessary  halts  to  exam- 
ine the  road ; but  on  the  coming  of  morn- 
ing, the  impression  of  the  horse’s  shoes  was 
so  apparent,  that  the}r  pressed  on  with  rapid- 
ity. Some  miles  above  Bergen,  a village  three 
miles  north  of  New  York,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Hudson,  on  ascending  a hill, 
Champe  was  seen  not  more  than  half  a mile 
distant.  Fortunately,  Champe  descried  his 
pursuers  at  the  same  moment,  and  put  spurs 
to  his  horse.  By  taking  a different  road, 
Champe  was  for  a time  lost  sight  of;  but  on 
approaching  the  river,  he  was  again  perceiv- 
ed. Aware  of  his  danger,  he  lashed  his  va- 
lise, containing  his  clothes  and  orderly  book, 
to  his  shoulders,  and  prepared  himself  to 
plunge  into  the  river,  if  necessary.  Swift 
was  his  flight,  and  swift  the  pursuit.  Mid- 
dleton and  his  party  were  within  a few  hun- 
dred yards,  when  Champe  threw  himself 
from  his  horse  and  plunged  into  the  river, 
calling  aloud  upon  some  British  galleys,  at  no 
great  distance,  for  help.  A boat  was  in- 
stantly dispatched  to  his  assistance,  and  a 
fire  commenced  upon  the  pursuers.  He  was 
taken  on  board,  and  soon  after  carried  to 
New  York,  with  a letter  from  the  captain  of 
the  galley,  stating  the  scene  which  he  had 
witnessed. 

The  pursuers,  having  recovered  the  ser- 
geant’s horse  and  cloak,  returned  to  camp, 
where  they  arrived  about  three  o’clock  the 
next  day.  On  their  appearance  with  the 
well  known  horse,  the  soldiers  made  the  air 
resound  with  the  acclamation  that  the  scoun- 
drel was  killed.  The  agony  of  Lee,  for  a 
moment,  was  past  description,  lest  the  faith- 
ful, honorable,  iatrepid  Champe  had  fallen. 
But  the  truth  soon  relieved  his  fears,  and  he 
repaired  to  Washington  to  impart  to  him  the 
success,  thus  far,  of  his  plan. 

Soon  after  the  arrival  of  Champe  in  New 
York,  he  was  sent  to  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who 
treated  him  kindly,  but  detained  him  more 


than  an  hour  in  asking  him  questions;  to 
answer  some  of  which,  without  exciting  sus- 
picion, required  all  the  art  the  sergeant  was 
master  of.  He  succeeded,  however,  and  Sir 
Henry  gave  him  a couple  of  guineas,  and 
recommended  him  to  Arnold,  who  was  wish- 
ing to  procure  American  recruits.  Arnold 
received  him  kindly,  and  proposed  to  him  to 
join  his  legion.  Champe,  however,  expressed 
his  wish  to  retire  from  war ; but  assured  the 
general,  if  he  should  change  his  mind,  he 
would  enlist. 

Champe  found  means  to  communicate  to 
Lee  an  account  of  his  adventures  ; but,  unfor- 
tunately, he  could  not  succeed  in  taking 
Arnold,  as  was  wished,  before  the  execution 
of  Andre.  Ten  days  before  Champe  brought 
his  project  to  a conclusion,  Lee  received  from 
him  his  final  communication,  appointing  the 
third  subsequent  night  for  a party  of  dragoons 
to  meet  him  at  Hoboken,  opposite  New  York, 
when  he  hoped  to  deliver  Arnold  to  the 
officers. 

Champe  had  enlisted  into  Arnold’s  legion, 
from  which  time  he  had  every  opportunity 
he  could  wish,  to  attend  to  the  habits  of  the 
general.  He  discovered  that  it  was  his  cus- 
tom to  return  home  about  twelve  every  night, 
and  that  previously  to  going  to  bed,  he  always 
visited  the  garden.  During  this  visit,  the 
conspirators  were  to  seize  him,  and  gag  him 
instantly.  Adjoining  the  house  in  which 
Arnold  resided,  and  in  which  it  was  designed 
to  seize  and  gag  him,  Champe  had  taken  off 
several  fence-palings,  and  replaced  them,  so 
that  with  ease,  and  without  noise,  he  could 
readily  open  his  way  to  the  adjoining  alley. 
Into  this  alley  he  intended  to  convey  his 
prisoner,  aided  by  his  companion,  one  of  two 
associates  who  had  been  introduced  by  the 
friend  to  whom  Champe  had  been  originally 
made  known  by  letter  from  the  commander- 
in-chief,  and  with  whose  aid  and  counsel  he 
had  so  far  conducted  the  enterprise.  H is  other 
associate  was  with  the  boat,  prepared  at  one 
of  the  wharves  on  the  Hudson  River,  to  receive 
the  party.  Champe  and  his  friend  intended 
to  place  themselves  each  under  Arnold’s 
shoulder,  and  thus  to  bear  him,  through  the 
most  unfrequented  alleys  and  streets,  to  the 
boat,  representing  Arnold,  in  case  of  being 
questioned,  as  a drunken  soldier,  whom  they 
were  conveying  to  the  guard-house.  When 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


721 


arrived  at  the  "boat,  the  difficulties  would  be 
all  surmounted,  there  being  no  danger  or 
obstacle  in  passing  to  the  Jersey  shore. 
These  particulars,  as  soon  as  made  known  to 
Lee,  were  communicated  to  the  commander- 
in-chief^  who  was  highly  gratified  with  the 
much  desired  intelligence.  He  requested 
Major  Lee  to  meet  Champe,  and  to  take  care 
that  Arnold  should  not  be  hurt. 

The  day  arrived,  and  Lee  left  the  camp 
never  doubting  the  success  of  the  enterprise, 
from  the  tenor  of  the  last  received  communi- 
cation. The  party  reached  Hoboken  about 
midnight,  where  they  were  concealed  in  the 
adjoining  wood;  Lee,  with  three  dragoons, 
stationing  himself  near  the  shore  of  the  river. 
Hour  after  hour  passed,  but  no  boat  ap- 
proached. At  length  the  day  broke,  and  the 
major  retired  to  his  party,  and,  with  his  led 
horses,  returned  to  the  camp,  where  he  pro- 
ceeded to  head-quarters,  to  inform  the  general 
of  the  much  lamented  disappointment,  as 
mortifying  as  it  was  inexplicable.  Washing- 
ton, having  perused  Champe’s  plan  and  com- 
munication, had  indulged  the  presumption 
that  at  length  the  object  of  his  keen  and  con- 
stant pursuit  was  sure  of  execution,  and  did 
not  dissemble  the  joy  which  such  a convic- 
tion produced.  He  was  chagrined  at  the 
issue,  and  apprehended  that  his  faithful  ser- 
geant must  have  been  detected  in  the  last 
scene  of  his  tedious  and  difficult  enterprise. 

In  a few  days,  Lee  received  an  anonymous 
letter  from  Champe’s  patron  and  friend, 
informing  him,  that  on  the  day  preceding  the 
night  fixed  for  the  execution  of  the  plot, 
Arnold  had  removed  his  quarters  to  another 
part  of  the  town,  to  superintend  the  embark- 
ation of  troops,  preparing,  as  was  rumored, 
for  an  expedition  to  be  directed  by  himself ; 
and  that  the  American  legion,  consisting 
chiefly  of  American  deserters,  had  been  trans- 
ferred from  their  barracks  to  one  of  the  trans- 
ports, it  being  apprehended  that,  if  left  on 
shore  until  the  expedition  was  ready,  many 
of  them  might  desert. 

Thus  it  happened,  that  John  Champe, 
instead  of  crossing  the  Hudson  that  night, 
was  safely  deposited  on  board  one  of  the  fleet 
of  transports,  whence  he  never  departed  until 
the  troops  under  Arnold  landed  in  Virginia. 
Nor  was  he  able  to  escape  from  the  British 
army  until  after  the  junction  of  Lord  Corn- 
46 


wallis  at  Petersburg,  when  he  deserted. 
Proceeding  high  up  into  Virginia,  he  passed 
into  North  Carolina,  and,  keeping  in  the 
friendly  districts  of  that  state,  safely  joined 
the  army  soon  after  it  had  passe&  the  Con- 
garee  in  pursuit  of  Lord  Rawdon.  His 
appearance  excited  extreme  surprise  among 
his  former  comrades,  which  was  not  a little 
increased  when  they  saw  the  cordial  reception 
he  met  with  from  Lee.  His  whole  story  was 
soon  known  to  the  corps,  which  reproduced 
the  love  and  respect  of  officers  and  soldiers, 
heretofore  invariably  entertained  for  the  ser- 
geant, and  heightened  by  universal  admira- 
tion of  his  late  daring  and  arduous  attempt. 
Champe  was  introduced  to  Gen.  Greene,  who 
very  cheerfully  complied  with  the  promise 
made  by  the  commander-in-chief,  so  far  as  in 
his  power;  and,  having  provided  the  sergeant 
with  a good  horse,  and  money  for  his  journey, 
sent  him  to  Gen.  Washington,  who  munifi- 
cently anticipated  every  desire  of  the  'ser- 
geant, and  presented  him  with  a discharge 
from  further  service,  lest  he  might,  in  the 
vicissitudes  of  war,  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  when,  if  recognized,  he  was  sure  to 
die  on  a gibbet.  When  Washington  was 
called  by  President  Adams,  in  1798,  to  the 
command  of  the  army  prepared  to  defend  the 
country  against  French  hostility,  he  sent  to 
Lee,  to  inquire  for  Champe,  being  determined 
to  bring  him  into  the  field  at  the  head  of  a 
company  of  infantry.  Lee  sent  to  Loudon 
county,  Virginia,  where  Champe  settled  after 
his  discharge  from  the  army ; when  he  learned 
that  the  gallant  soldier  had  removed  to  Ken- 
tucky, where  he  soon  after  died. 

We  must  return  to  our  history.  Congress 
continued  to  make  great  efforts  to  supply  the 
army,  though  the  paper  money  they  had 
issued  was  worth  so  little  that  a soldier 
would  give  forty  dollars  for  a breakfast,  and 
a colonel’s  pay  would  hardly  find  oats  for  his 
horse.  The  merchants  of  Philadelphia  raised 
a large  sum  of  better  money,  however,  and 
sent  it  to  the  army.  The  ladies  of  that  city 
furnished  a large  quantity  of  clothing. 

The  British  all  this  time  were  overrunning 
the  two  Carolinas.  They  had  taken  Charles- 
ton on  the  11th  of  May,  1780,  after  a long 
siege,  and  a brave  defense  by  Gen.  Lincoln. 
Gen.  Gates  was  soon  after  sent  to  take  com- 
mand of  the  southern  army.  He  was  joined 


REV 


722 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


by  hundreds  of  the  Carolina  militia.  Con- 
gress sent  him  some  fine  Maryland  and  Dela- 
ware troops  also.  They  had  a very  long  and 
hard  march  through  the  woods,  finding  noth- 
ing to  eat  on  the  way,  but  peaches  and  green 
corn,  with  now  and  then  a flock  of  wild  tur- 
keys or  a drove  of  wild  hogs.  But  they  were 
brave  men,  and  did  not  murmur.  They  even 
joked  each  other  on  account  of  their  thin 
faces  and  lank  legs. 

A battle  took  place  on  the  16th  of  August, 
near  Camden,  South  Carolina,  between  Gates 
and  the  British  under  Lord  Cornwallis.  The 
former  was  defeated,  and  fled  eighty  miles 
into  the  back  country.  The  lean  northern 
soldiers  we  have  just  mentioned,  fought  nobly 
an  hour  after  all  the  rest  had  been  routed  like 
an  army  of  sheep.  The  brave  Baron  De 
Kalb  was  wounded  in  eleven  places.  He  fell 
from  his  horse,  and  died  in  the  hands  of  the 
British.  He  was  a native  of  Alsace.  He  sent 
his  compliments,  in  his  last  moments,  to  “his 
gallant  Maryland  and  Delaware  soldiers.” 

Generals  Marion  and  Sumter  gave  the 
British  great  trouble  during  this  campaign. 
Small  parties  of  the  mountain  militia  joined 
them,  and  they  swept  down  upon  the  enemy, 
wherever  they  could  find  them  in  small  par- 
ties. The  farmers’  wives  furnished  them 
pewter  spoons  and  platters,  to  make  into 
bullets ; and  they  forged  swords  of  scythes 
and  the  saws  of  saw-mills. 

In  October,  sixteen  hundred  of  these 
mountaineers  mustered  together  to  attack  a 
British  force  under  Major  Ferguson,  who  had 
encamped  not  far  from  the  mountains.  For 
weeks,  they  had  no  salt,  bread,  or  spirits ; they 
slept  upon  boughs  of  trees,  without  blankets, 
drank  only  from  the  running  streams,  and 
lived  upon  wild  game,  or  ears  of  corn,  and 
pumpkins,  roasted  by  their  great  log-fires  in 
the  woods. 

They  were  to  assault  Ferguson  in  three 
parties,  and  Col.  Cleaveland  addressed  his 
party  in  these  words : “ My  brave  boys,  we 
have  beat  the  red-coats  and  the  tories,  and 
we  can  beat  them  again.  They  are  all  cow- 
* ards.  You  must  fight,  each  man  for  himself, 
without  orders.  Fire  as  quick  as  you  can, 
and  stand  as  long  as  you  can.  If  you  must 
retreat,  get  behind  the  trees.  Don’t  run,  my 
fine  fellows,  don’t  run  ! ” “ Hurrah  for  the 

mountaineers ! ” cried  they,  and  rushed  down 


upon  the  enemy.  The  Americans  were  driven 
back  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet ; but  they 
only  lay  down  among  the  logs  and  rocks,  and, 
being  sharp-shooters,  killed  more  than  two 
hundred  of  the  enemy.  Ferguson  was  killed 
himself,  and  eight  hundred  of  his  soldiers 
surrendered.  Ten  of  the  most  savage  tories, 
notorious  rascals,  were  hung  up  on  the  neigh- 
boring trees.  This  is  called  the  battle  of 
King’s  Mountain. 

With  the  year  1781,  on  which  we  now 
enter,  the  war  drew  rapidly  toward  a close. 
It  was  carried  on  almost  entirely  in  the  South. 
Gen.  Greene  was  appointed  to  command  the 
American  forces  in  that  quarter.  At  the  time 
of  his  arrival,  they  were  a miserable,  half- 
starved  militia,  of  three  thousand  men.  They 
marked  the  frozen  ground  with  the  blood  of 
their  bare  feet,  and  lived  half  the  time  upon 
frogs,  taken  from  the  swamps,  wild  game,  rice, 
and  wretchedly  lean  cattle.  But  they  were 
soon  re-enforced;  and  small  parties,  under 
Sumter,  Marion,  Morgan,  and  others,  often 
annoyed  the  forces  of  Cornwallis.  Colonel 
Washington  laid  siege  to  a strong  block- 
house near  Camden,  defended  by  a British 
colonel  and  a hundred  tories.  He  had  no 
cannon  and  few  men ; but  he  carved  out  a 
few  pine  logs  in  the  shape  of  cannon,  mounted 
them  on  wheels,  and  summoned  the  tories  to 
surrender.  They  were  frightened  at  the 
appearance  of  his  big  cannon,  and  surren- 
dered. Not  a shot  was  fired  upon  either 
side. 

On  the  17th  of  January,  Col.  Morgan,  with 
eight  hundred  militia,  was  attacked  at  a place 
called  the  Cowpens,  in  South  Carolina,  by 
Tarleton,  a famous  British  officer,  with  eleven 
hundred  men  and  two  cannon.  The  enemy 
rushed  on  with  a tremendous  shout.  The 
front  line  of  militia  were  driven  back.  Tarle- 
ton pursued  them,  at  full  gallop,  with  his 
troopers,  and  fell  upon  the  second  line.  They 
too  were  giving  way.  At  this  moment,  Col. 
AVasliington  charged  Tarleton  with  forty-five 
militia-men,  mounted,  and  armed  as  troopers. 
The  whole  line  now  rallied  under  Col.  How- 
ard, and  advanced  with  fixed  bayonets.  The 
British  fled.  Their  cannon  were  left  behind ; 
three  hundred  British  soldiers  were  killed 
and  wounded,  and  five  hundred  were  taken 
prisoners;  eight  hundred  muskets,  seventy 
negroes,  and  one  hundred  dragoon  horses, 


REV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


723 


also  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans. 
Many  British  officers  were  killed.  Morgan 
always  told  his  sharp-shooters  “to  aim  at  the 
epaulettes,  and  not  at  the  poor  rascals  who 
fought  for  sixpence  a day.” 

General  Greene  was  driven  back,  by  Corn- 
wallis, into  North  Carolina.  The  latter  pur- 
sued him  through  the  province,  over  moun- 
tains and  swamps,  and  arrived  at  the  river 
Dan,  just  as  Greene  had  crossed  it.  Corn- 
wallis now  found  it  necessa^r  to  turn  about; 
and  so  he  marched  back,  and  Greene  soon 
followed  him  with  new  forces.  Sumter  joined 
him  at  Orangeburg,  having  received  orders 
to  do  so  during  his  hasty  retreat  before  the 
enemy.  Greene  could  find  no  man  in  his 
army  who  would  carry  the  message  to  Sum- 
ter. A country  girl,  named  Emily  Geiger,  at 
last  offered  her  services,  and  was  sent.  She 
was  taken  by  the  British,  and  confined  for  the 
purpose  of  being  searched.  She,  however, 
ate  up  the  letter  which  she  carried,  piece  by 
piece.  They  released  her,  to  go  home,  as 
they  supposed  ; but  she  took  a roundabout 
way,  reached  Sumter’s  camp  safely,  and 
delivered  her  message,  in  her  own  words. 

The  Americans  were  defeated  near  Guil- 
ford court-house  on  the  15th  of  March.  But 
Cornwallis  retreated  soon  after.  lie  had 
suffered  great  loss,  and  his  army  was  small. 
A militia  colonel  cried  out  in  this  battle,  as 
the  British  were  marching  up,  '‘They  will 
surround  us.”  He  was  frightened  himself, 
and  frightened  his  soldiers  so  much,  that  they 
gave  way,  while  the  enemy  were  one  hundred 
and  forty  j^ards  distant.  Col.  Washington, 
at  the  head  of  his  troopers,  nearly  captured 
Cornwallis  in  this  battle.  He  was  just  rush- 
ing upon  the  British  general  when  his  cap 
fell  from  his  head.  As  he  leaped  to  the 
ground  for  it,  the  leading  American  officer 
behind  him  was  shot  through  the  body,  and 
rendered  unable  to  manage  his  horse.  The 
animal  wheeled  round,  and  galloped  off  with 
his  rider;  and  the  troop,  supposing  it  was 
Washington’s  order,  wheeled  about  also,  and 
rode  off  at  full  speed. 

Fort  Watson,  between  Camden  and  Charles- 
ton, surrendered,  in  April,  with  114  men,  to 
Gen.  Marion.  The  fort  was  built  on  a mound 
of  earth  thirty7-  feet  high ; but  Marion,  with 
his  mountaineers,  had  raised  a work  which 
overlooked  it  in  such  a manner,  that  not  a 


man  in  the  fort  could  show  his  head  over  the 
parapets,  or  scarcely  point  his  musket  through 
a hole  in  the  walls,  but  the  riflemen  above 
would  shoot  him. 

Greene  was  again  defeated  at  Camden,  on 
the  25th  of  April,  by  nine  hundred  English 
under  Lord  Rawdon.  But  in  a month  or  two 
the  British  lost  six  forts,  and  that  of  Augusta 
was  among  them.  Here  there  were  three 
hundred  men,  as  a garrison,  who  almost 
buried  themselves  under  ground,  while  the 
Americans  were  building  up  batteries  within 
thirty  yards,  which  swept  the  fort  through 
and  through.  Greene  and  all  his  officers,  and 
all  his  men,  fought  nobly  the  whole  season. 
“ I will  recover  the  province,”  said  the  gen- 
eral, “or  die  in  the  attempt.”  It  is  remarka- 
ble that  although  his  force  was  much  inferior 
to  that  of  Cornwallis,  and  though  he  was 
frequently  defeated,  yet,  by  his  admirable 
maneuvres,  the  result  of  the  campaign  was 
entirely  favorable  to  the  Americans,  and  inju- 
rious to  the  British. 

He  attacked  the  enemy  at  Eutaw  Springs, 
Sept.  8th,  and  completely  defeated  them, 
killing  and  capturing  eleven  hundred  of  their 
best  soldiers.  In  pursuing  the  enemy,  one 
Manning  found  himself  surrounded  by  them. 
He  seized  upon  a small  British  officer,  and, 
being  himself  a stout  man,  placed  him  on  his 
shoulders,  and  retreated,  the  English  not 
daring  to  fire  at  him.  The  little  officer  was 
horribly  frightened,  but  Manning  took  good 
care  of  him. 

The  war  was  closed  by  the  capture  of 
Cornwallis,  at  Yorktown,  Virginia.  He  had 
left  Carolina,  and  expected  to  overrun  Vir- 
ginia. But  in  September,  the  Americans  and 
French,  under  Washington,  surrounded  him 
from  all  quarters,  on  the  land ; while  the 
French  ^eet,  riding  in  Chesapeake  Bay, 
blocked  up  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  and 
kept  the  English  fleet  from  coming  in.  It 
was  impossible  for  Clinton,  with  all  his 
forces  at  New  York,  to  re-enforce  Cormvallis. 
Washington  had  kept  him  in  fear  all  sum- 
mer, and  made  him  believe,  till  the  last 
moment,  that  he  was  to  be  besieged  in  New 
York.  It  was  not  till  Aug.  24th,  that  Wash- 
ington left  his  camp  on  the  Hudson  River, 
and  marched  through  New  Jersey  and  Penn- 
sylvania, to  the  head  of  the  Chesapeake. 
The  French  admiral,  De  Grasse,  who  had  just 


REV 


724 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


arrived,  carried  the  American  forces  down 
the  bay  to  York  town. 

The  army  passed  through  Philadelphia,  on 
this  march,  in  splendid  style.  The  line  was 
more  than  two  miles  long.  The  streets  were 
crowded  with  spectators ; and  the  windows, 
to  the  highest  stories,  were  filled  with  ladies, 
waving  their  handkerchiefs,  as  the  gallant 
troops  passed  by.  There  was  Washington, 
with  all  his  generals ; the  French  command- 
er, Count  Rochambeau,  with  all  his ; Gen. 
Knox  with  one  hundred  fine  cannon ; and  the 
whole  army  pressing  on  with  proud  step  and 
noble  confidence.  The  music  was  inspirit- 
ing ; everybody  thought  they  would  conquer ; 
and,  just  at  this  time,  news  came  that  the 
French  fleet  had  arrived  in  the  Chesapeake. 
The  city  rang  with  the  shouts  of  the  hopeful 
multitude. 

By  the  7th  of  October,  Cornwallis  was 
completely  besieged.  He  had  raised  en- 
trenchments ; but  the  allied  army,  the  Amer- 
icans and  the  French,  had  erected  breast- 
works all  about  him,  circle  after  circle,  and 
now'  opened  a battery  of  one  hundred  can- 
non. They  fired  day  and  night.  The  roar 
was  terrible.  The  ground,  for  miles,  shook 
with  it ; and  the  bombs  and  shells  were  seen 
whirling  and  crossing  each  other  in  the  dark 
sky,  and  blazing  like  comets.  If  they  fell 
upon  the  ground,  it  was  torn  up  for  a rod 
around,  and  dozens  were  killed  when  they 
burst.  The  bombs  sometimes  went  over  the 
heads  of  the  enemy,  and  fell  among  the 
British  vessels  in  the  harbor,  near  the  British 
works  at  Gloucester  Point,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  river.  The  water  spouted  in  columns 
as  they  fell. 

One  night,  an  attack  was  made  upon  two 
redoubts  which  the  British  had  built  out  so 
far  that  they  stood  in  the  way  of  some 
American  works  just  building  around  them. 
The  French  were  ordered  to  take  one  redoubt, 
and  the  Americans  under  Lafayette  the 
other.  The  two  parties  tried  to  outdo  each 
other.  Lafayette  carried  his  redoubt  first, 
and  sent  his  aid-de-camp  to  the  leader  of  the 
French  party,  through  all  the  fire  of  the  bat- 
teries, to  tell  him  he  was  in.  “ So  will  I be,” 
said  the  Frenchman,  “in  five  minutes  and 
he  performed  his  promise. 

Cornwallis  surrendered  on  the  19th.  His 
army,  of  about  seven  thousand  men,  marched 


out  at  two  o’clock,  and  passed  between  th© 
American  line  on  one  side  and  the  French 
on  the  other,  stretched  out  for  more  than  a 
mile.  They  were  all  dressed  in  their  most 
splendid  uniforms,  with  fine  music,  and  colors 
flying.  The  English  marched,  carrying  their 
colors  bound  up,  with  a slow  and  solemn 
step.  The  English  general  rode  up  to  W ash- 
ington,  at  the  head  of  the  line,  and  excused  the 
absence  of  Cornwallis,  who  feigned  sickness. 
Washington  pointed  him  politely  to  Gen. 
Lincoln,  and  the  latter  directed  him  to  a large 
field,  where  the  whole  British  army  laid  down 
their  arms,  and  were  led  away  prisoners. 
After  this  capture,  the  English  gave  up  all 
hopes  of  success.  No  more  fighting  of  any 
consequence  took  place  upon  the  land. 

The  British  troops  were  wholly  withdrawn 
from  the  United  States  in  the  following  sea- 
son. The  terms  of  peace  with  England  were 
settled  by  the  British  and  American  ambas- 
sadors at  Paris,  in  November,  1782.  The  3d 
of  November,  1783,  was  fixed  upon  by  Con- 
gress for  the  final  disbanding  of  the  Ameri- 
can army.  On  the  day  previous,  Washington 
issued  his  farewell  orders,  and  bade  an  affec- 
tionate adieu  to  the  soldiers  who  had  fought 
with  him  in  the  great  struggle,  which  was 
now  over. 

Soon  after  taking  leave  of  the  army,  Gen. 
Washington  was  called  to  the  still  more  pain- 
ful hour  of  separation  from  his  officers, 
greatly  endeared  to  him  by  a long  series  of 
common  sufferings  and  dangers.  The  officers 
having  assembled  in  New  York  for  the  pur- 
pose, Washington  joined  them;  and,  calling 
for  a glass  of  wine,  thus  addressed  them : 
“With  a heart  full  of  love  and  gratitude,  I 
now  take  my  leave  of  you.  I most  devoutly 
wish  that  your  latter  days  may  be  as  pros- 
perous and  happy  as  your  former  ones  have 
been  glorious  and  honorable.”  Having  thus 
affectionately  spoken,  he  took  each  by  the 
hand,  and  bade  him  farewell.  Followed  by 
them  to  the  side  of  the  Hudson,  he  entered  a 
barge,  and,  while  tears  flowed  down  his 
cheeks,  he  turned  toward  the  companions  of 
his  glory,  and  bade  them  a silent  adieu. 

Thus  ended  the  American  Revolution. 

REYNOLDS,  Sir  Joshua,  an  eminent  En- 
glish painter,  born  at*Plympton  in  Devon- 
shire, in  1723.  He  was  particularly  celebra- 
ted for  his  portraits,  in  which  he  rejected  th© 


REY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


725 


stiff,  formal  style  of  his  predecessors.  In 
1768  he  was  elected  the  first  president  of  the 
royal  academy  and  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  He  lived  in  intimacy  with 
Johnson,  Garrick,  Burke,  and  other  eminent 
men  of  his  time,  and  although  afflicted  with 
incurable  deafness  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
life,  still  enjoyed  conversation  by  means  of 
his  ear-trumpet.  In  1791  his  eyesight  failed, 
and  the  following  year  he  died,  at  the  age  of 
seventy. 

Mr.  Burke  once  observed  to  Sir  Joshua 


Reynolds,  “What  a delight  you  have  in 
your  profession.” — “No,  sir,”  said  Dr.  John- 
son, taking  up  the  question,  “ Reynolds  only 
paints  to  get  money.” — Miss  Hannah  More, 
who  was  present,  defending  Sir  Joshua, 
insisted  that  i he  pleasure  experienced  by  the 
artist  was  ckri/ed  from  higher  and  more 
luxuriant  sources  than  mere  pecuniary  con-* 
sideration. — “Only  answer  me,”  said  the 
moralist  in  an  impressive  tone ; “ did  Lean- 
der  swim  the  Hellespont  merely  because  he 
was  fond  of  swimming?” 


RHODE  ISLAND  is  the  smallest  of  the 
states  of  our  confederacy.  It  has  an  area  of 
1,225  square  miles,  and  in  1870  the  popula- 
tion was  217,353.  The  surface  is  broken  and 
hilly7-,  and  the  soil  is  moderately  productive. 
The  islands  in  Narraganset  Bay  are  very 
fertile.  The  streams  are  small,  but  their 
rapid  descent  renders  them  very  valuable  as 
sources  of  power  for  manufactures,  which 
are  extensively  carried  on,  cotton  goods 
taking  the  lead.  It  was  in  Rhode  Island 
that  Samuel  Slater  made  the  beginning  of 
the  cotton  manufactures  of  our  country. 
The  once  extensive  commerce  of  Rhode 
Island  has  been  largely  diverted  to  the  ports 
of  Massachusetts  and  New  York. 

The  first  settlement  within  the  limits  of 
Rhode  Island  was  made  at  Providence  in 
1636  by  Roger  Williams,  a Baptist  minister 
who  had  been  driven  from  Massachusetts  for 
his  religious  views*  The  Indians  knew  and 
loved  him  as  their  friend.  Till  very  lately 
the  broad  rock  still  lay  on  the  bank  of  the 


river,  where  the  exile  stepped  ashore,  and 
was  met  by  a friendly  Indian  who  smattered 
a little  English,  with  the  greeting,  “ What 
cheer  ? ” The  new  colony  was  an  asylum  for 
all  “persons  distressed  of  conscience.”  The 
fair  island  in  the  bay,  which,  after  that  other 
fair  isle  in  the  Mediterranean,  received  the 
name  of  the  isle  of  Rhodes,  or  Rhode  Island, 
was  settled  two  yea-rs  after,  through  the 
influence  of  Roger  Williams,  by  other  fugi- 
tives from  the  banishment  of  the  Massachu- 
setts theocracy,  and  in  1644  he  obtained  a 
royal  charter  uniting  Rhode  Island  and  Prov- 
idence Plantations  under  one  government. 

Rhode  Island,  under  the  wise  guidance  of 
Roger  Williams,  enjoyed  the  honor  of  setting 
the  world  the  example  of  perfect  liberty  and 
toleration  in  religious  matters.  The  settlers 
of  Providence  early  agreed  that  the  munici- 
pal authority  was  binding  “only  in  civil 
things  ; ” and  at  the  first  general  assembly  of 
the  united  colony,  hoiden  in  May,  1647,  the 
code  of  laws  was  nobly  concluded : “ Otlier- 


RHO 


726 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


wise  than  thus,  what  is  herein  forbidden,  all 
men  may  walk  as  their  consciences  persuade 
them,  every  one  in  the  name  of  his  God. 
And  let  the  lambs  of  the  Most  High  walk  in 
this  colony  without  molestation,  in  the  name 
of  Jehovah,  their  God,  for  ever  and  ever.” 
Full,  free,  absolute  liberty  of  conscience  for 
all,  of  whatever  creed  or  sect,  of  whatever 
nation  or  tongue,  wras  here  first  provided. 

Rhode  Island  bore  her  share  of  the  burden 
of  the  Revolution,  and  was  for  a long  time  in 
the  possession  of  the  British  army.  Unlike 
most  of  the  colonies,  she  continued  the  ad- 
ministration of  government  under  the  royal 
charter.  The  new  instrument  granted  by 
Charles  II.  in  1663,  had  conferred  on  the  col- 
ony the  right  to  elect  all  their  officers,  and 
to  pass  laws  for  their  government,  without 
any  intervention  whatever  from  king  or  par- 
liament, and  also  guaranteed  them  the  broad 
liberty  of  conscience  they  had  assumed  for 
themselves  aforetime.  This  charter,  so  lib- 
eral, and  the  more  so  that  it  bore  the  name 
of  a Stuart,  remained,  with  some  modifica- 
tions, the  polity  of  the  state  down  to  1842, 
when  a constitution  w7as  framed.  The  legis- 
lative power  is  vested  in  a senate  and  house 
of  representatives,  who  are  together  styled  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Rhode 
Island  and  Providence  Plantations.  The 
governor  is  chosen  annually,  and,  as  wrell  as 
the  lieutenant-governor,  is  a member  of  the 
senate.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  vested  in 
male  native  citizens  of  the  United  States  who 
have  resided  in  the  state  one  year,  and  in  the 
town  six  months ; and  in  naturalized  citizens 
who  beside  such  residence  possess  real  estate 
in  the  town,  worth  $134  over  all  incum- 
brances, or  which  rents  for  $7  per  annum. 
The  general  assembly  meets  at  Newport  on  the 
first  Tuesday  in  each  May,  and  adjourned  ses- 
sions during  the  year  areholden  at  Providence, 
East  Greenwich,  South  Kingston,  and  Bris- 
tol. The  judiciary  consists  of  a supreme 
court,  having  a chief-justice  and  three  asso- 
ciates ; and  of  a court  of  common  pleas  for 
each  of  the  five  counties,  held  by  a justice  of 
the  supreme  court.  Rhode  Island  wras  once 
a laggard  in  the  matter  of  common  schools  : 
but  within  a few  years  great  advance  has 
been  made,  and  she  now  stands  abreast  of 
her  sister  states  of  New  England. 

Providence,  at  the  head  of  Narraganset 


Bay,  is  among  the  wealthiest  and  finest  cities 
of  New  England.  In  1870  it  had  68,904  in- 
habitants. The  land  for  the  settlement  of 
Providence  Plantations  was  conveyed  to 
Roger  Williams  by  the  chief  sachems  of  the 
Narragansets.  He  justly  regarded  the  In- 
dian title  as  pre-eminent  to  all  others.  In  one 
of  the  early  deeds,  he  says,  “ Having  a sense 
of  God’s  merciful  providence  unto  me  in  my 
distress,  I called  the  place  Providence.”  The 
place  suffered  severely  during  King  Philip’s 
war.  Only  twenty-eight  of  the  male  inhab- 
itants “ staid  and  went  not  away.”  At  the 
southern  end  of  the  beautiful  isle  of  Rhode 
Island  lies  the  city  of  Newport.  Its  harbor 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  before 
the  Revolution  Newport  was  the  home  of  pros- 
perous commerce  and  enterprising  merchants. 
It  was  then  the  rival  of  Boston  and  far  the 
superior  of  New  York.  The  struggle  for  in- 
dependence entailed  its  ruin  and  decline.  In 
modern  days,  the  charm  of  its  situation,  the 
cool  and  salubrious  breezes  which  enliven 
its  air,  and  the  facilities  for  sea-bathing, 
make  it  a favorite  resort  in  summer.  Its 
population  is  12,521. 

RHODES,  an  island  in  the  Grecian  archi- 
pelago, ten  miles  from  the  southern  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 
It  was  formerly  celebrated  for  the  fertility  of 
its  soil,  its  commercial  importance,  its  conse- 
cration to  the  gods,  and  its  wonderful  works 
of  art,  including  the  celebrated  Colossus. 
[See  Wonders.]  It  was  made  a Roman 
province  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  In  1309 
the  knights  of  St.  John  took  possession  of  it. 
They  sustained  several  attacks  from  the 
Turks.  The  last  and  most  memorable  siege 
of  the  city  of  Rhodes  was  in  June,  1522,  by 
Solyman  II.  The  princes  of  Christendom, 
hopeless  of  the  defense  of  so  remote  an  out- 
post, abandoned  Rhodes  to  its  fate.  The 
gallant  garrison  held  out  till  they  were  nearly 
buried  in  the  ruins  of  their  fortifications.  In 
December,  1522,  they  capitulated,  evacuated 
the  island  on  honorable  terms,  and  retired  to 
Malta. 

Oct.  12th,  1856,  Rhodes  was  convulsed  by  a 
severe  earthquake,  the  whole  island  seeming 
to  rock  to  and  fro,  as  though  a bauble  in  the 
hand  of  an  angry  Titan^  The  damage  done 
was  estimated  at  $1,000,000,  and  hundreds  of 
the  inhabitants  were  killed  or  wounded.  The 


RHO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


727 


THE  COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES. 


6th  of  November  following,  a thunderbolt 
fell  upon  the  magazine  in  the  city,  where 
were  stored  300,000  pounds  of  powder,  de- 
stroying full  one-third  of  the  town,  and  kill- 
ing a thousand  of  the  people.  The  ancient 
church  of  St.  John  was  laid  in  ruins. 

RICHARD  I.,  II.,  III.,  of  England.  [See 
Plantagenets.] 

RICHARDSON,  Samuel,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish author,  born  in  1689,  died  in  1761. 
Richardson  was  a printer,  and  master  of  an  ex- 
tensive business.  Vanity  was  his  only  mark- 
ed foible.  He  was  very  early  a fluent  letter- 
writer  : at  thirteen  he  was  the  confidant  of 
three  damsels,  conducting  tender  correspond- 
ence for  each  unknown  to  the  others : but  he 
did  not  begin  his  novels  till  he  was  fifty 
years  in  life,  and  then  in  his  back  shop,  in 
intervals  of  business.  Our  great-grand- 
mothers wept  copiously  over  “Pamela”  and 
“ Sir  Charles  Grandison  ” and  “ Clarissa  Har- 


lowe ; ” but  with  all  their  pathos,  it  requires  a 
good  degree  of  wakefulness  to  get  through 
these  prolix  fictions  nowadays. 

RICHELIEU  (Armand  Jean  Duplessis),  a 
cardinal  and  statesman,  was  born  of  a noble 
family  at  Paris,  in  1585.  He  studied  in  the 
Sorbonne,  and  in  1607  obtained  the  bishopric 
of  Lucon.  He  was  also  appointed  grand-al- 
moner, and  in  1616  made  secretary  of  state. 
When  Mary  de  Medicis  fell  into  disgrace, 
Richelieu  was  banished  to  Avignon,  where  he 
wrote  his  “ Method  of  Controversy.”  Being 
soon  after  recalled  to  court,  he  brought  about 
a reconciliation  between  Louis  XIII.  and  the 
queen-mother,  for  which  he  was  rewarded 
with  a cardinal’s  hat,  and  appointed  prime 
minister,  in  which  situation  he  displayed 
extraordinary  talents.  He  subdued  the  Pro- 
testants, reduced  Savoy,  humbled  Spain, 
struck  terror  into  Germany,  and  commanded 
the  admiration  of  all  Europe.  In  the  midst 


RIC 


728 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  this  splendor  he  died,  Dec.  4th,  1642,  and 
was  buried  at  the  Sorbonne. 

RICHTER,  Jean  Paul  Friedrich,  was 
born  in  1763,  in  Baireuth,  a town  of  Fran- 
conia. He  was  one  of  the  most  emiment 
German  authors  of  his  day,  dealing  in  ro- 
mances, the  most  eccentric  and  grotesque, 
yet  full  of  pathos  and  power.  He  died  at 
Baireuth  in  1825. 

RIDLEY,  Nicholas,  an  English  martyr, 
was  born  in  Northumberland.  To  qualifj^ 
himself  for  divinity,  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
studied  some  time  in  the  Sorbonne.  On  his 
return  he  was  chosen  proctor  of  the  univer- 
sity at  Oxford,  in  which  capacity  he  signed 
the  declaration  against  the  papal  supremacy. 
He  was  also  elected  public  orator,  and  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer  made  him  his  chaplain.  Soon 
after  this  he  became  master  of  Pembroke 
Hall,  with  which  he  held  some  considerable 
church  preferment  at  Canterbury,  and  West- 
minster. On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI. 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Rochester ; and, 
in  1550  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Lon- 
don, where  he  discharged  the  duties  of  his 
office  with  unwearied  diligence.  He  was  also 
employed  in  all  the  ecclesiastical  measures  of 
that  reign,  particularly  in  the  compiling  of 
the  liturgy  and  the  framing  of  the  articles  of 
religion.  But  5ne  of  the  most  distinguished 
occurrences  in  the  life  of  this  great  prelate 
was  that  of  inciting  King  Edward  to  endow 
the  three  great  foundations  of  Christ’s,  Bar- 
tholomew’s, and  St.  Thomas’s  hospitals.  It 
was  the  bishop’s  misfortune,  however,  to  be- 
come the  dupe  of  the  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land, who  prevailed  upon  him  to  concur  in 
the  proclamation  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  For 
this  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and 
after  a confinement  of  eight  months,  sent  to 
Oxford,  there  to  hold  a disputation  with  the 
triumphant  party.  This  mockery  was  fol- 
lowed by  a degradation  from  the  episcopal 
dignity,  and  sentence  of  condemnation  to  the 
flames  for  heresy,  which  he  endured  with  the 
venerable  Latimer  before  Baliol  College,  Oct. 
16th,  1555. 

RIENZI,  Cola,  was  born  in  1310.  Dur- 
ing the  absence  of  the  popes  at  Avignon, 
Rome  was  torn  by  contending  factions.  The 
eloquence  of  Ilienzi  stirred  the  people  to  rise, 
and  he  was  given  the  dictatorship  as  the  trib- 
une of  the  people.  This  was  in  1347.  His 


power  lasted  only  till  the  close  of  the  year, 
and  then  he  was  driven  from  the  city.  In- 
nocent VI.  afterward  reinstated  him  in  the 
dictatorship,  and  he  was  slain  during  a pop- 
ular tumult,  Oct.  8th,  1354. 

RITTENHOUSE,  David,  of  Pennsylvania, 
an  eminent  and  self-taught  philosopher,  died 
in  1796,  aged  sixty -five. 

RIZZIO,  David,  a Piedmontese  musician, 
who  ingratiated  himself  into  the  favor  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland.  Through  his  skill 
as  a linguist  he  became  her  foreign  secretary.  * 
He  was  barbarously  assassinated  by  Darnley, 
the  husband  of  Mary,  on  a pretended  suspi- 
cion of  criminal  intercourse  with  her. 

ROBERTSON,  William,  born  in  Scotland, 
1721,  died  in  1793.  Dr.  Robertson  was  an 
eminent  clergyman  in  the  church  of  Scotland, 
but  attained  greater  fame  as  a historian. 
His  great  works  are  the  “ History  of  the 
Reign  of  Charles  V.,”  the  “ History  of 
America,”  and  the  “History  of  Scotland 
during  the  Reigns  of -Queen  Mary  and  of  King 
James  VI.,  till  his  Accession  to  the  Crown  of 
England.” 

ROBESPIERRE,  Maximilian,  a leading 
actor  in  the  terrible  drama  of  the  French 
revolution,  was  born  at  Arras  in  1759.  His 
father  was  of  English  origin,  and  an  advocate, 
to  which  profession  the  son  was  bred.  At 
the  age  of  thirty  he  was  chosen  a deputy  to 
the  states-general,  and  soon  became  promi- 
nent in  the  scenes  of  blood  with  which 
France  was  deluged.  At  last,  when  the  reign 
of  terror  was  at  its  height,  a coalition  was 
formed  against  him,  and  it  issued  success- 
fully. He  was  arrested,  tried  in  the  same 
summary  style  that  had  condemned  so  many 
braver  and  better  men  before,  and  guillotined, 
July  28th,  1794. 

ROCHEFOUCAULD,  Francis,  Duke  of,  an 
eminent  French  writer,  born  in  1613,  and 
died  in  1680. 

ROCHESTER,  John  Wilmot,  Earl  of,  a 
witty  and  licentious  nobleman  of  the  court  of 
Charles  II.,  was  born  in  1647.  It  is  said 
that  he  once  remained  five  years  in  a state 
of  inebriety.  He  blazed  out  his  youth  and 
health  in  lavish  voluptuousness,  and  died  of 
physical  exhaustion  and  decay,  at  the  age  of 
thirty -three.  He  wrote  sweet  and  musical 
songs,  and  several  satirical  poems,  many  of 
them  very  licentious.  “ Nothing  in  his  life  be- 


ROC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


729 


came  him  like  the  leaving  it.”  He  professed 
to  Dr.  Burnet  sincere  and  unreserved  peni- 
tence. His  tender  and  thoughtful  letters  to 
his  wife  and  children  throw  another  bright 
gleam  upon  his  character.  In  one  of  his 
poems  he  hits  the  character  of  his  royal 
boon  companion  in  one  line  : — 

“ A merry  monarch,  scandalous  and  poor.” 

ROCKINGHAM,  Charles  Watson  Went- 
worth, Marquis  of,  became  premier  on  the 
dissolution  of  the  Grenville  administration, 
in  1765.  He  was  a nobleman  possessing  but 
a mediocrity  of  understanding,  and  no  ways 
calculated  to  warrant  the  expectation  of  his 
long  continuance  in  office  ; he  was,  however, 
a man  of  disinterested  principles  and  unaffec- 
ted patriotism.  The  chief  business  of  his 
administration  was  to  undo  all  that  his  prede- 
cessors had  done,  particularly  repealing  the 
American  stamp-act.  In  1766  he  was  suc- 
ceeded in  office  by  the  Duke  of  Grafton.  He 
came  again  into  power  at  the  close  of  the 
ministry  of  Lord  North  in  March,  1782,  but 
died  in  July,  aged  fifty -two. 

RODNEY,  Caesar,  a signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  at  Dover, 
Delaware,  in  1730.  He  successively  filled  the 
offices  of  high  sheriff,  justice  of  the  peace, 
and  judge  of  the  lower  courts,  and  repre- 
sented his  county  in  the  provincial  legisla- 
ture. He. was  a member  of  the  stamp-act 
congress  at  New  York  in  % 1765,  and  was 
speaker  of  the  assembly  of  his  state  in  1768. 
His  chaste  and  fluent  pen  was  actively  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  his  country.  He 
was  a member  of  the  first  congress  in  1774, 
and  continued  a delegate  till  the  close  of 
1776,  when  he  took  the  field  as  brigadier-gen- 
eral. In  1777  he  remained  for  two  months 
in  the  camp  near  Princeton,  laboriously 
occupied.  For  four  years  he  was  president 
of  his  state,  but  retired  from  office  in 
1782,  and  died  the  following  year  from  a 
cancer. 

RODNEY,  George  Brydges,  was  the  son 
of  Capt.  Henry  Rodney,  a naval  officer.  He 
was  born  in  1717,  entered  early  into  the 
British  navy,  and  in  1742  obtained  the  com- 
mand of  a ship.  In  1749  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Newfoundland  ; and  on  his  re- 
turn, in  1753,  he  married  the  sister  of  the 
% Earl  of  Northampton.  In  1759  he  was  made 


admiral  of  the  blue,  and  the  same  year 
destroyed  the  stores  prepared  at  Havre  de 
Grace  for  an  invasion  of  England.  In  1761 
he  served  on  the  West  India  station  with 
such  activity  that  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  he  was  made  a baronet.  In  1768  he  wras 
elected  into  parliament  for  Northampton ; 
but  the  contest  ruined  his  estate.  In  1771 
he  went  to  Jamaica  as  commander-in-chief ; 
and  at  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  service, 
wras  forced  by  his  embarrassed  estate  to 
retire  to  France,  where  overtures  were  made 
to  him  on  the  part  of  that  government,  which 
would  have  recruited  his  fortune,  but  were 
refused  with  indignation.  In  1779  he  was 
again  called  into  employment ; and  the  year 
following,  by  defeating  the  Spanish  fleet,  off 
Cape  St.  Vincent,  he  saved  Gibraltar.  After 
this  he  went  to  the  West  Indies,  where,  on 
the  12th  of  April,  1782,  he  gained  a great 
victory  over  the  French  fleet  under  Count  de 
Grasse  ; for  which  he  wras  made  a peer.  He 
died  in  1792. 

ROE,  Sir  Thomas,  w-as  born  about  1560,  at 
Low  Layton  in  Essex,  and  educated  at  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford,  after  which  he  became 
a student  in  one  of  the  inns  of  court.  In 
1604  he  was  knighted,  and  soon  after  went  to 
make  discoveries  in  America.  In  1614  he 
wras  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  Great  Mogul, 
at  wdiose  court  he  remained  three  years.  In 
1621  he  went  in  the  same  capacity  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  during  his  residence  there, 
collected  a number  of  manuscripts,  which  he 
presented  to  the  Bodleian  library.  In  1629 
Sir  Thomas  negotiated  a peace  between  Po- 
land and  Sweden,  and  it  was  by  his  advice, 
that  Gustavus  Adolphus  entered  Germany, 
where  he  gained  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  In 
1640  he  was  chosen  to  represent  the  univer- 
sity of  Oxford  in  parliament.  The  next  year 
he  w7as  sent  ambassador  to  the  diet  of  Ratis- 
bon,  and  on  his  return  was  made  chancellor 
of  the  garter.  He  died  in  1644. 

ROGERS,  Samuel,  a pleasing  and  tasteful 
poet,  was  the  son  of  a wealthy  London  bank- 
er, and  born  in  1762.  He  was  the  friend  of 
Byron  and  Moore,  and  his  bounty  soothed 
the  dying  hours  of  Sheridan.  He  outlived 
his  contemporaries,  and  died  in  December, 
1856.  His  house  in  St.  James’s  Place,  was 
enriched  w’ith  the  choicest  pictures,  sculp- 
ture, books,  and  gems.  For  half  a century 


ROG 


730 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


it  was  the  centre  of  literary  society  in  Lon- 
don. The  host  was  not  exclusive  in  forming 
his  circle,  and  he  not  only  gathered  round 
his  table  men  who  had  achieved  literary 
eminence,  but  also  extended  his  hand  to 
young  and  friendless  merit. 

ROLAND  DE  LA  PLATIERE,  Jean  Ma- 
rie, was  born  at  Villefranche  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Lyons,  1782  ; was  inspector  general 
of  manufactures  and  commerce  in  that  city 
when  the  revolution  commenced ; and,  having 
embraced  popular  principles,  became  member 
of  the  Lyons  municipality  in  1790.  In 
February,  1791,  he  was  sent  to  Paris  as  dep- 
uty extraordinary,  to  defend  the  commercial 
interests  of  Lyons  in  the  committees  of  the 
constituent  assembly,  and  remained  ‘there 
seven  months,  accompanied  by  his  noble- 
hearted  wife.  This  period  dates  from  the 
contemplated  flight  of  the  king,  just  before 
the  death  of  Mirabeau,  to  the  dispersion  of 
the  assembly  after  the  acceptance  of  the 
new  constitution.  When  the  patriot  minis- 
try was  formed  in  March,  1792,  Roland  was 
made  minister  of  the  interior  ; which  position 
he  retained  till  June  13th,  when  the  royal 
veto  upon  the  proposal  to  form  a patriot 
camp  around  Paris,  and  upon  the  decree 
against  the  priests,  provoked  his  celebrated 
letter  to  the  king  (written,  however,  by  his 
wife),  and,  as  a consequence,  his  almost  in- 
stant dismissal.  Then  came  the  arrival  of 
the  Marseillaise  in  Paris,  and  the  conflict  at 
the  Tuileries,  August  10th  ; when  Roland 
was  recalled,  and  Danton  became  minister  of 
justice.  The  struggle  between  the  Giron- 
dists and  the  municipality  under  the  guid- 
ance of  Robespierre  filled  up  the  period  till 
May  31st.  The  former  party  were  vanquish- 
ed, and  Roland  was  among  the  number  who 
saved  their  lives  by  flight.  He  found  an 
asylum  with  his  friends  at  Rouen,  but  delib- 
erately killed  himself  with  his  cane-sword  on 
hearing  of  the  execution  of  his  wife,  Nov. 
15th,  1793.  His  body  was  found  by  the 
roadside,  and  a paper  in  his  pocket  contained 
his  last  words,  among  which  were  these : 
“Whoever  thou  art  that  findest  these  re- 
mains, respect  them,  as  those  of  a man  who 
consecrated  his  life  to  usefulness,  and  who 
died  as  he  has  lived,  virtuous  and  honest.  . 

. . . On  hearing  of  my  wife’s  death,  I 

would  not  remain  another  day  upon  this  earth 


so  stained  with  crimes.”  Roland  was  mark- 
ed by  his  practical  philosophy,  commercial 
knowledge,  and  strict  simplicity. 

ROLAND,  Manon  Jeanne  Puilippon, 
Madame,  the  wife  of  the  preceding,  and  her- 
self the  spirit  of  the  Girondist  party,  was 
the  daughter  of  a Parisian  engraver,  and  was 
born  at  Paris  in  1754.  Of  nine  she  was  the 
only  child  left  to  her  father,  who  provided 
her  with  masters  regardless  of  expense,  and 
gave  her  a brilliant  education;  the  best 
grounds  for  which  existed  in  her  native  tal- 
ents, her  firm  spirit,  her  personal  beauty,  and 
her  undoubted  virtues.  Antiquities,  herald- 
ry, philosophy,  and,  among  other  books,  the 
Bible,  made  up  her  earliest  studies;  her 
favorite  authors,  however,  were  Plutarch, 
Tacitus,  Montaigne,  and  Rousseau.  In  1779 
she  became  the  wife  of  Roland ; and  as  her 
love  for  him  was  founded  on  his  ajitique  vir- 
tues and  philosophic  spirit,  she  has  been 
called  ‘ the  Heloise  of  the  eighteenth  centu- 
ry;’ he  was  also  twenty  years  her  senior. 
She  shared  in  all  his  studies,  assisted  him  in 
editing  his  works,  and  during  his  two  minis- 
tries acted  as  his  secretary,  entering  into  all 
the  intrigues  of  his  party  without  debasing 
herself  by  their  meanness.  She  was  the 
angel  of  the  cause  she  espoused,  the  soul  of 
honor  and  the  conscience  of  all  who  embraced 
it ; while  her  boldness,  her  political  sagacity, 
and  her  sarcastic  eloquence  were  equally 
dreaded  by  their  adversaries. 

After  the  flight  of  her  husband,  Madame 
Roland  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  Paris 
commune,  under  dictation  of  Marat  and 
Robespierre,  and  consigned  to  the  Abbaye 
prison ; from  which,  on  the  31st  of  October, 
1793  (the  day  her  Girondist  friends  were  led 
to  execution),  she  was  removed  to  a more 
wretched  abode  in  the  damp  vaults  of  the 
Conciergie.  The  dismal  dungeon  into  which 
she  was  cast  adjoined  the  cell  in  which  the 
hapless  Marie  Antoinette  had  languished  in 
misery  till  dragged  to  the  guillotine.  The 
next  day  she  was  subjected  to  an  abusive 
examination,  and  having  thus  learned  the 
nature  of  the  charges  which  would  be  brought 
against  her,  she  sit  down  in  her  cell  that 
very  night,  and  swiftly  sketched  her  eloquent 
defense.  She  bore  the  subsequent  examina- 
tions with  serenity  and  courage,  though  cer- 
tain of  the  untimely  death  that  awaited  her. 


ROL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


731 


The  upper  part  of  the  door  of  her  cell  was 
an  iron  grating.  The  neighboring  dungeons 
were  filled  with  illustrious  Frenchmen  and 
Frenchwomen.  To  some  it  was  permitted 
to  walk  in  the  corridors.  These,  and  those 
more  closely  immured,  often  called  for  her  to 
give  them  encouraging  and  consoling  words. 
Standing  upon  a stool  at  the  door  of  her  own 
cell,  she  grasped  the  iron  grating  which  sep- 
arated her  from  her  companions  in  confine- 
ment. The  melodious  accents  of  her  voice 
floated  among  those  dismal  dungeons,  pene- 
trating cell  after  cell,  and  arousing  energy  in 
hearts  which  had  been  abandoned  to  despair. 
The  calmness  with  which  she  viewed  the 
certain  approach  of  death,  gave  to  her  voice 
that  depth  of  tone  and  slightly  tremulous 
utterance  which  sent  her  words  with  thrilling 
power  to  every  heart.  A survivor  of  those 
dreadful  scenes,  who  was  then  an  inmate  of 
the  prison,  has  glowingly  described  the  al- 
most miraculous  effects  of  her  eloquence  at 
such  times.  Occasionally,  in  the  solitude  of 
her  cell,  the  recollection  of  her  husband  and 
her  child  would  overcome  her  with  tears. 
The  passion  was  only  momentary.  The 
heroine  rose  above  the  woman.  With  the 
highest  degree  of  heroism  she  combined  the 
most  resistless  charms  of  feminine  loveliness. 
With  an  energy  of  will,  an  inflexibility  of 
purpose,  and  a firmness  of  stoical  endurance 
that  few  mortals  have  ever  surpassed,  Mad- 
ame Roland  combined  that  purity  and  gentle- 
ness and  tenderness  and  affection, — that  in- 
stinctive sense  of  the  proprieties  of  her  sex, — 
which  gathered  about  her  a love  as  pure  and 
enthusiastic  as  woman  ever  excited. 

Upon  the  trial,  she  met*  her  judges  calmly 
and  invincibly.  She  was  accused  of  the 
crimes  of  being  the  wife  of  M.  Roland  and 
the  friend  of  his  friends.  She  proudly 
owned  the  truth  of  both  those  charges. 
Whenever  she  attempted  to  utter  a word  in 
her  defense,  she  was  browbeaten  by  the 
judges,  and  silenced  by  the  clamors  of  the 
mob.  Her  serenity  was  untroubled,  save  by 
the  exaltation  of  enthusiasm,  and  she  com- 
posedly watched  the  progress  of  the  trial 
whose  rapid  and  resistless  course  was  bearing 
her  to  the  scaffold.  Yet  it  was  difficult  to 
bring  any  accusation  against  her  by  which 
she  could  be  condemned  under  the  pretense 
and  form  of  law.  France,  even  in  her  dark- 


est hour,  was  rather  ashamed  to  behead  a 
woman,  simply  for  being  the  wife  of  her  hus- 
band and  the  friend  of  his  friends.  At  last 
it  was  demanded  of  her  that  she  should  re- 
veal her  husband’s  asylum.  Her  refusal  was 
enough,  and  she  was  immediately  condemned. 
She  calmly  listened  to  her  sentence ; then 
rising,  she  bowed  with  dignity  to  her  unjust 
judges,  and  said  with  a smile,  “I  thank  you, 
gentlemen,  for  thinking  me  worthy  to  share 
the  fate  of  the  great  men  whom  you  have  as- 
sassinated. I shall  endeavor  to  imitate  their 
firmness  on  the  scaffold.” 

The  morning  of  the  10th  of  November,  a 
long  procession  of  carts  loaded  with  victims 
left  the  Conciergie  for  the  guillotine.  In  the 
last  of  the  mournful  vehicles  was  Madame 
Roland.  She  was  clad  in  a white  robe,  and 
her  black  glossy  hair,  which  for  some  reason 
the  executioners  had  neglected  to  cut,  fell  in 
rich  profusion  to  her  waist.  She  had  contin- 
ued writing  her  memoirs  until  the  hour  in 
which  she  left  the  cell  for  the  scaffold.  When 
the  cart  had  almost  reached  the  foot  of  the  guil- 
lotine, her  spirit  was  so  deeply  moved  by  the 
tragic  scene,  such  emotions  came  rushing  in 
upon  her  soul  from  departing  time  and  open- 
ing eternity,  that  she  could  not  repress  the 
desire  to  write,  once  more.  She  unavailingly 
begged  an  officer  to  furnish  her  with  pen  and 
paper  for  one  moment.  Her  courage  did  not 
falter  on  the  scaffold.  Bowing  before  the 
statue  to  the  goddess  of  Liberty,  she  said, 
uO  Liberty!  Liberty!  how  many  crimes  are 
committed  in  thy  name.”  Her  neck  was  put 
beneath  the  fatal  axe  of  the  guillotine ; the 
steel  descended ; and  her  severed  head  rolled 
into  the  gory  basket. 

ROLLIN,  Charles,  an  eminent  historian, 
born  at  Paris  in  1661,  died  in  1741. 

ROMANOFF,  House  of.  Unlicensed  pow- 
er does  not  foster  the  growth  of  virtue ; and 
there  are  no  sections  of  history  more  lamen- 
table than  those  which  recount  the  deeds  of 
families  wielding  for  centuries  regal  authority, 
whether  it  be  the  Ptolemies  of  ancient  time, 
or  the  Stuarts  or  Bourbons  of  modern  days. 
The  biography  of  the  imperial  house  of  Rus- 
sia does  not  yield  an  exception. 

The  Rurick  dynasty,  which  for  seven  cen- 
turies, had  held  power  in  Russia,  ended  with 
the  childless  Feodor  in  1598.  His  legitimate 
heir,  Dmitri,  was  assassinated,  and  the  land 


ROM 


732 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


became  the  prey  of  anarchy,  which,  with  the 
ambition  of  rapacious  neighbors,  menaced  the 
burial  of  its  independence.  The  throne  was 
offered  to  the  Polish  monarch,  and  all  but 
given,  when  a successful  effort  to  save  the 
nationality  threw  off  the  yoke  and  drove  the 
Poles  from  Moscow.  A convocation  of  dep- 
uties from  the  nobles,  priests,  and  burgesses, 
of  each  province,  was  held  in  1613,  to  choose 
a czar,  and  Michael  Romanoff  was  selected. 
The  Romanoffs  were  one  of  the  leading  fam- 
ilies of  Muscovy,  having  their  origin  in  an 
adventurer  from  western  Europe  who  settled 
in  the  land  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Mich- 
ael was  then  a youth  of  seventeen.  His  kin 
had  suffered  sorely  in  the  previous  years  of 
lawlessness;  he  himself  had  spent  many 
years  in  exile  and  in  prison ; his  illustrious 
father,  who  had  been  the  ambassador  to  Po- 
land, was  languishing  in  prison  at  Warsaw. 
Alive  to  the  dangers  and  cares  which  hedged 
about  the  regal  dignity  in  that  troublous  land 
and  time,  the  young  czar  elect  declined  the 
honor.  His  scruples  were  overcome ; he  was 
crowned  at  Moscow,  and  he  reigned  for  two 
and  thirty  years!  The  wars  he  waged  with 
the  Poles  and  with  the  Swedes  cost  him  broad 
provinces,  but  his  reign  was  very  popular, 
and  well  calculated  to  establish  his  family 
upon  the  throne.  We  are  told  that  he  forbade 
the  use  of  tobacco  as  injurious  to  health  and 
strength,  and  that  he  issued  a sort  of  Maine- 
law  ukase  against  ardent  beverages.  He  ob- 
tained his  father’s  release  from  the  Polish 
dungeon,  and  wisely  admitted  him  to  a share 
in  the  government,  where  his  prudence  and 
moderation  were  of  great  profit. 

Michael’s  son  and  successor,  Alexis,  was 
of  another  stamp.  He  chose  for  his  prime 
counselor  and  minister,  Boris  Morosoff,  an 
able  nobleman,  but  ferocious,  unprincipled, 
rapacious,  and  ambitious.  Open  traffic  was 
made  of  justice ; offices  and  employments  were 
publicly  sold.  These  exactions  and  oppres- 
sions excited  the  just  resentment  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Moscow,  and  finding  their  peti- 
tions disregarded,  no  grievances  redressed, 
and  starvation  threatening  them  from  the 
monopolies  in  trade  which  the  royal  favorite 
possessed,  they  rose  in  tumult,  and  cried  for 
the  head  of  Morosoff.  With  difficulty  Alexis 
saved  the  life  of  his  minister  by  banishing 
him.  The  czar  did  little  better  when  left  to 


himself.  His  evil  administration  caused  more 
insurrections  of  a famishing  people,  which 
were  put  down  with  awful  carnage  by  his 
strelitz,  or  mercenary  body-guard.  A ray 
of  light  strays  upon  his  despotism  through 
efforts  which  he  began  to  make  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  wealth  and  industry  of  his 
realm.  He  had  the  gold  mines  opened  and 
worked,  superintended  the  construction  of  the 
two  first  ships  built  in  Russia,  and  advanced 
the  intercourse  with  the  more  civilized  coun- 
tries in  the  west.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
forty-seven,  having  reigned  thirty-one  years. 
By  his  first  wife,  Alexis  left  two  sons,  Feodor 
and  Ivan,  and  six  daughters,  among  them 
Sophia ; and  by  the  second,  Peter  and  the 
princess  Natalia. 

At  once  there  arose  a dispute  for  the  suc- 
cession. Feodor  was  sickly,  and  not  likely 
to  live.  Ivan  was  almost  blind,  very  deaf, 
and  wholly  imbecile.  The  Narishkins,  the 
powerful  kinsmen  of  the  second  wife,  claimed 
the  throne  for  Peter,  then  only  three  years 
of  age.  The  vigor  of  Sophia,  aided  by  her 
beauty  and  eloquence,  turned  the  scale  in 
favor  of  Feodor.  He  lived  only  six  years, 
insignificant  and  invalid.  Then  the  fierce 
contest  for  the  succession  was  renewed. 
Peter  and  his  mother  narrowly  escaped  mur- 
der from  the  emissaries  of  Sophia.  At  last 
the  idiot  Ivan  and  his  half-brother  were  asso- 
ciated in  the  nominal  dignity  of  czar,  with 
Sophia  for  regent.  She  placed  Peter  in  a 
country  village  and  surrounded  him  with 
profligate  and  drunken  boors.  From  her  idiot 
brother  she  had  no  intrusion  to  fear.  Aided 
by  her  able  and  wary  counselor,  Prince  Galit- 
zin,  she  applied  herself  to  confirm  her  author- 
ity, and  avoid  the  perils  common  to  usurpers. 
Yet  she  was  beset  by  troubles,  dangers,  and 
unruly  subjects.  With  all  she  had  done  to 
quench  the  manhood  of  Peter,  he  was  still 
the  thorn  in  her  flesh.  In  his  rustication  he 
had  learned  readily  enough  the  vices  set 
around  him;  but  drunkenness  could  not 
drown  his  energy  and  strength  of  character ; 
and  as  he  grew  to  manly  years,  his  ambition 
was  not  concealed.  Sophia  must  be  rid  of 
him.  The  attempt  resulted  in  her  downfall. 
He  was  victorious,  and  she  with  a shaven 
head  was  immured  in  a nunnery.  From  this 
time,  1689,  Peter  is  to  be  considered  as  sole 
sovereign  of  Russia ; since  from  the  period  of 


ROM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


733 


this  revolution  to  the  year  1696,  in  which 
Ivan  died,  the  idiot  led  a private  and  retired 
life. 

Peter  the  Great  was  born  May  30th,  1672. 
His  vast  projects  of  improvement  raised  Rus- 
sia to  the  rank  of  an  empire.  At  the  time  of 
his  accession  he  could  neither  read  nor  write, 
thanks  to  Sophia.  Lefort,  a Swiss,  one  of 
his  companions,  taught  him  not  only  Russian, 
but  several  other  European  languages.  His 
army  was  undisciplined : he  sent  abroad  for 
well-tried  soldiers, — thousands  of  Frenchmen, 
Scots,  Germans,  and  Swiss, — and  leavened,  the 
different  corps.  Very  soon  all  he  needed  was 
a general,  a want  which  would  not  have  ex- 
isted, had  merit  been  the  ground  of  promo- 
tion. To  correct  this  abuse,  he  entered  the 
ranks  and  performed  the  duties  of  a common 
soldier,  till,  by  rising  gradually  and  regularly 
through  all  the  grades  to  the  command  of  a 
body  of  troops,  he  exhibited  the  duty  of  obe- 
dience and  the  necessity  of  discipline,  in  his 
own  example.  Russia  had  no  navy.  Peter 
was  born  with  such  a dread  of  watey  that 
whenever  he  saw  a river  he  shuddered.  Of 
this  he  cured  himself  by  a rigorous  morning 
regimen  of  icy  shower-baths.  He  became  a 
practical  mariner,  and  then  a ship-carpenter. 
He  visited  Holland,  under  a disguised  name, 
in  1698.  Here  he  worked  as  a common  la- 
borer among  the  shipwrights  in  the  dock- 
yard, and  then  he  went  to  England.  There 
in  the  royal  dock-yard  at  Deptford,  spurning 
all  ceremony  and  attention,  he  hewed  and 
hammered  like  any  other  frugal,  industrious 
carpenter.  When  he  was  thoroughly  a mas- 
ter-workman, he  went  home,  and  by  and  by 
Russia  had  a navy.  Insurrections  of  the  sol- 
diery were  a frequent  thing.  Peter  put  them 
down  by  his  resistless  daring  and  force,  mak- 
ing fearful  examples,  till  sedition  disturbed 
him  no  more.  His  rule  was  a despotism,  but 
it  had  for  its  grand  object  the  aggrandizement 
of  the  nation,  and  not  simply  selfish  ambition. 
Whatever  stood  in  the  way  of  his  gigantic 
schemes,  he  crushed  without  remorse.  The 
council  of  the  boyards  and  nobles  was  a re- 
straint upon  his  will : he  brushed  it  away. 
Priestcraft  he  hated  as  an  antagonistic  des- 
potism : he  crumbled  the  power  of  the  church, 
and  declared  himself  its  patriarch  and  head. 
When  he  founded  St.  Petersburg,  the  clergy 
swelled  the  popular  dislike  to  its  unhealthy 


marshes,  by  proclaiming  that  an  image  of 
the  Virgin,  which  had  been  removed  to  the 
church  on  the  Neva,  shed  visible  tears  there- 
at. Peter  strode  into  the  church,  seized  the 
sniveling  doll,  gouged  its  eyes,  and  chuckled 
to  find  a small  reservoir  of  oil,  so  contrived 
that  a little  stream  could  trickle  down  the 
cheeks. 

He  decreed  that  the  dress  of  his  people 
should  assimilate  to  that  of  western  Europe. 
He  disliked  beards,  and  by  taxing  them  pro- 
moted shaven  chins.  One  of  the  wisest  of 
his  social  enactments  was  that  which  sent 
young  Russians  on  foreign  tours ; it  helped 
to  raise  the  Russian  noble  from  a drunken, 
sensual,  brutal  boor  towTard  a polished  gen- 
tleman. Peter  was  drunken  and  sensual,  in 
a degree  that  would  have  swamped  an  ordi- 
nary man ; but  he  was  not  an  ordinary  man, 
and  he  knew  the  worth  of  virtues  and  attain- 
ments that  he  did  not  practice.  His  trusted 
friends  were  foreigners,  or  Russians  who  had 
traveled  abroad.  Lefort,  the  Swiss,  was  his 
chief  adviser ; Menschikoff,  who  began  life  as 
a pastry-cook,  and  ended  by  founding  a 
princely  house  still  foremost  in  the  empire, 
was  another;  and  wherever  Peter  found  use- 
ful talent,  whether  in  a Muscovite  boyard  or 
in  a Dutch  skipper,  he  encouraged  and  em- 
ployed it. 

His  domestic  life  was  as  strange  as  his 
public  career.  When  very  young,  he  married 
Eudocia,  the  daughter  of  Col.  Lapuchin,  and 
when  quite  as  young  he  began  to  brutally 
maltreat  her,  and  neglect  her  for  low  amours, 
for  he  was  not  at  all  nice  in  his  mistresses. 
Alexis,  the  son  which  she  bore  him  in  1670, 
Peter  ever  hated.  A charge  of  treason  was 
trumped  up ; Alexis  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  the  sentence  was  fulfilled  by  a horrible 
poison.  The  last  of  Peter’s  mistresses  became 
his  second  wife.  Her  life  shows  a curious 
scale.  First  a Swedish  peasant  girl,  then  the . 
wife  of  a dragoon,  then  captured  by  the  Rus- 
sians, successively  the  mistress  of  Gen.  Bauer 
and  Prince  Menschikoff,  she  was  sold  by  the 
latter  to  his  master,  and  became  czarina. 
Martha,  her  original  name,  was  changed  for 
Catharine.  Her  imperturbable  good-nature 
proved  a resistless  charm  for  impetuous 
Peter, — one  that  could  calm  his  wildest  fits 
of  passion.  She  accompanied  him  to  the 
camp,  wielding  a strong  influence.  It  is  said 


ROM 


73  ± 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


that  the  truce  which  saved  his  army  when 
surrounded  by  the  Turks  on  the  banks  of  the 
Pruth,  was  entered  into  by  her  without  even 
his  knowledge.  She  was  as  influential  in  the 
court,  and  the  sad  fate  of  Alexis  hints  her 
instigation. 

The  great  czar  went  on ; rearing  an  impe- 
rial city  of  splendid  proportions  and  design, 
on  the  watery  desert  of  the  Neva;  waging 
battle  with  Turk  and  Swede  and  Pole;  build- 
ing up  fleets  of' war  and  navies  of  commerce ; 
founding  that  army  which  has  since  been 
brought  almost  to  the  perfection  of  a machine ; 
careering,  like  the  car  of  the  Hindoo  idol,  over 
life  and  happiness  and  liberty,  toward  the 
mark  of  his  lofty’aims  and  indomitable  energy. 
In  1716  he  journeyed  with  Catharine  to  Den- 
mark, and  thence  to  Holland,  the  scene  of  the 
hardy  toil  of  plain  Peter  Timmermann.  Much 
had  been  done  since  then:  that  toil  was  not 
for  naught.  At  last  there  came  to  Peter  the 
Great  that  fate  which  comes  to  all.  He  died 
of  strangury,  aggravated  by  exposure  to  wet 
and  cold  on  a boating  excursion,  Jan.  28th, 
1725.  *■  A’ colossal  statue  was  erected  to  his 
memory  at  St.  Petersburg,  by  the  second 
Catharine.  The  huge  block  of  granite  which 
forms  its  pedestal,  and  which  weighs  upward 
of  fifteen  tons,  was  conveyed  from  a marsh  at 
a distance  of  four  English  miles  from  St. 
Petersburg,  and  two  from  the  sea.  On  ap- 
proaching near  to  the  rock,  the  simple  inscrip- 
tion fixed  on  it  in  bronze  letters,  “ Petro 
Primo,  Gatherina  Secunda,  mdcclxxxii.,” 
meets  the  eye.  The  same  inscription  in  the 
Russian  language  appears  on  the  opposite 
side.  The  area  is  enclosed  within  a hand- 
some railing  placed  between  granite  pillars. 
The  idea  of  Falconet,  the  French  architect 
commissioned  to  erect  an  equestrian  statue 
of  this  extraordinary  man,  at  whose  command 
a few  scattered  huts  of  fishermen  were  con- 
verted into  palaces,  was  to  represent  him  as 
conquering,  by  enterprise  and  personal  cour- 
age, difficulties  almost  insurmountable.  This, 
the  artist  imagined,  might  be  properly  repre- 
sented by  placing  Peter  on  a fiery  steed, 
which  he  is  supposed  to  have  taught  by  skill, 
management,  and  perseverance,  to  rush  up  a 
steep  and  precipitous  rock,  to  the  very  brink 
of  a precipice,  over  which  the  animal  and  the 
imperial  rider  pause  without  fear,  and  in  an 
attitude  of  triumph.  The  horse  rears  with  his 


fore  feet  in  the  air,  and  seems  impatient  of 
restraint,  while  the  sovereign,  turned  toward 
the  island,  surveys  with  calm  and  serene 
countenance  his  capital  rising  out  of  the 
waters,  over  which  he  extends  the  hand  of 
protection. 

This  monument  of  bronze  is  said  to  have 
been  cast  at  a single  jet.  The  height  of  the 
figure  of  the  emperor  is  eleven  feet ; that  of  the 
horse  seventeen  feet ; the  general  weight  of 
the  metal  in  the  group  is  equal  to  36,636 
English  pounds.  It  is  said  that  when  the 
artist  had  formed  his  conception  of  the  design, 
he  communicated  it  to  the  empress,  together 
with  the  impossibility  of  representing  to 
nature  so  striking  a position  of  man  and 
animal,  without  having  before  his  eyes  a 
horse  and  rider  in  the  attitude  he  had  devised. 
General  Melessino,  an  officer  having  the  repu- 
tation of  being  the  most  expert  as  well  as  the 
boldest  rider  of  the  day,  to  whom  the  difficul- 
ties of  the  artist  were  made  known,  offered  to 
ride  daily  one  of  Count  Alexis  OrlofFs  best 
Arabians,  to  the  summit  of  a steep  artificial 
mound  formed  for  the  purpose ; accustoming 
the  horse  to  gallop  up  to  it,  and  to  halt  sud- 
denly, with  his  fore  legs  raised,  pawing  the 
air  over  the  brink  of  a precipice.  This  dan- 
gerous experiment  was  carried  into  effect  by 
the  general  for  some  days,  in  the  presence 
of  several  spectators  and  of  Falconet,  who 
sketched  the  various  movements  and  parts 
of  the  group  from  day  to  day.  In  an  eques- 
trian statue  the  horse  is  the  great  point ; the 
rider  is  of  little  account.  The  merit  of  this 
group  consists  in  the  boldness  with  which  it 
rests  on  the  hind  legs  of  the  steed,  assisted  by 
an  allegorical  serpent  of  envy  that  the  horse 
very  judiciously  spurns  rather  than  topple 
over. 

Peter  had  appointed  his  widow  his  suc- 
cessor; she  had  Menschikoff  and  the  army 
on  her  side,  moreover,  and  she  mounted  the 
throne.  Freed  from  the  restraint  of  a hus- 
band, and  such  an  imperious  one  withal, 
Catharine  left  business  to  Menschikoff,  and 
immersed  herself  in  the  profligacy  which  she 
considered  pleasure.  Cancer,  dropsy,  and 
other  maladies  cut  her  off  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
nine.  Peter,  the  son  of  the  Alexis  of  inhuman 
doom,  came  to  the  throne.  He  was  a lad  of 
promise,  but  only  a lad.  The  government 
continued  in  the  control  of  Menschikoff,  who 


ROM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


735 


endeavored  to  carry  on  the  vast  plans  of  Peter 
the  Great,  and  so  became  more  and  more 
brutal  and  despotic.  In  the  height  of  power 
he  was  banished  to  Siberia,  and  Ivan  Dalgo- 
ruky,  whose  sister  Catharine  the  boy  czar 
loved  and  wedded,  took  his  place.  But  Ivan’s 
span  was  short,  for  Peter  died  in  1630,  at  the 
age  of  fifteen.  He  was  the  last  of  the  male 
line  of  Romanoff.  The  nearest  heir  was 
Peter,  the  infant  son  of  Anne,  Duchess  of 
Holstein-Gottorp,  a daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great.  His  aunt  Elizabeth,  another  daughter 
of  Peter,  as  well  as  the  three  daughters  of  the 
imbecile  Ivan,  put  forth  their  claims.  A 
caucus  of  generals  and  a few  nobles  decided 
in  favor  of  Anne,  Duchess  of  Courland,  the 
second  daughter  of  Ivan.  After  she  had 
strengthened  herself  by  conciliating  the  sol- 
diery who  had  made  her  empress,  she  began 
to  repudiate  the  pledges  that  had  been  im- 
posed upon  her.  One  promise  was  that  she 
would  not  bring  her  chamberlain  Biren  into 
Russia:  he  was  soon  sent  for,  and  intrusted 
with  the  whole  conduct  of  affairs,  foreign  and 
domestic.  Exile  and  the  knout  were  the 
devices  of  his  rule ; the  latter  he  considered 
the  best  answer  to  any  petition  or  complaint 
from  the  people,  while  the  other  was  his 
remedy  for  those  who  were  tainted  with 
opposition  to  his  will.  It  is  said  that  his 
banishments  to  Siberia  averaged  more  than 
six  exiles  a day.  For  Anne,  his  affection  and 
a few  pleasures  were  sufficient.  She  was  not 
marked  by  the  coarse  vices  of  her  race : she 
was  not  a drunkard,  and  it  is  not  known  that 
she  set  a premium  on  profligacy.  Fond  of 
cheerful  music  and  gay  dancing,  she  preferred 
a tranquil  life  to  the  boisterous  revels  of  her 
successors.  Now  and  then  she  did  a deed 
that  evinced  the  blood  she  bore.  Prince 
Galitzin,  one  of  the  highest  nobles  in  Russia, 
forsook  the  Greek  for  the  Romish  faith: 
Anne  made  him  the  court-fool,  and  had  him 
beaten  by  her  pages  when  his  jests  failed  to 
amuse.  Just  at  the  close  of  her  reign,  she 
took  offense  at  one  of  her  ministers,  Yolynski : 
she  had  his  tongue  torn  from  the  roots,  his 
right  hand  cut  off,  and  his  mutilated  body 
beheaded.  She  died  childless  in  1740.  The 
ambition  and  arrogance  of  Biren  had  worked 
his  ruin,  and  he  took  his  turn  in  Siberia. 
Ivan,  grand-nephew  of  the  deceased  empress, 
had  been  declared  the  heir.  He  was  only 


three  months  old,  and  his  mother,  Anne  of 
Mecklenburg,  Duchess  of  Brunswick,  was 
made  regent.  She  was  but  a girl  of  sixteen, 
and  her  waiting-maid  controlled  all.  Under 
such  giddiness,  revolution  came  of  course, 
and  soon. 

The  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter 
the  Great,  was  made  empress.  Ivan,  the  inno- 
cent and  unconscious  babe,  was  dethroned, 
and  immured  in  a dungeon ; and  the  duchess 
and  her  husband  were  imprisoned  in  a fortress, 
where  they  died.  Ivan’s  fate  was  hapless 
enough.  He  spent  his  days  in  prison ; every 
trick  to  debase  his  intellect  was  tried ; brandy 
was  given  him  in  quantities ; his  temper  was 
irritated  to  sullenness  and  ferocity,  and  when 
one  day  a word  showed  a dim  consciousness 
of  his  birth  and  claims,  in  the  time  of  Catha- 
rine the  Great,  the  next  morning  his  body 
lay  in  a puddle  of  gore,  thrust  with  five  and 
twenty  wounds. 

Elizabeth  inherited  a share  of  her  father’s 
energy,  and  a fuller  portion  of  his  cruelty. 
She  bent  her  thoughts  to  the  government 
of  the  empire,  and  her  twenty  years’  reign 
showed  no  lack  of  vigor.  She  abolished 
capital  punishment,  except  for  political 
offenses,  but  the  knout. . and  torture  were 
substituted,  so  that  such  clemency  was  of 
slight  worlfc.  Like  her  English  namesake 
she  never  married,  yet  she  can  not  be  named 
as  a maiden  queen,  and  her  meditations  were 
far  less  ‘ fancy  free.’  In  her  last  years  she 
resigned  the  cares  of  state  to  her  favorite  and 
able  statesman,  Panin,  and  abandoned  herself 
to  vile  debauches,  and  died  at  last  in  1762,  of 
delirium  tremens,  with  a half-emptied  brandy 
bottle  in  her  hand  and  obscene  ravings  on  her 
tongue. 

She  left  her  throne  to  her  nephew  Peter, 
of  Holstein-Gottorp,  once  before  a claimant. 
Brought  up  under  her  care,  it  is  not  strange 
that  he  was  ignorant  and  dissolute.  He  was 
grandson  to  Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine  I., 
whose  eldest  daughter,  the  Princess  Anne, 
had  married  his  father,  Charles  Frederick, 
Duke  of  Holstein.  His  reign  commenced 
with  a time  of  political  jubilee  ; the  credit  of 
which  is  due  to  his  ministers,  for  he  was 
steeped  in  habitual  excesses.  He  for  a long 
time  slighted  his  consort,  Catharine,  and 
openly  lived  with  the  Countess  of  Woront- 
zoff,  niece  to  the  chancellor  of  that  pame. 


ROM 


786 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Catharine  indulged  in  the  greatest  licentious- 
ness ; and,  after  the  dismissal  of  Poniatowski, 
the  Polish  ambassador,  with  whom  she  had 
been  too  intimate,  she  carried  on  a criminal 
intercourse  with  Gregory  Orloff,  who  became 
an  active  and  zealous  member  of  a conspiracy 
against  the  czar.  To  the  conspiracy  of  Bes- 
tucheff,  supported  by  his  nephew,  the  Prince 
of  Wolskonsky,  and  by  Count  Panin,  was 
added  another,  of  which  the  Princess  Dash- 
koff,  a girl  only  eighteen  jmars  of  age,  was 
the  most  active  and  spirited  member.  Of  all 
these  factions,  which  acted  without  the  cog- 
nizance of  each  other,  Catharine  was  the 
animating  spirit. 

At  length  a report  was  propagated  that  the 
emperor  entertained  the  design  of  declaring 
Prince  Ivan  his  successor,  of  disowning  the 
young  grand-duke,  Paul,  his  son,  and  of 
immuring  Catharine  for  life  in  a prison,  and 
substituting  in  her  place  his  mistress,  the 
Countess  of  Worontzoff. 

At  seven  in  the  morning  of  the  9th  of 
Juty,  1762,  Catharine  entered  the  city  of 
Petersburg  in  the  absence  of  the  czar ; and 
having  induced  the  soldiers  to  believe  that 
her  death,  together  with  that  of  her  son,  had 
been  decreed  by  the  emperor  that  night,  the 
troops  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  her. 
She  then  repaired  to  the  church  of  Casan, 
where  the  Archbishop  of  Novogorod  placed 
on  her  head  the  imperial  crown,  and  in  a loud 
voice  proclaimed  her  sovereign  of  all  the 
Russias,  under  the  name  of  Catharine  II. 
The  revolution  was  bloodless.  Her  husband 
was  solacing  himself  with  his  mistress  at  one 
of  his  country-houses  of  pleasure,  when  he 
was  informed  of  the  event  which  had  taken 
place.  Consternation  immediately  pervaded 
his  whole  company.  The  emperor,  perplexed 
and  confounded,  ordered,  countermanded, 
asked  advice,  adopted,  and  again  rejected  it, 
and  at  length  set  out  with  his  mistress  and 
aid-de-camp  to  meet  Catharine,  vainly  hoping 
to  move  by  submission  the  heart  of  a woman 
who  was  utterly  devoid  of  pity  or  compas- 
sion. After  being  induced  to  write  and  sign 
a renunciation  of  the  throne  of  Russia,  he 
was  cast  into  prison,  where  seven  days  after, 
a minion  of  the  empress  gave  him  poison, 
and  made  the  dose  sure  by  strangling  him, 


fought  with  the  desperation  and  agony  of 
despair. 

The  woman  thus  made  mistress  of  Russia, 
was  born  at  Stettin  in  Prussia,  of  the  house  of 
Anhalt  Zerbst,  May  2d,  1729.  Her  name  was 
originally  Sophia,  but  upon  her  marriage,  she 
obeyed  the  law  and  custom  of  Russia  by 
leaving  the  Lutheran  faith,  and  was  baptized 
into  the  Greek  church  by  the  name  of  Catha-* 
rine  Alexiena.  History  calls  her  Catharine 
the  Great,  an  epithet  that  seems  to  belong  to 
all  robbers,  murderers,  and  villains  that  have 
the  opportunity  of  moulding  their  crimes  in 
colossal  dimensions.  With  all  that  accuses 
Napoleon,  it  is  much  to  his  credit  that  the 
word  does  not  cling  to  his  name,  and  it  is 
surely  out  of  place,  in  its  historic  accepta- 
tion, upon  that  of  wise  Alfred  of  England. 
Catharine  wras  a woman  of  unbounded  ambi- 
tion. In  her  reign  of  a third  of  a century, 
it  was  aided  by  such  ministers  as  Panin  and 
Potemkin,  and  to  wage  her  wars  she  had 
warriors  like  Romantzoff  and  the  merciless 
and  indomitable  Suwarrow.  Many  magnifi- 
cent schemes  for  the  advancement  of  Russia 
were  promulgated  in  her  ukases,  sounding 
her  glory  far  and  wide  : a few  of  these  were 
put  into  operation  ; but  most  of  them,  like 
many  a fine  metropolis  in  our  West,  existed 
only  on  paper.  Indeed,  she  published  a 
list  of  two  hundred  and  forty-five  cities 
which  she  had  founded ; we  may  look  in  vain 
for  most  of  them.  Once  Joseph  II.  of  Aus- 
tria accompanied  her  to  lay  the  foundation  of 
a new  city  on  the  Dnieper,  to  be  called,  after 
her  name,  Ekaterinoslaf.  In  her  imagination 
it  already  rivaled  St.  Petersburg.  With 
imposing  ceremony  the  empress  laid  the  first 
stone,  and  her  imperial  companion  another. 
On  his  return  Joseph  drily  remarked,  “ The 
empress  and  I have  this  day  achieved  a great 
work  : she  has  laid  the  first  stone  of  a great 
city,  and  I have  laid  the  last.”  Such  was 
the  fate  of  many  of  the  towns  she  laid  : they 
were  never  hatched.  She  made  vast  begin- 
nings and  mean  endings.  Her  plans  were 
sure  to  be  perverted  before  they  reached  the 
extremities  of  her  dominions.  Diderot  com- 
pared her  empire  to  a fruit  rotten  before  it 
was  ripe.  Joseph  of  Austria  called  it  a 
“colossus  of  brass  on  a pedestal  of  clay.” 
One  great  feature  of  her  fame  is  as  a lawgiver. 


after  a struggle  in  which  the  poor  wretch 

ROM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


737 


To  her  credit  be  it  said  that  she  first  lessened 
and  finally  abolished  the  practice  of  torture. 
But  her  famous  code  of  laws,  which  has  been 
so  much  praised,  never  went  beyond  the  set 
of  instructions  for  its  formation  which  she 
drew  up,  and  all  that  was  good  in  these  she 
stole  from  Montesquieu  and  other  sources. 

The  luxury  and  waste  of  her  life  and  the 
consequent  profusion  of  'expense,  sustained 
by  doubling  and  trebling  the  taxes,  have  few 
parallels.  The  nation’s  resources  increased 
under  her  administration,  but  it  mattered 
not  how  much : she  was  equal  to  their 
exhaustion.  Upon  her  favorites  she  lavished 
diamonds  by  handfuls,  and  coin  like  peb- 
bles, a harvest  of  wealth  that  sprung  from 
the  starvation  and  beggary  of  thousands. 
Plague  and  famine  raged  in  the  provinces  ; 
rife  rebellions  were  quelled  only  at.  terrible 
cost  of  life  ; and  in  one  case  an  entire  Tartar 
nation  took  flight  from  the  cruelty  and 
rapacity  of  her  myrmidons,  through  an  awful 
path  of  desert  and  wilderness,  to  the  distant 
asylum  of  China.  Such  a ruler  was  natur- 
ally an  accomplice  in  that  stupendous  crime, 
the  partition  of  Poland ; she  had  smoothed 
the  way  by  forcing  upon  the  Poles  as  a king, 
one  of  her  cast-off  paramours,  Stanislaus 
Poniatowski.  We  must  not  forget  that  she 
did  much  to  encourage  Russian  literature, 
and  that  her  decree  allowing  any  one  to  set 
up  a printing-office  without  a license  from 
government,  had  an  important  effect  in  ad- 
vancing the  civilization  of  the  empire. 

Her  private  character  befitted  a daughter 
rather  than  merely  the  wife  of  a Romanoff. 
Her  profligacy  was  open,  defiant,  and  it 
increased  with  her  years.  We  can  not  sully 
our  pages  with  even  a hint  of  its  details  : the 
record  is  already  black  enough.  Yet  this 
woman,  whose  political  crimes  were  so  colos- 
sal, and  whose  private  vices  so  detestable, 
in  her  personal  deportment  and  in  the  circle 
of  her  court,  was  kind,  easy,  and  good-hu- 
mored. Her  serenity  of  temper  and  compo- 
sure of  manner  were  remarkable.  She  was 
a liberal  mistress  to  her  friends,  and  in  the 
midst  of  her  despotism  she  sometimes  dis- 
played almost  unaccountable  indulgence  and 
magnanimity.  She  never  hesitated  at  any 
atrocity,  cruelty,  or  injustice  which  could 
promote  her  designs  or  secure  her  power ; 
yet  she  could  forgive  a personal  affront,  and 
47 


seldom  punished,  even  when  most  provoked. 
While  she  was  meditating  the  destruction  of 
Sweden,  and  preparing  all  the  resources  of 
her  realm  for  one  more  stupendous  war, 
apoplexy  smote  her  from  life,  Nov.  10th, 
1796. 

Her  son  Paul  was  crowned  emperor.  She 
had  hated  him,  given  him  the  worst  of  breed- 
ing and  education,  surrounded  him  with  spies 
and  depraved  fellows,  thwarted  him  in  every 
wish  or  enjoyment,  and  by  thirty-four  years 
of  contempt  and  vexation  made  him  a nar- 
row-minded, irritable,  wretched  maniac.  He 
began  his  reign,  however,  with  a show  of 
good  sense  and  humanity,  undoing  some  of 
the  worst  measures  of  his  mother.  This  was 
soon  over,  and  his  frantic  caprices  ran  riot, 
till  a terrible  end  came.  He  was  murdered 
in  his  bed-chamber  by  a small  band  of  con- 
spirators. * His  awful  dying  cry  was,  “And 
you  too,  my  Constantine ! ” 

Bright  auspices  encircled  the  ascent  of 
Alexander.  His  nature  was  amiable  and 
generous.  He  was  crowned  the  27th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1801,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  His 
mother,  Maria,  'was  the  daughter  of  Duke 
Eugene  of  Wurtemburg,  and  throughout  his 
life  she  exerted  a great  influence  over  Alex- 
ander, by  whom  she  was  tenderly  beloved. 
His  tutor,  Colonel  Laharpe,  a Swiss  republi- 
can, had  taught  him  enlightened  principles  and 
liberal  views.  In  1793  he  had  married  Eliza- 
beth, the  excellent  daughter  of  the  hereditary 
prince  of  Baden.  He  took  part  in  the  con- 
spiracy against  his  father  Paul,  although  it 
is  impossible  to  believe  that  he  entertained 
any  design  against  his  life,  but  saw  safety  to 
himself  and  others  only  in  the  removal  of  the 
emperor  from  a throne  which  he  disgraced 
by  the  reckless  spirit  of  persecution.  Alex- 
ander sought  to  promote  the  welfare  of  Rus- 
sia : he  removed  the  shackles  from  her 
commerce  and  internal  industry ; he  regu- 
lated the  interior  administration  of  his  king- 
dom ; he  established  schools  and  univer- 
sities ; he  bettered  the  condition  of  the  peas- 
antry ; he  raised  the  military  character  of  his 
.subjects ; he  modified  laws  with  a liberal 
spirit ; he  provided  for  the  construction  of 
roads  and  canals;  he  encouraged  merit 
'Wherever  he  found  it,  and  finally  sought  to 
inspire  all  classes  with  a spirit  of  union, 
patriotism,  enterprise,  and  courage. 


ROM 


738 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


He  was  an  admirer  of  the  brilliant  quali- 
ties of  Napoleon,  and  this  sincere  admiration 
of  the  French  emperor  led  to  their  celebrated 
meeting  at  Erfurt,  in  September,  1808.  Al- 
exander then  thought  that,  in  connection 
with  Napoleon,  he  might  fix  the  destinies  of 
Europe.  But  Napoleon  could  brook  no  equal, 
and  Alexander  no  superior,  and  the  alliance 
was  soon  ruptured.  In  1814  the  chivalrous 
conduct  of  Alexander  to  the  Parisians,  when 
the  allies  entered  their  capital, — the  defer- 
ence he  paid  to  their  wishes  and  opinions, 
and  his  elevated  and  noble  sentiments, — 
gained  him  their  enthusiastic  admiration. 
But  in  attending  to  the  affairs  of  all  Europe 
he  had  neglected  those  of  Russia : his 

schemes  of  reform  had  fallen  through ; war 
and  invasion  had  increased  the  taxes;  and 
the  people  began  to  groan  under  the  old  bur- 
den of  corruption.  Alexander  loved  to  be 
the  arbiter  of  the  continent,  and  for  that  he 
still  neglected  his  empire.  He  had  tired  of 
his  liberal  theories,  for  his  position  naturally 
inclined  him  to  despotism.  In  all  the  affairs 
of  Europe,  to  the  time  of  his  death,' he  par- 
took, exerting  an  immense  influence  in  the 
different  European  courts.  He  was  the  prin- 
cipal contriver  of  the  “ holy  alliance,”  but 
probably  from  principle  as  much  as  from 
interest.  He  was  the  main  stay  of  this  unhal- 
lowed confederacy.  His  death  took  place  at 
Taganrock,  in  the  south  of  Russia,  of  a 
bilious  fever,  Dec.  1st,  1825.  In  his  last 
illness,  the  emperor  refused  medicine,  calling 
continually  for  “iced  Water,”  the  onty  thing 
which  he  would  drink.  His  illness  lasted 
eleven  days.  Three  days  after  his  death,  the 
body  was  exposed  to  permit  the  people  to  kiss 
the  hands  of  their  dead  monarch.  It  was 
then  placed  in  a coffin,  and  borne  in  proces- 
sion to  the  church,  where  it  remained  forty 
days,  and  was  thence  carried  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. The  empress,  who  was  tenderly  at- 
tached to  her  husband,  although  for  a while 
they  had  separated,  soothed  his  last  moments, 
and  received  his  last  sigh. 

Alexander  left  no  legitimate  offspring. 
Constantine  was  the  eldest  brother,  but  the 
dreadful  stigma  of  parricide  that  stained  his 
name,  and  the  resemblance  he  bore  in  char- 
acter to  the  wild  and  vicious  Paul,  made  his 
accession  much  to  be  dreaded.  Russia  heard 


young  Polish  lady,  he  had,  before  the  death 
of  Alexander,  signed  a renunciation  in  favor 
of  Nicholas,  a younger  brother.  A revolt, 
aiming  at  the  establishment  of  a constitutional 
monarchy,  ominously  began  the  new  reign. 
It  was  soon  quelled,  and  the  conspirators 
mounted  the  scaffold,  or  turned  their  dejected 
faces  toward  Siberia.  Nicholas  had  devoted 
himself  to  military  studies.  He  was  not  a 
great  general  or  a great  statesman,  but  he 
had  energy  and  determination.  The  early 
years  of  his  reign  promised  well,  but  ambi- 
tion and  the  desire  of  conquest  ruined  all. 
Catharine  the  Great  had  meditated  the  con- 
quest of  Turkey,  and  the  establishment  of 
another  empire.  Thus  she  had  named  her 
second  grandson  Constantine.  Nicholas  was 
soon  involved  in  war  with  Turkey.  Poland, 
groaning,  under  the  rule  of  Constantine,  rose 
in  that  revolution  whose  sad  fate  is  well 
known.-  Nicholas  ruled  more  and  more  as 
an  autocrat.  His  great  power  he  used  in  a 
degree  wisely,  in  developing  the  esoteric 
resources  of  his  land,  building  gigantic  lines 
of  railway,  fostering  industry,  and  so  forth. 
At  last  his  ambition  involved  him  in  the  great 
war  with  Turkey  and  the  western  powers. 
In  the  midst  of  this  great  contest,  the  czar 
died,  at  the  age  of  fifty -nine.  His  domestic 
life  had  been  free  from  the  vices  of  his  ances- 
tors. In  1817  he  had  married  Louise  Char- 
lotte, daughter  of  Frederick  William  III.  of 
Prussia,  by  whom  he  had  four  sons  and  three 
daughters.  The  eldest  son,  Alexander,  born 
in  1818,  succeeded  to  the  crown,  and  thus 
far  has  bade  fair  to  do  much  toward  redeem- 
ing the  name  of  the  imperial  race  of  Romanoff. 

ROME,  a city  of  Italy,  now  the  capital  of 
the  States  of  the  Church,  and  once  of  the 
Roman  empire,  stands  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Tiber,  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  name  of  its  founder,  and  the  manner  of 
its  foundation,  are  not  precisely  known. 
Romulus,  however,  is  said  to  have  laid  the 
foundations  on  the  20th  of  April,  according 
to  Yarro,  in  the  year  3961  of  the  Julian  period, 
3251  years  after  the  creation  of  the  world, 
753  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  431  years  after 
the  Trojan  w\ar,  and  in  the  fourth  year  of  the 
sixth  Olympiad. 

In  its  original  state,  Rome  was  but  a small 
walled  town  on  the  summit  of  the  Palatine 
Hill ; and  the  founder,  to  give  his  followers 


with  joy  that,  for  the  sake  of  union  with  a 

ROM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


739 


TIIE  COLISEUM. 


the  appearance  of  a nation  or  a barbarian 
horde,  was  obliged  to  erect  a standard  as  a 
common  asylum  for  every  criminal,  debtor, 
or  murderer,  who  fled  from  their  native  coun- 
try to  avoid  the  punishment  which  attended 
them.  From  such  an  assemblage  a numerous 
body  was  soon  collected,  stocked  with  wives 
by  the  rape  of  the  Sabines,  and  before  the 
death  of  the  founder,  the  Romans  had  covered 
with  their  habitations,  the  Palatine,  Capito- 
line,  Aventine,  Esquiline  hills,  with  Mount 
Caelius,  and  Quirinalis. 

Under  the  successors  of  Romulus,  the 
power  of  Rome  was  increased,  and  the  boun- 
daries of  her  dominions  extended.  While 
one  ruler  employed  himself  in  regulating 
the  forms  of  worship,  and  inculcating  in  the 
minds  of  his  subjects  a reverence  for  the 
Deity,  another  engaged  in  enforcing  disci- 
pline among  the  army,  and  raising  the  conse- 
quence of  the  soldiers  in  the  government  of 


the  state ; and  a third  made  the  object  of  his 
administration  consist  in  adorning  his  capital, 
in  beautifying  its  edifices,  and  in  fortifying  it 
with  towers  and  Walls. 

During  two  hundred  and  forty-four  years 
the  Romans  were  governed  by  kings,  but  the 
tyranny,  the  oppression,  and  the  violence  of 
the  last  of  these  monarchs,  and  of  his  family, 
became  so  atrocious,  that  a revolution  was 
effected  in  the  state,  and  a republic  was  estab- 
lished. The  monarchical  government  existed 
under  seven  princes,  who  began  to  reign  in 
the  following  order:  Romulus,  b.c.  753;  and 
after  one  year’s  interregnum,  Numa,  715 ; 
Tullus  Hostilius,  672 ; Ancus  Martius,  640 ; 
Tarquin  Priscus,  616;  Servius  Tullius,  578; 
and  Tarquin  the  Proud,  534,  expelled  twenty- 
five  years  after,  b.c.  510.  The  history  of  this 
natal  period  rests  chiefly  upon  popular  tradi- 
tions. 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  from 


ROM 


740 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  throne,  the  Romans  became  so  jealous  of 
their  independence,  that  Collatinus,  the  first 
of  their  consuls,  he  who  had  been  most  zeal- 
ous and  animated  in  the  assertion  of  their 
freedom,  was  banished  from  the  city  because 
he  bore  the  name  and  was  of  the  family  of 
the  tyrants ; and  Valerius,  who  was  chosen  in 
his  stead,  to  stop  their  suspicions,  was  obliged 
to  pull  down  his  house,  whose,  stateliness  and 
magnificence  above  the  rest,  seemed  incom- 
patible with  the  duties  and  the  rank  of  a 
private  citizen. 

When  Rome  had  flourished  under  the  con- 
sular government  for  about  a hundred  and 
twenty  years,  and  had  beheld  with  pleasure 
the  conquests  of  her  citizens  over  the  neigh- 
boring states  and  cities,  which,  according  to 
a Roman  historian,  she  was  ashamed  to  recol- 
lect in  the  summit  of  her  power,  an  irruption 
of  the  barbarians  of  Gaul  rendered  her  very 
existence  precarious,  and  her  name  was  nearly 
extinguished.  The  valor  of  the  injured  Camil- 
lus  saved  her  from  annihilation,  yet  not  before 
her  buildings  and  temples  were  reduced  to 
ashes. 

This  event,  which  gave  the  appellation  of 
another  founder  of  Rome  to  Camillus,  has 
been  looked  upon  as  a glorious  era  to  the 
Romans.  But  no  sooner  were  they  freed 
from  the  fears  of  their  barbarian  invaders, 
than  they  turned  their  arms  against  those 
states  which  refused  to  acknowledge  their 
superiority,  or  yield  their  independence. 
Their  wars  with  Pyrrhus  and  the  Tarentines, 
displayed  their  character  in  a different  view ; 
if  they  before  had  fought  for  freedom  and 
independence,  they  now  drew  their  swords 
for  glory ; and  here  we  may  see  them  con- 
quered in  the  field,  and  yet  refusing  to  grant 
that  peace  for  which  their  conqueror  himself 
had  sued.  The  advantages  they  gained  from 
thoir  battles  with  Pyrrhus  were  many.  The 
Roman  name  became  known  in  Greece,  Sicily, 
and  Africa,  and  in  losing  or  gaining  a victory, 
the  Romans  were  enabled  to  examine  the 
maneuvres,  observe  the  discipline,  and  con- 
template the  order  and  the  encampments  of 
those  soldiers  whose  friends  and  ancestors 
had  accompanied  Ale  :ander  the  Great  in  the 
conquest  of  Asia. 

Italy  became  subjected  to  the  Romans  at 
the  end  of  the  war  with  the  Tarentines,  and 
that  period  of  time  has  been  called  the  second 


age,  or  the  adolescence  of  the  Roman  empire. 
After  this,  they  tried  their  strength  not  only 
with  distant  nations,  but  also  upon  a new 
element;  and  in  the  long  wars  which  they 
waged  against  Carthage,  they  were  success- 
ful, and  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  the  sea. 
Though  Hannibal  for  sixteen  years  kept  them 
in  continual  alarms,  hovered  round  their  gates, 
and  destroyed  their  armies  almost  before  their 
walls,  yet  they  were  fated  to  conquer,  and 
soon  to  add  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia  and 
the  provinces  of  Asia  to  their  empire. 

Yet  while  their  conquests  were  so  extensive 
abroad,  we  find  them  torn  by  factions  at  home ; 
and  so  far  was  oppression  of  the  poorer  citi- 
zens at  one  time  carried,  that  we  see  the  Vol- 
scians  at  the  gates  of  the  city,  while  they  are 
unwilling  to  take  up  arms  and  to  unite  in  the 
defense  qf  the  common  liberty.  The  senators 
and  patricians  were  ambitious  of  power,  and 
endeavored  to  retain  in  their  hands  that  influ- 
ence which  had  been  exercised  with  so  much 
success  and  such  cruelty  by  their  monarchs. 
This  was  the  continual  occasion  of  tumults 
and  sedition.  The  plebeians  were  jealous  of 
their  liberty.  The  oppression  of  the  patri- 
cians irritated  them,  and  the  stripes  to  which 
they  were  too  often  exposed  without  mercy, 
were  often  productive  of  revolutions. 

The  plebeians,  though  originally  the  poor- 
est and  most  contemptible  citizens  of  an  indi- 
gent nation,  whose  food  in  the  first  ages  of 
the  empire  was  only  bread  and  salt,  and 
whose  drink  was  water,  soon  gained  rights 
and  privileges  by  their  opposition.  They 
became  powerful  in  the  state ; one  concession 
from  the  patricians  produced  another;  and 
when  their  independence  was  boldly  asserted 
by  their  tribunes,  they  were  admitted  to 
share  in  the  highest  offices  of  the  state,  the 
laws  which  forbade  the  intermarriage  of  ple- 
beian and  patrician  families  were  repealed, 
and  the  meanest  peasant  could  by  valor  and 
fortitude  be  raised  to  the  dignity  of  dictator 
and  consul.  It  was  not  till  these  privileges 
were  obtained  by  the  people  from  the  senate, 
that  Rome  began  to  enjoy  internal  peace  and 
tranquillity : her  battles  were  then  fought 
with  more  vigor,  her  soldiers  were  more  ani- 
mated, and  her  sovereignty  was  more  univer- 
sally established.  % 

But  supreme  power,  lodged  in  the  hands  of 
a factious  and  ambitious  citizen,  becomes  too 


ROM 


HISTORY  AN] 

uften  dangerous.  The  greatest  oppression 
and  tyranny  took  the  place  of  subordination 
and  obedience ; and  from  those  causes  pro- 
ceeded the  unparalleled  slaughter  and  effusion 
of  blood  under  a Sylla  and  a Marius.  It  has 
been  justly  observed,  that  the  first  Romans 
conquered  their  enemies  by  valor,  temper- 
ance, and  fortitude  ; their  moderation  also  and 
their  justice  were  well  known  among  all  their 
neighbors,  and  not  only  private  possessions, 
but  even  mighty  kingdoms  and  empires,  were 
left  in  their  power,  to  be  distributed  among  a 
family,  or  to  be  insured  in  the  hands  of  a 
successor.  They  were  also  chosen  umpires 
to  decide  quarrels,  but  in  this  honorable 
office  they  consulted  their  own  interest ; they 
artfully  supported  the  weaker  side,  that  the 
more  powerful  might  be  reduced,  and  gradu- 
ally become  their  prey. 

Under  Julius  Caesar  and  Pompey,  the  rage 
of  civil  war  was  carried  to  unprecedented  ex- 
cess : it  was  not  merely  to  avenge  a private 
injury,  but  it  was  a contest  for  the  sovereign- 
ty ; and  though  each  of  the  adversaries  wore 
the  mask  of  pretended  sincerity,  and  profess- 
ed himself  to  be  the  supporter  of  the  repub- 
lic, no  less  than  the  abolition  of  freedom  and 
the  public  liberty  was  the  aim.  What  Ju- 
lius began,  his  adopted  son  achieved : the 
ancient  spirit  of  national  independence  was 
extinguished  at  Rome ; and  after  the  battle 
of  Actium,  the  Romans  seemed  unable  to 
govern  themselves  without  the  assistance  of 
a chief,  who,  under  the  title  of  imperator,  an 
appellation  given  to  every  commander  by  his 
army  after  some  signal  victory,  reigned  with 
as  much  power  and  as  much  sovereignty  as 
another  Tarquin. 

Under  their  emperors,  the  Romans  lived  a 
luxurious  and  indolent  life ; they  had  long  for- 
gotten to  appear  in  the  field,  and  their  wars 
were  left  to  be  waged  by  mercenary  troops, 
who  fought  without  spirit  or  animosity,  and 
who  were  ever  ready  to  yield  to  him  who 
bought  their  allegiance  and  fidelity  with  the 
greatest  sums  of  money.  Their  leaders 
themselves  were  not  the  most  prudent  or  the 
most  humane ; the  power  which  they  hafi 
acquired  by  bribery  was  indeed  precarious, 
and  among  the  people,  where  not  only  the 
highest  offices  of  the  state,  but  even  the  im- 
perial purple  itself,  was  exposed  to  sale,  there 


BIOGRAPHY.  741 

could  not  be  expected  much  happiness  or 
tranquillity  in  the  palace  of  the  emperor. 

The  reigns  of  the  successors  of  Augustus 
were  distinguished  by  variety ; one  was  the 
most  abandoned  and  profligate  of  men,  whom 
his  own  vices  and  extravagance  hurried  out 
of  the  world,  while  his  successor,  perhaps  the 
most  clement,  just,  and  popular  of  princes, 
was  sacrificed  in  the  midst  of  his  guards  and 
attendants,  by  the  dagger  of  some  offended 
favorite  or  disappointed  eunuch.  Few  indeed 
were  the  emperors  of  Rome  whose  days  were 
not  shortened  by  poison,  or  the  sword  of  an 
assassin.  If  one  for  some  time  had  the  im- 
prudence to  trust  himself  in  the  midst  of  a 
multitude,  at  last  to  perish  by  his  own  cre- 
dulity, the  other  consulted  his  safety,  but 
with  no  better  success,  in  the  innumerable 
chambers  of  his  palace,  and  changed  every 
day,  to  elude  discovery,  the  place  of  his  re- 
tirement. 

At  last  the  necessity  of  dividing  the  un- 
wieldy empire,  and  from  the  time  of  Diocle- 
tian a division  was  made  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  the  administration.  Constantine 
made  Constantinople  the  capital  of  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  empire,  and  the  chief  seat  of 
government.  After  the  death  of  the  elder 
Theodosius  (a.d.  395),  the  division  into  the 
Eastern  and  Western  empires  became  perma- 
nent. The  power  of  Rome  now  rapidly  de- 
cayed : its  empire  was  exposed  to  fatal  incur- 
sions from  the  Huns,  the  Goths,  and  other 
barbarians,  and  the  last  emperor  was  de- 
throned in  476.  The  bishops  of  Rome  after- 
ward assumed  the  title  of  pope,  and  gradu- 
ally acquired  an  influence  in  temporal  matters. 
In  the  year  800  the  sovereignty  of  Rome  and 
adjacent  territory  was  confirmed  by  Charle- 
magne, then  emperor  of  the  west,  to  the  pope. 

The  original  poverty  of  the  Romans  has 
often  been  disguised  by  their  poets  and  his- 
torians, who  wished  it  to  appear  that  a na- 
tion who  were  masters  of  the  world,  had  had 
a better  beginning  than  a race  of  shepherds 
and  robbers.  Yet  to  this  simplicity  they 
were  indebted  for  their  successes.  Their 
houses  were  originally  destitute  of  every 
ornament;  they  were  made  with  unequal 
boards,  and  covered  with  mud;  and  these 
served  them  rather  as  a shelter  against  the 
inclemency  of  the  seasons  than  for  relaxation 


742 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  ease.  Till  the  battles  with  Pyrrhus,  they 
despised  riches,  and  many  salutary  laws 
were  enacted  to  restrain  luxury  and  to  pun- 
ish indolence.  They  observed  great  temper- 
ance in  their  meals ; young  men  were  not 
permitted  to  drink  wine  till  they  had  attained 
their  thirtieth  year,  and  it  was  totally  forbid- 
den to  women. 

Their  national  spirit  was  supported  by  pol- 
icy ; the  triumphal  procession  of  a conqueror 
along  the  streets  amidst  the  applause  of  thou- 
sands, was  well  calculated  to  promote  emula- 
tion ; and  the  number  of  gladiators  who  were 
regularly  introduced,  not  only  in  public 
games  and  spectacles,  but  also  at  private 
meetings,  served  to  cherish  their  fondness  for 
war,  whilst  it  steeled  their  hearts  against  the 
calls  of  compassion ; and  when  they  could 
gaze  with  pleasure  upon  wretches  whom  they 
forcibly  obliged  to  murder  one  another,  they 
were  not  inactive  in  the  destruction  of  those 
whom  they  considered  as  inveterate  foes  or 
formidable  rivals  in  the  field.  In  their  pun- 
ishments, civil  as  well  as  military,  the  Ro- 
mans were  strict  and  rigorous ; a deserter 
was  severely  whipped  and  sold  as  a slave, 
and  the  degradation  from  the  rank  of  a sol- 
dier and  dignity  of  a citizen  was  the  most 
ignominious  stigma  which  could  be  affixed 
upon  a seditious  mutineer. 

The  transmarine  victories  of  the  Romans 
proved  at  last  the  ruin  of  their  innocence  and 
bravery.  They  grew  fond  of  the  luxury  of 
the  Asiatics  ; and,  conquered  by  the  vices  and 
indolence  of  those  nations  whom  they  had 
subdued,  they  became  as  effeminate  and  as 
dissolute  as  their  captives.  Marcellus  was 
the  first  who  introduced  a taste  for  the  fine 
arts  among  his  countrymen.  The  spoils  and 
treasures  that  were  obtained  in  the  plunder 
of  Syracuse  and  Corinth,  rendered  the  Ro- 
mans partial  to  elegant  refinement  and  orna- 
mental equipage.  Though  Cato  had  despised 
philosophy,  and  declared  that  war  was  the 
only  profession  of  his  countrymen,  the  Ro- 
mans, by  their  intercourse  with  the  Greeks, 
soon  became  fond  of  literature ; and  though 
they  had  once  banished  the  sophists  of  Ath- 
ens from  their  city,  yet  they  beheld  with 
rapture  their  settlement  among  them  in  the 
principal  towns  of  Italy,  after  the  conquest 
of  Achaia.  They  soon  after  began  to  imitate 
their  polished  captives,  and  to  cultivate  poet- 


ry with  success.  From  the  valor  of  their 
heroes  and  conquerors,  indeed,  the  sublimest 
subjects  were  offered  to  the  genius  of  their 
poets  ; but  of  the  little  that  remains  to  cele- 
brate the  early  victories  of  Rome,  nothing 
can  be  compared  to  the  nobler  effusions  of 
the  Augustan  age. 

EMPERORS. 

BEFORE  CHRIST. 

48.  Caius  Julius  Caesar;  perpetual  dictator:  as- 
sassinated, March  15th,  44  b.C. 

31.  Octavianus  Caesar:  in  the  year  27  b.c.  Au- 
Justus  imperator. 

AFTER  CHRIST. 

14.  Tiberius  (Claudius  Nero). 

37.  Caius  Caligula:  murdered  by  a tribune. 

41.  Claudius  (Tiber.  Drusus):  poisoned  by  his 
wife  Agrippina,  to  make  way  for 
54.  Claudius  Nero:  deposed;  put  himself  to 
death  to  escape  a yet  more  terrible  end. 

68.  Servius  Sulpicius  Galba:  slain  by  the  prae- 

torian band. 

69.  M.  Salvius  Otho:  stabbed  himself,  after  a 

reign  of  three  months. 

69.  Aulus  Yitellius : deposed  by  Vespasian,  and 
put  to  death. 

69.  Titus  Flavius  Vespasian. 

79.  Titus  (Vespasian),  his  son. 

81.  Titus  Flavius  Domitian,  brother  of  Titus; 

last  of  the  twelve  Caesars  : assassinated. 
96.  Cocceius  Nerva. 

98.  Trajan  (M.  Ulpius  Crinitus). 

117.  Adrian  or  Hadrian  (Publius  A51ius). 

138.  Antoninus  Titus,  surnamed  Pius. 

161.  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Lucius  Verus,  his  son- 
in-law  : the  latter  died  in  169. 

180.  Commodus  (L.  Aurelius  Antoninus),  son  of 
Marcus  Aurelius : poisoned  by  his  favor- 
ite mistress,  Martia. 

193.  Publius  Helvius  Pertinax : put  to  death  by 
the  praetorian  band. 

[Four  emperors  now  start  up:  Didus  Juli- 
anus,  at  Rome ; Pesccnnius  Niger,  in 
Syria : Lucius  Septimius  Severus,  in  Pan- 
nonia ; and  Clodius  Albinus,  in  Britain.] 
193.  Lucius  Septimius  Severus;  died  at  York,  in 
Britain,  in  211 ; succeeded  by  his  sons, 
211.  M.  Aurelius  Caracalla,  and  Septimius  Geta. 
Geta  murdered  the  same  year  by  his 
brother,  who  reigned  alone  until  217, 
when  he  was  slain  by  his  successor. 

217.  M.  Opilius  Macrinus,  prefect  of  the  guards; 

beheaded  in  a mutiny. 

218.  Heliogabalus  (M.  Aurelius  Antoninus),  a 

youth : put  to  death  for  his  follies  and 
enormities  by  his  incensed  subjects. 

222.  Alexander  Severus : assassinated  by  some 
soldiers  corrupted  by  Maximinus. 

235.  Caius  Julius  Verus  Maximinus:  assassinated 
in  his  tent  before  the  walls  of  Aquileia. 
237.  M.  Antonius  Gordianus,  and  his  son:  the 
latter  having  been  killed  in  a battle  with 
the  partisans  of  Maximinus,  the  father 


ROM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


743 


strangled  himself  in  a fit  of  despair,  at 
Carthage,  in  his  eightieth  year. 

237.  Balbinus  and  Pupienus:  put  to  death. 

238.  Gordian,  junior,  grandson  of  the  elder  Gor- 

dian, in  his  sixteenth  year : assassinated 
by  the  guards,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
successor, 

244.  Philip  the  Arabian : assassinated  by  his  own 
soldiers:  his  son  Philip  was  murdered, 
at  the  same  time,  in  his  mother’s  arms. 
249.  Metius  Deems : he  perished,  with  his  two 
sons,  and  their  army,  in  an  engagement 
• with  the  Goths.  . 

251.  Gallus  Hostilius,  and  his  son  Yolusianus: 
both  slain  by  the  soldiery. 

253.  JEmilianus : put  to  death  after  a reign  of 
only  four  months. 

253.  Yalerianus,  and  his  son,  Gallienus:  the  first 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Sapor,  King  of 
Persia,  and  flayed  alive. 

260.  Gallienus  reigned  alone. 

[About  this  time  thirty  pretenders  to  im- 
perial power  start  up  in  different  parts  of 
the  empire  : of  these,  Cyriades  is  the  first, 
but  he  is  slain.] 

268.  Claudius  II.  (Gallienus  having  been  assas- 
sinated by  the  officers  of  the  guard)  suc- 
ceeds : dies  of  the  plague. 

270.  Quintillus,  his  brother,  elected  at  Rome  by 
the  senate  and  troops ; Aurelian  by  the 
army  in  Illyricum.  Quintillus,  despair- 
ing of  success  against  his  rival,  who  was 
marching  against  him,  opened  his  veins, 
and  bled  himself  to  death. 

270.  Aurelian:  assassinated  by  his  soldiers  in  his 
march  against  Persia,  in  January,  275. 
275.  [Interregnum  of  about  nine  months.] 

275.  Tacitus,  elected  Oct.  25th ; died  at  Tarsus 

in  Cilicia,  April  13th,  276. 

276.  Florian,  his  brother:  his  title  not  recog- 

nized by  the  senate. 

276.  M.  Aurelius  Probus:  assassinated  by  his 
troops  at  Sirmium. 

282.  M.  Aurelius  Carus : killed  at  Ctesiphon  by 

lightning ; succeeded  by  his  sons, 

283.  Carinus  and  Numerianus : both  assassinated, 

after  transient  reigns. 

284.  Diocletian : who  associated  as  his  colleague 

in  the  government, 

286.  Maximianus  Hercules:  the  two  emperors 
resign  in  favor  of 

305.  Constantius  Chlorus  and  Galerius  Maximia- 

nus: the  first  died  at  York,  in  Britain, 
in  306,  and  the  troops  saluted  as  empe- 
ror, his  son, 

306.  Constantine,  afterward  styled  the  Great : 

whilst  at  Rome  the  praetorian  band  pro- 
claimed 

306.  Maxentius,  son  of  Maximianus  Hercules. 
Besides  these  were, 

306.  Maximianus  Hercules,  who  endeavored  to 
recover  his  abdicated  power,  • 

306.  Flavius  Valerius,  murdered  by  the  last- 

named  pretender,  and 

307.  Flavius  Valerian  us  Licinius,  the  brother-in- 

law  of  Constantine. 

£Of  these,  Maximianus  Hercules  was  stran- 


gled in  Gaul  in  310;  Galerius  Maximi- 
anus died  wretchedly  in  311 ; Maxentius 
was  drowned  in  the  Tiber  in  312;  and 
Licinius  was  put  to  death  by  order  of 
Constantine  in  324.] 

324.  Constantine  the-  Great  now  reigned  alone : 
died  on  Whitsunday,  May  22d,  337. 

r Sons  of  Constantine ; 
divided  the  empire 
between  them : the 
first  was  slain  in  340, 
and  the  second  mur- 
dered in  350,  when 
the  third  became 
^ sole  emperor. 

361.  Julian,  the  Apostate,  so  called  for  abjuring 
Christianity,  having  been  educated  for 
the  priesthood:  mortally  wounded  in  a 
battle  with  the  Persians. 

363.  Jovian;  reigned  8 months:  found  dead  in 
his  bed,  supposed  to  have  died  from  the 
fumes  of  charcoal. 

The  Roman  empire  may  be  said  to  have 
terminated  here  as  a single  dominion.  [See 
Eastern  Empire,  Western  Empire.] 

The  modern  city  of  Rome  is  celebrated  for  its 
own  magnificence  and  splendor  as  well  as  the 
ruins  of  former  grandeur.  The  treasures  of 
antiquity  and  art  garnered  in  its  temples, 
palaces,  churches,  and  monuments,  make  it 
the  resort  of  the  artist  and  the  scholar  from 
all  quarters  of  the  globe.  It  had  a popula- 
tion in  1862,  of  197,078. 

ROMILLY,  Sir  Samuel,  an  eminent  English 
lawj^er,  was  born  at  London,  March  1st, 
1757.  In  1788  he  was  called  to  the  bar. 
He  rose  to  distinction  in  the  court  of  chan- 
cery, and  in  the  last  administration  of  Mr. 
Fox,  was  made  solicitor-general.  When  the 
party  to  whom  he  was  attached  went  out  of 
office,  he  also  retired.  He  exerted  himself 
in  endeavoring  to  effect  a revision  of  the 
criminal  code,  with  a view  to  the  limitation 
of  capital  punishments  to  a few  heinous 
offenses.  The  death  of  this  eminent  man 
was  most  melancholy.  Shocked  at  the  loss 
of  his  wife,  who  died  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
he  became  delirious,  and  destroyed  himself 
Nov.  2d,  1818. 

ROMULHS,  the  reputed  founder  of  Rome, 
was  born  at  the  same  birth  with  Remus  ; but 
of  what  parents  it  is  impossible  to  say,  as 
the  account  is  involved  in  fable  and  mystery. 
They  undertook  to  build  a city,  hoping  that 
it  would  become  a warlike  and  powerful 
nation.  Romulus  marked  with  a furrow  the 
place  where  he  wished  to  erect  the  walls ; 


ROM 


) Constantine  II. 
Constans, 
Constantius  II. 


744 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


st.  peter’s. 


but  their  slenderness  was  ridiculed  by  Re- 
mus, who  leaped  over  them  with  contempt. 
This  irritated  Romulus,  and  Remus  was 
immediately  put  to  death,  either  by  the  hand 
of  his  brother  or  one  of  the  workmen. 

When  the  walls  were  built,  the  city  was 
without  inhabitants ; but  Romulus,  by  ma- 
king an  asylum  of  a sacred  grove,  soon 
collected  a number  of  fugitives,  foreigners, 
and  criminals,  whom  he  received  as  his  lawful 
subjects.  Yet  however  numerous  these 
might  be,  they  were  despised  by  the  neigh- 
boring inhabitants,  and  none  were  willing  to 
form  matrimonial  connections  with  them. 

But  Romulus  obtained  by  force  what  was 
denied  to  his  petitions.  The  Romans  cele- 
brated games  in  honor  of  the  god  Consus, 
and  forcibly  carried  away  all  the  females  who 
had  assembled  there  to  be  spectators  of  these 
unusual  exhibitions.  These  violdht  measures 
offended  the  neighboring  nations ; they  made 
war  against  the  ravishers  with  various  success, 
till  at  last  they  entered  Rome,  which  had  been 
betrayed  to  them  by  Tarpeia,  one  of  the 
stolen  virgins.  A violent  engagement  was 
begun  in  the  middle  of  the  Roman  forum  : 
but  the  Sabines  were  conquered,  or,  accord- 


ing to  Ovid,  the  two  enemies  laid  down  their 
arms  when  the  women  rushed  between  the 
two  armies,  and  by  their  tears  and  entreaties 
raised  compassion  in  the  bosoms  of  their 
parents  'and  husbands. 

The  Sabines  left  their  original  possessions 
and  came  to  live  in  Rome,  where  Tatius, 
their  king,  shared  the  sovereign  power  with 
Romulus.  The  introduction  of  the  Sabines 
into  the  city  of  Rome  was  attended  with 
most  salutary  consequences;  and  the  Ro- 
mans, by  pursuing  this  plan,  and  admitting 
the  conquered  nations  among  their  citizens, 
rendered  themselves  more  powerful  and  more 
formidable.  Afterward  Romulus  divided  the 
lands  which  he  had  obtained  by  conquest ; 
one  part  was  reserved  for  religious  uses,  to 
maintain  the  priests,  to  erect  temples,  and  to 
consecrate  altars  ; another  was  appropriated 
for  the  expenses  of  the  state ; and  the  third 
part  was  equally  distributed  among  his 
subjects,  who  were  divided  into  three  classes 
or  tribes# 

The  most  aged  and  experienced,  to  the  num- 
ber of  one  hundred,  were  also  chosen,  whom 
the  monarch  might  consult  in  matters  of  the 
highest  importance,  and  from  their  age  they 


ROM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


745 


were  called  senators,  and  from  their  authority 
patres.  The  whole  body  of  the  people  were 
also  distinguished  by  the  name  of  patricians 
and  plebeians,  patron  5nd  client,  who  by 
mutual  interest  were  induced  tQ  preserve  the 
peace  of  the  state,  and  to  promote  the  public 
good. 

Some  time  after,  Romulus  disappeared,  as 
he  was  giving  instructions  to  the  senators ; 
and  the  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  happened 
at  that  time,  was  favorable  to  the  rumor 
which  asserted  that  the  king  had  been  taken 
by  Mars  to  the  abode  of  the  gods,  716  b.c., 
after  a reign  of  thirty-seven  years.  Such 
is  the  legend  of  Romulus,  which  is  purely 
mythic. 

RONCESYALLES,  a valley  in  the  Na- 
varre, where  the  army  of  Charlemagne,  on 
their  return  from  an  expedition  to  that  coun- 
try, a.d.  778,  were  attacked  by  the  hardy 
mountaineers  in  the  narrow  passes  of  the 
Pyrenees,  and  all  that  were  separated  from 
the  main  body  were  killed ; among  whom 
were  the  illustrious  paladin  Roland  and  other 
chiefs  of  note. 

ROOKE,  Sir  George,  a gallant  English 
admiral,  was  born  in  Kent  in  1650.  He 
entered  early  into  the  naval  service,  and  had 
the  command  of  several  expeditions  in  the 
reigns  of  King  William  and  Queen  Anne  ; 
all  of  which  he  conducted  with  equal  skill 
and  courage.  In  1702  he  attacked  the  French 
fleet  and  Spanish  galleons  in  the  harbor  of 
Vigo,  and  took  several  galleons  and  men-of- 
war,  besides  destroying  a number  of  others. 
In  1704  he  made  himself  master  of  Gibral- 
tar ; notwithstanding  which,  such  was  the  vio- 
lence of  party,  Sir  George  was  soon  afterward 
superseded  by  the  Whigs,  who  endeavored 
to  lessen  his  services  by  representing  them  as 
the  effects  of  mere  chance  and  good  fortune. 
He  died  Jan.  24th,  1709.  When  he  made 
his  will,  some  of  his  friends  wondered  at  the 
slenderness  of  his  circumstances,  considering 
what  employments  he  had  been  engaged  in  ; 
to  whom  the  dying  hero  said,  “I  do  not 
leave  much,  ’tis  true ; but  what  I do  leave 
was  honestly  gotten  : it  never  cost  a seaman 
a tear  nor  the  nation  a farthing.” 

ROSA,  Salvator,  was  born  near  Naples, 
July  21st,  1615.  Like  many  other  great 
painters,  he  took  up  the  art  against  the  incli- 
nation of  his  father,  who  was  an  architect. 


He  soon  rose  to  favor,  and  settled  early  in 
Rome,  where  he  died  March  15th,  1673.  He 
abounded  in  wild  and  gloomy  landscapes. 
The  character  of  his  genius  and  works  has 
been  vigorously  sketched  by  Fuseli:  “He 

delights  in  ideas  of  desolation,  solitude,  and 
danger  ; impenetrable  forests,  rocky  or  storm- 
lashed  shores  ; in  lonely  dells  leading  to  dens 
and  caverns  of  banditti ; alpine  ridges,  trees 
blasted  by  lightning,  or  sapped  by  time,  or 
stretching  their  extravagant  arms  athwart  a 
murky  sky,  lowering  or  thundering  clouds, 
and  suns  shorn  of  their  beams.  His  figures 
are  wandering  shepherds,  forlorn  travelers, 
wrecked  mariners,  banditti  lurking  for  their 
prey  or  dividing  their  spoils.”  Salvator 
Rosa  was  also  talented  as  a poet  and  musi- 
cian. 

ROSCOE,  William,  was  born  in  1753,  of 
humble  parents,  and,  having  received  a com- 
mon education,  was  articled,  at  an  early  age, 
to  an  attorney  at  Liverpool.  He  soon  mas- 
tered, by  dint  of  hard  study,  the  Latin, 
French,  and  Italian  languages,  while  he 
neither  neglected  his  business  nor  the  study 
of  the  English  classics.  His  most  important 
and  celebrated  works  are  the  “ Life  of  Lorenzo 
de  Medici,”  and  the  “ Life  of  Leo  X.”  He  died 
in  1831  ; and  his  memory  is  affectionately 
cherished  by  the  inhabitants  of  Liverpool, 
whose  taste  he  endeavored  to  improve,  and 
whose  public  works  he  ably  and  strenuously 
supported.  The  banking  house  in  which  he 
was  a partner  becoming  bankrupt,  his  latter 
years  were  clouded  by  pecuniary  embarrass- 
ment, through  which  he  was  forced  to  sacri- 
fice his  valuable  library. 

ROSE,  George,  was  the  son  of  an  Episcopal 
clergyman  at  Brechin,  in  the  shire  of  Angus, 
and  was  born  there  in  1 744.  He  was  brought 
up  under  an  uncle,  who  kept  a school  near 
London,  after  which  he  went  into  the  navy, 
and  became  a purser  ; but,  by  the  interest  of 
the  Earl  of  Marchmont,  he  was  taken  from 
thence,  and  made  keeper  of  the  records  in 
the  exchequer.  Here  his  talents  for  business 
were  soon  discovered,  and  he  was  appointed 
to  superintend  the  publication  of  the  Domes- 
day Book.  His  advancement  was  rapid,  and 
his  services  were  duly  appreciated  and  en- 
gaged by  almost  every  administration.  Mr. 
Pitt,  in  particular,  placed  unbounded  confi- 
dence in  his  judgment  on  subjects  of  trade 


ROS 


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COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  finance;  and,  when  Pitt  returned  to 
power,  after  the  short  peace,  Mr.  Rose  was 
made  president  of  the  board  of  trade,  and 
treasurer  of  the  navy.  On  the  death  of  Mr. 
Pitt,  another  change  occurred ; but,  when 
the  administration  formed  by  Lord  Grenville 
retired,  Mr.  Rose  resumed  his  former  station, 
and  continued  in  it  till  his  death,  which  hap- 
pened at  Cuffnels,  his  seat  in  Hampshire, 
Jan.  13th,  1818. 

ROSS,  George,  a signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  born  in  1730,  at  Newcastle, 
Delaware,  was  the  son  of  a clergyman.  At 
the  age  of  eighteen,  having  been  admitted  to 
practice  law,  he  settled  at  Lancaster,  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  was  for  some  years  a member  of 
Congress,  and  discharged  the  duties  of  his 
office  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  his  numer- 
ous constituents.  In  July,  1779,  an  attack 
of  the  gout  put  an  end  to  his  life  in  his  fiftieth 
year. 

ROTHSCHILD,  Meyer  Anselm,  the  found- 
er of  the  great  Jewish  banking-house  which 
holds  so  important  a station  in  the  finances 
of  Europe,  was  a native  of  Frankfort,  and 
died  in  1812,  leaving  immense  wealth  and 
credit  to  his  five  sons, — Nathan  Meyer  of 
London,  Anselm  of  Frankfort,  Solomon  of 
Berlin  and  Vienna,  Charles  of  Naples,  and 
James  of  Paris. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacques,  a celebrated 
name  in  French  literature,  was  born  at  Gene- 
va, June  28th,  1712.  His  power  as  an 
author  lay  dormant  till  he  was  thirty-seven. 
He  wrote  brilliantly,  eloquently,  lived  strange- 
ly, immorally,  and  died  at  the  chateau  of 
Ermenonville,  near  Chantilly,  July  3d,  1778. 

RUBENS,  Peter  Paul,  was  born  at  Sie- 
gen  in  Westphalia,  on  the  day  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  June  29th,  1577.  His  parents 
had  fled  from  Antwerp  to  escape  the  religious 
persecutions  that  raged  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  in  1587,  the  father  dying,  the  mother 
returned  with  the  orphans  to  her  native  city. 
Her  desire  that  Peter  Paul  should  follow  his 
father  in  the  legal  profession  was  overcome 
by  his  passion  for  art.  After  studying  with 
the  best  masters  of  Antwerp  he  repaired  to 
Italy,  returning  in  1608,  after  an  absence  of 
more  than  eight  years,  to  the  death-bed  of  his 
parent,  who  expired  before  his  arrival. 
Thereafter  he  dwelt  at  Antwerp,  painting 
hundreds  of  pictures,  gaining  bounteous  store 


of  fortune,  acquiring  honor  even  beyond  his 
art,  intrusted  with  embassies  to  Spain,  and 
to  England,  where  he  was  knighted  by 
Charles  I.  in  1630,  and  dying  May  30th, 
1640.  “ Rubens,”  says  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 

“was,  perhaps,  the  greatest  master  in  the 
mechanical  part  of  the  art,  the  best  workman 
with  his  tools,  that  ever  exercised  a pencil.” 

RUMFORD.  Benjamin  Thompson,  best 
known  as  Count  Rumford,  was  born  at  Wo- 
burn, Mass.,  in  1753.  He  taught  school  at 
Rumford  (now  Concord),  N.  H.,  and  there 
married  a wealthy  young  widow.  His  adher- 
ence to  the  royal  cause  drove  him  to  England, 
where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel  and  was 
knighted.  He  afterward  entered  the  Bava- 
rian service,  rose  to  high  military  rank,  and 
was  created  Count  Rumford.  Under  his 
administration  the  industry  and  resources  of 
Bavaria  were  beneficently  developed.  In 
1802  he  married  the  widow  of  Lavoisier,  and 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  days,  in  scientific 
research,  at  Auteuil,  near  Paris,  where  he 
died  Aug.  20th,  1814,  bequeathing  $50,000 
to  Harvard  College.  His  name  is  eminent  in 
the  annals  of  natural  philosophy.  With  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  he  projected  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution of  Great  Britain. 

RUPERT.  Prince  Rupert,  the  third  son  of 
Frederick  of  Bohemia,  by  Elizabeth,  daugh- 
ter of  James  I.  of  England,  was  born  in  1619, 
and  received  an  education  adapted  to  the 
military  service.  In  the  civil  wars  of  Eng- 
land, while  his  elder  brother  became  a pen- 
sioner to  the  parliament,  Prince  Rupert 
adhered  steadfastly  to  his  roj'al  uncle,  fight- 
ing with  more  impetuous  gallantry  than 
prudence.  He  was  more  successful  as  a 
naval  commander  than  on  land,  particularly 
after  the  restoration,  in  the  great  Dutch  war, 
on  the  conclusion  of  which  he  led  a retired 
life,  occupied  wholly  in  scientific  pursuits. 
He  died  in  London  in  1682,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

RUSH,  Benjamin,  a signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  and  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can physician,  was  born  at  Byberry,  Penn., 
near  Philadelphia,  Dec.  24th,  1745.  He  was 
educated  at  Princeton  College,  studied  medi- 
cine, taking  his  degree  at  Edinburgh  in  1768, 
and  became  a successful  practitioner  in  Phil- 
adelphia. He  was  chosen  to  Congress  in 


1776,  and  from  that  time  until  his  death 
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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


747 


took  an  active  part  in  public  life.  He  stands 
in  the  front  rank  of  American  physicians 
and  philosophers.  He  was  professor  of  med- 
icine and  clinical  practice  at  the  university 
of  Pennsylvania.  During  the  ravages  of  the 
yellow  fever  in  1793,  Dr.  Rush  highly  distin- 
guished himself,  and  his  history  of  that  epi- 
demic is  a work  of  great  value.  He  died 
April  19th,  1813. 

RUSSELL,  William,  the  first  Duke  of  Bed- 
ford, was  the  eldest  son  of  Francis,  the  fourth 
Earl  of  Bedford,  and  was  born  in  1614.  He 
received  his  education  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  and  at  the  coronation  of  Charles  I. 
was  created  knight  of  the  bath.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  civil  war  he  acted  against 
the  king,  and  commanded  the  reserve  of  horse 
in  the  battle  of  Edgehill ; but  in  1645  he 
joined  the  royal  standard  and  fought  with 
great  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Newbury. 
His  estate,  in  consequence,  was  put  under 
sequestration,  but  on  his  submission  to  the 
parliament  it  was  restored.  He  then  led  a 
private  life  until  the  return  of  Charles  II., 
when  he  assisted  at  the  coronation,  and  was 
made  a knight  of  the  garter.  He  also 
attended  the  coronation  of  William  and  Mary, 
and  in  1694  was  created  Duke  of  Bedford. 
He  died  in  1700. 

RUSSELL,  William,  Lord,  third  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  about  1641.  He 
received  a private  education  under  puritan- 
ical teachers.  His  early  life,  however, 
appears  to  have  been  rather  dissipated,  till 
he  married,  in  1667,  the  excellent  daughter 
of  Lord  Southampton,  whose  amiable  virtues 
reclaimed  him  from^  his  follies.  On  becom- 
ing a member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  for  the 
exclusion  of  the  Duke  of  York ; and  at 
length  became  so  far  involved  in  a conspir- 
acy for  effecting  a revolution,  that,  when  the 
Rye-house  plot  was  discovered,  an  indict- 
ment was  preferred  against  him,  and  he  was 
condemned  at  the  Old  Bailey.  Great  exer- 
tions were  made  to  save  his  life,  but  all  with- 
out effect,  and  he  was  beheaded  in  Lincoln’s 
Inn  Fields,  July  21st,  1683.  After  the  rev- 
olution an  act  was  passed  to  annul  and  make 
void  the  attainder  against  Lord  Russell.  His 
estimable  widow,  Lady  Rachel,  died  Sept. 
29th,  1723,  at  the  age  of  eighty-seven. 

RUSSIA.  This  great  empire  contains 


more  than  half  of  Europe,  stretches  across 
the  north  of  Asia,  and  includes  possessions 
in  North  America,  thus  almost  girding  the 
entire  globe.  It  has  an  area  of  about  7,200,- 
000  square  miles,  with  about  70,000,000 
inhabitants.  Russia  in  Europe  contains 
2,120,000  square  miles,  and  ten-sevenths  of 
the  population  of  the  entire  empire.  In  this 
vast  tract,  which  intrudes  into  arctic  regions 
on  the  north,  and  is  washed  by  the  Euxine 
and  the  Caspian  on  the  south,  we  find  every 
variety  of  soil,  from  wastes  to  fertile  fields. 
There  are  broad  steppes,  sterile  and  woodless, 
great  forests  of  pine  and  fir  and  birch,  and 
wide  regions  are  almost  unpeopled.  With 
such  a diversity  of  races  as  dwell  within  the 
limits  of  Russia,  we  find  almost  every  degree 
in  the  human  scale  from  nomadic  barbarians 
up  to  the  civilized  Tartars  of  Casan,  on  the 
Ural,  and  the  enlightenment  that  has  been 
fostered  at  St.  Petersburg.  The  peoples  that 
make  up  the  population  have  their  distinct 
speeches,  customs,  and  characteristics.  There 
are  Russians,  Poles,  and  other  branches  of 
the  Sclavonic  family ; there  are  Fins,  Tartars, 
Mongols,  all  subdivided  into  divers  tribes ; 
and  in  many  parts  there  is  a large  sprinkling 
of  descendants  of  Germans  and  other  Teu- 
tons. Religions  are  as  various,  from  the 
ceremonial  of  the  Greek  or  the  Romish  hier- 
archies to  the  faith  of  Islam  and  the  rites  of 
heathendom.  The  established  religion  of 
Russia  is  the  Greek  Church,  with  a free  tol- 
eration, however,  of  other  sects,  even  the 
Mahometans.  The  emperor  is  the  head  of 
the  Greek  church  in  the  empire.  By  an 
imperial  ukase,  in  1802,  were  established  six 
universities ; one  each  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  Wilna,  Dorpat  (in  Livonia),  Charcov, 
and  Kasan  ; but  literature  has  made  little 
progress,  the  native  publications  being  very 
few,  and  the  best  books  being  all  translations. 
The  Russian  language,  though  not  devoid  of 
elegance,  is,  to  a foreigner,  of  very  difficult 
pronunciation : the  number  of  letters  and 
dipthongs  is  forty-two.  The  government  is 
an  absolute  monarchy,  all  immunities  and 
privileges  being  held  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
emperor.  There  are  four  great  classes  among 
the  people,  the  nobility,  clergy,  merchants 
and  burghers,  and  peasants.  The  condition 
of  the  latter  has  been  sad  enough : the  prop- 
erty of  the  crown  or  of  individuals,  they 


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748 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


were  transferred  with  estates,  being  consid- 
ered in  the  light  of  irrational  live  stock.  Of 
late  it  has  been  the  policy  of  the  government 
to  ameliorate  their  position.  An  important 
step  toward  enfranchising  the  whole  class 
has  been  made  in  the  emancipation  of  the 
serfs  of  the  crown  by  Alexander  II. 

St.  Petersburg  is  the  capital  of  the  empire. 
On  the  marshes  of  the  N#va,  just  conquered 
from  Sweden,  Peter  the  Great,  determined  to 
bring  his  empire  into  communication  with 
civilized  Europe,  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
new  capital,  amid  desolation  and  famine. 
Workmen  were  gathered  from  all  parts  of 
the  empire.  They  fell  before  cold,  flood, 
fatigue,  and  want ; a hundred  thousand  per- 
ished ; yet  the  determination  of  the  pitiless 
czar  faltered  not:  his  hordes  of  peasants 
might  all  be  sacrificed,  but  St.  Petersburg 
must  be : and  thus  was  born  this  city  of  lofty 
edifices,  elegant  palaces,  grand  streets,  and 
granite  quays,  impressive  in  its  grandeur,  and 
inhabited  by  half  a million  people.  [ See 

Moscow.] 

The  history  of  Russia  can  not  properly  be 
said  to  commence  before  the  middle  of  the 
ninth  century.  We  obtain  glimpses  of  vari- 
ous Scythian  and  Sclavonian  tribes  that 
roamed  over  its  vast  territory,  but  little  more 
is  known  than  that  it  was  divided  into  nu- 
merous small  independent  states,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  were  Kiew  and  Novgorod.  About 
850,  a Scandinavian  band  crossed  the  Baltic 
and  settled.  They  were  called  Varagians; 
their  leaders  were  three  brothers,  Rurick, 
Sineus,  and  Truror.  The  Sclaves  of  Nov- 
gorod sought  their  protection  against  the 
neighboring  tribes,  and  Rurik  founded  a 
dynasty  which  continued  to  rule  uninterrup- 
tedly till  1598.  The  reign  of  St.  Vladimir 
the  Great  (980-1015)  was  the  era  of  the  con- 
version of  Russia.  Vladimir  himself,  who 
had  married  Anna,  sister  of  the  Emperor 
Basil  II.,  became  a Christian  according  to  the 
Greek  church  in  988,  and  his  example  was 
speedily  followed  by  his  boyars,  or  nobles, 
and  subjects.  At  the  death  of  Vladimir,  his 
dominions  were  divided  and  disputed  among 
his  numerous  sons  ; and  though  Yaroslaf, 
whose  reign  was  signalized  by  an  unsuccess- 
ful attack  upon  Constantinople  in  1043,  reu- 
nited them  for  a short  time,  a second  parti- 
tion took  place  at  his  death  (1055) ; and 


Russia  was  devastated  for  half  a century  by 
constant  civil  wars  and  Polish  invasions.  The 
authority  of  the  Grand-Prince  of  Kiew  had 
been  curtailed  by  the  erection  of  petty  sov- 
ereignties under  different  branches  of  the 
house  of  Rurik,  till  Andrew  I.,  Prince  of 
White  Russia  (1057-75),  arrogated  to  him- 
self the  title  of  Grand-Prince  of  Russia,  while 
the  elder  line  at  Kiew  sank  into  a subordinate 
rank.  Novgorod,  though  retaining  the  forms 
of  princely  government,  had  become  in  effect 
a republic,  and  the  centre  of  an  extensive 
traffic  with  both  Europe  and  Asia.  The 
annals  of  this  period  present  only  an  unceas- 
ing succession  of  intestine  struggles  and  wTars 
with  Poland.  The  Tartar  invasion  of  1223 
produced  a transient  unanimity  from  a sense 
of  common  danger.  A host  of  500,000  men 
under  Toushi,  the  son  of  Genghis  Khan, 
overthrew  the  combined  forces  of  the  Rus- 
sian princes  on  the  river  Kalka,  near  the 
Sea  of  Azof.  The  death  of  Toushi  turned 
the  victors  back,  but  they  came  once  more 
in  1236  under  his  son  Batu,  laid  the  country 
waste  with  fire  and  sword,  and  took  com- 
plete possession  of  its  government. 

For  more  than  two  centuries  and  a half, 
Russia  was  held  in  abject  subjection  by  the 
Tartars  of  Kapchak,  whose  hordes  overspread 
the  southern  and  eastern  provinces,  and  the 
plains  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Volga, 
on  the  banks  of  which  river  the  Golden 
Horde,  or  imperial  residence  of  the  khans  of 
the  race  of  Batu,  was  fixed ; but  the  interior 
of  the  country  was  left  under  the  rule  of  the 
native  princes.  The  Grand-Prince  of  Vlad- 
imir, or  White  Russia,  continued  to  be  con- 
sidered the  head  of  the  Russian  nation, 
though  this  dignity  was  disputed  both  by 
arms  and  by  intrigues  at  the  court  of  the 
khans,  who  fomented  these  dissensions  as 
favorable  to  the  stability  of  their  own  suprem- 
acy. In  1320  the  seat  of  government  was 
removed  from  Vladimir  to  Moscow.  The 
principality  of  Kiew  was  finally  extinguished 
(1321)  by  the  Duke  of  Lithuania,  who  con- 
quered and  annexed  it  to  his  own  dominions. 
In  the  mean  time,  Novgorod  (which  in  1276 
had  joined  the  Hanseatic  league)  had  acquired 
very  great  commercial  importance.  But  the 
remainder  of  Russia  continued  in  bondage, 
till  the  termination  of  the  direct  line  of  Batu 
(1361)  by  the  death  of  Berdi-Bek  Khan,  gave 


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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


749 


rise  to  disputes  for  he  throne  of  Kapchak, 
and  the  discord  of  their  oppressors  encour- 
aged the  Russians  to  endeavor  to  throw  off 
the  yoke.  The  struggle  continued  for  about 
a century,  till  at  last  Ivan  or  John  III.  oblit- 
erated the  last  vestiges  of  dependence. 

With  the  reign  of  this  prince,  who  married 
Sophia,  the  niece  of  the  last  Greek  emperor, 
a new  epoch  commences  in  the  history  of 
Russia.  He  was  honored  with  the  surname 
of  Great,  and  assumed  the  title  of  Czar,  which 
signifies  emperor,  but  which  was  more  used 
by  his  successors.  He  defeated  the  Poles 
and  Lithuanians,  reduced  the  Tartars  of  Casan 
to  tribute,  and  reunited  under  his  authority 
most  of  the  minor  Russian  principalities ; but 
his  capture  of  Novgorod  in  1475,  and  the 
exactions  which  he  levied  on  the  merchants 
and  citizens,  gave  a death-blow  to  the  com- 
merce of  that  famous  emporium.  The  embas- 
sies of  Germany,  Poland,  Venice,  the  Holy 
See,  &c.,  were  now  first  seen  at  Moscow ; and 
though  the  character  of  Ivan  is  sullied  by  the 
cruel  despotism  of  his  internal  administration, 
he  is  justly  entitled  to  rank  as  the  founder  of 
the  Russian  empire. 

On  the  death  of  Ivan  in  1505,  the  crown 
ought  to  have  devolved  to  his  eldest  son  Deme- 
trius, whom  he  had  by  a former  wife ; but  his 
widow  Sophia,  by  various  artful  insinuations, 
obtained  it  for  her  own  son  Gabriel,  who, 
disliking  his  own  name,  assumed  that  of 
Basil.  He  engaged  in  a war  with  the  PSles, 
and  in  another  with  the  Crim-Tartars,  who, 
by  fearful  ravages  made  the  czar  tremble  on 
his  throne,  and  obliged  him  to  submit  to  their 
conditions.  The  Tartars  entered  Russia  a 
second  time  in  1520,  ravaged  the  country, 
and,  making  themselves  masters  of  Moscow, 
compelled  Basil  to  acknowledge  himself  their 
vassal,  and  to  promise  to  pay  them  an  annual 
tribute.  Ivan  IV.,  the  Terrible,  succeeded  in 
1533.  He  was  constantly  engaged  in  war 
with  the  Tartars,  the  Poles,  the  Swedes,  the 
Danes,  or  the  Turks,  and  was  almost  always 
successful.  His  energy  and  policy  raised  his 
empire  to  a high  pitch  of  prosperity,  but  he 
was  remorseless  and  sanguinary.  In  1553 
the  English  trade  through  Archangel  was 
opened.  Siberia  was  acquired  in  1581.  About 
this  period  the  art  of  printing,  and  also  several 
branches  of  manufacture,  were  introduced 
into  Russia.  Ivan  died  in  1584.  With  his 

RUS 


son  Feodor,  or  Theodore,  in  1598,  the  male 
line  of  the  house  of  Rurik,  which  had  ruled 
under  fifty-six  sovereigns  for  736  years,  be- 
came extinct. 

Boris  Godoonoff,  the  brother-in-law  and 
minister  of  Feodor,  was  placed  on  the  throne, 
and  commenced  his  reign  by  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  serfs  and  other  salutary  measures  ; 
but  he  soon  degenerated  into  an  arbitrary  and 
cruel  tyrant,  and  lit  length  lost  his  throne 
and  life  in  a contest  with  an  adventurer  who 
declared  himself  to  be  the  lost  Demetrius, 
brother  of  Feodor,  whose  pretensions  were 
supported  by  Poland.  The  real  history  of 
this  person  has  never  been  satisfactorily 
ascertained,  and  many  writers  consider  his 
claims  to  have  been  well  founded.  After 
ruling  scarcely  a year,  he  perished  (1606)  in 
a revolt  headed  by  a boyar  named  Basil 
Schuiski,  who  thereupon  became  czar.  A 
second  pretended  Demetrius  speedily  started 
up.  The  Poles  and  Swedes,  who  each  aspired 
to  seat  a prince  of  their  own  nation  on  the 
throne,  invaded  the  country,  and  were  sup- 
ported by  various  factions  among  the  nobles, 
and  for  seven  years  (1606-1613)  Russia  was 
torn  by  an'archy  and  civil  war.  The  pros- 
pect of  the  dismemberment  of  their  country 
aroused  the  national  spirit  of  the  Russians; 
the  Poles  were  driven  from  Moscow,  after  a 
sanguinary  battle,  in  1613  ; and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  Michael  Romanoff,  a descendant  in 
the  female  line  from  the  house  of  Rurik,  was 
chosen  to  the  throne. 

Of  the  history  and  succession  of  the  family 
of  Romanoff,  we  have  already  given  an  ample 
sketch.  With  their  accession  Russia  began 
to  lose  her  character  as  a barbarous  and 
semi- Asiatic  power,  and  to  be  considered  of 
some  weight  in  the  affairs  of  Europe.  Under 
the  vigorous  administration  of  Peter  the  Great 
great  advance  was  made.  He  warred  suc- 
cessfully with  the  wild  Swede,  Charles  XII., 
but  was  less  fortunate  in  contention  with 
Turkey.  His  daughter  Elizabeth,  stung  by  a 
sarcasm  on  her  good  looks  from  Frederick  the 
Great,  allied  with  Maria  Theresa,  and  retorted 
with  a heavy  army,  and  thus  Russia  began 
her  direct  participation  in  the  politics  of 
Europe.  It  was  much  increased  by  the 
unscrupulous  aggression  that  marked  the 
rule  of  Catharine  II. 

On  the  death  of  Augustus  III.  of  Poland, 


750 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


in  1764,  Catharine,  who  had  signed  a treaty 
of  alliance  with  Prussia,  raised  to  the  throne 
of  that  kingdom  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  her 
former  paramour,  notwithstanding  the  mur- 
murs and  resistance  of  the  Polish  nation. 
The  purposes  for  which  Poniatowski  had 
been  raised  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  began 
gradually  to  develope  themselves ; and  having 
traced  on  a map  a line  of  demarcation,  by 
which  at  great  part  of  the  Polish  territory  had 
been  assigned  to  Russia,  Catharine  insisted 
on  the  recognition  of  these  limits,  and  the 
propriety  of  her  claim.  The  Poles  having 
induced  the  Ottoman  Porte  to  take  up  arms 
in  their  behalf,  hostilities  commenced  between 
Turkey  and  Russia,  and  the  empress  resolved 
to  rend  Greece  and  the  Archipelago  from  the 
Ottomans.  A Russian  fleet  first  appeared 
in  the  Mediterranean  in  1770.  At  length 
the  dismemberment  of  Poland  was  effected 
by  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia ; and  Turkey 
was  obliged  to  conclude  a peace  on  very  dis- 
advantageous terms.  The  Crimea  was  soon 
seized,  and  such  fresh  evidence  of  the  ambi- 
tion of  Catharine  again  excited  the  jealousy 
and  the  fears  of  the  Turkish  emperor  for  the 
designs  which  she  entertained  respecting  her 
grandson  Constantine,  whose  name  sufficient- 
ly denoted  her  ambition  to  raise  a second 
Eastern  empire  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Ottoman 
power.  War  was,  therefore,  again  declared 
by  the  Porte  against  Russia,  whose  minister 
was  shut  up  in  the  castle  of  the  Seven  Tow- 
ers. Joseph  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  sent 
80,000  Austrians  to  the  assistance  of  Catha- 
rine; and  everything  seemed  to  announce 
the  ruin  of  the  Ottoman  power.  Surround- 
ing nations,  however,  beheld  with  jealousy 
the  designs  of  the  empress,  who  threatened 
to  destroy  the  equilibrium  of  Europe.  Not- 
withstanding her  victories  and  her  conquests, 
she  at  length  perceived  that  a cessation  of 
hostilities  was  very  desirable.  Accordingly, 
in  1792,  the  peace  of  Jassy  was  concluded 
between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  and  a bloody 
and  expensive  war  terminated.  The  arms 
of  Russia  and  Prussia  were  now  united  in 
partitioning  the  remainder  of  Poland,  and 
Frederick  William,  at  the  head  of  his  forces, 
fought  against  Kosciusko,  whose  talents, 
courage,  and  despair  were  unavailing  against 
multiplied  and  increasing  numbers.  After  a 
few  bloody  victories,  the  courts  of  Petersburg 


and  Berlin  succeeded  in  dividing  the  remains 
of  that  unhappy  country ; and  the  courtiers 
of  Catharine  shared  among  them  the  possess- 
ions of  the  proscribed. 

Catharine  died  after  a long  and  prosperous 
reign,  and  at  a time  when  she  hoped  to  drive 
the  Turks  out  of  Europe,  and  to  seize  on  the 
throne  of  Constantinople. 

On  the  death  of  Catharine  II.  in  1796,  Paul, 
her  son,  who  was  at  that  time  forty-three 
3rears  of  age,  was  proclaimed  emperor.  The 
first  acts  of  the  new  czar  were  extremely 
popular ; and  his  actions  seemed  to  contradict 
the  report  of  his  stern  and  capricious  dispo- 
sition. However,  Paul’s  conduct  in  the  first 
days  of  his  reign,  was  soon  afterward  re- 
versed. 

Paul  concluded  with  the  king  of  Great 
Britain  a treaty,  by  which  they  agreed  to 
oppose,  in  the  most  efficacious  manner,  the 
successes  of  the  French  arms,  to  promote 
solid  and  lasting  peace,  and  to  endeavor  to 
re-establish  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe. 
For  some  time  the  Russians  and  their  allies 
were  fortunate ; but  their  successes  being 
afterward  converted  into  defeats,  the  emperor 
broke  off  the  alliance.  Indignant  that  the 
British  government  would  not  acquiesce  in 
his  having  appointed  himself  grand-master 
of  Malta,  Paul  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
France,  and  excited  a formidable  confederacy 
of  the  maritime  powers  of  the  north  against 
the  naval  interests  of  Great  Britain,  which 
was  broken  by  the  battle  of  Copenhagen. 
His  capricious  and  extravagant  actions,  some 
of  which  bordered  on  frenzy,  gave  great 
offense,  and  he  was  murdered  in  the  night  of 
the  23d  of  March,  1801,  though  his  death 
was  ascribed  to  an  apoplectic  fit. 

The  day  after  his  decease,  his  eldest  son, 
Alexander,  who  was  in  the  twenty-fourth 
year  of  his  age,  was  proclaimed  Emperor  of 
all  the  Russias,  and  issued  several  popular 
ukases,  in  one  of  which  he  revived  and  con- 
firmed all  the  regulations  of  the  Empress 
Catharine  for  the  encouragement  of  industry 
and  commerce. 

Bonaparte  not  fulfilling  the  secret  conven- 
tion which  had  been  entered  into  between 
France  and  Russia,  with  respect  to  the  evac- 
uation of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  by  the 
French  troops,  the  adjusting  of  the  affairs  of 
Italy,  and  the  indemnity  promised  to  be 
RUS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


751 


granted  to  the  king  of  Sardinia,  Alexander 
ordered  an  additional  levy  of  land  forces 
throughout  his  dominions.  He  afterward 
attempted  to  negotiate  a general  peace  among 
the  powers  of  Europe ; but  finding  this  im- 
practicable, he  joined  Austria  and  England 
in  the  coalition  against  Franco.  The  Russian 
troops  however,  could  not  join  the  Austrians 
till  the  latter  had  suffered  several  severe 
defeats.  The  battle  of  x\usterlitz  terminated 
unfavorably  to  the  allies ; and  the  emperor 
of  Germany  concluding  a separate  peace  with 
France  immediately  after  that  event,  the  Rus- 
sian troops  returned  into  their  own  country. 
When  war  broke  out  between  France  and 
Prussia,  Alexander  ordered  his  forces  to  the 
assistance  of  the  latter  power.  Before  they 
could  arrive  to  aid  their  allies,  the  French 
had  overrun  Prussia,  and  penetrated  into 
Poland,  where  they  were  defeated  by  the 
Russians ; but  Bonaparte,  having  compelled 
his  vassal  princes  to  furnish  their  stipulated 
contingents  of  troops,  again  advanced,  and 
gained  the  battle  of  Friedland,  which  obliged 
Alexander  to  sign  the  treaty  of  Tilsit. 

That  treaty  was  soon  after  followed  by  a 
declaration  of  war,  on  the  part  of  Russia, 
against  Great  Britain ; and  one  immense 
power  now  occupied  Europe,  arranging  and 
controlling  everything  in  conformity  to  its 
views.  Russia,  which  had  become  the  willing 
instrument  of  French  policy,  not  only  with- 
drew from  her  alliance  with  Sweden,  but 
attacked  that  country.  In  1808,  an  army  of 
40,000  men  was  sent  into  Finland,  from  which 
the  Swedes  were  finally  expelled. 

Alexander  agreed  to  accede  to  the  conti- 
nental system,  and  to  exclude  from  Russian 
ports  all  British  manufactures  and  colonial 
produce.  Not  aware  of  the  consequences  of 
his  engagements,  he  had  placed  himself  in  a 
situation  of  great  difficulty.  If  he  attempted 
to  fulfill  the  treaty  by  interdicting  the  trade 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  Russian  em- 
pire, he  deprived  his  subjects  of  the  best 
market  for  their  produce,  and  roused  his 
nobility  against  him.  On  the  other  hand, 
his  apprehensions  of  the  power  of  Bonaparte 
were  strong  and  well  founded.  He,  therefore, 
determined  on  a species  of  compromise,  and 
forbade  the  introduction  of  all  British  produce 
and  manufactures  into  his  dominions,  except 
by  special  license  and  in  neutral  ships. 


Soon  after  the  differences  commenced  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  Alexander,  the  former 
took  such  measures  as  he  thought  would 
either  awe  the  latter  into  submission,  or 
secure  victory  and  success  in  case  of  hostili- 
ties ; he  assembled  large  bodies  in  the  north 
of  Germany;  he  kept  possession  of  a great 
part  of  Prussia,  especially  of  the  places  most 
conveniently  situated  for  an  attack  on  Russian 
Poland ; and  he  forcibly  occupied  Swedish 
Pomerania.  Preparations  were  made  by  Rus- 
sia to  meet  the  approaching  crisis ; and  before 
the  commencement  of  hostilities,  the  force 
that  could  be  brought  against  the  French 
amounted  to  nearly  800,000  men,  exclusively 
of  the  militia.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Em- 
peror Francis  engaged  to  furnish  30,000  men 
to  France  in  her  war  with  Russia ; the  troops 
of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine  had  been 
raised  to  their  stipulated  quota ; and  the 
kings  of  Saxony  and  Naples  had  been  induced 
to  embark  with  Napoleon  in  this  great  enter- 
prise. The  armies  of  Bonaparte  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Russian  Poland  amounted  to  at  least 
300,000  infantry,  and  00,000  cavalry,  in  a 
state  of  the  highest  discipline  and  equipment, 
and  commanded  by  the  first  military  talent 
of  the  age. 

The  preparations  on  each  side  corresponded 
with  the  magnitude  of  the  interests  embarked 
in  the  contest.  In  numbers  the  combatants 
were  not,  at  first,  on  an  equality  ; and  in 
discipline,  in  science,  and  in  organization, 
the  French  possessed  a great  superiority.  On 
the  9th  of  May,  1812,  Napoleon  left  Paris; 
and  arriving  on  the  banks  of  the  Niemen  on  the 
22a  of  June,  he  issued  to  his  soldiers  a proc- 
lamation in  his  usual  confident  and  laconic 
style.  This  was  his  only  declaration  of  war. 
The  French  and  their  allies  passed  the  Nie- 
men without  opposition,  and  obtained  pos- 
session of  Wilna,  the  capital  of  Lithuania. 
The  re-establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  Po- 
land was  now  proclaimed,  and  a diet  assem- 
bled under  the  guarantee  of  the  French 
emperor ; and,  by  these  means,  the  national 
enthusiasm  was  raised  in  his  favor,  and  the 
ranks  of  his  army  were  swelled  by  Polish 
levies. 

The  Emperor  of  Austria  recalled  his  am- 
bassador from  Petersburg,  and  furnished  his 
contingent  of  troops  to  the  French.  Russia, 
however,  acquired  a new  and  zealous,  though 


RUS 


752 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


remote,  ally  in  England,  who  formed  a treaty 
of  friendship  and  reciprocal  defense  with  her 
and  a similar  one  with  Sweden.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  French  advanced  into  the  territo- 
ries of  Russia,  the  more  resistance  they  expe- 
rienced; and  several  bloody  engagements 
took  place,  without  producing  any  decisive 
effect.  The  first  great  stand  was  made  at 
the  city  of  Smolensk,  which  is  in  the  direct 
road  to  Moscow,  and  for  the  defense  of  which 
the  Russians  w’ere  posted.  However,  in  the 
middle  of  the  night,  after  a severe  engage- 
ment, a dreadful  conflagration  was  observed 
in  the  city ; and  the  Russians  abandoned 
Smolensk,  and  retired  across  the  Dnieper. 
Moscow  was  now  the  great  object  -to  be  con- 
tended for  ; and  the  Russian  main  army  took 
a strong  position  to  cover  it  from  the  attack 
of  Napoleon. 

A dreadful  engagement  ensued  ; and  the 
result  of  this  battle,  which  was  named  by 
the  Russians  the  battle  of  Borodino,  was  a 
victory  claimed  by  each  party.  The  French 
entered  Moscow  seven  days  after  this  engage- 
ment ; but  in  order  to  deprive  the  French  of 
a place  for  their  winter  quarters,  the  governor, 
Rostopchin,  had  ordered  the  city  to  be  set  on 
fire ; and  the  French  troops  had  scarcely 
entered  the  Kremlin,  when  Moscow  appeared 
in  flames  in  different  parts.  The  conflagra- 
tion raged  with  fury  for  several  days.  The 
French  began  their  retreat  from  Moscow, 
but  were  closely  pursued  by  an  exasperated 
foe.  To  add  to  their  calamities  a Russian 
winter  set  in  with  deep  snow.  The  suffer- 
ings of  the  French  were  extreme,  and  their 
losses  prodigious.  Horses  died  in  such  num- 
bers, that  the  greatest  part  of  the  artillery 
was  left  behind,  and  the  cavalry  was  nearly 
dismounted;  whole  bodies  of  men,  disabled 
by  cold  and  hunger,  surrendered  without 
resistance  to  the  pursuers ; and  nothing 
appeared  but  disaster  and  dismay.  It  is 
probable,  that  of  nearly  500,000  troops  en- 
gaged in  this  frantic  expedition,  not  50,000, 
including  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  contin- 
gents, escaped  out  of  Russia. 

The  Russian  armies  pursued  the  remnant 
of  the  French  armies  into  Germany,  where 
the  former  were  joined  by  Prussia,  by  the 
princes  of  Germany,  and  finally  by  Austria. 
Sweden  also  joined  the  league  against  France. 
The  battle  of  Leipsic,  which  was  gained  by 


the  allies  over  Bonaparte,  determined  the  fate 
of  Germany,  and  shook  to  its  foundation  the 
mighty  empire  raised  by  Napoleon.  Russian 
armies  continued  to  act  against  Napoleon, 
till  his  downfall,  and  Alexander  entered  Paris 
in  triumph.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  the  duchy  of  Warsaw,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  certain  provinces  and  districts,  was 
ceded  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  who  ad- 
dressed a letter  to  the  Polish  diet,  announc- 
ing the  fate  of  their  country,  and  that  he 
had  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Poland. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Dec.  1st, 
1825,  his  brother  Nicholas  ascended  the 
throne.  The  revolt  of  the  Poles,  in  1880, 
was  not  crushed  without  a violent  struggle, 
which  cost  the  Russians  a terrible  effusion  of 
blood.  The  kingdom  was  amalgamated  w?ith 
Russia,  and  the  last  feeble  vestiges,  of  its 
nationality  were  soon  sw^ept  away.  A wTar 
was  carried  on  against  Turkey  in  1828  and 
1829,  through  which  Russia  gained  numerous 
frontier  fortresses  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  a 
protectorate  over  Moldavia  and  Wallachia. 
The  resources  of  the  empire  w^ere  carefully 
fostered,  its  power  vigorously  consolidated 
and  increased.  The  ambition  of  Catharine 
had  not  died  writh  her.  Russia  became  the 
great  palladium  of  despotism  : she  warned 
Switzerland  against  any  increase  of  repub- 
licanism ; she  aided  Austria  to  trample  upon 
Hungary  ; she  proposed  to  the  western  pow- 
ers a partition  of  Turkey.  The  possession 
of  the  holy  places  at  Jerusalem  had  long 
been  a bone  of  contention  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  monks.  The  dispute  came  up 
afresh.  Russia  sided  writh  the  former  ; France 
wdth  the  latter.  Of  course  the  decision  of 
the  Porte  was  unsatisfactory  to  Russia: 
Prince  Menschikoff,  her  special  convoy,  bore 
himself  with  an  arrogance  almost  equal  to 
that  of  his  great  ancestor,  the  pastry-cook. 
All  the  compliances  of  Turkey  wrere  ineffect- 
ual : war  wTas  inevitable,  and  the  soldiers  of 
the  czar  crossed  the  Pruth,  July  2d,  1853. 
In  the  hostilities  which  ensued,  the  Turks 
displayed  a stead}7-  courage.  The  massacre 
of  Sinope  startled  England  and  France,  and 
their  fleets  wrerc  sent  into  the  Black  Sea.  It 
w7ere  better  had  they  been  in  those  wraters 
before,  to  save  the  unnamed  heroes  who  per- 
ished at  Sinope.  The  Russian  fleet  retreated 
to  the  haven  of  Sebastopol,  never  to  come 


RUS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  753 


forth.  The  war  on  the  Danube  was  bravely 
maintained  by  the  Turks.  France  and  Eng- 
land entered  into  a formal  alliance  with  Tur- 
key in  the  spring  of  1854,  and  a large  force 
was  sent  to  the  seat  of  war.  After  lying- 
long  ii  ac  ive  at  Varna,  an  expedition  to  the 
Crimea  was  decided  upon.  The  allied  army 
landed  at  Eupatoria  on  the  14th  of  Septem- 
ber. On  the  20th  the  heights  of  the  Alma 
were  won.  St.  Arnaud,  the  French  mar- 
shal, died,  and  Canrobert  succeeded  him. 
The  weary,  deadly  siege  of  Sebastopol  began 
on  the  17th  of  October,  1854.  While  the 
English  and  French  beleaguered  the  south 
side  of  this  rival  of  Gibraltar,  powerful  arma- 
ments were  sent  into  the  Baltic.  They  gained 
only  slight  successes,  the  Russian  navy  lying 
safe  under  shelter  of  the  strong  fortresses 
of  Cronstadt.  The  siege  of  Sebastopol  is 
more  fully  mentioned  beyond  [see  Sebasto- 
pol], and  indeed  all  the  important  events  of 
this  war  are  described  in  their  respective 
places.  It  was  varied  by  the  bloody  fields  of 
Balaklava,  Inkerman,  and  the  Tchernaya, 
and  by  the  siege  of  Kars,  in  Armenia.  Hos- 
tilities ceased  Feb.  29th,  1856,  and  peace  was 
proclaimed  in  the  following  April. 

In  the  midst  of  the  war,  Nicholas  was 
called  from  life.  His  son  and  successor, 
Alexander  II.,  continued  his  policy  so  far  as 
the  war  was  concerned. 

In  the  following  list  of  the  rulers  of  Rus- 
sia, those  marked  with  a star  are  doubtful, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  that  occurs  at  every 
step  in  early  Russian  annals. 

DUKES,  CZARS,  AND  EMPERORS. 

DUKES  OP  KIEW. 

862.  Rurik. 

878.  Igor. 

935  \ 01ega’  reSent- 

] Swiatoslaw  or  Spendoblos. 

972.  Jaropalk  I. 

980.  Vladimir,  Wladimir,  or  Waldimir  I., 
styled  the  Great. 

1015.  Jaraslaw,  or  Jaroslaf  I. 

1054.  Isjialaw  I. 

1078.  Wsewolod  I. 

1093.  Swiatopalk. 

1114.  Vladimir  II. 

1125.  Mtislaw  or  Michael  I. 

1132.  Jaropalk  II. 

1138.  j Wiatschelaw. 

1139.  ] Wsewolod  II. 

1146.  ] Isjialaw  II. 

1154.  ( Rostislaw. 

48 


1155.  Jurie  or  George  I. : the  city  of  Moscow 
was  built  by  this  duke. 

GRAND-DUKES  OF  WLADIMIR. 

. . j Andrew  I.  until  1175;  first  grand-duke. 

I Michael  II. 

1177.  Wsewolod  III. 

- j Jurie  or  George  II. 

' ( Constantine,  until  1218. 

1238.  Jaraslaw  II. ; succeeded  by  his  son. 

1245.  Alexander-Nevski  or  Newski,  the  Saint. 

1263.  Jaraslaw  III. 

1270.  Vasali  or  Basil  I. 

1277.  *Dimitri  or  Demetrius  I. 

1284.  * Andrew  II. 

1294.  *Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 

1302.  * Jurie  or  George  III. : deposed. 

1305.  ^Michael  III. 

1320.  * Vasali  or  Basil  II. 

1325.  * Jurie  or  George  III : restored. 

GRAND-DUKES  OP  MOSCOW. 

1328.  Ivan  or  John  I. 

1340.  Simon,  surnamed  the  Proud. 

1358. -  Ivan  or  John  II. 

1359.  Demetrius  II.,  prince  of  Susdal. 

1362.  Demetrius  III.  Donskoi. 

1389.  * Vasali  or  Basil  III.  Temnoi. 

1425.  Vasali  or  Basil  IV. 

1462.  Ivan  (Basilovitz)  or  John  III. 

1505.  Vasali  or  Basil  V.  : obtained  the  title  of 
emperor  from  Maximilian  I. 

CZARS  OP  MUSCOVY. 

1533.  Ivan  (Basilovitz)  IV.  ; first  tzar  or  cza? 
(‘great  king’)  in  1547. 

1584.  Feodor  or  Theodore  I.  : supposed  to  have 
been  poisoned,  and  his  son,  Demetrius, 
murdered  by  his  successor. 

1598.  Boris  Godoonoff,  who  usurped  the  throne. 

1606.  Demetrius,  the  Impostor,  a young  Polo- 
nese  monk : pretended  to  be  the  mur- 
dered prince  Demetrius:  put  to  death. 

1686.  Vasali-Chouiski,  or  Zouinski. 

1610.  [Interregnum.] 

1613.  Michael-Fedorovitz,  of  the  house  of  Ro- 
manoff. 

1645.  Alexis,  son  of  the  preceding,  styled  the 
father  of  his  country. 

1676.  Feodor  or  Theodore  II. 

1082  -S  Ivan  and 

| Peter  I.  brothers  of  the  preceding. 

EMPERORS. 

1689.  Peter  I.,  the  Great,  alone ; took  the  title 
of  emperor  in  1728. 

1725.  Catharine  I.,  his  consort:  at  first  the  wife 
of  a Swedish  dragoon,  who  is  said  to 
have  been  killed  on  the  day  of  marriage. 

1727.  Peter  II.,  son  of  Alexis-Petrovitz,  and 
grandson  of  Peter  the  Great : deposed. 

1730.  Anne,  Duchess  of  Courland,  daughter  of 
the  Czar  Ivan. 

1740.  Ivan  VI.,  an  infant,  grand-nephew  to  Pe- 

ter the  Great : immured  in  a dungeon 
for  eighteen  years ; murdered  in  1762. 

1741.  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great, 

reigned  during  Ivan’s  captivity. 


RUS 


754  COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


1762.  Peter  III.,  son  of  Anne  and  of  Cliarles- 
Frederick,  Duke  of  IIolstein-Gottorp : 
deposed,  and  died  soon  after,  supposed 
to  have  been  murdered. 

1762.  Catharine  II.,  his  consort : died  in  1796. 
1796.  Paul,  her  son  : found  dead  in  his  chamber : 
supposed  to  have  been  murdered. 

1801.  Alexander,  his  son. 

1825.  Nicholas,  brother  to  Alexander;  suc- 
ceeded, Dec.  1st,  1825. 

1855.  Alexander  II.,  son  of  Nicholas,  succeeded 
at  his  father’s  death,  March  2d,  1855. 

RUTLEDGE,  Edward,  a signer  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  was  born  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.,  November,  1749.  He  chose  the 
profession  of  the  law,  and  finished  his  legal 
education  in  England.  He  was  a member  of 
the  continental  congress  from  1774  till  1777. 
In  1779  Mr.  Rutledge  was  re-appointed  to 
congress,  but  relinquished  his  seat  from  ill 
health.  However,  he  soon  took  the  field  at 
the  head  of  a company,  but  was  taken  pris- 
oner at  the  surrender  of  Charleston,  and  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  the  British  nearly  a 
year.  In  1798,  having  retired  from  the  prac- 
tice of  law,  he  was  elected  governor  of  South 
Carolina,  but  died  Jan.  23d,  1800. 

RUTLEDGE,  John,  a native  of  South  Car- 
olina, and  elder  brother  of  Edward,  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  manly  eloquence  in  the 
first  congress,  and  was  appointed  president 
and  commander-in-chief  of  South  Carolina,  in 
1776.  In  1779  he  was  chosen  governor.  He 
died  in  July,  1800. 

RUYTER,  Michael  Adrian  de,  a great 
Dutch  admiral,  was  born  at  Flushing  in  1607. 
In  the  war  with  England  which  broke  out  in 
1652,  he  convoyed  a rich  fleet  through  the 
channel,  and  brought  the  whole  into  port, 
after  an  engagement  which  lasted  two  days. 
He  was  next  joined  in  command  with  Van 
Tromp,  and  distinguished  himself  as  well  in 
the  great  battle  of  three  days,  fought  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1653,  as  in  that  off  the  Tcxel,  where 


Van  Tromp  fell,  in  the  July  following.  In 
1658  he  defeated  the  Swedes,  for  which  the 
King  of  Denmark  gave  him  a patent  of  no- 
bility. At  the  renewal  of  hostilities  with 
England,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  De  Ruy- 
ter  gained  an  advantage  over  Prince  Rupert 
and  Monk ; but,  two  months  afterward, 
another  battle  was  fought,  and  the  Dutch 
were  defeated.  The  following  year,  however, 
he  avenged  himself,  by  riding  triumphantly 
in  the  Thames,  and  destroying  several  English 
men-of-war  at  Sheerness  and  Chatham ; the 
roar  of  his  guns  spread  consternation  in 
London.  In  1672  he  attacked  the  combined 
English  and  French  fleets ; and  though  the 
battle  was  undecided,  De  Ruyter  kept  the 
sea,  and  convoyed  home  a fleet  of  merchant- 
men. The  gallant  commander  was  mortally 
wounded  in  an  engagement  with  the  French, 
off  Messina,  and  died  at  Syracuse,  April  11th, 
1676.  His  remains  wrere  interred  at  Amster- 
dam, and  a monument  erected  to  his  memory. 

RYE-HOUSE  PLOT.  A real,  or  more 
probably  a pretended,  conspiracy  to  assassin- 
ate Charles  II.  and  his  brother  the  Duke  of 
York  (afterward  James  II.),  at  a place  called 
Rye-house,  on  the  way  to  London  from  New- 
market. This  design  was  said  to  have  been 
frustrated  by  the  king’s  house  at  Newmarket 
accidentally  taking  fire,  which  hastened  the 
royal  party  away  eight  days  before  the  plot 
was  to  take  place,  March  22d,  1683.  The 
plot  was  discovered  June  12th  following. 
Algernon  Sidney  and  Lord  William  Russell 
suffered  death  on  a false  charge  cf  bt  ing  con- 
cerned in  this  conspirac}'-. 

RYSWICK,  Peace  of,  concluded  between 
England,  France,  Spain,  and  Holland,  to 
establish  the  peace  of  Europe ; signed  Sept. 
20th,  and  by  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  Oct. 


30th,  1697. 
RYS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


755 


s. 

SABINES,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy, 
reckoned  among  the  aborogines,  or  those  in- 
habitants whose  origin  was  not  known. 
Some  suppose  that  they  were  originally  a 
Lacedaemonian  colony,  who  settled  in  that 
part  of  the  country.  The  possessions  of  the 
Sabines  were  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Rome,  between  the  river  Nar  and  the  Anio, 
and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Apennines 
and  Umbria,  south  by  Latium,  east  by  the 
JEqui,  and  by  Etruria  on  the  west.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  contiguous  nations  were 
descended  from  them,  such  as  the  Umbrians, 
the  Campanians,  the  Sabelli,  the  Osci,  Sam- 
nites,  Hernici,  iEqui,  Marsi,  Brutii,  &c.  The 
Sabines  are  celebrated  in  ancient  history  as 
being  the  first  who  took  up  arms  against  the 
Romans,  to  avenge  the  rape  of  their  females 
at  a spectacle  where  they  had  been  invited. 
After  some  engagements,  a peace  was  struck, 
and  the  greatest  part  of  the  Sabines  left  their 
ancient  possessions,  and  migrated  to  Rome, 
where  they  settled  with  their  new  allies. 
They  were  at  last  totally  subdued  about  the 
year  of  Rome  373,  and  ranked  as  Roman 
citizens.  Their  chief  cities  were  Cures,  Fide- 
nce,  Reate,  Crustumerium,  Corniculum,  No- 
mentum,  Collatia,  &c. 

SACHEVEREL,  Henry,  was  the  son  of 
a clergyman  at  Marlborough,  where  he  had 
his  education  and  afterward  became  demy 
of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  Sacheverel 
obtained  a fellowship,  and  in  1708  took  his 
doctor’s  degree.  The  following  year  he 
preached  two  harangues,  one  at  the  assi- 
zes at  Derby,  and  the  other  at  St.  Paul’s,  in 
both  of  which  he  asserted  that  the  church 
was  in  imminent  danger.  For  these  dis- 
courses, which  were  considered  as  inflamma- 
tory, he  was  impeached  by  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  tried  before  the  Lords,  in  1710; 
when  being  found  guilty  of  a misdemeanor, 
he  was  suspended  from  preaching  for  three 
years.  This  only  increased  his  popularity, 
and  brought  the  Godolphin  ministry  into  such 
contempt,  that  they  w'ere  obliged  to  resign 
their  places.  At  the  expiration  of  the  sen- 
tence the  doctor  was  presented  to  the  rich 


rectory  of  St.  Andrew,  Holborn.  He  died  in 
1724. 

SACKVILLE,  Lord  George,  the  third  son 
of  the  first  Duke  of  Dorset,  was  born  in  1716. 
He  obtained  a commission  in  the  army,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  battles  of  Dettin- 
gen  and  Fontenoy.  In  1758  he  was  made  a 
lieutenant-general ; but  in  the  year  following 
fell  into  disgrace  for  his  conduct  at  the  battle 
of  Minden.  He  was  tried  by  a court-martial, 
and  dismissed  the  service  ; but  was  restored 
in  the  next  reign.'  In  1775  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  for  the  American  colonies ; 
but  in  1783  he  went  out  of  office,  and  was 
created  a viscount.  He  died  in  1785. 

SADLER,  Sir  Ralph,  an  English  states- 
man, was  born  m 1507,  at  Hackney,  in  Mid- 
dlesex. In  early  life  he  was  taken  into  the 
family  of  Cromwell,  Earl  of  Essex,  who  intro- 
duced him  to  Henry  VIII.,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  had  a share  in  the  dissolution  of 
the  monasteries,  and  partook  of  the  spoil. 
He  was  also  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Scotland, 
to  negotiate  a marriage  between  Prince  Ed- 
ward and  Queen  Mary,  but  without  effect. 
In  the  war  which  followed,  Sir  Ralph  distin- 
guished himself  greatly,  and  was  made  a 
knight  banneret  on  the  field  after  the  battle 
of  Pinkie.  At  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he 
was  again  sent  to  Scotland ; and  when  the 
unfortunate  Mary  went  to  England,  she  was 
committed  to  l*is  care.  He  died  in  1587. 

ST.  ARNAUD,  Jacques  Leroy  de,  born 
at  Paris  in  1801,  entered  the  army  in  youth. 
He  saw  service  and  won  laurels  in  Algiers, 
rising  to  the  rank  of  marshal  by  the  rapid 
promotion  his  energy  and  bravery  obtained. 
Returning  to  France,  Louis  Napoleon  made 
him  minister  of  war  for  the  republic,  and  St. 
Arnaud  was  the  usurper’s  chief  confederate 
in  the  coup  (Petat  for  absolute  power.  He 
was  dispatched  to  Turkey  to  command  the 
French  troops  in  the  war  with  Russia.  Dis- 
ease was  then  lurking  about  his  heart,  and 
he  died  shortly  after  the  victory  of  the  Alma, 
Sept.  29th,  1854. 

ST.  CLAIR,  Arthur,  a native  of  Edin- 
burgh, came  to  America  with  Admiral  Bos- 


ST.  C 


756 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


cawen  in  1755,  and  served  as  a lieutenant  un- 
der W olfe  in  Canada.  He  adopted  the  popular 
cause  in  the  revolution,  was  early  made  a 
brigadier,  in  1777  major-general,  and  served 
with  honor  through  the  struggle.  In  1787 
he  was  president  of  Congress,  and  from  1788 
to  1802  he  was  governor  of  the  North-west- 
ern territory.  His  army  was  disastrously 
defeated  in  an  engagement  with  the  Indians 
near  Miami  village,  Nov.  3d,  1791.  He  re- 
tired from  office  with  a shattered  fortune,  and 
died  almost  penniless  near  Philadelphia,  Aug. 
31st,  1818,  at  the  age  of  eight}r-four. 

SAINT  HELENA,  an  island  in  the  South 
Atlantic,  1,200  miles  west  of  the  continent  of 
Africa,  and  1,800  east  of  South  America. 
The  island  is  a rock  about 'twenty-one  miles 
in  circumference,  very  high  and  very  steep, 
and  only  accessible  at  the  landing-place,  in  a 
small  valley  at  the  east  side  of  it.  St.  He- 
lena is  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1502,  on  the  festival  of  the 
Empress  Helena,  mother  of  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantine the  Great,  whose  name  it  still  bears. 
The  English  East  India  Company  took  pos- 
session of  it  in  1600,  and  held  it  without 
interruption  till  the  year  1673,  when  the 
Dutch  took  it  by  surprise.  The  English, 
under  the  command  of  Captain  Munden,  re- 
covered it  again  within  the  space  of  a year, 
and  at  the  same  time  took  three  Dutch  East 
India  ships  that  ]&y  in  the  road.  This  island 
is  celebrated  in  modern  history*,  as  the  place 
to  which  Napoleon  was  exiled  by  the  confed- 
erate powers  in  August,  1815,  and  where  he 
died  in  1821. 

ST.  PIERRE,  Bernardin,  *the  author*  of 
that  exquisite  tale,  “Paul  and  Virginia,” 
born  at  Havre,  was  for  a time  an  officer  in  the 
Russian  service,  then  in  the  French  corps  of 
engineers  ; and  finally  retiring  from  military 
life,  he  devoted  his  days  to  literature.  He 
died  in  1814,  aged  seventy -seven. 

ST.  SEBASTIAN,  a town  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Spain,  containing  13,000  inhabitants. 
It  has  been  repeatedly  taken  by  the  French ; 
it  fell  into  their  hands  in  the  short  war  of 
1719,  in  the  revolutionary  contest  of  1794, 
and  in  Bonaparte’s  invasion  in  1808.  On  the 
last  occasion  it  remained  five  years  in  their 
possession,  and  when  the  victory  of  Vittoria, 
by  the  British,  June  21st,  1813,  opened  a 
prospect  of  its  recapture,  the  French  had  time 


to  throw  into  it  a garrison  capable  of  making 
a very  obstinate  defense.  An  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  British  to  take  it  by  assault,  on 
the  25th  of  July,  was  repulsed  with  heavy 
loss.  It  became  necessary  to  make  approaches 
with  great  caution,  and  even  to  incur  a severe 
sacrifice  of  lives  in  the  final  attack,  on  the 
31st  of  August,  wrhen  it  was  stormed  and 
carried. 

ST.  VINCENT,  Cape,  the  south-west  point 
of  Portugal,  noted  for  the  naval  victory  gained 
off  it  on  the  14th  of  February,  1797,  by  a 
British  fleet  over  a far  heavier  Spanish  force. 
Sir  John  Jervis,  the  British  admiral,  was  re- 
warded by  elevation  to  the  peerage  writh  the 
title  of  Earl  St.  Vincent.  Admirals  Rooke 
and  Rodney  also  gained  victories  in  the  same 
waters,  in  1693  and  1780,  respectively. 

SALADIN,  or  Salaii-ed-deen  Yusef  Ben 
Ayub,  wras  at  first  general  of  the  army  of 
Noureddin,  sultan  of  Damascus.  In  1164, 
he  conquered  Egypt,  and  married  the  widow 
of  the  prince  of  Grand  Cairo.  x\fter  the  death 
of  Noureddin,  he  wras  called  to  the  govern- 
ment during  the  minority  of  the  prince  his 
son.  Being  advanced  to  this  power,  he  re- 
solved to  attack  the  Christians  in  Palestine, 
to  punish  their  arrogance  and  injustice;  and 
accordingl}',  in  1177,  having  raised  an  army, 
he  endeavored  to  surprise  Jerusalem,  but  was 
defeated  with  great  slaughter,  on  the  25th  of 
November.  This  loss  inspiring  him  wTith 
revenge,  in  1180  he  passed  the  Euphrates, 
took  several  cities,  as  far  as  Nisibis,  and  made 
himself  formidable  to  all  his  neighbors.  He 
took  Aleppo  in  1184.  But  not  long  after,  the 
Christians  put  a stop  to  his  conquests,  by  a 
cessation  of  arms.  The  Count  of  Tripoli 
being  jealous  of  Guy,  King  of  Jerusalem,  per- 
suaded Saladin  to  break  the  truce ; wffio,  fol- 
lowing his  counsel,  defeated  the  Christians, 
the  1st  of  May,  1187,  and  having  obtained 
a second  victory  over  them,  took  Guy  ii\„the 
flight,  made  himself  master  of  Acre,  Beirut, 
Giblet,  Saide,  and  divers  other  places,  and  at 
last  of  Jerusalem.  Though  he  put  the  Tem- 
plars and  knights  of  St.  John  to  the  sword, 
in  revenge  for  past  grievances,  he  treated  the 
other  captives  with  forbearance.  Pope  Urban 
II.,  upon  hearing  of  this  loss,  died  of  grief. 
Saladin  several  times  stormed  the  city  of 
Tyre,  but  was  often  repulsed ; and  after  some 
other  losses  sustained  from  the  Christians, 


SAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


757 


he  died  in  1193,  in  the  fifty-seventh  year  of 
his  age,  having  reigned  over  Egypt  twenty- 
two  years,  and  nineteen  as  absolute  master 
of  Syria.  No  Asiatic  monarch  has  filled  so 
large  a space  in  the  eyes  of  Europe,  as  this 
chivalrous  antagonist  of  Coeur  de  Lion.  As 
the  Moslem  hero  of  the  third  holy  war,  he 
proved  himself  a skillful  general  and  a valiant 
soldier.  He  hated  the  Grusaders,  for  he  was 
a zealous  Mussulman,  and  they  were  invaders. 
Though  ambitious  he  was  not  tyrannical ; he 
was  mild  in  his  government ; the  friend  and 
dispenser  of  justice.  Three  of  his  numerous 
progeny  became  sovereigns  of  Aleppo,  Da- 
mascus, and  Egypt : others  had  similar  pos- 
sessions ; and  the  emirs  and  atabaks  of  Syria 
again  struggled  for  independence.  [See 
CaUSADF.S.] 

SALAMANCA,  the  capital  of  a Spanish 
province  of  the  same  name  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Leon,  contains 

13.000  inhabitants.  Its  once  celebrated  uni- 
versity was  founded  in  the  thirteenth  century 
by  Alphonso  IX.  of  Leon.  A memorable  bat- 
tle was  fought  here  on  the  22d  of  July,  1812, 
between  the  British  and  allies,  under  Wel- 
lington, and  the  French,  under  Marmont. 
The  French  were  overthrown,  and  driven  in 
confusion  from  the  field.  The  pursuit  was 
continued  till  night,  when  the  French  guard 
was  overtaken,  attacked,  and  put  to  flight, 
the  cavalry  leaving  the  infantry  to  their  fate. 
Three  whole  battalions  surrendered,  and  large 
quantities  of  stores,  baggage,  and  ammuni- 
tion fell  into  the  conquerors’  hands.  Eleven 
pieces  of  cannon,  two  eagles,  and  six  colors, 
were  also  taken  ; five  generals,  thyee  colonels, 
three  lieutenant-colonels,  150  officers,  and 

7.000  soldiers,  were  made  prisoners.  The 
loss  of  the  victors,  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing,  amounted  to.  nearly  6,000  men. 
This  bloody  victory  opened  the  way  for  the 
capture  of  Madrid.  Marmont  was  the  seventh 
French  marshal  whom  Wellington  had  de- 
feated within  four  years. 

SAL  AMIS,  now  Koluri,  an  island  in  the 
Saronic  gulf,  on  the  southern  coast  of  Attica 
opposite  Eleusis,  at  the  distance  of  about  a 
league,  with  a town  and  harbor  of  the  same 
name.  It  was  originally  peopled  by  a colony 
of  Ionians,  and  afterward  by  Greeks  from 
adjacent  islands  and  countries.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  a battle  between  the  fleet  of  the 


Greeks  and  that  of  the  Persians,  when  Xerxes 
invaded  Greece.  The  Persian  ships  amounted 
to  above  2,000,  and  those  of  the  Greeks  to 
about  380.  In  this  engagement,  which  was 
fought  on  the  20th  of  October,  b.c.  480,  the 
Greeks  lost  forty  ships,  and  the  Persians 
about  two  hundred,  besides  an  immense  num- 
ber which  were  taken  with  all  the  ammunition 
they  contained.  Themistocles  commanded 
the  Greeks.  Xerxes  retired  into  Asia,  leav- 
ing Mardonius  to  carry  on  the  disastrous  war. 

SALLUST.  Caius  Sallustius  Crispus  was 
born  at  Amiternum,  b.c.  86.  He  received 
his  education  at  Rome,  and  made  himself 
known  as  a public  magistrate  in  the  office  of 
quaestor  and  consul.  His  licentiousness,  and 
the  depravity  of  his  manners,  however,  did 
not  escape  censure,  and  he  was  degraded 
from  the  dignity  of  a senator,  b.c.  50.  A 
continuation  of  extravagance  could  not  long 
be  supported  by  the  income  of  Sallust,  but 
he  extricated  himself  from  difficulties  by 
embracing  the  cause  of  Caesar.  He  was 
restored  to  the  rank  of  senator,  and  made 
governor  of  Numidia.  In  the  administration 
of  his  province,  Sallust  behaved  with  unusual 
tyranny  ; he  enriched  himself  by  plundering 
tne  Africans,  and  at  his  return  lo  Rome  he 
built  himself  a magnificent  house,  and  formed 
splendid  gardens,  which,  from  their  delightful 
and  pleasant  situation,  still  preserve  the  name 
of  the  gardens  of  Sallust.  In  this  luxurious 
retirement,  he  wrote  the  history  of  Catiline’s 
conspiracy,  and  that  of  the  Jugurthine  war, 
which  give  him  a classic  name  in  Latin  let- 
ters. He  died  in  the  fifty -first  year  of  his 
age,  b.c.  35. 

SALSETTE,  an  island  on  the  western 
coast  of  Hindostan,  just  north  of  Bombay. 
The  first  account  we  have  of  this  island,  is 
dated  1330 ; it  was  then  governed  by  a Ma- 
hometan judge.  It  \fras  taken  possession  of 
by  the  Portuguese  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1750.  In  1773, 
during  a rupture  with  the  Mahrattas,  it  was 
occupied  by  the  British,  and  has  ever  since 
remained  in  their  possession.  Its  temple 
caves,  hewn  in  the  rock  on  a mountain  side, 
are  objects  of  great  curiosity. 

SAMOS,  an  island  in  the  jEgean  Sea,  on 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  (from  which  it  is 
divided  by  a narrow  strait),  with  a city  of 
the  same  name,  built  b.c.  986.  It  was  first 


SAM 


758 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


in  the  possession  of  the  Leleges,  and  afterward 
of  the  Ionians.  The  people  of  Samos  were 
at  first  governed  by  kings,  and  afterward  the 
form  of  their  government  became  democrat- 
ical  and  oligarchical.  Samos  was  in  its  most 
flourishing  situation  under  Polycrates,  who 
had  made  himself  absolute  there.  The  Sami- 
ans assisted  the  Greeks  against  the  Persians, 
when  Xerxes  invaded  Europe,  and  were  re- 
duced under  the  power  of  Athens,  after  a 
revolt,  by  Pericles,  b.c.  441.  They  were 
afterward  subdued  by  Eumenes,  King  of  Per- 
gamos,  and  were  restored  to  their  ancient 
liberty  by  Augustus.  Under  Yespasian, 
Samos  became  a Roman  province.  It  now 
belongs  to  Turkey,  and  has  some  30,000 
inhabitants,  chiefly  Greeks. 

SANCTUARIES.  Cities  of  refuge  had  their 
origin  in  early  ages.  They  were  instituted  by 
the  Jews  immediately  after  their  establish- 
ment in  Palestine.  Such  use,  or  rather 
abuse,  was  made  of  the  heathen  temples* 
particularly  those  of  Hercules.  Christian 
churches  long  screened  criminals  from  seiz- 
ure. Abolished  in  England,  1534,  and  gen- 
erally at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  Several 
districts  in  London  continued  to  be  privileged 
against  arrest  for  debt  till  1696.  The  pre- 
cincts of  Holyrood  Abbey  at  Edinburgh, 
including  Arthur’s  Seat  and  Salisbury  Crags, 
are  still  a sanctuary  for  insolvent  debtors. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS,  a group  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  covering  about  6,000 
square  miles,  and  containing  71,000  inhabit- 
ants, were  discovered  by  Captains  Cook  and 
King  in  1778,  and  were  named  by  them  after 
Lord  Sandwich.  Captain  Cook  was  mur- 
dered by  the  natives  of  Owhyhee  in  1779. 
The  principal  islands  are  Hawaii  (Owhyhee), 
Maui  (Mowee),  Oahu  (Woahoo),  Taui  (Atooi), 
and  Nihau  (Oneehow).  The  climate  is  warm, 
but  healthy : many  of  the  islands  are  volcanic. 
The  natives,  were  formerly  sunk  in  idol- 
atry, sacrificing  human  victims  upon  their 
altars.  The  missions  established  by  the 
American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  have 
been  very  successful.  The  situation  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands  causes  them  to  be  visited 
by  many  vessels  for  repairs  and  provisions, 
while,  in  a commercial  point  of  view,  thejr 
arc  by  no  means  to  be  overlooked.  Inter- 
course with  Christendom  has  introduced  its 
vices  as  well  as  its  enlightenment.  The 

St. 


number  of  the  natives  was  once  very  much 
larger.  Idolatry  was  abolished  in  1819. 
Formerly  each  island  had  its  separate  chief- 
tains, and  desolating  wars  were  common. 
In  the  early  years  of  this  century  Tameham- 
eha  united  them  all  under  one  rule,  and  a 
constitutional  monarchy  resembling  that  of 
England  is  the  form  of  government.  Hono- 
lulu, on  Oahu,  is  the  seat  of  government  and 
commerce. 

SAN  MARINO.  Within  the  papal  prov- 
ince of  Urbino  in  Italy,  this  little  republic 
lies,  about  ten  miles  from  the  Adriatic  coast. 
It  consists  chiefly  of  a steep  mountain,  with 
its  offshoots  and  valleys,  covering  an  area  of 
about  twenty-one  square  miles,  and  contain- 
ing 7,600  inhabitants.  On  the  upper  part  of 
the  mountain  stands  the  ill-built  town  of  San 
Marino,  its  steep  and  rough  streets  practica- 
ble for  only  men  and  mules.  The  summit 
above  is  crowned  by  the  towers  of  an  ancient 
castle,  on  which  the  standard  of  the  republic 
waves.  There  are  two  or  three  other  towns, 
or  rather  villages.  Every  slip  of  ground  that 
can  be  made  productive  is  tilled.  Good  wine 
is  trodden  out ; there  are  olives  enough  to 
yield  some  oil ; and  silk-worms  are  reared. 
For  grain  the  people  rely  on  their  neighbors. 
This  little  district  has  curiously  kept  its  inde- 
pendence from  the  tenth  century. 

SAPPHO,  a lyric  poet  of  Greece,  born  at 
Mytilene  in  Lesbos,  about  b.c.  610.  Only 
fragments  of  her  verse  are  extant,  and  little 
is  known  of  her  life.  The  tradition  is  that 
she  was  a woman  of  beauty  and  amorous 
morals,  who,  after  the  death  of  her  husband, 
became  enamored  of  Phaon,  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  youth’s  neglect,  threw  herself 
into  the  sea.  She  is  the  reputed  inventor  of 
the  Sapphic  verse.  The  Lesbians  paid  reli- 
gious honors  to  her  memory,  and  called  her 
the  tenth  muse. 

SARAGOSSA  (in  Spanish,  Zaragoza), 
capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Aragon, 
stands  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Ebro,  180 
miles  north-east  of  Madrid.  The  flame  is  a 
corruption  of  Caesarea  Augusta,  a Roman 
colony  on  the  site  of  which  the  modern  city 
is  built.  The  population  is  40,000.  It  is 
famous  in  history  for  its  dreadful  sieges  in 
1808  and  1809;  contests  in  which  was  dis- 
played the  unyielding  fortitude  of  the  inhab- 
itants, of  both  sexes.  The  French,  having 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


759 


obtained  possession  of  Navarre  in  June,  1808, 
advanced  to  Saragossa,  and  attempting  to 
take  the  city  by  assault,  were  repulsed  with 
loss.  Returning  with  augmented  numbers, 
they  occupied  the  best  positions,  and  invested 
nearly  half  the  town,  keeping  up  a fire  from 
mortars  and  battering  cannon.  On  the  4th 
of  August  they  entered  the  central  street,  but 
they  were  met  with  furious  opposition,  and, 
discouraged  by  intelligence  from  the  south 
of  Spain,  retired  at  last,  on  the  14th.  The 
second  siege  was  no  less  obstinate  and  san 
guinary.  The  French,  with  great  re-enforce- 
ments,  marched,  m the  end  of  November, 
1808,  once  more  against  Saragossa.  Their 
first  great  attack  gave  them  possession  of 
some  important  posts,  but  with  heavy  loss. 
On  the  10th  of  January  began  the  bombard 
ment,  which,  violent  as  it  was,  caused  less 
injury  than  a contagious  fever  and  a famine 
among  the  garrison.  The  Spaniards,  how 
ever,  continued  to  make,  under  the  brave 
Palafox,  a most  determined  resistance,  and  it 
was  not  till  after  a bombardment  of  six  weeks, 
and  a very  unequal  contest  in  mining,  that 
Saragossa  surrendered,  Feb.  13th,  1809.  The 
defenders  struggled  to  the  last,  yielding  only 
house  by  house. 

SARATOGA,  a town  in  New  York,  whose 
mineral  springs  have  made  it  a celebrated 
watering  place.  Here  the  British  army  under 
Gen.  Burgoyne  surrendered  to  the  Aineri 
cans  under  Gen.  Gates,  Oct.  17th,  1777. 
Burgoyne  invaded  New  York  from  Canada 
with  a force  of  more  than  7,000.  The  design 
was  to  establish  a line  of  communication  with 
the  British  troops  in  the  middle  states,  and 
thus  cut  off  New  England.  Burgoyne’s  ill 
success  and  surrender  was  the  severest  blow 
that  the  British  received  during  the  war. 
The  news  of  it  had  great  effect  in  deciding 
France  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  colonies. 

SARDANAPALUS,  the  last  king  of  As- 
syria, celebrated  for  his  luxury  and  voluptu- 
ousness. His  effeminacy  irritated  his  officers ; 
Belesi^  and  Arbaces  conspired  against  him, 
and  collected  a numerous  force  to  dethrone 
him.  Saraanapalus  quitted  his  wine  and 
women  for  a while,  and  appeared  at  the  head 
of  his  armies.  The  rebels  were  defeated  in 
three  successive  battles,  but  at  last  Sardana- 
palus  was  beaten  and  besieged  in  the  city  of 
Ninus  for  two  years  and  more.  When  he 

SJ 


despaired  of  success,  he  burned  himself  in 
his  palace,  with  his  eunuchs,  concubines,  and 
all  his  treasures,  and  the  empire  of  Assyria 
was  divided  among  the  conspirators.  This 
famous  event  happened  b.c.  820,  accord- 
ing to  Eusebius.  The  riches  destroyed  in 
the  conflagration  have  been  estimated  at 
$700,000,000! 

SARDINIA  (Sardegna),  an  island  in  the 
Mediterranean,  has  an  area  of  9,100  square 
miles,  and  547,000  inhabitants.  The  capital 
is  Cagliari,  and  the  most  important  town 
Sassan.  Its  productions  consist  of  grain,  oil, 
citrons,  oranges,  and  other  fruits  , while  wine 
and  cattle  are  abundant.  There  are  mines 
of  lead  and  silver.  The  Catholic  is  the  pre- 
vailing religion  of  the  island. 

The  Sardinian  monarchy  is  composed  in 
part  of  the  island  of  Sardinia,  but  in  much 
greater  proportion  of  Piedmont,  Savoy,  and 
the  territory  of  Genoa.  Turin  (Torino),  in 
Piedmont,  is  the  capital  of  the  kingdom ; pop- 
ulation 140,000.  The  monarchy  has  an  area 
of  29,075  square  miles ; population,  5,000,000. 
In  1720,  Victor  Amadeus  II.  exchanged  the 
island  of  Sicily  for  Sardinia,  and  assumed  the 
present  royal  title.  After  a peace  of  twenty 
years,  this  state  became  involved  in  the  war 
between  France  and  Austria,  which  was  closed 
by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748. 
The  contest  occasioned  by  the  part  which 
Sardinia  took  in  the  ^French  revolution,  be- 
gan in  1792,  and  was  maintained  until  1796, 
when  the  assumption  of  the  command  by 
Bonaparte,  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  allied 
forces  in  the'  course  of  a few  weeks,  and  to  the 
conclusion  of  an  unfavorable  treaty  of  peace. 

This  treaty  was  followed  *n  two  years  by 
the  removal  of  the  royal  family  to  Sardinia, 
and  the  incorporation  of  their  continental 
states  with  the  French  territory.  The  pros- 
pect of  reinstatement  opened  by  the  progress 
of  the  allies  in  1799,  was  completely  over- 
cast by  the  battle  of  Marengo.  The  conti- 
nental territories  were  not  restored  to  the 
legitimate  sovereign  until  the  overthrow  of 
Bonaparte  in  1814.  [See  Savoy.] 

The  island  of  Sardinia  is  unknown  in  his- 
tory until  the  time  of  its  occupancy  by  the 
Carthaginians,  who  doubtless  confined  them- 
selves to  a few  marine  stations,  from  which 
they  were  expelled  by  the  Romans  in  the 
Punic  wars.  The  Romans  continued  in  pos> 


760 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


session  of  the  island  until  the  decline  of  the 
empire.  It  was  invaded  by  the  Saracens. 
The  sovereignty  of  the  island  was  acquired 
in  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  King  of 
Arragon,  and  retained  by  the  crown  of  Spain 
until  the  eighteenth  century.  In  1720  it  was 
given  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  In  1794  the 
inhabitants  of  Cagliari,  encouraged  by  the 
progress  of  the  French  revolution,  rose  in 
insurrection,  and  caused  the  Piedmontese 
viceroy,  with  all  the  individuals  of  his  coun- 
try, to  be  sent  out  of  the  island.  The  other 
towns  followed  the  example ; and  the  result 
was,  that  after  two  years  of  contention,  the 
king  granted  a general  pardon,  declared  that 
the  cortes,  or  representative  body,  should 
assemble  at  least  once  in  ten  years,  and  con- 
firmed all  the  ancient  laws,  customs,  and 
privileges  of  the  inhabitants.  \See  Savoy.] 

SARDIS,  an  ancient  city  of  Lydia,  formerly 
its  capital.  Cyrus  took  this  city  in  the  59th 
Olympiad,  and  subdued  the  whole  kingdom 
of  Lydia,  taking  Croesus  the  king,  prisoner. 
In  the  69th  Olympiad,  Aristagoras  having 
got  twenty  ships  from  the  Athenians,  per- 
suaded the  people  to  rebel  against  the  Per- 
sians, and  some  time  after  took  the  city  and 
burnt  it,  which  occasioned  the  wars  between 
the  Persians  and  the  Greeks.  Antiochus 
Magnus  took  this  city  from  Achaeus  by  treason, 
after  a year’s  siege.  Tamerlane  likewise  be- 
sieged this  city  six  years,  and  ruined  it  about 
1398.  The  city  stood  on  the  edge  of  a spa- 
cious and  fruitful  plain,  and  has  still  many 
marks  of  its  antiquity  to  be  found  amongst 
its  ruins.  It  was  anciently  one  of  the  strong- 
est inland  cities  of  Asia,  especially  when 
besieged  by  Antiochus  Magnus.  In  this  city 
Antigonus  caused  Cleopatra,  the  sister  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  to  be  put  to  death. 

S ARM  ATI  A was  the  name  given  by  the 
Romans  to  the  regions  between  the  Vistula 
and  the  Caspian.  The  Sarmatians  were  a 
savage,  uncivilized  nation,  often  confounded 
with  the  Scythians,  naturally  warlike,  and 
famous  for  painting  their  bodies  to  appear 
more  terrible  in  the  field  of  battle.  They 
were  well  known  for  their  lewdness,  and  they 
passed  among  the  Greeks  and  Latins  by  the 
name  of  barbarians.  In  the  time  of  the  em- 
perors they  became  very  powerful ; they 
disturbed  the  peace  of  Rome  by  their  fre- 
quent incursions ; till  at  last,  increased  by  the 


savage  hordes  of  Scythians,  under  the  barba- 
rous names  of  Huns,  Vandals,  Goths,  Alans, 
&c.,  they  successfully  invaded  and  ruined  the 
empire  in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era. 

SATURN,  the  Kronos  of  the  Grecian  my- 
thology, father  of  the  gods.  As  destiny  had 
foretold  that  he  would  be  dethroned  by  one 
of  his  sons,  he  devoured  all  that  were  born, 
with  the  exception  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and 
Pluto,  whom  their  mother  Rhea  saved.  He 
was  dethroned  by  Jupiter,  and  sought  refuge 
with  Janus  in  Italy,  where  he  occupied  him- 
self with  agriculture.  He  is  represented  as 
an  old  man,  with  a scythe  in  one  hand,  and 
an  hour-glass  in  the  other,  to  show  that  time 
destroys  everything,  and  rolls  onward  with- 
out interruption. 

SAVAGE,  Richard,  an  unfortunate  Eng- 
lish poet,  died  in  jail  in  1743.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  inhuman  Countess  of  Macclesfield, 
by  the  Earl  of  Rivers. 

S A VARY,  Rene,  a French  general  under 
Napoleon,  was  intrusted  with  the  execution 
of  the  doom  decreed  against  the  Due  d’  Eng- 
hien.  He  was  made  Duke  of  Rovigo,  and 
succeeded  Fouche  as  minister  of  police.  He 
died  in  1833,  aged  fifty-nine. 

SAVOY,  an  Italian  duchy  belonging  to  the 
Sardinian  monarchy,  bordering  on  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Piedmont,  contains  584,000 
inhabitants.  It  consists  of  valleys  formed  by 
offsets  of  the  Alps,  and  much  of  the  land  is 
rocky  and  barren.  The  origin  of  the  ducal 
house  of  Savoy  is  obscure.  From  the  year 
1000  till  1580,  a long  list  of  princes  governed. 
In  1580  Charles  Emmanuel  invaded  the  mar- 
quisate  of  Saluzzo,  which  he  wrested  from 
France,  and  thereby  gained  a frontier  for  his 
capital  of  Turin.  He  was  succeeded  by  Vic- 
tor Amadeus  I.,  who  waged  war  against  the 
Spaniards  with  equal  success  in  1635.  To 
Charles  Emmanuel  II.,  Turin  owes  some  of 
her  magnificent  structures ; and  he  also 
caused  the  amazing  passage  through  the 
rock  Mount  Visco  to  be  cut.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  in 
1675,  who  persecuted  his  Protestant  subjects, 
the  Waldenses,  with  all  the  fury  and  malice 
of  a bigot,  and  who  was  besieged  in  his  cap- 
ital, Turin,  by  the  French,  till  the  latter  had 
lost  fourteen  thousand  men  before  the  place, 
and  the  ammunition  of  the  besieged  was 


SAV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


761 


almost  exhausted.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  was 
soon  after  joined  by  Prince  Eugene,  whom 
he  assisted  in  defeating  the  French,  and  driv- 
ing them  out  of  Lombardy.  At  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  he  obtained  Sicily,  which  he  after- 
ward bartered  for  Sardinia;  and  thus  the 
Sardinian  monarchy  began.  He  formally 
resigned  his  crown  in  1730,  to  Charles  Em- 
manuel, his  son,  reserving  for  himself  a yearly 
income  of  one  hundred  thousand  pounds. 
Accordingly,  Charles  Emmanuel  III.  succeed- 
ed in  the  government ; but  being  persuaded 
by  an  interested  minister,  that  his  father  was 
endeavoring  to  gain  over  the  troops  and  re- 
mount the  throne,  he  caused  him  to  be  drag- 
ged from  his  bed,  and  carried  to  a house  with 
latticed  windows,  which  in  everything  resem- 
bled a prison,  in  1732.  The  old  man  died 
soon  after.  Some  years  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  French  revolution,  Savoy  was 
ceded  by  Charles  Emmanuel  IV.  to  France, 
and  constituted  the  department  of  Mont 
Blanc.  In  this  state  it  continued  till  the 
general  peace,  in  1814,  when  Savoy  was  re- 
stored to  the  family  of  its  former  possessors, 
in  the  person  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of 
Sardinia. 

Charles  Albert  oscillated  curiously  between 
grasps  at  absolute  power  and  spasms  of  polit- 
ical freedom  for  his  subjects.  A fit  of  the 
latter  sort  threw  him  into  collision  with  Aus- 
tria in  1848.  The  army  of  the  latter,  led  by 
Marshal  Radetzky,  was  victorious,  and  Charles 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Victor  Emman- 
uel II.,  who,  under  the  lead  of  Cavour, 
joined  the  alliance  against  Russia  in  1855, 
and  became  king  of  Italy  in  I860. 

DUKES  OF  SAVOY. 

1391.  Amadeus  VIII.,  the  Pacific ; abdicated. 
1440.  Ludovic,  his  son. 

1465.  Amadeus  IX.,  the  Saint,  his  son. 

1472.  Philibert  I.,  the  Hunter,  his  son. 

1482.  Charles  I.,  the  Warlike,  his  brother. 

1489.  Charles  II.,  his  son;  died  while  young. 

1496.  Philip  Lackland,  a son  of  Ludovic. 

1497.  Philibert  II.,  the  Fair,  his  son. 

1504.  Charles  III.,  the  Good,  half-brother  of  Phil- 
ibert. 

1553.  Emmanuel  Philibert,  Iron  Hand,  his  son. 
1580.  Charles  Emmanuel  I.,  the  Great,  his  son. 
1630.  Victor  Amadeus  I.,  his  son. 

1637.  Francis  Hyaciuthus,  an  infant  son  of  Vic- 

tor. 

1638.  Charles  Emmanuel  II.,  his  infant  brother. 
1675.  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  his  son.  In  1713,  the 

house  of  Savoy  became  regal,  by  the 


accession  of  Victor  Amadeus  to  the 
crown  of  Sicily,  which,  in  1718,  he  ex- 
changed with  the  emperor  for  Sardinia. 

KINGS  OF  SARDINIA  AND  DUKF.S  OF  SAVOY. 

1718.  Victor  Amadeus  II. ; abdicated  in  favor  of 
1730.  Charles  Emmanuel  III.,  his  son. 

1773.  Victor  Amadeus  III.,  his  son. 

1796.  Charles  Emmanuel  IV.,  abdicated  in  favor 
of 

KINGS  OF  SARDINIA. 

1 802.  Victor  Emmanuel  I.,  his  brother,  who  ab- 
dicated in  favor  of 
1821.  Charles  Felix,  a third  brother. 

1831.  Charles  Albert,  a descendant  of  Prince 
Thomas,  brother  of  Victor  Amadeus  I. 
He  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son. 

1849.  Victor  Emmanuel  II. 

SAXE,  Maurice,  Count  de,  a celebrated 
general,  was  born  in  1(396,  at  Dresden,  being 
the  natural  son  of  Frederick  Augustus,  Elect- 
or of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  by  the 
Countess  of  Konigsmark.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  years  he  was  at  the  siege  of  Lisle,  • 
where  he  displayed  signal  courage ; as  he  did 
the  following  year  at  that  of  Tournay.  He 
bore  a part  in  the  battle  of  Malplaquet,  and  in 
1711  accompanied  the  King  of  Poland  to  Stral- 
sund,  where  he  swam  over  the  river,  with  a 
pistol  in  his  hand,  in  sight  of  the  enemy.  He 
continued  to  distinguish  himself  in  the  war 
with  Sweden  ; and  in  1717  served  against  the 
Turks.  In  1720  he  obtained  the  rank  of 
marechal  de  camp  in  the  French  army.  In 
1726  he  was  chosen  Duke  of  Courland  ; but 
the  election  being  set  aside,  he  returned  to 
France,  where  he  was  made  lieutenant-gen- 
eral in  1734.  In  1741  he  took  Prague  by 
assault;  in  1744  he  was  appointed  a marshal 
of  France ; and  the  next  year  he  gained  the 
battle  of  Fontenoy.  This  was  followed  by 
the  capture  of  Brussels,  and  the  battle  of 
Raucoux,  for  which  the  King  erf  France  made 
him  marechal-general  of  his  camps  and  ar- 
mies. In  1747  he  achieved  the  victory  of 
Lahfeldt;  and  in  1748  took  Maestricht.  He 
died  Nov.  30th,  1750. 

SAXONY,  the  kingdom  of,  is  bounded 
north  and  east  by  Prussia,  south  by  Bohe- 
mia, west  by  the  Saxon  principalities  and 
Bavaria.  It  contains  5,752  square  miles,  and 
a population  of  2,000,000.  Dresden  is  the 
capital.  [ See  Dresden.]  Leipsic  is  the  cen- 
tre of  trade.  The  country  is  hilly  and  in 
some  sections  mountainous.  Forests  mantle 


SAX 


762 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


the  hills,  and  the  valleys  are  carefully  tilled. 
The  sheep  of  Saxony  are  noted  for  fineness 
of  fleece,  and  the  woolen  manufactures,  as 
well  as  those  of  linen  and  porcelain,  are  very 
important.  The  kingdom  occupies  only  a 
small  portion  of  that  tract  in  the  north  of 
Germany  formerly  designated  as  Saxony, 
which  extended  from  the  Weser  to  the  fron- 
tiers of  Poland. 

The  Saxons  are  supposed  by  most  authors 
to  be  the  ancient  Catti  described  by  Tacitus. 
The  government  of  the  whole  Saxon  nation 
was  vested  in  twelve  chieftains,  who  were  cho- 
sen annually,  and  who  elected  from  among 
themselves  a chief  judge.  In  time  of  war  they 
chose  a king,  whose  power  ceased  on  the 
return  of  peace.  Charlemagne,  on  succeed- 
ing his  father  Pepin,  in  1772,  resolved  to 
compel  the  Saxons  to  change  their  religion, 
and  embrace  Christianity.  Accordingly,  he 
attacked  and  defeated  them,  and  obliged 
• their  king,  Wittekind,  to  fly  into  Denmark. 
Finding  himself  totally  unable  to  resist  the 
forces  of  the  victorious  Charlemagne,  Witte- 
kind accepted  the  conditions  offered  him,  and 
was  baptized  with  his  whole  family,  by  Lullo, 
Bishop  of  Mentz.  In  804,  after  a calamitous 
war  of  thirty  years,  the  Saxons  were  entirely 
subdued,  when  Charles  had  defeated  them  in 
numerous  battles,  and  transported  many 
thousands  to  Flanders,  Brabant,  and  other 
countries. 

The  subsequent  sovereigns  of  Saxony  have 
uniformly  asserted  themselves  to  be  descend- 
ed from  the  illustrious  Wittekind ; and  the 
reigning  family  still  pride  themselves  on  the 
same  origin.  They  reckon  among  their  pro- 
genitors several  great  men  who  were  honored 
with  the  surnames  of  the  Grave,  the  Pacific, 
the  Constant,  the  Pious,  the  Magnanimous, 
and  some  of  whom  wore  crowns,  whilst  others 
declined  them. 

The  Saxons  remained  neutral  in  the  war  of 
1740,  between  Russia  and  Austria.  In  1756 
they  were  tempted  to  take  a part  by  the  flat- 
tering promises  of  Austria,  but  they  soon  had 
cause  to  repent.  In  the  war  of  1793,  the  con- 
tingent furnished  by  Saxony  against  France 
was  not  large,  and  no  decided  part  was  taken 
in  the  war  until  1806,  when  the  elector  sent 
all  his  troops  to  the  field  in  support  of  Prus- 
sia. The  overthrow  of  that  power  enabled 
Bonaparte  to  attach  the  Saxons  to  his  cause 


by  the  most  substantial  advantages.  For 
although  the  elector  was  under  the  necessity 
of  making  his  peace  with  the  conqueror,  upon 
any  terms  which  the  latter  might  choose  to 
dictate  to  the  vanquished  party,  yet  in  order 
to  separate  him  from  the  interests  of  the 
Prussian  monarch,  the  emperor  treated  him 
with  great  lenity,  induced  him  to  accede  to 
the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  gave  him 
the  title  of  king,  with  considerable  acces- 
sions of  territory.  Further  additions  were 
made  to  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  in  1809  ; 
but  these  acquisitions  were  only  temporary. 

On  the  irruption  of  the  allied  armies  into 
Saxony,  in  1813,  the  king  quitted  Dresden, 
and  identified  his  interests  with  the  interests 
of  France.  After  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  that 
city  was  taken  by  assault ; and  the  king  was 
made  prisoner  with  his  whole  court.  This 
country  was  afterward  placed  under  the  pro- 
visional occupation  of  Prussia;  and  Frederic 
William  made  known  his  intention  of  uniting 
Saxony  to  Prussia.  However,  the  energetic 
conduct  of  the  king  of  Saxony  preserved  him 
from  total  ruin.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  that  sovereign  ceded  to  Prussia  certain 
districts  and  territories  belonging  to  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony ; and  half  the  Saxon  people, 
to  whom  the  paternal  sway  of  their  king  had 
endeared  him,  passed  under  the  government 
of  Prussia  with  extreme  reluctance. 

KINGS  OF  SAXONY. 

1806.  Frederick  Augustus,  formerly  elector. 

1827.  Anthony,  his  brother. 

1836.  Frederick  Augustus  II.;  nephew  of  An- 
thony ; killed  by  a kick  from  a horse, 
Aug.  9th,  1854. 

1854.  John,  his  brother;  born  Dec.  12th,  1801. 

SAY,  Thomas.  This  distinguished  natu- 
ralist died  at  New  Harmony,  Indiana,  on  the 
10th  October,  1834,  aged  forty -seven.  Few 
individuals  in  this  country  have  contributed 
so  extensively  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of 
natural  science.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Philadelphia  academy  of  natural  sci- 
ences. His  original  communications  to  the 
society,  in  the  most  abstruse  departments  of 
zoology,  Crustacea,  insects,  Ac.,  of  the  United 
States,  occupy  more  than  eight  hundred 
printed  pages,  of  their  journal.  His  contribu- 
tions to  the  “ Encyclopaedia  Americana”  were 
highly  valuable.  II  is  work  on  American 
Entomology,  and  another  on  Conchology,  met 


SAY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


763 


with  deserved  approbation.  He  was  the 
naturalist  to  the  two  western  expeditions 
sent  out  by  the  United  States  government 
under  Major  Long.  Some  years  previously 
he  made  a scientific  excursion  to  the  Floridas. 

SCANDERBEG,  the  name  given  by  the 
Turks  to  George  Castriotto,  Prince  of  Alba- 
nia. His  father,  John,  being  reduced  to 
extremity  by  Amurath  II.,  was  forced  to  put 
five  of  his  sons  into  his  hands,  of  whom  Scan- 
derbeg  was  the  youngest.  He  pleased  the 
tyrant,  who  poisoned  his  brothers,  but  spared 
him,  and  finding  him  endowed  with  very  ex- 
traordinary qualities,  had  him  educated  in 
the  Mohammedan  faith.  Having  given  sev- 
eral instances  of  his-  courage  in  Amurath’s 
service,  who  was  the  usurper  of  his  estates, 
Scanderbeg  thought  it  was  high  time  to  think 
of  making  use  of  his  valor  for  himself  against 
the  tyrant.  In  this  design  he  so  dexterously 
deceived  the  governor  of  Groya,  the  chief  city 
of  Albania,  that  he  made  himself  master  of 
that  and  several  other  places ; in  1433  he 
took  possession  of  his  hereditary  dominion, 
and  upon  his  being  admitted  to  the  crown 
declared  himself  a Christian.  He  compelled 
the  Turks  to  raise  the  siege  of  Croya,  and  cut 
to  pieces  the  forces  that  were  sent  against 
him.  Amurath  himself  having  laid  a second 
siege  to  this  place,  died  before  the  walls, 
without  being  able  to  take  it,  though  he  was 
extremely  desirous  of  being  revenged  on 
Scanderbeg.  Under  Mahomet  II.,  he  had 
seven  or  eight  armies  to  contest  with,  but  the 
victory  was  still  on  his  side.  It  is  said,  that 
though  he  had  killed  above  two  thousand 
Turks  with  his  own  hand,  yet  was  he  never 
wounded.  Mahomet,  compelled  by  his  valor 
and  success,  made  peace  with  him,  while 
Scanderbeg  took  a journey  to  the  l^ngdom 
of  Naples.  The  Turk's,  seeing  the  truce 
expired,  laid  siege  again  to  Croya,  but  to  no 
purpose ; for  Scanderbeg  was  soon  with  them, 
and  forced  them  to  raise  the  siege  twice.  He 
died  at  Lissa,  a city  belonging  to  the  Vene- 
tians, Jan.  27th,  1467,  in  the  sixty-third  year 
of  his  age. 

SCAURUS,  M.  ^Emilius,  a Roman  consul, 
who  distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence 
at  the  bar,  and  by  his  martial  successes  in 
Spain.  He  was  sent  against  Jugurtha,  and 
some  time  after  was  accused  of  suffering  him- 
self to  be  bribed  by  the  Numidian  prince. 


Scaurus  conquered  the  Ligurians,  and  during 
his  censorship  built  the  Milvian  bridge  at 
Rome,  and  began  to  pave  the  road  which 
from  him  was  called  the  iEmilian.  He  was 
originally  very  poor.  He  wrote  some  books, 
and  among  these  a history  of  his  own  life,  all 
now  lost. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  made  himself 
known  by  the  large  theatre  which  he  built 
during  his  edileship.  This  theatre,  which 
could  contain  30,000  spectators,  was  sup- 
ported by  360  columns  of  marble,  thirty -eight 
feet  in  height,  and  adorned  with  three  thou- 
sand brazen  statues.  This  celebrated  edifice, 
according  to  Pliny,  proved  more  fatal  to  the 
manners  and  the  simplicity  of  the  Romans, 
than  the  proscriptions  and  wars  of  Sylla  had 
done. 

SCIIELLING,  Frederick  William  Jo- 
seph, a distinguished  name  in  German  phi- 
losophy, was  born  at  Leonburg  in  Wirtem- 
berg,  Jan.  27th,  1775.  He  died  in  1854. 

SCHILLER,  Friedrich,  a German  poet  of 
great  reputation,  was  born  at  Manheim,  a 
small  town  of  Wirtemberg,  Nov.  10th,  1759, 
and  was  the  son  of  a gentleman  who,  having 
served  in  the  army  as  a surgeon  and  officer, 
had  retired  to  private  life,  and,  at  the  date  of 
the  birth  of  the  poet,  was  holding  an  incon- 
siderable post  under  the  Duke  of  Wirtemberg. 
Both  the  parents  of  the  poet  appear  to  have 
been  persons  possessed  of  estimable  moral 
qualities,  and  no  inconsiderable  share  of 
literary  taste  and  talent.  . Schiller  was  not 
destitute  of  filial  gratitude,  and  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  expressed  his  own  fe^ings  in 
the  following  passage  from  one  of  his  histor- 
ical dramas.  Don  Carlos  is  addressing  his 
father  Philip: — 

“ How  sweet  and  rapturous  it  is  to  feel 
Ourself  exalted  in  a lovely  soul, — 

To  know  our  joys  make  glow  another’s  cheek, 

Our  fears  to  tremble  in  another’s  heart, 

Our  sufferings  bedew  another’s  eye  ! 

How  beautiful  and  grand  ’tis,  hand  in  hand 
With  a dear  son,  to  tread  youth’s  rosy  path, 

Again  to  dream  once  more  the  dream  of  life! 

How  sweet  and  great,  imperishable,  is 
The  virtue  of  a child,  to  live  for  ages, 
Transmitting  good  unceasingly ! How  sweet 
To  plant  what  a dear  son  will  one  day  reap; 

To  gather  what  will  make  him  rich ; to  feel 
How  deep  one  day  will  be  his  gratitude ! ” 

Schiller  was  placed  in  the  school  of  Stutt- 
gard,  where  he  may  be  said  to  have  educated 


SCH 


764 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


himself,  for  literature  and  the  fine  arts  were 
under  the  ban  of  the  Duke  of  Wirtemberg, 
whose  pedantic  pedagogues  vainly  endeavored 
to  turn  the  gigantic  mind  of  Schiller  from  its 
natural  inclination.  Knowing  nothing  of  the 
world  but  from  books;  forbidden  to  mingle 
in  female  society ; and  seeing  in  his  fellow- 
students  but  multiplied  copies  of  a certain 
severe  and  soulless  model,  which  their  pre- 
ceptors continually  held  up  for  admiration 
and  imitation, — the  poet  turned  to  his  own 
fancy  for  relief,  and  to  beguile  the  tedium  of 
his  unnatural  life,  wrote  the  tragedy  of  “ The 
Robbers,”  an  extraordinary  performance,  full 
of  imagination  and  energy,  brilliant  with  the 
light  of  genius  and  youth,  but,  to  use  the 
deliberate  criticism  of  its  author,  “a  monster, 
for  which  by  good  fortune  the  world  has  no 
original,  and  which  I would  not  wish  to  be 
immortal,  except  to  perpetuate  an  example 
of  the  offspring  which  Genius,  in  its  unnatu- 
ral" union  with  Thralldom,  may  give  to  the 
world.” 

The  tragedy,  although  written  before  the 
completion  of  Schiller’s  college  course,  did 
not  appear  until  he  had  attained  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  and  was  beginning  to  discharge 
the  duties  of  surgeon  in  the  army.  The 
spirit  and  popularity  of  the  poet’s  perform- 
ance were  highly  displeasing  to  the  despotic 
Duke  of  Wirtemberg,  who  issued  an  order 
for  Schiller  to  confine  himself  to  the  studies 
peculiar  to  his  profession.  The  youthful  poet 
was  compelled  to  suffer  a week’s  confinement 
for  the  crime  of  having  gone  to  Manheim  to 
attend  the  representation  of  his  drama,  and 
fearing  a severer  punishment  for  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  offense,  he  fled  to  Manheim,  and 
thence  to  the  hospitable  dwelling  of  Madam 
von  Wollzogen,  near  Meiningen.  Protected 
by  this  lady,  he  sent  forth  two  new  plays, 
“Fiesco,”  and  “Court  Intrigue  and  Love.” 
He  was  next  appointed  poet  to  the  theatre  at 
Manheim,  a post  of  honor  and  profit.  At  the 
expiration  of  eighteen  months,  Schiller  grow- 
ing dissatisfied  with  his  situation,  went  from 
Manheim  to  Leipsic,  and  thence  to  Dresden. 
At  the  latter  place  he  concluded  his  famous 
tragedy  of  “Don  Carlos,”  the  first  of  his 
plays  that  bears  the  stamp  of  anything  like 
full  maturity.  The  opportunities  he  had 
enjoyed  for  extending  his  knowledge  of  men 
and  things,  the  sedulous  practice  of  the  art 


I of  composition,  the  study  of  purer  morals,  had 
not  been  without  their  full  effect.  Increase 
of  years  had  done  something  for  him ; dili- 
gence had  d r.e  much  more.  The  ebullience 
of  youth  is  now  chastened  into  the  steadfast 
energy  of  manhood;  the  wild  enthusiast,  that 
spurned  at  the  errors  of  the  world,  has  now 
become  the  enlightened  moralist,  that  laments 
their  necessity,  or  endeavors  to  find  out  their 
remedy.  A corresponding  alteration  is  visi- 
ble in  the  external  form  of  the  work,  in  its 
plot  and  diction.  The  plot  is  contrived  with 
great  ingenuity,  embodying  theTesult  of  much 
study,  both  dramatic  and  historical.  The 
language  is  blank  verse, — not  prose,  as  in  the 
former  works  ; it  is  more  careful  and  regular, 
less  ambitious  in  its  object,  but  more  certain 
of  attaining  it.  Schiller’s  mind  had  now 
reached  its  full  stature : he  felt  and  thought 
more  justly ; he  could  better  express  what  he 
felt  and  thought. 

“Don  Carlos”  was  received  with  immediate 
and  universal  approbation,  in  the  closet  and 
on  the  stage.  Schiller’s  expectations  had  not 
been  so  high  ; he  knew  both  the  excellences 
and  the  faults  of  his  work : but  he  had  not 
anticipated  that  the  former  would  be  recog- 
nized so  instantaneously.  The  pleasure  of 
this  new  celebrity  came  upon  him,  therefore, 
heightened  by  surprise.  Had  dramatic  emi- 
nence been  his  sole  object,  he  might  now 
have  slackened  his  exertions ; the  public  had 
already  ranked  him  as  the  first  of  their  wri- 
ters in  that  favorite  department.  But  this 
limited  ambition  was  not  his  moving  princi- 
ple ; nor  was  his  mind  of  that  sort  for  which 
rest  is  provided  in  this  world.  The  primary 
disposition  of  his  nature  urged  him  to  perpet- 
ual toil : the  great  aim  of  his  life,  the  unfold- 
ing  of  Jiis  mental  powers,  was  one  of  those 
which  admit  but  a relative  not  an  absolute 
progress.  New  ideas  of  perfection  arise  as 
the  former  have  been  reached ; the  student  is 
always  attaining, — never  has  attained. 

Schiller’s  worldly  circumstances,  too,  were 
of  a kind  well  calculated  to  prevent  excess  of 
quietism.  He  was  still  drifting  at  large  on 
the  tide  of  life : he  was  crowned  with  laurels, 
but  without  a home.  His  heart,  warm  and 
affectionate,  fitted  to  enjoy  the  domestic  bless- 
ings which  it  longed  for,  was  allowed  to  form 
no  permanent  attachment ; he  felt  that  he  was 
unconnected,  solitary  in  the  world,  cut  off 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


765 


from  the  exercise  of  his  kindlier  sympathies ; 
or  if  tasting  such  pleasures,  it  was  ‘ snatching 
them  rather  than  partaking  of  them  calmly.’ 
The  vulgar  desire  of  wealth  and  station  never 
entered  his  mind  for  an  instant ; but  as  years 
were  added  to  his  age,  the  delights  of  peace 
and  continuous  comfort  were  fast  becoming 
more  acceptable  than  any  other;  and  he 
looked  with  anxiety  to  have  a resting-place 
amid  his  wanderings, — to  be  a man  among  his 
fellow-men. 

For  all  these  wishes  Schiller  saw  that  the 
only  chance  of  fulfillment  depended  on  un- 
wearied perseverance  in  his  literary  occupa- 
tions. Yet  though  his  activity  was  unabated, 
and  the  calls  on  it  were  increasing  rather 
than  diminished,  its  direction  was  gradually 
changing.  The  drama  had  long  been  station- 
ary, and  of  late  had  been  falling  in  his  estima- 
tion ; the  difficulties  of  the  art,  as  he  viewed 
it  at  present,  had  been  overcome,  and  new 
conquests  invited  him  in  other  quarters. 
The  latter  part  of  “ Carlos”  he  had  written  as 
a task  rather  than  a pleasure ; he  contem- 
plated no  farther  undertaking  connected  with 
the  stage.  For  a time,  indeed,  he  seems  to 
have  wavered  among  a multiplicity  of  enter- 
prises ; now  solicited  to  this,  and  now  to  that, 
without  being  able  to  fix  decidedly  on  any. 
The  restless  ardor  of  his  mind  is  evinced  by 
the  number  and  variety  of  his  attempts ; its 
fluctuation  by  the  circumstance  that  all  of 
them  are  short  in  extent,  or  left  in  the  state 
of  fragments.  Of  the  former  kind  are  his 
lyrical  productions,  many  of  which  were 
composed  about  this  period,  during  intervals 
from  more  serious  labors.  The  character  of 
these  performances  is  such  as  his  former  wri- 
tings give  us  reason  to  expect.  With  a deep 
insight  into  life,  and  a keen  and  comprehen- 
sive sympathy  with  its  sorrows  and  enjoy- 
ments, there  is  combined  that  impetuosity  of 
feeling,  that  pomp  of  thought  and  imagery, 
which  belong  peculiarly  to  Schiller.  If  he 
had  left  the  drama,  his  mind  was  still  over- 
flowing with  the  elements  of  poetry ; dwelling 
among  the  grandest  conceptions,  and  the 
boldest  or  finest  emotions ; thinking  intensely 
and  profoundly,  but  decorating  its  thoughts 
with  those  graces,  which  other  faculties  than 
the  understanding  are  required  to  afford. 
With  these  smaller  pieces,  Schiller  occupied 
himself  at  intervals  of  leisure  throughout  the 


remainder  of  his  life.  Some  of  them  are  to 
be  classed  among  the  finest  efforts  of  his 
genius.  The  “Walk  to  the  Forge,”  the 
“Song  of  the  Bell,”  contain  exquisite  delin- 
eations of  the  fortunes  and  the  history  of 
man;  his  “Ritter  von  Toggenburg,”  his 
“ Cranes  of  Ibycus,”  his  “ Hero  and  Leander,” 
are  among  the  most  poetical  and  moving 
ballads  to  be  found  in  any  language. 

Schiller  now  turned  his  attention  to  history, 
his  first  performance  in  this  department  being 
“The  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands,”  unfortu- 
nately a fragment,  but  written  in  an  exceed- 
ingly pure  style,  and  displaying  throughout 
a most  penetrating  and  philosophical  spirit. 

He  wrote  and  thought  with  an  impetuosity 
beyond  what  nature  always  could  endure. 
His  intolerance  of  interruptions  first  put  him 
on  the  plan  of  studying  by  night ; an  alluring 
but  pernicio'us  practice,  which  began  at  Dres- 
den, and  was  never  afterward  forsaken.  His 
recreations  breathed  a similar  spirit : he  loved 
to  be  much  alone,  and  strongly  moved.  The 
banks  of  the  Elbe  were  the  favorite  resort  of 
his  mornings:  here,  wandering  in  solitude 
amid  groves  and  lawns,  and  green  and  beauti- 
ful places,  he  abandoned  his  mind  to  delicious 
musings;  watched  the  fitful  current  of  his 
thoughts,  as  they  came  sweeping  through  his 
soul  in  their  vague,  fantastic,  gorgeous  forms ; 
pleased  himself  with  the  transient  images  of 
memory  and  hope ; or  meditated  on  the  cares 
and  studies  which  had  lately  been  employing, 
and  were  again  soon  to  employ  him.  He 
might  be  seen  floating  on  the  river  in  a gon- 
dola, feasting  himself  with  the  loveliness  of 
earth  and  sky.  He  delighted  most  to  be 
there,  when  a tempest  was  abroad:  his  un- 
quiet spirit  found  a solace  in  the  expression 
of  his  own  unrest  on  the  face  of  Nature ; dan- 
ger lent  a charm  to  his  situation ; he  felt  in 
harmony  with  the  scene,  when  the  rack  was 
sweeping  stormfully  across  the  heavens,  and 
the  forests  were  sounding  in  the  breeze,  and 
the  river  rolled  its  chafed  waters  into  wild, 
eddying  heaps. 

Yet  before  the  darkness  summoned  him 
exclusively  to  his  tasks,  Schiller  commonly 
devoted  a portion  of  the  day  to  the  pleasures 
of  society.  Could  he  have  found  enjoyment 
in  the  flatteries  of  admiring  hospitality,  his 
fame  would  have  procured  them  for  him  in 
abundance.  But  these  things  were  not  to 


SCH 


766 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


his  taste.  The  idea  of  being  a lion  is  offen- 
sive enough  to  any  man,  of  not  more  than 
common  vanity,  and  less  than  common  under- 
standing: it  was  doubly  offensive  to  him. 
His  pride  and  his  modesty  alike  forbade  it. 
The  delicacy  of  his  nature,  aggravated  into 
shyness  by  his  education  and  his  habits,  ren- 
dered situations  of  display  more  than  usually 
painful  to  him.  In  the  circles  of  fashion,  he  ap- 
peared unwillingly,  and  seldom  to  advantage: 
their  glitter  and  parade  were  foreign  to  his 
disposition : their  strict  ceremonial  cramped 
the  play  of  his  mind.  Hemmed  in,  as  by  in- 
visible fences,  among  the  intricate  barriers  of 
etiquette,  so  feeble,  yet  so  inviolable,  he  felt 
constrained  and  helpless, — alternately  cha- 
grined and  indignant.  It  was  the  giant 
among  pigmies;  Gulliver,  in  Lilliput,  tied 
down  by  a thousand  packthreads.  But  there 
were  more  congenial  minds,  with  whom  he 
could  associate;  more  familiar  scenes,  in 
which  he  found  the  pleasures  he  was  seeking. 
Here  Schiller  was  himself;  frank,  unembar- 
rassed, pliant  to  the  humor  of  the  hour.  His 
conversation  was  delightful,  abounding  at 
once  in  rare  and  simple  charms.  Besides  the 
intellectual  riches  which  it  carried  with  it, 
there  was  a flow  of  kindliness  and  unaffected 
good  humor,  which  can  render  dullness  itself 
agreeable.  Schiller  had  many  friends  in 
Dresden,  who  loved  him  as  a man  while  they 
admired  him  as  a writer.  Their  intercourse 
was  of  the  kind  he  liked, — sober,  as  well  as 
free  and  mirthful.  It  was  the  careless,  calm, 
honest  effusion  of  his  feelings  that  he  wanted ; 
not  the  noisy  tumults  and  coarse  delirium  of 
dissipation.  For  this,  under  any  of  its  forms, 
he  at  no  time  showed  the  smallest  relish. 

A visit  to  Weimar  gained  him  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Herder  and  Wieland,  and  afterward 
of  Goethe.  With  the  latter,  he  did  not  get 
on  very  well  at  first.  Gradually  they  be- 
came cordial  friends,  and  in  1789,  Schiller, 
chiefly  through  the  interest  of  Goethe,  was 
appointed  professor  of  history  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Jena,  a few  miles  from  the  town  of 
Weimar.  He  was  then  thirty  years  old,  and 
married  Mile,  von  Lengefeldt  of  Rudolstadt,  t'o 
whom  he  had  been  engaged  some  time  before. 
In  1791  he  published  his  “History  of  the 
Thirty  Years’  War.”  This  great  work  sug- 
gested another  and  his  greatest  drama, — or 
rather  a scries  of  dramas,  since  it  is  in  three 


parts, — “Wallenstein,”  which  cost  him  the 
labor  of  two  years.  It  was  followed  speedily 
by  “ Mary  Stuart,”  a work  of  great  power, 
but  not  equaling  that  which  preceded  it. 
“Mary  Stuart”  was  followed  by  the  “Maid 
of  Orleans,”  the  “Bride  of  Messina,”  and 
“William  Tell.”  Schiller  died  in  the  spring 
of  1805,  at  the  age  of  forty-five,  in  the  full 
vigor  of  his  intellectual  powers. 

SCHOMBERG,  Charles,  who  was  so  much 
esteemed  by  Louis  XIII.  for  his  many  import- 
ant services  rendered  in  war  to  the  crown  of 
France,  died  in  1656,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year 
of  his  age. 

SCHOMBERG,  Henry,  Count  of  Nanteuil 
and  Duretal,  was  the  son  of  Gaspar  Schom- 
berg,  a German,  and  succeeded  his  father  as 
general  field-marshal  of  the  German  troops 
in  the  French  king’s  service.  He  was  sent 
ambassador  extraordinary  to  England,  in 
1615  ; at  his  return  he  had  a command  in  the 
army  of  Piedmont,  and  contributed  to  the 
taking  of  several  places  in  1620.  He  served 
against  the  Huguenots  in  the  civil  wars.  In 
1627  he  was  present  at  the  action  of  the  Isle 
of  Re,  where  the  English  were  defeated.  In 
1680  he  took  Pignerol,  and  relieved  Cazal,  and 
gained  the  battle  of  Castelnaudary  against 
the  rebels  of  Languedoc.  He  died  at  Bour- 
deaux  in  1683,  in  the  forty-ninth  year  of  his 
age. 

SCHOMBERG,  Frederic,  Duke  of,  an  emi- 
nent general,  was  the  son  of  Count  Schom- 
berg,  by  the  daughter  of  Lord  Dudley  of 
England,  and  was  born  in  1619.  He  began 
his  military  career  in  the  army  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  He  served  in  the  army  of  the 
United  Provinces;  but  in  1650  retired  to 
France,  where  he  was  esteemed  next  to  Conde 
and  Turenne.  In  1660  he  visited  England, 
whence  he  proceeded  to  Portugal,  where  he 
was  created  a grandee,  and  obtained  a pen- 
sion. On  his  return  to  France  he  commanded 
in  Flanders,  and  obliged  the  Prince  of  Orange 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Maestricht,  for  which  he 
was  made  a marshal.  On  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  he  went  again  to  Portu- 
gal ; but  being  obliged  to  quit  the  kingdom 
by  the  inquisition,  he  removed  to  Holland, 
and  afterward  entered  into  the  service  of  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg.  In  1688  he  accom- 
panied William  of  Orange  to  England ; and 
after  the  Revolution  was  created  a duke,  with 


SCII 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


707 


which  title  he  received  a grant  of  one  hundred 
thousand  pounds.  In  1689  he  commanded 
in  Ireland,  where  he  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  July  1st,  1090. 

SCHUYLER,  Philip,  a general  in  the 
American  Revolution,  was  born  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  in  1731,  and  being  appointed  major-gen- 
eral in  1775,  evinced  great  courage  and  ability. 
He  was  a member  of  the  old  congress,  and 
with  Rufus  King  represented  New  York  in 
the  first  federal  senate.  He  died  Nov.  18th, 
1804. 

SCIO,  or  Chios,  a fertile  island  in  the  Gre- 
cian Archipelago,  containing  392  square 
miles.  In  1822,  the  revolt  of  the  Sciots  was 
punished  by  the  Turks,  by  the  massacre  of 

40.000  persons  without  distinction  of  age  or 
sex,  while  many  women  and  children  were 
borne  away  to  slavery.  Such  was  the  fero- 
cious spirit  exercised  toward  them,  that  in 
1823,  the  population  had  been  reduced  from 

120.000  to  16,000! 

SCIPIO.  There  were  many  illustrious 
Romans  of  this  name,  belonging  to  the  Cor- 
nelii.  Cneius,  surnamed  Asina,  was  consul, 
a.u.c.  494  and  500.  He  was  conquered  in 
his  first  consulship  in  a naval  battle,  and  lost 
seventeen  ships.  The  following  j^ear  he 
took  Aleria,  in  Corsica,  and  defeated  Ilanno, 
the  Carthaginian  general,  in  Sardinia.  He 
also  took  two  hundred  of  the  enemy’s  ships, 
and  the  city  of  Panormum  in  Sicily.  He  was 
father  to  Publius  and  Cneius  Scipio.  Pub- 
lius, in  the  beginning  of  the  second  Punic 
war,  was  sent  with  an  army  to  Spain  to  op- 
pose Hannibal ; but  when  he  heard  that  his 
enemy  had  passed  over  into  Italy,  he  attempt- 
ed by  his  quick  marches  and  secret  evolu- 
tions to  stop  his  progress.  He  was  vanquished 
by  Hannibal  near  the  Ticinus,  where  he  would 
have  lost  his  life,  had  not  his  son,  who  was 
afterward  surnamed  Africanus,  courageously 
defended  him.  He  again  passed  into  Spain, 
where  he  obtained  some  memorable  victories 
over  the  Carthaginians,  and  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country. 

His  brother  Cneius  shared  the  supreme 
command  with  him,  but  their  great  confi- 
dence proved  their  ruin.  They  separated 
their  armies,  and  soon  after  Publius  was 
furiously  attacked  by  the  two  Hasd rubais 
and  Mago,  who  commanded  the  Carthaginian 
armies.  The  forces  of  Publius  were  too  few 


to  resist  with  success  the  three  Carthaginian 
generals.  The  Romans  were  cut  to  pieces, 
and  their  commander  was  left  on  the  field  of 
battle.  No  sooner  had  the  enemy  obtained 
this  victory,  than  they  immediately  marched 
to  meet  Cneius  Scipio,  whom  the  revolt  of 

30,000  Celtiberians  had  weakened  and  alarm- 
ed. That  general,  who  was  already  apprised 
of  his  brother’s  death,  secured  an  eminence, 
where  he  was  soon  surrounded  on  all  sides. 
After  desperate  acts  of  valor,  he  was  left 
among  the  slain ; or,  according  to  some,  he 
fled  into  a tower,  where  he  was  burnt  with 
some  of  his  friends  by  the  victorious  enemy. 

Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  whose  successes 
won  him  the  surname  of  Africanus,  was  the 
son  of  the  Publius  Scipio  who  was  killed  in 
Spain.  He  first  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Ticinus,  where  he  saved  his  father’s 
life  by  deeds  of  unexampled  valor  and  bold- 
ness. The  battle  of  Cannae,  which  proved  so 
fatal  to  the  Roman  arms,  instead  of  disheart- 
ening Scipio,  raised  his  expectations,  and  he 
no  sooner  heard  that  some  of  his  desperate 
countrymen  wished  to  abandon  Italy,  and  to 
fly  from  the  insolence  of  the  conqueror,  than 
with  his  sword  in  his  hand,  and  by  his  firm- 
ness and  example,  he  obliged  them  to  swear 
eternal  fidelity  to  Rome,  and  to  put  to  imme- 
diate death  the  first  man  who  attempted  to 
retire  from  his  country.  It  was  soon  known 
how  able  he  was  to  be  at  the  head  of  an  army  • 
the  various  nations  of  Spain  were  conquered, 
and  in  four  years  the  Carthaginians  were  ban- 
ished from  that  part  of  the  continent;  the 
whole  province  became  tributary  to  Rome ; 
New  Carthage  submitted  in  one  day,  and  in 
a battle  54,000  of  the  enemy  were  left  dead 
on  the  field.  After  these  signal  victories, 
Scipio  was  recalled  to  Rome,  which  still 
trembled  at  the  continual  alarms  of  Hanni- 
bal, who  w^as  at  her  gates.  The  conqueror 
of  the  Carthaginians  in  Spain  was  looked  upon 
as  a proper  general  to  encounter  Hannibal  in 
Italy ; but  Scipio  opposed  the  measures  which 
his  countrymen  wished  to  pursue,  and  he 
declared  in  the  senate  that  if  Hannibal  was  to 
be  conquered  he  must  be  conquered  in  Africa. 
These  bold  measures  were  immediately  adopt- 
ed, though  opposed  by  the  eloquence,  age, 
and  experience  of  the  great  Fabius,  and  Scipio 
was  empowered  to  conduct  the  war  on  the 
coast  of  Africa.  With  the  dignity  of  consul 


SCI 


768 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


he  embarked  for  Carthage.  Hannibal,  who 
was  victorious  at  the  gates  of  Rome,  was 
instantly  recalled  to  defend  the  walls  of  his 
country,  and  the  two  greatest  generals  of  the 
age  met  each  other  in  the  field.  Terms  of 
accommodation  were  proposed;  but  in  the 
parley  which  the  two  commanders  had  to- 
gether, nothing  satisfactory  was  offered,  and 
while  the  one  enlarged  on  the  vicissitudes  of 
human  affairs,  the  other  wished  to  dictate  like 
a conqueror,  and  recommended  the  decision 
of  the  controversy  to  the  sword. 

The  eventful  battle  was  fought  near  Zama, 
B.c.  202.  Both  generals  displayed  their  mil- 
itary knowledge  in  drawing  up  their  armies 
and  in  choosing  their  ground.  Their  courage 
and  intrepidity  were  not  less  conspicuous  in 
charging  the  enemy  ; a thousand  acts  of  valor 
were  performed  on  both  sides;  and  though 
the  Carthaginians  fought  in  their  own  de- 
fense, and  the  Romans  for  fame  and  glory, 
yet  the  conqueror  of  Italy  was  vanquished. 
About  20,000  Carthaginians  were  slain,  and 
the  same  number  made  prisoners  of  war. 
Only  2,000  of  the  Romans  were  killed.  This 
battle  was  decisive ; the  Carthaginians  sued 
for  peace,  which  Scipio  at  last  granted  on  the 
most  severe  and  humiliating  terms. 

The  conqueror  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  was  received  with  the  most  unbounded 
applause,  honored  with  a triumph,  and  dig- 
nified with  the  appellation  of  Africanus. 
Here  he  enjoyed  for  some  time  the  tranquillity 
and  the  honors  which  his  exploits  merited, 
but  to  him  also  as  in  other  great  men,  For- 
tune showred  herself  inconstant.  Scipio  of- 
fended the  populace  in  wishing  to  distinguish 
the  senators  from  the  rest  of  the  people  at  the 
public  exhibitions  ; and  when  he  canvassed 
for  the  consulship  for  two  of  his  friends,  he 
had  the  mortification  to  see  his  application 
slighted,  and  the  honors  which  he  claimed, 
bestowed  on  a man  of  no  character,  recom- 
mended by  neither  abilities  nor  meritorious 
actions. 

He  retired  from  Rome,  no  longer  to  be  a 
spectator  of  the  ingratitude  of  his  country- 
men, and  in  the  capacit}'-  of  lieutenant,  ac- 
companied his  brother  Lucius  against  Anti- 
ochus,  King  of  Syria.  In  this  expedition  his 
arms  were  attended  with  usual  success,  and 
the  Asiatic  monarch  submitted  to  the  condi- 
tions which  the  conquerors  dictated.  At  his 


return  to  Rome,  Africanus  found  the  malevo- 
lence of  his  enemies  still  unabated.  Cato,  his 
inveterate  rival,  raised  seditions  against  him, 
and  the  Petilli,  two  tribunes  of  the  people, 
accused  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal  of  extor- 
tion in  the  provinces  of  Asia,  and  of  living  in 
an  indolent  and  luxurious  manner. 

Scipio  condescended  to  answer  to  the  accu- 
sation of  his  calumniators ; the  first  day  was 
spent  in  hearing  the  different  charges,  but 
when  he  again  appeared  on  the  second  day 
of  his  trial,  the  accused  interrupted  his  judges, 
and  exclaimed,  “Tribunes  and  fellow-citizens, 
on  this  day,  this  very  day,  did  I conquer  Han- 
nibal and  the  Carthaginians : come,  therefore, 
with  me,  Romans ; let  us  go  to  the  capitol, 
and  there  return  our  thanks  to  the  immortal 
gods  for  the  victories  which  have  attended  out 
arms.”  The  tribes  and  all  the  assembly  fol- 
lowed Scipio ; the  court  was  deserted,  and  the 
tribunes  were  left  alone  in  the  seat  of  judg- 
ment. 

Yet  when  this  memorable  day  was  past  and 
forgotten,  Africanus  was  a third  time  sum- 
moned to  appear ; but  he  had  fled  before  the 
impending  storm,  and  retired  to  his  country- 
house  at  Liternum.  The  accusation  was 
therefore  stopped,  and  the  accusers  silenced, 
when  one  of  the  tribunes,  Ti.  Sempronius 
Gracchus,  formerly  distinguished  for  his 
malevolence  against  Scipio,  rose  to  defend 
him,  and  declared  in  the  assembly,  that  it 
reflected  the  highest  disgrace  on  the  Roman 
people,  that  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal  should 
become  the  sport  of  the  populace,  and  be 
exposed  to  the  malice  and  envy  of  disap- 
pointed ambition. 

Some  time  after,  Scipio  died  in  the  place 
of  his  retreat,  about  b.c.  184,  in  the  forty- 
eighth  year  of  his  age ; and  so  great  an  aver- 
sion did  he  express,  as  he  expired,  for  the 
depravity  of  the  Romans,  and  the  ingratitude 
of  their  senators,  that  he  ordered  his  bones 
not  to  be  conveyed  to  Rome.  They  were 
accordingly  inhumated  at  Liternum,  where 
his  wife  ^Emilia,  the  daughter  of  Paulus 
TEmilius,  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  Cannae, 
raised  a mausoleum  on  his  tomb,  and  placed 
upon  it  his  statue,  with  that  of  the  poet  Ea- 
nius,  who  had  been  the  companion  of  his 
peace  and  of  his  retirement.  In  the  same 
year  died  his  great  opponent,  Hannibal,  in 
exile  likewise. 


SCI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


769 


Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio,  surnamed  Asiat- 
icus, accompanied  his  brother  Africanus  in 
his  expeditions  in  Spain  and  Africa.  He 
was  rewarded  with  the  consulship,  b.c.  189, 
and  was  empowered  to  attack  Antiochus, 
King  of  Syria,  who  had  declared  war  against 
the  Romans.  Lucius  was  accompanied  in 
this  campaign  by  his  brother  Africanus ; and 
by  his  own  valor,  and  by  the  advice  of  the 
conqueror  of  Hannibal,  he  soon  routed  the 
enemy,  and  in  a battle  near  the  city  of  Sar- 
dis his  soldiers,  with  scant  loss,  slew  50,000 
foot  and  4,000  horse. 

Peace  was  soon  after  settled  by  the  sub- 
mission of  Antiochus,  and  the  conqueror,  at 
his  return  home,  obtained  a triumph,  and  the 
surname  of  Asiaticus.  He  did  not,  however, 
long  enjoy  his  prosperity ; Cato,  after  the 
death  of  Africanus,  turned  his  fury  against 
Asiaticus,  and  the  two  Petillii,  his  devoted 
favorites,  presented  a petition  to  the  people, 
in  which  they  prayed  that  an  inquiry  might 
be  made  to  know  what  money  had  been 
received  from  Antiochus  and  his  allies.  The 
petition  was  instantly  received,  and  Asiati- 
cus, charged  to  have  suffered  himself  to  be 
corrupted  by  Antiochus,  was  summoned  to 
appear  before  the  tribunal  of  Terentius  Culeo, 
who  was  on  this  occasion  created  praetor. 

The  judge,  who  was  an  inveterate  enemy 
to  the  family  of  the  Scipios,  soon  found  Asi- 
aticus, with  his  two  lieutenants  and  his 
quaestor,  guilty  of  having  received,  the  first 
6,000  pounds  weight  of  gold  and  480  pounds 
weight  of  silver,  and  the  others  nearly  an 
equal  sum,  from  the  monarch  against  whom, 
in  the  name  of  the  Roman  people,  the}*  were 
enjoined  to  make  war.  Immediately  they 
were  condemned  to  pay  large  fines ; but 
while  the  others  gave  security,  Scipio  de- 
clared that  he  had  accounted  to  the  public 
for  all  the  money  which  he  had  brought  from 
Asia,  and  therefore  that  he  was  innocent. 

For  this  obstinacy  Scipio  was  dragged  to 
prison,  but  his  cousin  Nasica  pleaded  his 
cause  before  the  people,  and  the  praetor 
instantly  ordered  the  goods  of  the  prisoner 
to  be  seized  and  confiscated.  The  sentence 
was  executed,  but  the  effects  of  Scipio  were 
insufficient  to  pay  the  fine ; and  it  was  the 
greatest  justification  of  his  innocence,  that 
whatever  was  found  in  his  house  had  never 
been  in  the  possession  of  Antiochus  or  his 
49 


subjects.  This,  however,  did  not  totally 
liberate  him ; he  was  reduced  to  poverty  and 
refused  to  accept  the  aid  of  his  friends  and 
of  his  clients.  Some  time  after,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  settle  the  disputes  between  Eu- 
menes  and  Seleucus  ; and  at  his  return,  the 
Romans,  ashamed  of  their  severity  toward 
him,  rewarded  his  merit  with  such  uncom- 
mon liberality,  that  Asiaticus  was  enabled  to 
celebrate  games  in  honor  of  his  victory  over 
Antiochus,  for  ten  successive  days,  at  his 
own  expense. 

Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  surnamed  Nas- 
ica , was  the  son  of  Cneius  Scipio,  and  cousin 
to  Africanus  and  Asiaticus.  He  was  refused 
the  consulship,  though  supported  by  the 
interest  and  fame  of  the  conqueror  of  Hanni- 
bal ; but  he  afterward  obtained  it,  and  in  that 
honorable  office  conquered  the  Boii,  and 
gained  a triumph.  He  was  also  successful 
in  an  expedition  which  he  undertook  in  Spain. 
AY  hen  the  statue  of  Cybele  was  brought  to 
Rome  from  Phrygia,  the  Roman  senate  dele- 
gated that  one  of  their  body  who  should  be 
declared  the  most  remarkable  for  the  purity 
of  his  manners  and  the  innocence  of  his  life, 
to  go  and  meet  the  goddess  in  the  harbor  of 
Ostia.  Nasica  was  the  object  of  their  choice, 
and  as  such  he  was  enjoined  to  bring  the 
statue  of  the  goddess  to  Rome  with  the  great- 
est pomp  and  solemnity.  Nasica  also  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  active  part  which  he 
took  in  confuting  the  accusations  laid  against 
the  two  Scipios,  Africanus  and  Asiaticus. 
His  son  of  the  same  name  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  enmity  against  the  Gracchi,  to 
w hom  he  was  nearly  related. 

Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  .ZEmilianus,  son 
of  L.  iEmilius  Paulus,  the  conqueror  of  Per- 
seus, was  adopted  by  the  elder  son  of  Scipio 
Africanus.  He  first  appeared  in  the  Roman 
armies  under  his  father,  and  afterward  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a legionary  tribune  in 
the  Spanish  provinces,  wThere  he  killed  a 
Spaniard  of  gigantic  stature,  and  obtained  a 
mural  crowTn  at  the  siege  of  Intercatia.  He 
passed  into  Africa  to  demand  a reinforcement 
from  Masinissa,  the  ally  of  Rome,  and  he  was 
the  spectator  of  a long  and  bloody  battle 
which  wras  fought  between  that  monarch  and 
the  Carthaginians,  and  which  soon  produced 
the  third  Punic  war.  Some  time  after  ASmil- 
ianus  wras  made  edile,  and  next  appointed 


SCI 


770 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


consul,  though  under  the  age  required  for 
that  important  office. 

He  was  empowered  to  finish  the  war  with 
Carthage,  and  as  he  was  permitted  by  the 
senate  to  choose  his  colleague,  he  took  with 
him  his  friend  Lselius,  whose  father,  of  the 
same  name,  had  formerly  enjoyed  the  confi- 
dence and  shared  the  victories  of  the  first 
Africanus.  The  siege  of  Carthage  was 
already  begun,  but  the  operations  of  the 
Romans  were  not  continued  with  vigor. 
Scipio  had  no  sooner  appeared  before  the 
walls  of  the  enemy',  than  every  commu- 
nication with  the  land  was  cut  off,  and 
that  they  might  not  have  the  command  of  the 
sea,  a stupendous  mole  was  thrown  across 
the  harbor,  with  immense  labor  and  expense. 
This,  which  might  have  disheartened  the 
most  active  enemy,  rendered  the  Carthagini- 
ans more  eager  in  the  cause  of  freedom  and 
independence.  All  the  inhabitants,  without 
distinction  of  rank,  age,  or  sex,  employed 
themselves  without  cessation  to  dig  another 
harbor,  and  to  build  and  equip  another  fleet. 
In  a short  time,  in  spite  of  the  vigilance  and 
activity  of  iEmilianus,  the  Romans  were 
astonished  to  see  another  harbor  formed,  and 
fifty  galleys  suddenly  issuing  under  sail,  ready 
for  the  engagement. 

This  unexpected  fleet,  by  immediately 
attacking  the  Roman  ships,  might  have  gained 
the  victory  ; but  the  delay  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians proved  fatal  to  their  cause,  and  the 
enemy  had  sufficient  time  to  prepare  them- 
selves. Scipio  soon  got  possession  of  a small 
eminence  in  the  harbor ; and,  by  the  success 
of  his  subsequent  operations,  he  broke  open 
one  of  the  gates  of  the  city,  and  entered  the 
streets,  where  he  made  his  way  by  fire  and 
sword.  The  surrender  of  above  50,000  men 
was  followed  by  the  reduction  of  the  citadel, 
and  the  total  submission  of  Carthage,  b.c.  147. 

The  captive  city  was  set  on  fire;  and 
though  Scipio  was  obliged  to  demolish  its 
very  walls,  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  Ro- 
mans, yet  he  wept  bitterly  over  the  melan- 
choly and  tragical  scene ; and  in  bewailing 
the  miseries  of  Carthage,  he  expressed  his 
fears  lest  Rome,  in  her  turn,  in  some  future 
age,  should  exhibit  such  a dreadful  confla- 
gration. The  return  of  AEmilianus  to  Rome 
was  that  of  another  conqueror  of  Hannibal, 


and  like  his  grandfather  by  adoption,  he  was 
honored  with  a magnificent  triumph,  and 
received  the  surname  of  Africanus.  He  was 
chosen  consul  a second  time  and  appointed  to 
finish  the  war  which  the  Romans  had  hith- 
erto carried  on  without  success  or  vigorous 
exertions,  against  Numantia,  in  Spain.  The 
fall  of  Numantia  was  more  noble  than  that 
of  the  capital  of  Africa,  and  the  conqueror 
of  Carthage  obtained  the  victory  only  when 
the  Numantines  had  been  consumed  by  fam- 
ine or  by  self-destruction,  b.c.  133. 

For  his  conquests  in  Spain,  AEmilianus 
was  honored  with  a second  triumph,  and 
with  the  surname  of  Numantinus.  Yet  his 
popularity  was  short;  and  by  telling  the 
people  that  the  murder  of  their  favorite,  his 
brother-in-law,  Tiberius  Gracchus,  was  law- 
ful, since  he  was  turbulent,  and  inimical  to 
the  peace  of  the  republic,  Scipio  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  assembl}'-,  and  was  received 
with  hisses.  His  authority  for  a moment 
quelled  their  sedition,  when  he  reproached 
them  for  their  cowardice,  and  exclaimed, 
“Factious  wretches,  do  you  think  that 
your  clamors  can  intimidate  me, — me, 
whom  the  fury  of  your  enemies  never 
daunted  ? Is  this  the  gratitude  that  you 
owe  to  my  father,  Paulus,  who  conquered 
Macedonia,  and  to  me  ? Without  my  fam- 
ily, you  were  slaves.  Is  this  the  respect 
you  owe  to  your  deliverers?  Is  this  your 
affection  ? ” This  firmness  silenced  the  mur- 
murs of  the  assembly,  and  some  time  after, 
Scipio  retired  from  the  clamors  of  Rome  to 
Caieta,  where,  with  his  friend  Laelius,  he 
passed  the  rest  of  his  time  in  innocent  plea- 
sure and  amusement,  in  diversions  which  had 
pleased  them  when  children.  He  afterward 
returned  to  Rome,  and  again  engaged  in  pub- 
lic affairs,  strongly  opposing  the  agrarian 
laws.  One  evening  the  senate,  and  a large 
throng  of  the  citizens,  the  Latins,  and  other 
allies,  conducted  their  illustrious  friend  and 
patron  to  his  house.  It  seemed  the  wish 
that  the  troubles  might  be  quieted  by  the 
election  of  Scipio  to  the  dictatorship ; and 
many  presumed  that  that  honor  would  be 
conferred  upon  him.  In  this,  however,  the 
expectations  of  Rome  were  frustrated : Scipio 
was  found  dead  in  his  bed  the  next  morning, 
and  those  who  inquired  for  the  cause  of  this 


SCI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


771 


sudden  death,  perceived  violent  marks  on  his 
neck,  and  concluded  that  he  had  been  stran- 
gled, b.c.  128. 

SCOTLAND,  a country  of  Europe  form- 
ing the  northern  division  of  Great  Britain, 
coiitaining  31,324  square  miles,  and  2,888,742 
inhabitants.  It  is  divided  by  the  Grampian 
Hills  into  the  Highlands  and  Lowlands.  The 
Highland  counties  are,  Orkney  and  Shetland, 
Caithness,  Sutherland,  Nairn,  Elgin  or  Moray, 
Banff,  Ross,  Cromarty,  Inverness,  Argyle, 
Bute,  Aberdeen,  Kincardine,  Angus  or  For- 
far, Perth,  and  Fife.  The  Lowland  counties 
are,  Kinross,  Clackmannan,  Stirling,  Dum- 
barton, Linlithgow  or  West  Lothian,  Edin- 
burgh or  Mid  Lothian,  Haddington  or  East 
Lothian,  Berwick,  Renfrew,  Ayr,  Wigton, 
Lanark,  Peebles,  Selkirk,  Roxburgh,  Dum- 
fries, and  Kirkcudbright.  The  surface  of  the 
country  is  distinguished  for  variety,  and  often 
rugged  and  mountainous.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a few  tracts  of  rich  alluvial  land  along 
the  courses  of  the  larger  rivers,  Scotland  has 
no  extensive  tracts  of  level  ground,  the  coun- 
try being  a succession  of  hill  and  dale.  Ben 
Nevis,  the  highest  of  the  mountains,  attains 
an  elevation  of  4,406  feet,  and  there  are  many 
peaks  which  nearly  rival  its  eminence.  The 
fine  scenery  of  the  Highlands  is  enhanced  by 
the  many  lakes,  in  whose  clear  depths 
inverted  summits  cast  their  bold  outlines 
against  a reflected  sky.  The  largest  is  Loch 
Lomond.  The  minerals  are  numerous  and 
valuable ; a great  coal-field  stretches  across 
the  Lowlands ; iron  and  lead  are  mined.  The 
agriculture  of  Scotland  does  not  equal  that 
of  England ; the  climate  is  more  variable, 
and  the  soil  is  inferior,  so  that  notwithstand- 
ing the  advanced  state  of  tillage  in  many 
districts,  the  crops  are  not  reaped  with  the 
same  certainty  as  in  England,  nor  do  the 
ordinary  kinds  of  grain  arrive  at  the  same 
perfection.  The  manufactures,  especially 
those  of  linen  and  cotton,  are  extensive  and 
flourishing.  The  making  of  steam-engines, 
and  every  description  of  machinery,  as  also 
the  building  of  steamers,  both  of  wood  and 
iron,  is  largely  carried  on  along  the  Clyde. 
Foreign  commerce  also  has  increased  very 
largely  of  late  years.  The  general  religion 
is  Presbyterianism ; and  besides  the  estab- 
lished church,  there  is  the  large  body  known 
as  the  free  church,  which  separated  from  the 


former  in  1843.  If  in  earth-culture  Scotland 
is  inferior  to  England,  in  mind-culture  she  as 
much  surpasses.  There  are  excellent  univer- 
sities at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen, 
but  the  superiority  of  which  we  speak  is  in 
education  for  the  mass  of  the  people.  Each 
parish  has  at  least  one  school,  in  which  the 
ordinary  branches  of  education  are  taught ; 
and  private  schools  are  frequent.  There  is  a 
wide  difference  between  the  stupid  clowns  of 
England,  and  the  shrewd,  intelligent  peas- 
antry of  Scotland. 

Edinburgh,  the  capital  of  Scotland,  is  sit- 
uated about  two  miles  from  the  Frith  of 
Forth.  In  panoramic  splendor  its  site  is  un- 
surpassed by  any  city  in  Europe.  A deep 
ravine  divides  the  Old  Town  from  the  New. 
The  latter,  which  has  been  built  within  the 
last  hundred  years,  displays  great  elegance 
of  architecture  and  symmetry  of  plan.  The 
Old  Town  has  changed  but  little  since  the 
days  of  John  Knox  and  Queen  Mary.  Its 
houses  often  rise  to  the  lofty  height  of  a 
dozen  stories,  and  the  abodes  of  nobles  in 
ruder  times  still  stand,  though  now  the  dwell  - 
ings of  poverty.  From  the  high  chimneys 
curl  the  thin  vapors  of  smoke  which  have 
stood  sponsors  to  the  name  “Auld  Reekie.” 
There  is  much  similarity  between  the  position 
of  Edinburgh  and  Athens : Calton  Hill  serves 
for  an  Acropolis,  the  Frith  of  Forth  for  the 
iEgean  Sea ; and  this  resemblance,  with  lit- 
erary eminence,  has  given  the  city  the  title 
of  the  ‘Modern  Athens.’  Like  a couchant 
lion,  Salisbury  Crags  watch  the  town,  and 
above  them  rises  the  solitary  grandeur  of 
Arthur’s  Seat.  Edinburgh  has  no  very  exten- 
sive manufactures  : printing  and  publishing 
are  largely  carried  on  ; but  its  prosperity 
depends  upon  its  universities  and  schools,  the 
presence  of  the  courts  of  judicature  for  Scot- 
land, and  its  lingering  importance  as  the 
ancient  capital  of  the  land.  Leith,  which 
may  be  called  the  port  of  Edinburgh,  two 
miles  distant,  has  a fine  harbor  and  docks, 
and  a busy  trade,  principally  with  the  north 
of  Europe  and  the  Baltic.  The  population 
of  Edinburgh  and  its  suburbs  is  161,000. 
Edinburgh  became  the  royal  residence  in 
1437. 

The  commercial  metropolis  of  Scotland  is 
Glasgow,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Clyde,  and  in  wealth,  population,  manufac- 


SCO 


772 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tures,  and  commerce,  it  is  the  third  city  in 
the  united  kingdom ; population  400,000.  It 
is  among  the  most  ancient  towns  of  Scotland, 
its  origin  being  attributed  to  St.  Mungo, 
somewhere  about  560.  In  the  last  century 
Glasgow  was  the  seat  of  a great  tobacco 
trade,  that  absorbed  almost  all  its  capital  and 
enterprise,  and  laid  in  return  foundations  of 
many  and  great  fortunes.  With  this  the 
American  Revolution  interfered,  and  atten- 
tion was  turned  to  cotton  manufactures,  to 
which  Glasgow  chiefly  owes  her  pre-eminence 
as  a commercial  and  manufacturing  city.  Of 
late  years  the  iron  trade  has  advanced  to- 
ward colossal  proportions,  and  the  ‘iron 
lords’  threaten  to  eclipse  the  ‘ cotton  lords,’ 
as  the  latter,  years  ago,  eclipsed  the  1 tobacco 
lords.’  It  was  here  that  Watt  commenced 
his  labors  upon  the  steam-engine,  and  here 
was  the  dawn  of  steam  navigation  in  Great 
Britain.  Glasgow,  among  many  striking 
public  buildings,  has  a fine  cathedral,  erected 
early  in  the  twelfth  century.  Its  ancient 
university  is  still  high  in  repute. 

We  can  only  mention  other  prominent 
towns  in  Scotland,  as  Paisley,  Aberdeen, 
Dundee,  Greenock,  Inverness,  Perth,  and 
Dumfries. 

This  part  of  Great  Britain  was  originally 
called  Caledonia.  The  ancient  inhabitants 
appear  to  have  been  the  Caledonians  and 
Piets,  Celtic  tribes  who  passed  over  from  the 
opposite  coast  of  Gaul.  We  first  hear  of  the 
Scots  in  Ireland,  which  island  they  in  the  fifth 
century  divided  with  the  Hiberni,  the  previous 
inhabitants;  over  whom,  however,  they  got 
so  decided  a superiority,  that  the  country  was 
called  Scotia  till  the  tenth  century.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  a colony  of 
these  Scots  settled  in  Argjdeshire,  which  they 
called  Daldriada.  The  rest  of  the  land  north 
of  the  Friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde  formed  the 
kingdom  of  the  Piets.  In  843  the  whole  of 
North  Britain  was  united  under  the  rule  of 
Kenneth  MacAlpine,  originally  king  of  the 
Scots  of  Daldriada,  but  thenceforth  styled 
king  of  the  Piets.  Throughout  the  tenth 
century,  North  Britain,  ruled  as  one  king- 
dom by  his  successors,  was  known  by  the 
name  of  Albania,  undoubtedly  the  same  with 
Albion,  or  Albin,  which  is  the  most  ancient 
name  attributed  to  the  island,  and  that  by 
which  the  Gael  of  Scotland  distinguish  it  to 


this  day.  About  the  middle  of  this  century, 
the  name  Scotland  began  to  be  used,  and  soon 
the  people  were  known  simply  as  Scots. 

Donald,  brother  to  Kenneth,  was  succeeded 
by  Constantine,  his  nephew,  son  of  Kenneth, 
who  being  made  prisoner  by  a party  of  Danes, 
was  beheaded  by  the  enemy  in  a cave,  after- 
ward called  the  Devil’s  Cave.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded bjr  his  brother  Eth,  who  after  a sensual 
reign  of  one  year,  was  followed  by  Gregory, 
surnamed  the.  Great.  The  king  of  Ireland 
being  a minor,  his  authority  was  usurped  by 
two  factious  noblemen.  Gregory  therefore 
passed  over  into  that  country  as  guardian  of 
the  young  king,  and  after  appointing  a re- 
gency, he  returned  into  Scotland,  where  he 
finished  a life  of  action  and  of  glory  at  Dun- 
o-deer,  in  the  Garioch,  in  892,  and  was  buried 
with  his  ancestors  at  Icolmkill. 

Donald  VI.,  the  worthy  successor  of  Greg- 
ory, rendered  considerable  service  to  Alfred, 
king  of  England,  in  his  wars  with  the  Danes. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Constantine  III.,  son 
of  Eth,  who,  departing  from  the  policy  of 
his  predecessors,  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
the  Danes,  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  extend 
his  dominions  by  their  help.  But  he  was 
disappointed.  After  failing  in  an  expedition 
against  England,  he  resigned  his  crown  to 
Malcolm,  son  of  Donald  VI.,  and  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  the  solitude  of  the 
cloister.  The  connection  of  the  English  and 
Scots  against  the  Danes,  was  continued  under 
Indulf,  who  defeated  these  freebooters  in 
many  bloody  engagements,  and  was  at  last 
slain  by  them  in  an  ambuscade.  His  suc- 
cessor Duff,  son  of  Malcolm,  resigned  his 
principality  of  Cumberland  to  Colin,  the  son 
of  Indulf ; but  the  latter,  not  contented  with 
his  domain,  excited  various  insurrections  in 
the  kingdom,  and  at  last  Duff  was  either  slain 
or  driven  into  exile. 

Colin  indulged  in  the  greatest  licentious- 
ness, and  was  assassinated  by  a thane  whose 
daughter  he  had  dishonored,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Kenneth  III.,  the  son  of  Malcolm, 
who  vigorously  prosecuted  the  war  against 
the  Britons  of  Strathcluyd,  till  at  last  their 
principality  was  finally  subjected  to  the  do- 
minion of  the  Scots.  However,  Kenneth  was 
assassinated,  and  the  throne  was  usurped  by 
Constantine  the  Bold,  who  fell  in  an  engage- 
ment with  Grime,  the  son  of  Duff*,  in  993. 


SCO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


773 


Grime,  regardless  of  the  claims  of  Malcolm, 
son  of  Kenneth,  and  prince  of  Cumberland, 
caused  himself  to  be  crowned  at  Scone,  but 
was  defeated  and  slain  after  a reign  of  eight 
years. 

In  1004  Malcolm,  having  convened  the 
nobility,  was  acknowledged  sovereign,  and 
invested  with  the  royal  dignity.  He  defeated 
in  three  different  engagements  the  Danes,  who 
had  effected  a settlement  in  Cambria;  and 
these  successes  gained  him  the  title  of  the 
most  victorious  king.  He  was  murdered  after 
a reign  of  thirty  years,  and  left  no  issue  to 
succeed  him  except  Duncan,  a grandson  by 
his  daughter  Bethoc.  Duncan  was  cut  off 
by  the  hand  of  domestic  treachery  in  the 
seventh  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  throne 
was  usurped  by  his  murderer,  Macbeth.  Mal- 
colm, son  of  Duncan,  had  escaped  to  the 
English  court.  Obtaining  assistance  thence, 
he  made  war  on  the  usurper,  and  finally  con- 
quered and  slew  him.  The  victor  mounted 
the  throne,  and  wedded  Margaret  of  England, 
who  had  fled  to  Scotland  for  her  life.  He  was 
surnamed  Canmore,  or  ‘great  head.’  His 
reign  ended  in  1093,  by  his  death  at  the 
siege  of  Alnwick  Castle. 

The  people  of  the  Lowlands,  now  to  a great 
extent  Saxon,  supported  the  claim  of  Can- 
more’s  son  Duncan  as  his  successor ; the  Cel- 
tic tribes  of  the  north  asserted  the  right  of 
Donald  Bane,  a brother  of  Canmore,  in  con- 
formity with  the  old  custom  of  tanistry. 
Donald  Bane  was  assisted  by  Magnus  Bare- 
foot, King  of  Norway,  to  whom  at  this  time 
belonged  the  Western  Islands,  and  was  thus 
able  to  carry  all  before  him.  He  drove  out  the 
Saxons  who  had  settled  in  the  Lowlands  dur- 
ing the  late  reign.  After  a few  months  Duncan 
came  with  a numerous  army  from  England, 
which  he  had  raised  by  consent  of  William 
Rufus,  and  Donald  was  forced  to  give  way. 
Duncan  was  not  able  to  protect  the  Saxon 
settlers  who  had  returned  with  him : he 
found  it  necessary  to  drive  them  forth ; and 
when  he  had  thus  deprived  himself  of  for- 
eign protection,  his  subjects  put  him  to  death 
and  restored  his  uncle.  Two  years  after- 
ward another  English  army,  conducted  by 
Edgar  Atheling,  overpowered  Donald,  and 
set  the  crown  on  the  head  of  Edgar,  a brother 
of  Duncan.  That  result  decided  the  contest 
between  the  two  principles  of  succession,  and 


also  the  struggle  for  supremacy  between 
Celtic  and  Saxon  Scotland.  Edgar  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Alexander,  and  he  by 
David,  another  brother.  On  the  accession  of 
Malcolm  IV.,  grandson  of  David,  a child  only 
in  his  eleventh  year,  unsuccessful  attempts 
were  made  by  the  Highlanders  to  maintain 
the  claim  of  William,  a grandson  of  Malcolm 
Canmore’s  eldest  son  Duncan. 

It  was  not,  however,  till  full  two  centuries 
later  that  the  rule  of  the  Scottish  king  was 
established  over  the  whole  of  Scotland.  Na- 
tive chiefs  appear  to  have  retained  possession 
of  the  districts  in  the  extreme  north.  The 
Saxon  inhabitants  perfected  their  Saxon  in- 
stitutions : the  country  was  divided  into  earl- 
doms, and  sheriffs  and  county  courts  were 
established.  From  the  reign  of  David  I. 
(1124-1153),  we  date  the  introduction  of  Nor- 
man institutions.  Of  the  great  Highland 
chiefs,  the  Earls  of  Moray  continued  the  most 
formidable  till  1161,  when  that  ancient  line 
was  stripped  of  its  power  and  its  possessions 
by  Malcolm  IV.,  and  the  title  it  had  enjoyed 
was  transferred  to  the  Earls  of  Mar.  After 
the  cession  of  the  Hebrides  by  the  Norwe- 
gians in  1266,  the  most  potent  family  of  the 
north  came  to  be  that  of  the  Macdonalds,  the 
Celtic  chiefs  of  these  islands,  who  styled 
themselves  Lords  of  the  Isles.  Their  strength 
was  broken  by  the  defeat  of  Donald,  Lord  of 
the  Isles,  at  the  battle  of  Harlaw  in  1411,  and 
destroyed  by  the  effective  measures  taken  by 
James  I.  to  curb  the  Highland  chiefs.  From 
this  epoch  may  be  dated  the  complete  reduc- 
tion of  Celtic  Scotland  under  the  sceptre  of 
the  Saxon  king  of  the  Lowlands.  The  lord- 
ship  of  the  isles  was  finally  extinguished  by 
the  forfeiture  of  the  last  lord  in  1493. 

Malcolm  IV.,  the  successor  of  David  I., 
ceded  the  counties  of  Northumberland  and 
Cumberland  to  Henry  II.  of  England,  did  hom- 
age for  the  earldom  of  Huntingdon,  and  meet- 
ing that  monarch  at  Carlisle,  followed  him  in 
his  expedition  against  Toulouse  in  France. 
On  his  return  he  was  continually  disturbed 
with  insurrections,  and  was  saved  only  by  the 
intervention  of  the  clergy.  He  died  unmar- 
ried at  the  age  of  twenty -five  years. 

William  was  crowned  immediately  after 
his  brother’s  death,  in  1165,  and  entering 
into  a confederacy  against  Henry  of  England, 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  He  accept- 


SCO 


774 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ed  his  liberation  on  the  most  humiliatimr 

o 

terms ; five  castles  being  delivered  up  to  the 
English  as  sureties,  and  the  kings  brother 
and  twenty  nobles  *s  hostages.  The  acces- 
sion of  Richard  to  the  English  throne  was, 
however,  fortunate  for  Scotland.  He  released 
William  and  his  kingdom  from  that  feudal 
dependency  on  England  which  had  been 
unjustly  extorted  during  his  captivity,  and 
engaged  to  restore  his  fortresses.  William 
reigned  forty-nine  years,  and  died  in  the 
seventy -second  year  of  his  age. 

His  son  and  successor,  Alexander  II.,  mar- 
ried Joan,  daughter  of  John  of  England,  set- 
tled by  treaty  the  claims  which  had  been  the 
subjects  of  contest  between  the  two  crowns, 
and  procured  for  himself  a reign  as  peaceable 
as  could  be  expected  in  a nation  full  of  tur- 
bulent nobles.  Alexander  III.  was  only  nine 
j^ears  of  age  when  he  was  crowned.  Ambas- 
sadors were  sent  to  London  to  demand  Mar- 
garet, daughter  of  Henry  III.,  in  marriage ; 
and  this  being  easily  granted,  both  courts 
met  at  York,  and  the  ceremony  was  performed 
with  great  pomp.  Alexander  did  homage  to 
Henry  for  his  English  possessions,  which  the 
latter  confirmed  by  a charter. 

The  king  saw  himself  bereft  of  all  his  chil- 
dren, except  Margaret,  who  was  married  to 
Eric  of  Norway  ; and  in  the  third  year  after 
her  marriage  she  also  died,  leaving  only  an 
infant  daughter,  on  whom  the  crown  of  Scot- 
land was  settled.  Alexander  was  thrown 
Irom  his  horse  over  a precipice,  and  perished 
in  the  fall.  Edward  I.,  who  was  one  of  the 
moslj valiant  and  politic  monarchs  that  ever 
sat  on  the  English  throne,  being  ambitious 
of  adding  Scotland  to  the  dominions  of  his 
crown,  applied  to  the  court  of  Rome  to  au- 
thorize a marriage  between  his  son  and  his 
grand-niece,  and  having  gained  the  consent 
of  Eric,  he  intrigued  with  the  Scottish  nobles 
to  obtain  their  concurrence.  Everything 
seemed  to  favor  his  views,  when  the  child 
was  taken  ill  on  the  passage  from  Norway, 
and  died  at  Orkney. 

The  Scots  saw  before  them  the  unhappy 
prospect  of  a disputed  succession,  war  with 
England,  and  intestine  discord.  In  order  to 
avoid  the  miseries  of  a civil  war,  both  parties 
made  choice  of  Edward  as  umpire,  and  agreed 
to  acquiesce  in  his  decree.  The  chief  com- 
petitors for  the  crown  were  Edward  Bruce  and 


John  Baliol,  both  descendants  of  David,  Eail 
of  Huntingdon,  who  was  brother  to  the  two 
kings,  Malcolm  and  William.  Edward  ad- 
vanced with  a great  army  to  the  frontiers  of 
Scotland,  whither  he  invited  the  nobility  and 
all  the  competitors  to  attend  him.  In  the 
character  of  umpire,  he  arrogated  to  himself 
the  feudal  sovereignty  of  the  kingdom,  com- 
pelled all  the  barons  to  swear  allegiance  to 
him,  and  took  possession  of  all  the  fortresses 
with  his  troops.  One  hundred  and  four  com- 
missioners being  appointed  to  examine  the 
several  claims,  gave  their  verdict  in  favor  of 
Baliol,  who  was  crowned  accordingly  in 
1202. 

But  Baliol  renouncing  his  allegiance  soon 
after,  the  indignant  Edward  invaded  Scotland 
with  an  immense  army,  and  compelled  this 
weak  prince  to  submit  and  make  a solemn 
and  irrevocable  resignation  of  his  crown  into 
the  hands  of  the  king  of  England.  National 
animosities,  and  the  insolence  of  victory,  con- 
spired to  render  the  English  government 
intolerable  to  the  Scots,  who  bore  with  the 
utmost  impatience  a yoke,  to  which,  from  the 
earliest  period  of  their  monarchy,  they  had 
always  been  unaccustomed. 

In  1296,  Sir  William  Wallace,  whose  mag- 
nanimous soul  could  no  longer  brook  to  see 
his  country  torn  by  factions,  deserted  by  its 
chiefs,  and  oppressed  by  foreigners,  bravely 
stepped  forth  to  reunite  the  friends  of  liberty 
under  his  banner.  His  enterprises  added  to 
the  glory  of  his  name,  and  to  the  number  of 
his  followers,  till  at  length  he  obtained  a 
numerous  army.  The  Scots  were  forced  to 
the  cruel  expedient  of  putting  to  the  sword 
every  Englishman  they  found  in  arms.  King 
Edward,  who  was  then  in  France,  ordered  the 
Earl  of  Surrey  to  suppress  this  daring  insur- 
rection ; and  Lord  Henry  Percy  marched  at 
the  head  of  an  army  of  forty  thousand  men 
against  Wallace.  The  latter  retreated  north- 
ward, where  he  was  joined  by  new  adherents  ; 
and  when  Warrene  advanced  to  Stirling,  he 
found  Wallace  encamped  in  excellent  order 
on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Forth.  A des- 
perate engagement  ensued,  in  which  the  Eng- 
lish were  utterly  defeated  and  obliged  to 
evacuate  the  kingdom.  This  success  pro- 
cured Wallace  the  title  of  guardian;  but  he 
still  acknowledged  the  captive  king,  Baliol. 
The  cause  was  ruined,  however,  by  the  jeal- 


SCO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


775 


ousy  of  the  nobles.  The  English  monarch 
returned  from  France,  and  marched  into  Scot- 
land at  the  head  of  seventy  thousand  men. 
Wallace  now  voluntarily  resigned  his  author- 
ity, and  retained  only  one  corps  that  refused 
to  fight  under  any  other  leader.  The  Eng- 
lish army  came  up  with  the  enemy  near  Fal- 
kirk, and  defeated  and  dispersed  the  Scots 
with  great  slaughter.  With  much  difficulty 
Edward  completed  the  conquest  of  Scotland, 
without  being  able  to  seize  or  subdue  the 
patriotic  Wallace.  Disappointed  in  all  his 
schemes  for  that  purpose,  he  did  not  disdain 
to  stoop  to  treachery  ; and  Sir  William  was 
basely  betrayed  by  a traitor,  and  sent  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  wras  tried  and  barbarously  put 
to  death  as  a rebel  in  1305. 

Robert  Bruce,  the  restorer  of  the  Scottish 
throne,  and  father  of  a new  race  of  kings,  was 
the  grandson  of  the  competitor  of  Baliol  for 
the  crown.  Having  resolved  to  quit  the  court 
of  Edward,  to  whom  his  father  and  grand- 
father had  meanly  sworn  allegiance,  he  con- 
trived to  escape,  and  to  join  the  Scotch  pat- 
riots. After  collecting  what  forces  he  could, 
in  1306  he  attacked  the  English,  who  W'ere 
unprepared,  and  having  gained  possession  of 
several  castles,  he  was  solemnly  crowned  at 
Scone.  King  Edward  immediately  dispatched 
Aymer  de  Valence  into  Scotland,  who,  falling 
in  with  Bruce  at  Methven,  attacked  him,  and 
notwithstanding  a most  vigorous  resistance, 
totally  defeated  the  Scottish  army. 

Bruce  fled  almost  unattended  to  the  West- 
ern Isles,  where  he  wandered  about  for  some 
time  in  distress ; but  Edward  dying  on 
liis  way  to  Scotland,  Bruce  was  delivered 
from  a powerful  enemy,  and  his  party  daily 
increased.  In  1314  he  defeated  Edward  II. 
on  the  memorable  field  of  Bannockburn,  and 
the  liberty  of  Scotland  triumphed.  It  was 
not,  however,  till  the  deposition  of  Edward 
that  Robert  Bruce  wrested  from  England  a 
solemn  renunciation  of  all  claims  on  Scotland 
and  secured  a peace  by  marrying  his  son 
David  to  Joan,  sister  of  Edward  III. 

During  the  minority  of  David,  Edward, 
son  of  John  Baliol,  being  supported  by  the 
English,  invaded  Scotland  in  1332,  was  pro- 
claimed king,  and,  like  his  father,  did  hom- 
age as  vassal  of  England.  David,  with  his 
queen,  found  refuge  in  France ; but  Edward 
Baliol  dismembering  his  kingdom  in  favor  of 


the  English,  lost  the  affections  of  his  subjects. 
David  returning  from  France,  repulsed  Baliol, 
and  was  himself  taken  prisoner  near  Dur- 
ham. Baliol  resigned  his  claims  to  Edward 
III.,  who,  soon  after,  acknowledged  David  as 
king,  and  restored  him  to  liberty  on  condi- 
tion of  his  paying  a great  ransom. 

David,  leaving  no  progeny,  was  succeeded 
in  1371  by  his  nephew  Robert  II.,  the  first 
king  from  the  Stuart  family.  War  with 
England  was  renewed,  notwithstanding  Rob- 
ert’s inclination  for  peace.  The  most  mem- 
orable battle  of  this  reign  is  that  of  Otter- 
burn.  The  Scots  had  levied  30,000  men  for 
the  invasion  of  England.  They  divided  their 
army  into  two  parts ; the  greatest,  com- 
manded by  the  king’s  twro  sons,  marched 
toward  Carlisle ; Douglas,  with  300  horse 
and  2,000  foot,  entered  Northumberland.  The 
great  army  carried  all  before  them  without 
opposition ; and  Douglas,  having  wrasted  the 
country  as  far  as  Durham,  came  before  New- 
castle, and  threatened  it  with  a siege.  He 
staid  before  the  towTn  two  days,  which  were 
spent  in  skirmishes  ; and  at  last  the  generals, 
Douglas  and  Percy,  agreed  upon  a personal 
rencounter.  Percy  was  dismounted  and  dis- 
armed ; but  his  men  coming  to  his  rescue,  he 
wras  saved.  Douglas  now  marched  off  with 
his  men,  and  attacked  Otterburn  Castle. 
Percy,  marching  against  him  with  10,000 
men,  nearly  surprised  him  at  supper.  The 
alarm  being  given,  and  the  Scots  advanta- 
geously posted,  the  battle  began  with  great 
vigor.  Douglas  broke  into  the  thick  of  the 
enemy,  and  made  a terrible  slaughter,  but 
before  his  men  came  up,  he  had  received 
three  mortal  wounds.  The  English  at  length 
wrere  totally  routed,  1,840  slain,  1,000 
wounded,  and  1,040  taken  prisoners.  The 
Scots  carried  off  the  Percies,  with  four  hun- 
dred prisoners  of  note ; dismissed  the  rest ; 
took  Douglas’s  corpse,  with  those  of  other 
great  men,  along  with  them,  and  buried 
them  at  Melrose.  This  victory  w7as  obtained 
July  31st,  1388,  but  Douglas  w7as  so  deeply 
lamented,  that  both  the  Scots  armies  returned 
home  as  melancholy  as  if  they  had  been  con- 
quered. On  this  battle  the  wrell  knowm  bal- 
lad of  “Chevy  Ohase”  is  founded. 

Robert  II.  died  April  19th,  1390,  in  the 
nineteenth  year  of  his  reign.  Robert  III. 
refused  to  do  homage  for  the  crowTn  to  Henry 


SCO 


776 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


IV.  He  was  the  first  who  created  dukes  in 
Scotland ; and  his  brother,  the  viceroy,  was 
made  Duke  of  Albany  ; but  Douglas  refused 
the  new  title.  A war  happened  afterward 
with  England,  in  which  the  Earl  of  March 
took  part  with  the  English,  who  invaded  the 
kingdom  and  besieged  Edinburgh  castle ; the 
English  returning  without  having  effected 
their  purpose,  the  Scots  invaded  Northum- 
berland, and  were  surprised  and  defeated  on 
returning  with  their  spoil ; when  Archibald 
Douglas  gathered  10,000  men,  but  was  de- 
feated, taken  prisoner,  and  many  of  the 
nobles  slain,  by  Henry  Percy  of  Northum- 
berland, and  George,  Earl  of  March  above- 
mentioned,  May  7th,  1401. 

In  the  mean  time  all  things  went  to  ruin 
in  Scotland,  by  the  tyranny  of  the  Duke  of 
Albany,  who  starved  his  nephew,  Prince 
David,  to  death ; so  that  the  king  was  obliged 
to  secure  his  youngest  son,  James,  by  send- 
ing him  to  France  ; but  landing  at  Flambor- 
ough  in  Yorkshire,  he  was  detained  prisoner 
by  the  English,  contrary  to  the  truce,  which 
so  afflicted  his  father  that  he  died  Apr.  1st, 
1406,  and  the  government  was  settled  upon 
his  brother ; during  whose  administration 
the  English  invaded  Scotland,  and  overran 
the  southern  counties. 

In  1419  auxiliaries  were  sent  to  France 
under  the  Earl  of  Buchan,  who  defeated  the 
Duke  of  Clarence ; for  which  the  Earl  of 
Buchan  was  made  lord  high  constable  of 
France.  The  Duke  of  Albany  died  in  1420, 
and  his  son  Murdo  succeeded  him  in  the 
government ; during  whose  regency  more 
auxiliaries  were  sent  to  France,  and  Douglas 
was  created  Duke  of  Touraine  in  that  king- 
dom; but  they  were  twice  defeated  by  the 
English,  under  John,  Duke  of  Bedford,  who 
carried  James  I.  of  Scotland  with  him,  being 
still  prisoner.  James  being  prevailed  upon 
to  forbid  his  subjects  to  fight  against  that 
army  where  he  was  in  person,  they  answered 
that  they  did  not  acknowledge  him  for  their 
king  while  he  was  in  the  power  of  his  enemy. 
But  not  long  after,  Murdo,  the  governor, 
being  displeased  with  the  insolence  of  his 
own  sons,  James  T.  was  ransomed  and  brought 
home  in  1423.  After  reigning  thirteen  years, 
he  was  barbarously  assassinated.  New  broils 
attended  the  minority  of  James  II.,  who  was 
only  seven  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  acces- 


sion in  1437.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  the 
young  king  assumed  the  reins  of  government, 
but  he  was  soon  after  killed  by  the  bursting 
of  a cannon  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh,  1460. 

James  III.,  after  marrying  Margaret  of 
Denmark,  gave  himself  up  to  astrology,  and 
through  jealousy  made  away  with  his  own 
brother,  the  Earl  of  Mar,  while  the  Duke  of 
Albany,  the  other  brother,  escaped  to  France. 
Being  invited  to  England,  now  again  at  war 
with  her  northern  neighbor,  the  Duke  of 
Albany  took  the  title  of  Alexander,  King  of 
Scotland,  by  the  gift  of  Edward,  and  marched 
to  the  borders.  But  a treaty  being  concluded, 
Albany  returned  to  his  allegiance  And  to  his 
brother’s  favor.  A fresh  conspiracy  being 
formed  against  James,  the  rebels  prevailed 
on  the  king’s  son,  the  young  Duke  of  Roth- 
say,  to  head  their  army.  An  engagement 
took  place  near  Bannockburn,  in  which  the 
rebels  were  successful,  and  the  king,  in  his 
flight,  was  thrown  from  his  horse,  and  carried 
to  the  first  hovel,  where  he  was  stabbed  to 
the  heart  by  one  of  the  insurgents. 

James  IV.  succeeded  his  father  in  1488. 
At  the  instigation  of  the  French  court,  he 
rashly  entered  into  a war  against  Henry  VIII., 
brother  of  his  queen,  and,  notwithstanding 
the  advice  of  his  best  counselors,  led  an 
army  -into  England,  where,  at  the  memorable 
battle  of  Flodden  Field,  he  lost  the  flower  of 
his  nobility  and  his  own  life,  1513. 

James  V.  being  only  two  jrears  old  at  the 
death  of  his  father,  his  mother  Margaret, 
sister  to  the  King  of  England,  was  appointed 
regent  and  guardian  by  the  will  of  her  hus- 
band. The  young  king  assumed  the  govern- 
ment at  the  age  of  thirteen,  in  1513,  with  a 
council  of  eight;  but  he  soon  shook  off  the 
yoke  of  his  council.  Henry  VIII.  having 
proclaimed  war  against  Scotland,  an  inroad 
was  planned  on  the  western  borders;  but 
James  despising  and  distrusting  his  nobles, 
gave  the  command  of  the  army  to  a man  of 
less  note.  This  insult  provoked  the  troops, 
who  refused  to  fight  at  the  raid  of  Solway 
Moss,  and  ten  thousand  men  laid  down  their 
arms  before  five  hundred  English,  without 
striking  a blow.  These  sad  tidings  broke 
the  proud  heart  of  James,  who  refused  from 
that  moment  to  take  any  sustenance,  and, 
after  languishing  some  days,  he  expired  in 
the  thirty-first  year  of  his  age. 


SCO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  777 


Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  was  born  a few  days 
before  the  death  of  her  father.  The  disasters 
of  her  reign  began  and  ended  only  with  her 
life.  At  an  early  age  Mary  was  sent  to 
France,  where  she  was  brought  up  at  the 
court  of  Henry  IT.,  whose  eldest  son,  Fran- 
cis, was  destined  to  be  her  husband.  The 
minority  of  Mary  Stuart  was  agitated  by 
great  disturbances ; and  the  regency  was 
claimed  by  different  competitors  as  a privilege 
of  blood  or  family  appanage.  The  tempests 
excited  by  ambition  and  jealousy,  were  in- 
creased by  the  gusts  of  religious  fanaticism. 
Popery  struggled  against  the  Reformation 
with  an  already  evident  disadvantage ; and 
the  vessel  of  state,  buffeted  by  those  storms, 
was  every  moment  in  imminent  danger  of  sink- 
ing. At  this  critical  situation  of  affairs,  Mary 
returned  to  assume  the  sovereignty  of  her  king- 
dom, the  death  of  Francis  II.  having  left  her  a 
widow  at  the  age  of  eighteen  years.  By 
assuming  the  title  of  Queen  of  England,  she 
excited  the  jealousy  of  Elizabeth,  who  never 
pardoned  her  cousin  this  assertion  of  her 
rights:  The  religious  dissensions  by  which 

Scotland  was  divided,  were  effectually  sub- 
servient to  the  views  of  Elizabeth,  who  gained 
the  affections  of  the  reformed  party,  and 
excited  their  suspicions  against  their  sov- 
ereign, Mary  being  sprung  from  the  blood’  of 
the  Guises,  and  niece  to  the  Cardinal  de 
Lorraine,  who  was  the  scourge  of  the  Prot- 
estants. To  their  religious  and  political 
opinions  the  young  queen  could  not  reconcile 
herself,  and  hence  arose  a decided  aversion 
between  the  sovereign  and  her  subjects. 
Her  council  induced  her  to  remarry,  and  she 
gave  her  hand  to  her  cousin  Henry,  Lord 
Darnley.  This  marriage  displeased  Elizabeth. 
Soon  after  Mary’s  marriage  with  Darnley, 
she  became  disgusted  with  his  neglect  and 
vices.  Darnley,  thinking  this  change  of  dis- 
position was  occasioned  by  a passion  for 
some  other  man,  suspected  David  Rizzio,  her 
secretary,  an  Italian.  He  soon  found  a set 
of  willing  accomplices  in  the  execution  of 
vengeance  against  his  wife  ; and,  accordingly, 
one  evening,  while  the  queen  was  at  supper 
with  the  Countess  of  Argyle,  Rizzio,  and 
others,  the  confederates  entered  by  a private 
staircase  into  the  queen’s  apartment,  where 
they  seized  Rizzio,  and  after  dragging  him 


into  an  adjoining  room,  dispatched  him  with 
fifty-six  wounds. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  grief  and  indig- 
nation of  Mary  on  this  occasion.  On  the 
19th  of  June,  1566,  at  Edinburgh  Castle,  she 
bore  her  only  son,  afterward  James  VI.  of 
Scotland,  and  I.  of  England.  At  length,  after 
a series  of  tragical  disasters,  Mary  placed 
herself  in  the  hands  of  Elizabeth,  by  whose 
order  she  was  executed  at  Fotheringay  Cas- 
tle in  1587.  [ See  Stuart.] 

When  in  1567  Mary  was  deposed  by  the 
nobles,  her  infant  son  was  crowned,  and  the 
Earl  of  Murray  appointed  regent.  Upon  the 
death  of  Elizabeth  of  England  in  1603,  the 
crown  of  that  kingdom  devolved  upon  James. 
Before  he  left  Scotland  to  take  possession  of 
his  new  kingdom,  he  had  with  great  zeal 
labored  to  civilize  the  northern  and  western 
Highlands.  He  was  himself  a scholar ; and 
to  his  love  of  learning,  the  Scots  are  indebted 
for  the  parochial  schools,  which  afford  the 
common  people  so  much  advantage  in  point 
of  education.  He  encouraged  trade  and  the 
fisheries,  and  greatly  promoted  the  industry 
of  his  subjects.  By  means  of  the  king’s 
accession  to  the  English  throne,  the  regal  pow- 
er in  Scotland  acquired  additional  strength  ; 
and  James  attempted  to  avail  himself  of  this 
circumstance  for  the  union  of  both  the  na- 
tional churches  and  the  kingdoms  into  one. 
After  a reign  and  life  of  nearly  fifty-nine 
years,  James  was  seized  with  his  last  illness, 
which  some  affirm  to  have  been  caused  by 
poison. 

Charles  I.  entered  Edinburgh  with,  great 
magnificence,  and  was  crowned  at  Holyrood 
Palace.  By  advice  of  Laud,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  Spottiswood  the  historian, 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  Charles  attempt- 
ed to  introduce  a book  of  liturgy  into  the 
public  worship  of  the  Scottish  churches. 
These  measures  excited  the  most  general  dis- 
content, and  produced  the  most  violent  com- 
motion. A civil  war  at  length  became  una- 
voidable ; and  the  Covenanters  prepared  for 
it  with  vigor  and  resolution.  They  received 
arms,  ammunition,  and  money,  from  France, 
and  other  countries  ; and  no  regularly  estab- 
lished commonwealth  could  take  wiser  meas- 
ures. Lesley,  a soldier  of  experience  and 
ability  the  Earl  of  Montrose,  a youth  of 


SCO 


778 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


heroic  genius,  with  other  leaders  of  the  party, 
all  of  them  men  of  sense  and  resolution, 
conducted  the  military  affairs.  After  seizing 
and  fortifying  the  most  important  places  of 
strength  in  the  kingdom,  they  invaded  Eng- 
land, and  compelled  the  royal  forces  to  retreat 
to  York. 

At  this  period,  the  English  rebels  courted 
a closer  union  with  their  Scottish  friends,  and 
agreed  to  receive  the  solemn  league  and  cove- 
nant, to  preserve  the  reformed  religion  estab- 
lished in  the  church  of  Scotland,  and  to  reform 
England  and  Ireland,  according  to  the  word 
of  God,  and  the  example  of  the  purest 
churches.  Accordingly  a subsidiary  army 
of  20,000  Scots  hastened  to  join  Lord  Fairfax, 
and  effectually  assisted  him  in  reducing  the 
city  of  York.  While  the  king’s  affairs  de- 
clined in  England,  the  brave  Montrose  had 
left  the  Scottish  army,  and  raised  the  royal 
standard  in  the  north.  This  active  noble- 
man, having  raised  a supply  of  1,200  troops 
from  Ireland,  hastened  to  take  the  command  of 
this  auxiliary  force,  and  several  more  flocked 
to  his  standard.  He  attacked  and  defeated 
a party  of  the  Covenanters,  6,000  in  number, 
under  Tullibardine ; Perth  opened  its  gates 
to  the  victor,  and  was  laid  under  contribu- 
tion. At  Aberdeen,  Montrose  gained  a sec- 
ond victory  over  the  troops  under  Lord 
Burleigh,  and  laid  waste  the  country  of  Ar- 
gyle.  Montrose  gained  in  succession  the 
victories  of  Auldearn,  Alford,  and  Kilsyth, 
but  his  whole  army  was  destroyed,  at  Philip- 
haugh,  by  the  troops  under  Sir  David  Lesley, 
and  he  was  never  able  afterward  to  bring  a 
formidable  force  into  the  field,  notwithstand- 
ing all  the  efforts  he  could  make. 

The  fortunes  of  Charles  being  now  ruined 
in  England,  he  was  reduced  to  the  desperate 
expedient  of  seeking  refuge  in  the  heart  of 
the  Scotch  army,  though  in  open  rebellion 
against  him.  The  immediate  consequences 
of  this  fatal  step  were  orders  to  his  adherents 
to  lay  down  their  arms.  Montrose  obeyed, 
and  retired  to  France.  The  English  parlia- 
ment demanded  of  the  Scottish  army  the 
person  of  the  king ; they  preferred  delivering 
him  up  rather  than  go  to  war  in  his  defense. 
The  kingdom  was,  however,  divided  into  two 
parties,  and  the  Duke  of  Hamilton  and  the 
majority  in  parliament,  in  opposition  to  the 
church,  succeeded  in  raising  a numerous 


army  to  support  the  king  against  Cromwell 
and  his  adherents,  who  appeared  to  entertain 
designs  totally  hostile  both  to  the  king’s 
person  and  government ; with  this  army  they 
set  forward  to  invade  England,  and  to  restore 
the  king  to  his  ancient  rights.  But  the  vio- 
lent party  considered  it  the  height  of  impiety 
to  fight  for  an  uncovenanted  king. 

The  Scotch  troops,  not  daring  to  unite 
themselves  with  the  English  royalists  who 
had  refused  the  covenant,  both  armies  were 
easily  destroyed  by  Cromwell,  who,  after 
exercising  the  severest  vengeance  against  the 
friends  of  Charles  in  Scotland,  returned  in 
triumph  to  England,  and  brought  Charles  to 
public  trial  and  execution.  The  Covenanters 
now  declared  for  the  young  king,  Charles  II., 
then  in  Holland,  on  condition  of  his  becoming 
the  pupil  of  Presbyterianism,  and  taking  the 
covenant.  Montrose  was  dispatched  to  the 
Orkneys,  to  make  an  attempt  for  the  king’s 
restoration  on  better  terms ; but  being  at- 
tacked by  a much  superior  force,  he  was 
defeated,  and  put  to  death  in  1650. 

Charles  II.  now  sailed  from  Holland  for  the 
Scottish  coast,  and  threw  himself  entirely 
into  the  hands  of  the  Covenanters,  who 
required  him  to  sign  the  covenant,  and 
exhorted  him  to  be  faithful  to  that  holy 
confederacy.  Cromwell  marched  into  Scot- 
land against  the  now  royal  Covenanters, 
whom  he  attacked,  and  defeated  at  Dunbar. 
Notwithstanding  this  defeat,  the  Realists  in 
Scotland  increased.  Charles  was  crowned  at 
Scone  on  the  1st  of  January,  1651  ; but  he 
was  obliged  to  take  the  covenant,  and  to 
undergo  other  mortifications.  Cromwell, 
however,  succeeded  in  an  attempt  to  cut  off 
the  royalists  from  all  their  communications 
with  the  north  and  the  Highlands ; and  when 
they  invaded  England,  defeated  them  at 
W orcester.  Charles  escaped,  and  at  last  took 
shipping  from  the  coast  of  Sussex,  and  arrived 
safe  at  Feschamp  in  Normandy.  Cromwell 
conquered  the  land  and  added  it  to  the  Eng- 
lish commonwealth. 

After  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  in  1660, 
the  parliament  was  opened  with  unusual 
splendor  at  Edinburgh ; and  in  the  proceed- 
ings of  this  assembly,  the  royal  prerogative 
was  exalted  to  a pitch  of  despotism.  De- 
prived at  last  of  public  worship,  the  perse- 
cuted Presbyterians  rose  in  open  rebellion. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


779 


On  the  Pentland  Hills  they  were  met  by  the 
king’s  forces,  under  Dalziel,  and  were  routed 
with  considerable  slaughter,  at  the  first 
onset.  Commotions  and  insurrections  multi- 
plied during  the  whole  reign  of  Charles  II., 
who  attempted,  sometimes  by  gentle  means, 
and  sometimes  by  acts  of  severity,  to  crush 
Presbyterianism,  and  to  induce  the  people  to 
substitute  another  form  of  church  government. 

James  VII.  was  not  ignorant  of  the  intrigues 
and  ambition  of  his  son-in-law,  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  with  whom  Monmouth,  Argyle,  Dal- 
rymple,  afterward  Earl  of  Stair,  Burnet,  soon 
to  be  Bishop  of  Sarum,  and  other  English 
and  Scotch  exiles,  found  refuge.  The  insur- 
rections occasioned  by  Argyle  and  Monmouth 
widened  the  breach  between  the  unfortunate 
monarch  and  his  disaffected  subjects.  James 
proposed  to  his  Scottish  parliament  a relaxa- 
tion of  the  penal  laws  against  the  Roman 
Catholics ; but  the  proposal  was  received 
with  such  coldness,  that  the  chancellor 
thought  it  prudent  to  drop  the  bill  entirely. 
However,  the  court  issued  declarations  in 
favor  of  Presbyterians,  of  Quakers,  of  Roman 
Catholics,  and  at  last  “suspended  all  penal 
and  sanguinary  laws  for  nonconformity  to 
the  religion  established  by  law.”  The  Pres- 
byterians of  Edinburgh,  and  the  ministers  all 
over  Scotland,  gladly,  accepted  of  this  tolera- 
tion, and  thanked  the  king  for  his  protection. 

In  1688  James  fled;  and  his  constrained 
flight- was  pronounced  an  abdication  of  the 
throne  of  Scotland.  Indifferent  as  to  the 
modes  of  religion,  William  of  Orange  treated 
with  Presbyterians  as  well  as  Episcopalians. 
The  throne  was  declared  vacant  by  the  con- 
vention ; William  accepted  of  the  crown 
tendered  to  him  by  a deputation  from  the 
states,  and,  with  his  spouse,  took  a corona- 
tion oath.  By  a majority  of  the  votes  in 
parliament,  William  was  reluctantly  prevailed 
on  to  repeal  the  constitution  of  the  lords  of 
articles,  to  abandon  the  patronage  and  the 
supremacy  over  the  church,  and  to  re-estab- 
lish Presbytery.  William,  after  a fruitless 
attempt  to  gain  the  chieftains  by  pecuniary 
offers,  issued  a proclamation  denouncing  mil- 
itary execution  against  all  who  should  not 
beforh  the  expiration  of  the  year  take  an 
oath  of  fealty  to  him. 

In  1702,  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne 
gave  new  hopes  to  the  Pretender,  son  of  the 


late  king  James,  and  his  adherents.  William 
had  never  dissolved  the  convention  parlia- 
ment. The  members  of  this  parliament 
assembled,  and  empowered  the  queen  to 
nominate  commissioners  for  treating  of  an 
union.  The  commissioners  repaired  to  Lon- 
don, to  treat  with  those  appointed  in  England. 
At  length,  the  whole  of  the  articles  of  the 
union  were  completed  and  signed  by  all  the 
Scottish  commissioners  excepting  one,  who 
was  Lockhart  of  Carnwarth.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  strong  opposition  which  this  measure 
experienced,  on  Thursday  the  16th  of  Janu- 
ary, 1707,  the  whole  articles  of  the  union 
were,  without  any  material  alteration,  ap- 
proved by  a legal  majority  in  parliament; 
and  the  lord  high  commissioner,  touching  the 
act  with  the  sceptre,  sanctioned  it  with  that 
consent  of  the  crown  which  was  requisite  to 
give  it  in  Scotland  the  force  of  a law.  The 
treaty  of  union,  thus  finally  ratified  by  the 
Scottish  parliament,  was  immediately  trans- 
mitted to  London,  where  it  was  equally  hon- 
ored by  the  sanction  of  the  parliament  and 
the  royal  consent.  On  the  28th  of  April, 
the  Scottish  parliament  was  dissolved,  never 
more  to  be  assembled ; and  the  Scots  and 
English  were  henceforth  to  be  one  people. 

The  accession  of  the  house  of  Hanover  was 
resisted  in  Scotland  in  1715  by  the  adherents 
of  the  exiled  Stuarts,  but  unsuccessfully. 
Thirty  years  after,  another  insurrection  was 
stirred  up  by  the  Jacobites,  headed  by  Charles 
Edward,  the  young  Pretender.  For  a brief 
time  his  arms  were  successful:  then  he 
sought  safety  in  flight,  and  the  attempt  to 
regain  the  throne  was  never  renewed.  In 
consequence  of  these  outbreaks,  measures 
were  taken  by  government  to  root  out  the 
system  of  clanship  that  had  so  long  prevailed 
in  the  Highlands. 

The  annalists  of  Scotland,  with  a faith  like 
that  of  the  Welsh  genealogists,  trace  a line 
of  kings  to  remote  ages  before  the  Christian 
era.  We  commence  our  list  where  the 
accounts  cease  to  be  conflicting. 

KINGS  OP  SCOTLAND. 

1033.  Duncan  I : assassinated  by  his  kinsman 
Macbeth. 

1039.  Macbeth,  usurps  the  throne : slain  by 

Macduff,  Thane  of  Fife,  and  the  rightful 
heir  succeeds. 

1057.  Malcolm  III.  (Cean-Mohr  or  Canmore), 
son  of  Duncan : killed  while  besieging 
Alnwick  Castle. 


780 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


1093.  Donald  VII.,  or  Donald  Bane,  brother  of 

Malcolm. 

1094.  Duncan  II.,  natural  son  of  Malcolm. 

1094.  Donald  Bane  again. 

1098.  Edgar,  son  of  Malcolm.  Henry  I.  of 
England  married  his  sister  Maud. 

1107.  Alexander,  the  Fierce,  brother  of  Edgar. 
1124.  David,  brother  of  Edgar  and  Alexander. 
1153.  Malcolm  IV.,  the  Maiden,  David’s  grandson. 
1165.  William,  the  Lion,  brother  of  Malcolm. 
1214.  Alexander  II.,  son  of  William. 

1249.  Alexander  III. 

1285.  Margaret,  the  Maiden  of  Norway,  grand- 
daughter of  Alexander  III.;  “recog- 
nized by  the  states  of  Scotland,  though 
a female,  an  infant,  and  a foreigner : ” 
died  on  her  passage  to  Scotland.  A 
competition  for  the  throne  arose,  which 
Edward  I.  of  England  decided  in  favor 
of 

1292.  John  Baliol:  he  surrendered  the  crown 
and  died  in  exile. 

1306.  Robert  I.  (the  brave  Robert  Bruce.)  • 
1329.  David  II.,  son  of  Robert. 

1332.  Edward  Baliol,  son  of  John:  resigned. 
1342.  David  II.  again:  eleven  years  a prisoner 
in  England. 

1371.  Robert  (Stuart)  II.,  nephew  of  David  II. 
1390.  Robert  III.,  son  of  Robert  II. : his  proper 
name  was  John ; he  assumed  that 
of  Robert  upon  his  accession. 

1406.  James  I.,  second  son  of  Robert  III.: 
eighteen  years  a captive  in  England. 
1437.  James  II.,  his  son. 

1460.  James  III.,  his  son. 

1488.  James  IV.,  married  Margaret  Tudor, 
daughter  of  Henry  VII.  of  England. 
1513.  James  V.,  their  son. 

1542.  Mary,  his  daughter. 

1567.  James  VI.,  her  son.  • In  1603  he  succeeded 
to  the  English  crown  as  James  I. 

SCOTT,  Thomas,  a celebrated  English 
commentator  on  the  Bible,  died  1821. 

SCOTT,  Sir  Walter,  baronet,  the  eldest 
son  of  W alter  Scott,  a writer  to  the  signet, 
was  born  in  the  city  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
Aug.  15th,  1771.  His  mother  was  a lady  of 
talent,  the  friend  of  Burns  and  Ramsay,  and 
the  author  of  meritorious  verses.  Sir  Walter 
was  educated  at  the  high  school  of  Edinburgh, 
and  at  the  university.  At  an  early  age,  he 
was  celebrated  as  a story-teller,  “ when  the 
applause  of  his  companions  was  his  recom- 
pense for  the  disgrace  and  punishments  which 
the  future  romance-writer  incurred  by  being 
idle  himself,  and  keeping  others  idle,  during 
hours  that  should  have  been  employed  on 
their  tasks.” 

Sir  Walter  Scott’s  account  of  his  birth  and 
circumstances  is  characterized  by  his  usual 
modesty. 


“My  birth,  without  giving  the  least  pre- 
tension to  distinction,  was  that  of  a gentle- 
man, and  connected  me  with  several  respect- 
able families  and  accomplished  persons. 
My  education  had  been  a good  one,  although 
I was  deprived  of  its  full  benefit  by  indiffer- 
ent health,  just  at  the  period  when  I ought 
to  have  been  most  sedulous  in  improving  it 
The  young  men  with  whom  I was  brought 
up,  and  lived  most  familiarly,  were  those 
who,  from  opportunities,  birth,  and  talents, 
might  be  expected  to  make  the  greatest  ad- 
vances in  the  profession  to  which  w*e  were 
all  destined  ; and  I have  the  pleasure  still  to 
preserve  my  youthful  intimacy  with  no  incon- 
siderable number  of  them,  whom  their  merit 
has  carried  forward  to  the  highest  honors  of 
their  profession.  Neither  was  I in  a situa- 
tion to  be  embarrassed  by  the  res  angusta 
domi,  which  might  have  otherwise  interrupt- 
ed my  progress  in  a profession  in  which  pro- 
gress is  proverbially  slow.  I enjoyed  a mod- 
erate degree  of  business  for  my  standing,  and 
the  friendship  of  more  than  one  person  of 
consideration  efficiently  disposed  to  aid  my 
views  in  life.  The  private  fortune,  also,  which 
I might  expect,  and  finally  inherited,  from 
my  family,  did  not,  indeed,  amount  to  afflu- 
ence, but  placed  me  considerably  beyond  all 
apprehension  of  want.  I mention  these  par- 
ticulars merely  because  they  are  true.  Many 
better  men  than  myself  have  owed  their  rise 
from  indigence  and  obscurity,  to  their  own 
talents,  which  were,  doubtless,  much  more 
adequate  to  the  task  of  raising  them  than  any 
which  I possess.  Although  it  would  be  ab- 
surd and  ungracious  in  me  to  deny  that  I 
owe  to  literature  many  marks  of  distinction 
to  which  I could  not  otherwise  have  aspired, 
and  particularly  that  of  securing  the  acquain- 
tance, and  even  the  friendship,  of  many  re- 
markable persons  of  the  age,  to  whom  I might 
not  otherwise  have  made  my  way  ; it  would, 
on  the  other  hand,  be  ridiculous  to  affect 
gratitude  to  the  public  favor,  either  for  my 
position  in  society,  or  the  means  of  support- 
ing it  with  decency — matters  which  had  beat 
otherwise  secured  under  the  usual  chances 
of  human  affairs.  Thus  much  I have  thought 
it  necessary  to  say,  upon  a subject  which  is, 
after  all,  of  very  little  consequence  to  any 
one  but  myself.” 


SCO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


781 


In  1792  he  was  called  to  the  bar.  Of  his 
success  in  his  profession,  and  the  nature  of 
his  studies  and  pursuits,  we  will  give  his  own 
account. 

“ It  may  be  readily  supposed  that  the  at- 
tempts which  I made  in  literature  had  been 
unfavorable  to  my  success  at  the  bar.  The 
goddess  Themis  is,  at  Edinburgh,  and  I sup- 
pose everywhere  else,  of  a peculiarly  jealous 
disposition.  She  will  not  readily  consent  to 
share  her  authority,  and  sternly  demands  from 
her  votaries  not  only  that  real  duty  be  care- 
fully attended  to  and  discharged,  but -that  a 
certain  air  of  business  shall  be  observed  even 
in  the  midst  of  total  idleness.  It  is  prudent, 
if  not  absolutely  necessary,  in  a young  bar- 
rister, to  appear  completely  engrossed  by  his 
profession ; however  destitute  of  employ- 
ment he  may  be,  he  ought  to  preserve,  if 
possible,  the  appearance  of  full  occupation. 
He  should  at  least  seem  perpetually  engaged 
among  his  law  papers,  dusting  them,  as  it 
were ; and,  as  Ovid  advises  the  fair, — 

Si  nullus  erit  pulvis,  tamen  excute  nullum. 
Perhaps  such  extremity  of  attention  is  more 
especially  required,  considering  the  great 
number  of  counselors  who  are  called  to  the 
bar,  and  how  very  small  a proportion  of  them 
are  finally  disposed,  or  find  encouragement, 
to  follow  the  law  as  a profession.  Hence 
the  number  of  deserters  is  so  great,  that  the 
least  lingering  look  behind  occasions  a young 
novice  to  be  set  down  as  one  of  the  intending 
fugitives.  Certain  it  is,  that  the  Scottish 
Themis  was  at  this  time  peculiarly  jealous 
of  any  flirtation  with  the  Muses,  on  the  part 
of  those  who  had  ranged  themselves  under 
her  banners.  This  was  probably  owing  to 
her  consciousness  of  the  superior  attractions 
of  her  rivals.  Of  late,  however,  she  has 
relaxed  in  some  instances  in  this  particular ; 
an  eminent  example  of  which  has  been  shown 
in  the  case  of  my  friend,  Mr.  Jeffrey,  who, 
after  long  conducting  one  of  the  most  influ- 
ential literary  periodicals  of  the  age,  with 
unquestionable  ability,  has  been,  by  the  gen- 
eral consent  of  his  brethren,  recently  elected 
to  be  their  dean  of  faculty,  or  president, 
being  the  highest  acknowledgment  of  his 
professional  talents  which  they  had  it  in 
their  power  to  offer.  But  this  is  an  incident 
much  beyond  the  ideas  of  a period  of  thirty 
years’  distance,  when  a barrister  who  really 


possessed  any  turn  for  lighter  literature,  was 
at  as  much  pains  to  conceal  it,  as  if  it  had  in 
reality  been  something  to  be  ashamed  of;  and 
I could  mention  one  instance  in  which  litera- 
ture and  society  have  suffered  loss,  that  juris- 
prudence might  be  enriched.  Such,  however, 
was  not  my  case ; for  the  reader  will  not 
wonder  that  my  open  interference  with  mat- 
ters of  light  literature  diminished  my  employ- 
ment in  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law. 
Nor  did  the  solicitors,  upon  whose  choice  the 
counsel  takes  rank  in  his  profession,  do  me 
less  than  justice  by  regarding  others  among 
my  contemporaries  as  fitter  to  discharge  the 
duty  due  to  their  clients,  than  a young  man 
who  was  taken  up  with  running  after  ballads, 
whether  Teutonic  or  national.  My  profession 
and  I,  therefore,  came  to  stand  nearly  upon 
the  footing  on  which  honest  Slender  consoled 
himself  with  having  established  with  Mistress 
Anne  Page : ‘ There  was  no  great  love  in  the 
beginning,  and  it  pleased  Heaven  to  decrease 
it  on  farther  acquaintance.’  I became  sensible 
that  the  time  was  come  when  I must  either 
buckle  myself  resolutely  to  the  ‘ toil  by  day, 
the  lamp  by  night,’  renouncing  all  the  Delilahs 
of  r>'  y imagination,  or  bid  adieu  to  the  pro- 
fession of  the  law,  and  hold  another  course. 
I confess  my  own  inclination  revolted  from 
the  more  severe  choice  which  might  have 
been  deemed  by  many  the  wiser  alternative. 
As  my  transgressions  had  been  numerous, 
my  repentance  must  have  been  signalized  by 
unusual  sacrifices.  I ought  to  have  men- 
tioned, that,  since  my  fourteenth  or  fifteenth 
year,  my  health,  originally  delicate,  had  be- 
come extremely  robust.  From  infancy  I had 
labored  under  the  infirmity  of  a severe  lame- 
ness, but,  as  I believe  is  usually  the  case  with 
men  of  spirit  who  suffer  under  personal  in- 
conveniences of  this  nature,  I had,  since  the 
improvement  of  my  health,  in  defiance  of  this 
incapacitating  circumstance,  distinguished 
myself  by  the  endurance  of  toil  on  foot  or 
horseback,  having  often  walked  thirty  miles 
a day,  and  rode  upward  of  a hundred,  with- 
out stopping.  In  this  manner  I made  many 
pleasant  journeys  through  parts  of  the  coun- 
try then  not  very  accessible,  gaining  more 
amusement  and  instruction  than  I have  been 
able  to  acquire  since  I have  traveled  in  a more 
commodious  manner.  I practiced  most  syl- 
van sports,  also,  with  some  success,  and  with 


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COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


great  delight  But  these  pleasures  must  have 
been  all  resigned,  or  used  with  great  modera- 
tion, had  I determined  to  regain  my  station 
at  the  bar.  It  was  even  doubtful  whether  I 
could,  with  perfect  character  as  a jurisconsult, 
retain  a situation  in  a volunteer  corps  of  cav- 
alry, which  I then  held.  The  threats  of  in- 
vasion were  at  this  time  instant  and  menacing ; 
the  call  by  Britain  on  her  children  was  uni- 
versal, and  was  answered  by  many,  -who, 
like  myself,  consulted  rather  their  will  than 
their  ability  to  bear  arms.  My  services,  how- 
ever, were  found  useful  in  assisting  to  main- 
tain the  discipline  of  the  corps,  being  the 
point  on  which  their  constitution  rendered 
them  most  amenable  to  military  criticism. 
In  other  respects  the  squadron  was  a fine  one, 
consisting  of  handsome  men,  well  mounted 
and  armed  at  their  own  expense.  My  atten- 
tion to  the  corps  took  up  a great  deal  of  time  ; 
and  while  it  occupied  many  of  the  happiest 
hours  of  my  life,  it  furnished  an  additional 
reason  for  my  reluctance  again  to  encounter 
the  severe  course  of  study  indispensable  to 
success  in  the  judicial  profession. 

“ On  the  other  hand,  my  father,  whose 
feelings  might  have  been  hurt  by  my  quitting 
the  bar,  had  been  for  two  or  three  years, 
dead ; so  that  I had  no  control  to  thwart  my 
owrn  inclination  ; and  my  income  being  equal 
to  all  the  comforts,  and  some  of  the  elegan- 
ces, of  life,  I was  not  pressed  to  an  irksome 
labor  by  necessity,  that  most  powerful  of  mo- 
tives; consequently,  I was  the  more  easily 
seduced  to  choose  the  employment  which  was 
the  most  agreeable.  This  was  yet  the  easier, 
as  in  1800  I had  obtained  the  preferment  of 
sheriff  of  Selkirkshire,  about  £300  a year  in 
value,  and  which  wTas  the  more  agreeable  to 
me,  as  in  that  county  I had  several  friends 
and  relations.  But  I did  not  abandon  the 
profession  to  which  I had  been  educated, 
without  certain  prudential  resolutions,  which 
at  the  risk  of  some  egotism,  I will  here  men- 
tion ; not  without  the  hope  that  they  may  be 
useful  to  young  persons  who  may  stand  in 
circumstances  similar  to  those  in  which  I 
then  stood.  In  the  first  place,  upon  consid- 
ering the  lives  and  fortunes  of  persons  who 
had  given  themselves  up  to  literature,  or  to 
the  task  of  pleasing  the  public,  it  seemed  to 
me  that  the  circumstances  which  chiefly  af- 
fected their  happiness  and  character  were 


those  from  which  Horace  has  bestowed  upon 
authors  the  epithet  of  the  irritable  race.  It 
requires  no  depth  of  philosophic  reflection  to 
perceive  that  the  petty  warfare  of  Pope  with 
the  dunces  of  his  period,  could  not  have  been 
carried  on  without  his  suffering  the  most 
acute  torture,  such  as  a man  must  endure 
from  mosquitoes,  by  whose  stings  he  sutlers 
agony,  although  he  can  crush  them  in  his 
grasp  by  myriads.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to 
call  to  memory  the  many  humiliating  instan- 
ces in  'which  men  of  the  greatest  genius  have, 
to  avertge  some  pitiful  quarrel,  made  them- 
selves ridiculous  during  their  lives,  to  become 
the  still  more  degraded  objects  of  pity  to  fu- 
ture times.  Upon  the  whole,  as  I had  no 
pretension  to  the  genius  of  the  distinguished 
persons  who  had  fallen  into  such  errprs,  I 
concluded  there  could  be  no  occasion  for  imi- 
tating them  in  these  mistakes,  or  what  I com 
sidered  as  such  ; and,  in  adopting  literary 
pursuits  as  the  principal  occupation  of  my 
future  life,  I resolved,  if  possible,  to  avoid 
those  weaknesses  of  temper  which  seemed  to 
have  most  easily  beset  my  more  celebrated 
predecessors.  With  this  view,  it  was  my 
first  resolution  to  keep,  as  far  as  was  in  my 
power,  abreast  of  society ; continuing  to 
maintain  my  place  in  general  company,  with- 
out yielding  to  the  very  natural  temptation 
of  narrowing  myself  to  what  is  called  litera- 
ry society.  * By  doing  so,  I imagined  I should 
escape  the  besotting  sin  of  listening  to  lan- 
guage which,  from  one  motive  or  other,  as- 
cribes a very  undue  degree  of  consequence 
to  literary  pursuits ; as  if  they  were,  indeed, 
the  business,  rather  than  the  amusement,  of 
life.  The  opposite  course  can  only  be  com- 
pared to  the  injudicious  conduct  of  one  who 
pampers  himself  with  cordial  and  luscious 
draughts,  until  he  is  unable  to  endure  whole- 
some bitters.  Like  Gil  Bias,  therefore,  I re- 
solved to  stick  by  the  society  of  my  commis, 
instead  of  seeking  that  of  a more  literary 
cast ; and  to  maintain  my  general  interest  in 
what  was  going  on  around  me,  reserving  the 
man  of  letters  for  the  desk  and  the  library. 
My  second  resolution  was  a corollary  from 
the  first.  I determined  that,  without  shut- 
ting my  ears  to  the  voice  of  true  criticism,  I 
would  pay  no  regard  to  that  which  assumes 
the  form  of  satire.  I therefore  resolved  to 
arm  myself  with  the  triple  brass  of  Horace, 


SCO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


783 


against  all  the  roving  warfare  of  satire,  paro- 
dy, and  sarcasm  ; to  laugh  if  the  jest  was  a 
good  one ; or,  if  otherwise,  to  let  it  hum  and 
buzz  itself  to  sleep.  It  is  to  the  observance 
of  these  rules  (according  to  my  best  belief), 
that,  after  a life  of  thirty  years  engaged  in 
literary  labors  of  various  kinds,  I attribute 
my  never  having  been  entangled  in  any  lite- 
rary quarrel  or  controversy  ; and,  which  is  a 
more  pleasing  result,  that  I have  been  distin- 
guished by  the  personal  friendship  of  my 
most  approved  contemporaries  of  all  parties. 

I adopted,  at  the  same  time,  another  »esolu- 
tion,  on  which  it  may  doubtless  be  remarked 
that  it  was  well  for  me  that  I had  it  in  my 
pow'er  to  do  so,  and  that,  therefore,  it  is  a 
line  of  conduct  which  can  be  less  generalty 
applicable  in  other  cases.  Yet  I fail  not  to^ 
record  this  part  of  my  plan,  convinced  that, 
though  it  may  not  be  in  every  one’s  power  to 
adopt  exactly  the  same  resolution,  he  may 
nevertheless,  by  his  own  exertions,  in  some 
shape  or  other,  attain  the  object  on  which  it 
was  founded ; namely,  to  secure  the  means 
of  subsistence,  without  retying  exclusively 
on  literary  talents.  In  this  respect,  I deter- 
mined that  literature  should  be  my  staff,  but 
not  my  crutch  ; and  that  the  profits  of  my 
labor,  however  convenient  otherwise,  should 
not  become  necessary  to  my  ordinary  expen- 
ses. With  this  purpose  I resolved,  if  the 
interest  of  my  friends  could  so  far  favor  me, 
to  retire  upon  any  of  the  respectable  offices 
of  the  law,  in  which  persons  of  that  profes- 
sion are  glad  to  take  refuge  when  they  feel 
themselves,  or  are  judged  by  others,  incom- 
petent to  aspire  to  its  higher  offices  and  hon- 
ors. Upon  such  an  office  an  author  might 
hope  to  retreat,  without  any  perceptible  al- 
teration of  circumstances,  whenever  the  time 
should  arrive  that  the  public  grew  weary  of 
his  endeavors  to  please,  or  he  himself  should 
tire  of  the  occupation  of  authorship.  At 
this  period  of  my  life,  I possessed  so  many 
friends  capable  of  assisting  me  in  this  object 
of  ambition,  that  I could  hardly  overrate  my 
own  prospects  of  obtaining  the  moderate  pre- 
ferment to  which  I limited  my  wishes  ; and, 
in  fact,  I obtained,  in  no  long  period,  the  re- 
version of  a situation  which  completely  met 
them.” 

The  situation  was  soon  open,  and  in  1806 
he  wras  appointed  a clerk  of  the  session  in 


Scotland.  His  first  original  productions 
were  several  ballads  of  great  merit.  Sir 
Walter  thus  notices  the  circumstances  which 
engaged  him  in  literary  pursuits. 

“During  the  last  ten  years  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  the  art  of  poetry  was  at  a re- 
markably low  ebb  in  Britain.  Hayley,  to 
whom  fashion  had  some  years  before  ascribed 
a higher  degree  of  reputation  than  posterity 
has  confirmed,  had  now  lost  his  reputation 
for  talent,  though  he  still  lived  admired  and 
respected  as  an  amiable  and  accomplished 
man.  The  Bard  of  Memory  slumbered  on 
his  laurels,  and  lie  of  Hope  had  scarce  begun 
to  attract  his  share  of  public  attention.  Cow- 
per,  a poet  of  deep  feeling  and  bright  genius, 
was  dead;  and.  even  w'hile  alive,  the  hypo- 
chondria which  was  his  mental  malady  im- 
peded his  popularity.  Burns,  whose  genius 
our  southern  neighbors  could  hardly  yet 
comprehend,  had  long  confined  himself  to 
song-writing.  Names  which  are  now  known 
and  distinguished  wherever  the  English  lan- 
guage is  spoken,  wrnre  then  only  beginning  to 
be  mentioned ; and,  unless  among  the  small 
number  of  persons  who  habitually  devote  a 
part  of  their  leisure  to  literature,  those  of 
Southey,  Wordsworth,  and  Coleridge  were 
• but  little  known.  The  realms  of  Parnassus, 
like  many  a kingdom  at  the  period,  seemed  to 
lie  open  to  the  first  bold  invader,  whether  he 
should  be  a daring  usurper,  or  could  show  a 
legitimate  title  of  sovereignty. 

“ I had,  indeed,  tried  the  metrical  transla- 
tions which  were  occasionally  recommended 
to  us  at  the  high  school.  I got  credit  for  at- 
tempting to  do  what  was  enjoined,  but  very 
little  for  the  mode  in  which  the  task  was  per- 
formed ; and  I used  to  feel  not  a little  morti- 
fied when  my  versions  were  placed  in  con- 
trast with  others  of  admitted  merit.  At  one 
period  of  my  schoolboy  days  .1  was  so  far  left 
to  my  own  desires  as  to  become  guilty  of  ver- 
ses on  a thunder-storm,  which  were  much  ap- 
proved of,  until  a malevolent  critic  sprung 
up,  in  the  shape  of  an  apothecary’s  blue- 
buskined  wife,  who  affirmed  that  my  most 
sweet  poetry  was  stolen  from  an  old  maga- 
zine. I never  forgave  the  imputation,  and 
even  now  I acknowledge  some  resefitment 
against  the  poor  woman’s  memory.  She  in- 
deed accused  me  unjustly,  when  she  said  I 
had  stolen  brooms  ready  made  ; but  as  I 


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COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


had,  like  most  premature  poets,  copied  all 
the  words  and  ideas  of  which  my  verses  con- 
sisted, she  was  so  far  right,  that  there  was 
not  an  original  word  or  thought  in  the  whole 
six  lines.  I made  one  or  two  faint  attempts 
at  verse,  after  I had  undergone  this  sort  of 
daw-plucking  at  the  hands  of  the  apothecary’s 
wife  ; but  some  friend  or  other  always  advised 
me  to  put  my  verses  in  the  fire,  and  like  Do- 
rax  in  the  play,  I submitted,  though  ‘ with  a 
swelling  heart.’  In  short,  excepting  the  usu- 
al tribute  to  a mistress’s  eyebrow,  which  is 
the  language  of  passion  rather  than  poetry, 

I had  not  for  ten  years  indulged  the  wish  to 
couple  so  much  as  love  and  dove,  when,  find- 
ing Lewis  in  possession  of  so  much  reputa- 
tion, and  conceiving  that,  if  I fell  behind  him 
in  poetical  powers,  I considerably  exceeded 
him  in  general  information,  I suddenly  took 
it  into  my  head  to  attempt  the  style  by  which 
he  had  raised  himself  to  fame.” 

Scott  had  married  Miss  Carpentier,  on  the 
Christmas  eve  of  1796,  and  now  resided  at 
Ashestiel,  a delightful  retirement,  in  an  uncom- 
monly beautiful  situation  by  the  side  of  the 
Tweed,  whose  waters  were  favorable  for  an- 
gling, and  surrounded  by  hills  abounding  in 
game.  His  “ Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,”  and 
“ Marmion,”  poems  of  great  originality  and 
beauty,  were  produced  in  1805  and  1808, 
and  received  at  once  into  favor.  The  “ Lady 
of  the  Lake”  was  published  in  1810.  Speak- 
ing of  this  poem,  the  author  remarks:  “I 

remember  that  about  the  same  time  a friend 
started  in  to  ‘ heeze  up  my  hope,’  like  the 
minstrel  in  the  old  song.  He  was  bred  a far- 
mer, but  a man  of  powerful  understanding, 
natural  good  taste,  and  warm  poetical  feeling, 
perfectly  competent  to  supply  the  wants  of 
an  imperfect  or  irregular  education.  He  was 
a passionate  admirer  of  field  sports,  which 
we  often  pursued  together.  As  this  friend 
happened  to  dine  with  me  at  Ashestiel  one  day, 
I took  the  opportune  of  reading  to  him  the 
first  canto  of  the  “Lady  of  the  Lake,”  in  or- 
der to  ascertain  the  effect  the  poem  was  like- 
ly to  produce  upon  a person  who  was  but  too 
favorable  a representative  of  readers  .at  large. 
It  is,  of  course,  to  be  supposed  that  I deter- 
mined rather  to  guide  my  opinion  by  what 
my  friend  might  appear  to  feel,  than  by  what 
he  might  think  fit  to  say.  His  reception  of 
my  recitation,  or  prelection,  was  rather  sin- 


gular. He  placed  his  hand  across  his  brow, 
and  listened  with  great  attention  through  the 
whole  account  of  the  stag  hunt,  till  the  dogs 
threw  themselves  into  the  lake  to  follow  their 
master,  who  embarks  with  Ellen  Douglas. 
He  then  started  up  with  a sudden  excla- 
mation, struck  his  hand  on  the  table,  and 
declared  in  a voice  of  censure  calculated  for 
the  occasion,  that  the  dogs  must  have  been 
totally  ruined  by  being  permitted  to  take  the 
water  after  such  a severe  chase.  I own  I was 
much  encouraged  by  the  species  of  reverie 
which  had  possessed  so  zealous  a follower  of 
the  sports  as  this  ancient  Nimrod,  who  had 
been  completely  surprised  out  of  all  doubts 
of  the  reality  of  the  tale.” 

The  “ Lady  of  the  Lake”  was  followed  by 
“ The  Vision  of  Don  Roderick,”  “Rokeby,” 

“ The  Lord  of  the  Isles,”  “ Harold  the 
Dauntless,”  and  “ The  Bridal  of  Triermain.” 
“The  ‘Lady  of  the  Lake,’  says  Scott, 

“ brought  out  on  the  usual  terms  of  division 
of  profits  between  the  author  and  publishers, 
was  not  long  after  purchased  by  them  for 
£500,  to  which  Messrs.  Longman  & Co.  after- 
ward added  £100  in  their  own  unsolicited 
kindness,  in  consequence  of  the  uncommon 
success  of  the  work.  It  was  handsomely 
given  to  supply  the  loss  of  a fine  horse,  which 
broke  down  suddenly  while  the  author  was 
riding  with  one  of  the  worthy  publishers. 

“The  publishers  of  the  ‘Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel,’  emboldened  by  the  success  of  that 
poem,  willingly  offered  a thousand  pounds 
for  ‘Marmion.’  The  transaction  being  no 
secret,  afforded  Lord  Byron,  who  was  then  at 
general  war  with  all  who  blacked  paper,  an 
opportunity  to  include  me  in  his  satire  enti- 
tled ‘ English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers.’ 
I never  could  conceive  how  an  arrangement 
between  an  author  and  his  publishers,  if  sat- 
isfactory to  the  persons  concerned,  could 
afford  matter  of  censure  to  any  third  party. 
I had  taken  no  unusual  or  ungenerous  means 
of  enhancing  the  value  of  my  merchandise. 
I had  never  higgled  a moment  about  the  bar- 
gain, but  accepted  at  once  what  I considered 
the  handsome  offer  of  my  publishers.  These 
gentlemen,  at  least,  were  not  of  opinion  that 
they  had  been  taken  advantage  of  in  the  trans- 
action, which  indeed  was  one  of  their  own 
framing;  on  the  contrary,  the  sale  of  the 
poem  was  so  far  beyond  their  expectation,  as 


SCO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


785 


to  Induce  them  to  supply  the  author’s  cellar 
with  what  is  always  an  acceptable  present  to 
a young  Scottish  housekeeper,  namely,  a 
hogshead  of  excellent  claret.”  Scott  and 
Byron  afterward  were  made  acquainted  with 
each  other,  and  became  good  friends. 

We  must  extract  the  account  of  his  own 
change  from  poetry  to  prose.  He  is  speaking 
of  “RoLeby.” 

“ The  cause  of  my  failure,  had,  however,  a 
far  deeper  root.  The  manner,  or  style,  which, 
by  its  novelty,  attracted  the  public  in  an  un- 
usual degree,  had  now,  after  having  been 
three  times  before  them,  exhausted  the  pa- 
tience of  the  reader,  and  began  in  the  fourth 
to  lose  its  charms.  The  reviewers  may  be 
said  to  have  apostrophized  the  author  in  the 
language  of  Parnell’s  Edwin  : — 

‘ And  here  reverse  the  charm,  he  cried, 

And  let  it  fairly  now  suffice ; 

The  gambol  has  been  shown.’ 

The  licentious  combination  of  rhymes,  in  a 
manner  hot  perhaps  very  congenial  to  our 
language,  had  not  been  confined  to  the  author. 
Indeed,  in  most  similar  cases,  the  inventors 
of  such  novelties  have  their  reputation  de- 
stroyed by  their  own  imitators,  as  Actaeon  fell 
under  his  own  dogs.  The  present  author, 
like  Bobadil,  had  taught  his  trick  of  fence  to 
a hundred  gentlemen  (and  ladies),  who  could 
fence  very  nearly,  or  quite,  as  well  as  him- 
self. For  this  there  was  no  remedy;  the 
harmony  became  tiresome  and  ordinary,  and 
both  the  original  inventor  and  his  invention 
must  have  fallen  into  contempt,  if  he  had  not 
found  out  another  road  to  public  favor.  What 
has  been  said  of  the  metre  only,  must  be 
considered  to  apply  equally  to  theistructure  of 
the  poem  and  of  the  style.  The  very  best 
passages  of  any  popular  style  are  not,  perhaps, 
susceptible  of  any  imitation,  but  they  may  be 
approached  by  men  of  talent : and  those  who 
are  less  able  to  copy  them,  at  least  lay  hold 
of  their  peculiar  features,  so  as  to  produce  a 
burlesque  instead  of  a serious  copy.  In 
either  way,  the  effect  of  it  is  rendered  cheap 
and  common,  and  in  the  latter  case  ridicu- 
lous, to  boot.  The  evil  consequences  to  an 
author’s  reputation  are  at  least  as  fatal  as 
those  which  befall  a composer,  when  his  mel- 
ody falls  into  the  hands  of  the  street  ballad- 
singer.  Of  the  unfavorable  specimens  of 
imitation,  the  author’s  style  gave  room  to  a 
50 


very  large  number,  owing  to  an  appearance 
of  facility  on  which  some  of  those  who  used 
the  measure  unquestionably  lem.d  too  far.” 
“The  effect  of  the  more  favorable  imita- 
tions, composed  by  persons  of  talent,  was 
almost  equally  unfortunate  to  the  original 
minstrel,  by  showing  that  they  could  over- 
shoot him  with  his  own  bow.  In  short  the 
popularity  which  once  attended  the  school , 
as  it  was  called,  was  now  fast  decaying.  Be- 
sides all  this,  to  have  kept  his  ground  at  the 
crisis  when  ‘ Rokeby  ’ appeared,  * its  author 
ought  to  have  put  forth  his  utmost  strength, 
and  to  have  possessed  at  least  all  his  original 
advantages,  tor  a mighty  and  unexpected 
rival  was  advancing  on  the  stage, — a rival  not 
in  poetical  powers  only,  but  in  that  of  attract- 
ing popularity,  in  which  the  present  writer 
had  preceded  better  men  than  himself.  The 
reader  will  easily  see  that  Byron  is  here  meant, 
who  after  a little  velitation  of  no  great  prom- 
ise, now  appeared  as  a serious  candidate  in 
the  first  canto  of  ‘ Childe  Harold.’  I was  as- 
tonished at  the  power  evinced  by  that  work, 
which  neither  the  ‘ Hours  of  Idleness,’  nor  the 
‘English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers,’  had 
prepared  me  to  expect  from  its  author.  There 
was  a depth  in  his  thought,  an  eager  abund- 
ance in  his  diction,  which  argued  full  confi- 
dence in  the  inexhaustible  resources  of  which 
he  felt  himself  possessed ; and  there  was  some 
appearance  of  that  labor  of  the  file,  which 
indicates  that  the  author  is  conscious  of  the 
necessity  of  doing  every  justice  to  his  work, 
that  it  may  pass  warrant.  Lord  Byron  was 
also  a traveler,  a man  whose  ideas  were  fired 
by  having  seen,  in  distant  scenes  of  difficulty 
and  danger,  the  places  whose  very  names  are 
recorded  in  our  bosoms  as  the  shrines  of  an- 
cient poetry.  For  his  own  misfortune,  per- 
haps, but  certainly  to  the  high  increase  of 
his  poetical  character,  nature  had  mixed  in 
Lord  Byron’s  system  those  passions  which 
agitate  the  human  heart  with  most  violence, 
and  which  may  be  said  to  have  hurried  his 
bright  career  to  an  early  close.  There  would 
have  been  but  little  wisdom  in  measuring  my 
force  with  so  formidable  an  antagonist ; and 
I was  as  likely  to  tire  of  playing  the  second 
fiddle  in  the  concert,  as  my  audience  of  hear- 
ing me.  Age  also  was  advancing.  I was 
growing  insensible  to  those  subjects  of  exci- 
tation of  which  youth  is  agitated.  I had 


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COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


around  me  the  most  pleasant  but  least  excit- 
ing of  all  society,  that  of  kind  friends  and 
an  affectionate  family.  My  circle  of  employ- 
ments was  a narrow  one  ; it  occupied  me 
constantly,  and  it  became  daily  more  difficult 
for  me  to  interest  myself  in  poetical  compo- 
sition : — 

* How  happily  the  days  of  Thalaba  went  by  ! ’ 
Yet,  though  conscious  that  I must  be,  in  the 
opinion  of  good  judges,  inferior  to  the  place 
I had  for  four  or  five  years  held  in  letters, 
and  feeling'  alike  that  the  latter  was  one  to 
which  I had  only  a temporary  right,  I could 
not  brook  the  idea  of  relinquishing  literary 
occupation,  which  had  been  so  long  mjr  chief 
employment.  Neither  was  I disposed  to 
choose  the  alternative  of  sinking  into  a mere 
editor  and  commentator,  though  that  was  a 
species  of  labor  which  I had  practiced,  and 
to  which  I was  attached.  But  I could  not 
endure  to  think  that  I might  not,  whether 
knowrn  or  concealed,  do  something  of  more 
importance.  My  inmost  thoughts  were  those 
of  the  Trojan  captain  in  the  galley  race  : — 

“Non  jam  prima  peto  Mnestheus,  neque  vincere 
certo : 

Quanquam  0, — Sed  superent,  quibus  hoc,  Nep- 
tune, dedisti : 

Extrcmos  pudeat  rediisse  : hoc  vincite,  cives, 

Et  prohibete  nefas.” 

“ Waverley,  or  ’Tis  Sixty  Years  Since,”  a 
novel  published  in  1814,  established  the  rep- 
utation of  the  author,  and  was  followed  in 
rapid  succession  by  many  others.  The  au- 
thorship was  first  acknowledged  by  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott,  at  a public  dinner  in  1827.  These 
Waverley  novels  exhibit  a profound  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature/ an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  histor}r,  national  traditions,  and 
manners,  and  a most  surprising  versatility. 
Ivanhoe,  which  appeared  in  1820,  is  the  most 
brilliant  of  the  pure  romances.  Never  were 
the  long-gathered  stores  of  most  extensive 
erudition  applied  to  the  purposes  of  imagina- 
tive genius  with  so  much  easy,  lavish,  and 
luxurious  power  ; never  was  the  illusion  of 
fancy  so  complete, — made  up  of  so  many  mi- 
nute elements,  and  yet  producing  such  en- 
tireness of  effect.  It  is  as  if  the  veil  of  ages 
had  been,  in  truth,  swept  back,  and  we  our- 
selves had  been,  for  a time,  living,  breathing, 
and  moving  in  the  days  of  Coeur  de  Lion, — 
days  how  different  from  our  own  ! the  hot, 
tempestuous,  chivalrous,  passionate,  fierce 


youth  of  Christendom.  Every  line  in  the  pic- 
ture is  true  to  the  life ; everything  in  the 
words,  in  the  gesture — everything  in  the  very 
faces  of  the  personages  called  up  before  us, 
speaks  of  times  of  energetic  volition, — un- 
controlled action,  — disturban  ce,  — tumult,  — 
the  storms  and  whirlwinds  of  restless  souls 
and  ungoverned  passions.  It  seems  as  if  the 
atmosphere  around  them  was  all  alive  with 
the  breath  of  trumpets,  and  the  neighing  of 
chargers,  and  the  echo  of  war-cries.  And  3ret, 
with  a true  and  beautiful  skillfulness,  the  au- 
thor has  rested  the  main  interest  of  his  story, 
not  upon  these  fiery  externals,  in  themselves 
so  full  of  attraction,  and  every  way  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  age  to  which  the  story  refers, 
but  on  the  workings  of  that  most  poetical  of 
passions,  which  is  ever  deepest  where  it  is 
most  calm,  quiet,  and  delicate,  and  which, 
less  than  any  other,  is  changed,  even  in  its 
modes  of  manifestation,  in  conformity  with 
the  changes  of  time,  manners,  and  circum- 
stances. For  the  true  interest  of  this  ro- 
mance of  the  days  of  Richard  is  placed  nei- 
ther in  Richard  himself ; nor  in  the  knight 
of  Ivanhoe,  the  nominal  hero  ; nor  in  any  of 
the  haughty  Templars  or  barons  wha  occupy 
along  with  them,  the  front  of  the  scene ; 
but  in  the  still,  devoted,  sad,  and  unrequited 
tenderness  of  a Jewish  damsel,  by  far  the 
most  fine,  and  at  the  same  time  most  roman- 
tic, creation  of  female  character  the  author 
has  ever  formed,  and  second,  we  suspect,  to 
none  that  is  to  be  found  in  the  whole  annals 
of  poetry  and  romance. 

Rebecca  was  Scott’s  favorite  among  all  the 
heroines  whose  charms  and  virtues  he  por- 
trayed. 

Besides  writing  his  novels,  Sir  Walter 
Scott  edited  various  works,  and  produced 
some  volumes  of  history,  and  a life  of  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte,  to  which,  however,  his  party 
prejudices  and  hurried  composition  prevented 
him  from  doing  justice. 

He  also  contributed  largely  to  the  Quar- 
terly and  other  reviews.  The  quantity  of  in- 
tellectual labor  which  he  found  time  for,  with 
all  the  demands  upon  his  leisure  that  arose 
from  his  popularity  and  hospitality,  is  a won- 
der of  wonders. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Tweed,  near  Melrose, 
he  purchased  farm  after  farm,  and  formed  the 
estate  of  Abbotsford.  Here  he  erected  a 


SCO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  787 


baronial  mansion,  that  ‘ romance  of  stone  and 
mortar,’  and  his  territorial  ambition,  so  long 
cherished,  was  now  gratified.  George  IV. 
gave  him  a baronetcy,  also.  A few  years  of 
happiness,  and  then  the  splendid  hospitali- 
ties of  Abbotsford  were  darkened  by  a heavy 
cloud.  By  the  failures  of  Constable,  and 
James  Ballantyne  & Co.,  in  which  house  their 
master  was  a secret  partner,  he  found  him- 
self in  1826,  involved  to  the  amount  of 
£117,000.  Refusing  all  offers  of  composi- 
tion, and  asking  only  for  time,  he  bent  him- 
self at  once  to  the  task  of  redemption.  It  is 
one  of  the  noblest  passages  in  the  history  of 
our  English  literature.  In  four  years  he  had 
paid  his  creditors  £70,000.  His  health  and 
strength  sank  under  the  weight  he  bore,  and 
severe  attacks  of  paralysis  warned  him  that 
he  must  needs  desist.  In  vain  he  sailed  to 
the  Mediterranean  : he  returned  to  Abbots- 
ford a hopeless  and  unconscious  wreck.  The 
end  was  near.  “About  half  past  one  p.  m., 
on  the  21st  of  September,  1832,  Sir  Walter 
breathed  his  last  in  the  presence  of  all  his 
children.  It  was  a beautiful  day,  so  warm 
that  every  window  was  wide  open,—  and  so 
perfectly  still  that  the  sound  of  all  others 
most  delicious  to  his  ear,  the  gentle  ripple  of 
the  Tweed  over  its  pebbles,  was  distinctly 
audible  as  we  knelt  around  the  bed,  and  his 
eldest  son  kissed  and  closed  his  eyes.” — 
Lockhart. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  was  beloved  by  all  who 
knew  him,  for,  in  private  life,  he  had  none 
of  that  affectation  of  eccentricity  and  haugh- 
tiness, which  disfigures  so  many  men  of 
genius.  He  was  ever  a welcome  visitor  in 
the  dwellings  of  the  poor  and  old,  and  in 
many  of  his  lonely  wanderings  acquired  that 
traditional  information  which  he  reproduced 
in  his  immortal  works. 

Hogg,  the  poet,  the  friend  of  Scott,  says 
of  him,  illustrative  of  his  benevolence.  “Al- 
though so  shy  of  his  name  and  literary  assist- 
ance, which,  indeed,  he  would  not  grant  to 
any  one,  on  any  account,  save  to  Lockheart, 
yet  to  poor  men  of  literary  merit  his  purse- 
strings were  always  open,  and  as  far  as  it  was 
in  his  .power  to  assist  them.  I actually  knew 
several  unsuccessful  authors  who  depended 
on  his  bounty  for  their  daily  bread.  As  a 
friend,  he  was  sometimes  stern,  but  always 
candid  and  sincere,  and  I always  found  his 


counsels  of  the  highest  value,  if  I could  have 
followed  them.’' 

SCOTT,  Winfield,  was  born  at  Peters- 
burg, Va.,  June  13th,  1786,  and  left  an 
orphan  in  early  boyhood.  Graduating  at 
William  and  Mary  College,  he  studied  law, 
and  though  admitted  to  the  bar,  soon  after 
(1808)  entered  the  army  as  Captain  of  Artil- 
lery. In  the  war  of  1812  he  held  the  rank 
of  Colonel,  and  in  1814  was  made  Brigadier 
General.  He  wrought  wonders  in  training 
and  instructing  his  troops,  so  that  they  won 
the  battles  of  Chippewa  and  Lundy’s  Lane 
within  one  month.  For  his  services  he  was 
promoted  to  the  Major  Generalship,  and  was 
offered  a seat  in  the  Cabinet  as  Secretary  of 
War,  which  he  declined.  He  displayed  ex- 
traordinary executive  and  military  ability, 
at  the  time  of  the  nullification  movement  in 
South  Carolina,  the  troubles  with  the  Semi- 
nole and  Cherokee  Indians,  and  along  the 
Canada  border  in  the  Canadian  rebellion  of 
1837-  In  1841  he  was  advanced  to  the  high- 
est rank  in  the  arm}’-.  In  the  war  with  Mex- 
ico he  won  new  laurels.  The  battles  of  Vera 
Cruz,  Cerro  Gordo,  Cherubusco,  Chepultepec, 
and  the  capture  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  which 
he  entered  at  the  head  of  his  army,  were  the 
brilliant  and  decisive  victories  of  that  cam- 
paign. In  1852  he  was  the  Whig  candidate 
for  the  Presidency,  but  was  defeated  by  Gen. 
Pierce.  He  however  received  a more  appro- 
priate honor  for  his  distinguished  services,  in 
being  elevated  to  the  brevet  rank  of  Lieu- 
tenant General,  which  was  revived  in  his  be- 
half. In  November,  1861,  at  the  age  of  74, 
he  retired  from  active  service.  He  resisted 
the  strongest  temptations  of  his  native  South 
to  lead  the  forces  of  treason,  and  closed  up  a 
most  honorable  record  of  private  virtue, 
stedfast  patriotism  and  military  renown, 
May  29,  1866,  at  the  age  of  seventy-nine. 
General  Scott  will  live  in  the  memory 
of  the  American  people  as  one  of  the  great 
men  of  her  history,  and  who  more  than 
any  other  has  contributed  to  her  military 
glory  for  the  last  half  century. 

SCYLLA  AND  CHARYBDIS.  The  poet- 
ical genins  of  Homer  has  given  a degree  of 
importance  to  the  rocks  of  Scylla,  and  the 
whirlpool  of  Charybdis,  which  they  do  not 
in  reality  merit;  yet  no  doubt  they  were, 
in  the  infancy  of  navigation,  when  the  barks 


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COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


were  small  and  frail,  and  the  mariners  unskill- 
ful, formidable  and  dangerous  obstacles  to 
the  passage  of  the  strait  of  Messina.  Scylla, 
said  in  the  heathen  mythology  to  have  been 
a beautiful  nymph,  transformed  into  a sea- 
monster  by  «the  jealousy  of  Circe,  is,  in 
reality,  merely  a common  rock,  on  the  coast 
of  Italy,  and  opposite  that  of  Sicily.  On  its 
summit  is  a castle,  and  on  each  side  a sandy 
bay.  In  1793  an  earthquake  is  said  to  have 
destroyed  some  of  the  surrounding  rocks, 
and  thus  lessened  the  danger,  and  prevented 
that  extraordinary  roaring  of  the  sea  in 
stormy  weather,  which  is  said  to  have  resem- 
bled the  barking  of  dogs,  but  is  not  now 
observed.  Charybdis  is  a vortex  or  whirl- 
pool, on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  opposite  to 
Scylla,  and  now  denominated  Galofaro.  It  is 
by  no  means  so  formidable  as  represented  by 
the  ancients.  It  is  probably  caused  by  the 
meeting  of  several  currents,  and  is  sometimes 
so  powerful  as  to  place  the  undecked  boats 
of  the  country  in  considerable  peril. 

SCYTHIA  was  a name  anciently  given  to 
that  portion  of  Europe  lying  between  the 
Carpathian  mountains  and  the  river  Don. 
The  Scythians  were  of  Asiatic  origin.  Hero- 
dotus mentions  only  two  important  facts  in 
the  history  of  Scythia  : the  invasion  of  Media 
by  the  Scythians  in  the  reign  of  Cyaxares, 
(b.c.  635-595),  and  their  conquest  of  Asia  to 
the  confines  of  Egypt,  which  they  held  for 
twenty-eight  years ; and  the  invasion  of 
Scythia  by  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  in 
which  the  Persians  were  unsuccessful.  In 
subsequent  times  the  Scythians  lost  all  their 
power,  and  their  country  carrie  to  be  known 
as  Sarmatia.  In  the  time  of  Pliny  they  had 
become  extinct  as  a people ; their  place  was 
occupied  by  the  Germans  and  Sarmatians; 
and  the  Scythian  name  was  confined  to  the 
most  remote  and  unknown  tribes  in  the 
north.  The  name  of  Scythia  was  also  ap- 
plied to  the  northern  pjirts  of  Asia. 

SEABURY,  Samuel,  the  first  Episcopal 
bishop  in  the  United  States,  was  born  in 
Connecticut,  1728.  He  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Connecticut,  in  Scotland,  in  1784, 
*and  died  Feb.  25th,  1796. 

SEBASTIAN,  Dom,  King  of  Portugal,  was 
born  in  1554.  He  succeeded  his  grandfather, 
John  III.,  and  was  a man  of  great  zeal  for 
religion,  and  of  an  extraordinary  courage. 


Against  the  remonstrances  of  his  sagest 
counselors,  he  formed,  soon  after  his  acces- 
sion, the  design  of  making  an  expedition  into 
Africa  against  the  Moors.  Taking  with  him 
the  principal  nobility  and  gentry  of  Portugal, 
he  landed  at  Tangier  on  the  9th  of  July, 
1578,  and  gave  battle  to  Abdemelech  at  Al- 
cazar, the  4th  of  August  the  same  year, 
where  his  army  was  defeated.  Abdemelech, 
who  was  sick,  died  in  a litter,  Mahomet  per- 
ished in  a bog,  and  the  report  was  that  Se- 
bastian himself  was  killed.  Notwithstanding 
this,  in  1598,  a man  in  Venice  declared  him- 
self to  be  King  Sebastian  ; he  resembled  him 
so  exactly  in  face,  stature,  and  voice,  that  the 
Portuguese  that  were  in  that  city,  and 
amongst  them  one  of  his  servants,  owned 
him  for  their  king.  Some  days  after  he  was 
seized,  and  conveyed  before  judges,  before 
whom  he  always  maintained  himself  to  be 
Sebastian  ; he  told  them  that  the  Moors  who 
took  him  prisoner  did  not  know  him  to  be 
<he  king ; that  the  sorrow  and  repentance 
which  seized  him  for  having  so  rashly  under- 
taken that  expedition,  had  nearly  caused  his 
death  ; and  that  now  after  having  suffered  in 
a strange  country,  he  came  to  redemand  the 
crown.  He  showed  upon  his  body  the  same 
marks  which  several  had  seen  formerly  on 
the  body  of  the  King  of  Portugal,  and  dis- 
covered to  the  Venetians  some  secrets  they 
had  formerly  proposed  to  him  by  their  am- 
bassadors, to  prove  he  was  Sebastian.  The 
Spaniards,  who  had  upon  the  report  of  his 
death  invaded  the  crown  of  Portugal,  treated 
him  as  a madman  and  impostor,  and  obliged 
the  Venetians  to  expel  him  from  their  domin- 
ions ; he  was  seized  again  in  Tuscany,  and 
brought  to  Naples,  where  they  set  him  upon 
an  ass,  and  led  him  through  all  the  streets  of 
the  city,  exposing  him  to  the  abuses  of  the 
rabble.  Some  time  after  they  shaved  his 
head,  and  placed  him  to  row  like  a slave  in  a 
galley  ; and  afterward  being  brought  to  Spain, 
he  died  in  a prison. 

SEBASTIANI,  Francis  Horace  de,  a 
French  marshal,  distinguished  during  the 
republic,  the  empire,  and  the  monarchy, 
born  in  1772,  died  in  1851 

SEBASTOPOL,  or  Sevastopol,  a town  and 
naval  arsenal,  at  the  south-west  point  of  the 
Crimea,  formerly  the  little  village  of  Aktiar. 
The  buildings  were  commenced  in  1784,  by 


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HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


789 


Catherine  II.,  after  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try. The  allied  English  and  French  arm}*- 
took  up  its  position  on  the  plateau  between 
this  place  and  Balaklava,  and  the  grand  attack 
and  bombardment  commenced  Oct.  17th, 
1854,  without  success.  The  defense  was  vig- 
orous and  skillful,  and  as  the  allies  only 
attacked  the  south  side,  the  Russians  were 
often  re-enforced.  The  attacking  armies, 
especially  the  English,  suffered  dreadfully 
from  disease  and  privation  during  the  winter. 
There  were  many  sanguinary  encounters,  by 
day  and  by  night,  and  repeated  bombard- 
ments. The  battles  of  Balaklava,  Inkermann, 
and  the  Tchernaya  [which  see],  were  bloody 
episodes  in  the  siege.  The  Malakhoff  was 
attacked  on  the  17th  and  18th  of  June,  1855, 
and  after  a conflict  of  eight  and  forty  hours 
the  French  and  English  were  repulsed  with 
severe  loss  ; that  of  the  English  being  175  ] 
killed  and  1,126  wounded ; that  of  the  French, 
3,338  killed  and  wounded.  A grand  assault 
was  made  Sept.  8th,  1855,  upon  the  Mala- 
khoff and  the  Redans.  The  French  succeeded 
in  capturing  and  retaining  the  Malakhoff. 
The  attacks  of  the  English  on  the  great  Re- 
dan and  of  the  French  upon  the  little  Redan 
were  at  first  successful,  but  the  assailants 
were  compelled  to  retire,  after  a desperate 
struggle,  with  great  loss  of  life.  The  French 
lost  1,646  killed,  of  whom  five  were  generals, 
4,500  wounded,  and  1,400  missing.  The  En- 
glish lost  385  killed,  1,886  wounded,  and  176 
missing.  In  the  night  the  Russians  abandoned 
the  southern  and  principal  part  of  the  town 
and  fortifications,  after  destroying  as  much 
as  possible,  and  crossed  to  the  northern  forts. 
They  also  sunk  or  burnt  the  remainder  of 
their  fleet.  The  allies  found  a very  great 
amount  of  stores  when  they  entered  the  place. 

SECKER,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, born  in  1693,  died  in  1768. 

SEJANUS,  the  favorite  of  Tiberius,  a 
native  of  Yulsinum  in  Tuscany,  who  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  court  of  Tiberius. 
His  father’s  name  was  Servius  Strabo,  a Ro- 
man knight,  commander  of  th.e  praetorian 
guards.  His  mother  was  descended  from  the 
Junian  family.  Sejanus  first  gained  the 
favor  of  Caius  Caesar,  the  grandson  of  Au- 
gustus, but  afterward  he  attached  himself  to 
the  interest  and  views  of  Tiberius,  who  then 
sat  on  the  imperial  throne.  The  emperor, 


who  was  naturally  of  a suspicious  temper,  was 
free  and  open  with  Sejanus,  and  while  he  dis- 
trusted others,  he  communicated  his  greatest 
secrets  to  this  fawning  favorite. 

As  commander  of  the  praetorian  guards, 
he  w’as  the  second  man  in  Rome,  and  in  that 
important  office  he  made  use  of  insinuation 
and  every  mean  artifice  to  make  himself 
beloved  and  revered.  His  affability  and  con- 
descension gamed  him  the  hearts  of  the  com- 
mon soldiers,  and  by  appointing  his  own  favor- 
ites and  adherents  to  places  of  trust  and 
honor,  all  the  officers  and  centurions  of  the 
army  became  devoted  to  his  interest.  The 
views  of  Sejanus  in  this  were  well  known ; 
yet  to  advance  them  with  more  success,  he 
attempted  to  gain  the  affections  of  the  sena- 
tors. In  this  he  met  with  no  opposition. 

A man  who  has  the  disposal  of  places  of 
honor  and  dignity,  and  who  has  the  command 
of  the  public  money,  can  not  but  be  the  favor- 
ite of  those  who  are  in  need  of  his  assist- 
ance. It  is  even  said  that  Sejanus  gained  to 
his  views  all  the  wives  of  the  senators,  by  a pri- 
vate and  most  secret  promise  of  marriage  to 
each  of  them,  whenever  he  had  made  himself 
independent  and  sovereign  of  Rome.  Yet, 
however  successful  with  the  best  and  noblest 
families  in  the  empire,  Sejanus  had  to  combat 
numbers  in  the  house  of  the  emperor ; but 
these  seeming  obstacles  were  soon  removed. 

All  the  children  and  grandchildren  of  Tibe- 
rius were  sacrificed  to  the  ambition  of  the 
favorite  under  various  pretenses  ; and  Dru- 
sus,  the  son  of  the  emperor,  by  striking  Seja- 
nus, made  his  destruction  sure  and  inevita- 
ble. Livia,  the  wife  of  Drusus,  was  gained 
by  Sejanus,  and  though  mother  of  many 
children,  she  was  prevailed  upon  to  assist  her 
adulterer  in  the  murder  of  her  husband,  and 
she  consented  to  marry  him  when  Drusus 
was  dead.  No  sooner  was  Drusus  poisoned 
than  Sejanus  openly  declared  his  wish  to  mar- 
ry Livia.  This  was  .strongly  opposed  by 
Tiberius ; and  the  emperor,  by  recommend- 
ing Germanicus  to  the  senators  for  his  suc- 
cessor, rendered  Sejanus  bold  and  determined. 

He  was  more  urgent  in  his  demands ; and 
when  he  could  not  gain  the  consent  of  the 
emperor,  he  persuaded  him  to  retire  to  soli- 
tude from  the  noise  of  Rome  and  the  troubles 
of  the  government.  Tiberius,  naturally  fond 
of  ease  and  luxury,  yielded  to  his  represen- 


SEJ 


790 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


tations,  and  retired  to  Campania,  leaving 
Sejanus  at  the  head  of  the  empire.  This  was 
highly  gratifying  to  the  favorite,  and  he  wTas 
now  without  a master.  Prudence  and  mod- 
eration might  have  made  him  what  he  wished 
to  be ; but  Sejanus  offended  the  wrhole  em- 
pire when  he  declared  that  he  was  emperor 
of  Rome,  and  Tiberius  only  the  dependent 
prince  of  the  island  of  Capreae,  where  he  had 
retired. 

Tiberius  was,  upon  this,  fully  convinced 
of  the  designs  of  Sejanus  ; and  when  he  had 
been  informed  that  his  favorite  had  had  the 
meanness  and  audacity  to  ridicule  him,  by 
introducing  him  on  the  stage,  the  emperSr 
ordered  him  to  be  accused  before  the  senate. 
Sejanus  was  deserted  by  all  his  pretended 
friends,  as  soon  as  by  fortune  ; and  the  man 
who  aspired  to  the  empire,  and  who  called 
himself  the  favorite  of  the  people,  the  dar-- 
ling  of  the  praetorian  guards,  and  the  com- 
panion of  Tiberius,  was  seized  without  resist- 
ance, and  the  same  day  strangled  in  prison, 
A.D.  31. 

SELEUCUS  I.,  one  of  the  captains  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  surnamed  Nicator , or  1 vic- 
torious,’ was  son  of  Antiochus.  After  the 
king’s  death  he  received  Babylon  as  his  pro- 
vince ; but  his  ambitious  views,  and  his  at- 
tempt to  destroy  Eumenes  as  he  passed 
through  his  territories,  rendered  him  so  un- 
popular, that  he  fled  for  safety  to  the  court 
of  his  friend  Ptolemy,  King  of  Egypt.  He 
was  soon  after  enabled  to  recover  Babylon, 
which  Antigonus  had  seized  in  his  absence, 
and  he  increased  his  dominions  by  the  imme- 
diate conquest  of  Media,  and  some  of  the 
neighboring  provinces.  When  he  had 
strengthened  himself  in  his  empire,  Selcucus 
imitated  the  example  of  the  rest  of  the  gen- 
erals of  Alexander,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
independent  monarch.  He  afterward  made 
war  against  Antigonus,  with  the  united  for- 
ces of  Ptolemy,  Cassander,  and  Lysimaehus  ; 
and  after  that  monarch  had  been  conquered 
and  slain,  his  territories  were  divided  among 
his  victorious  enemies. 

When  Selcucus  became  master  of  Syria, 
he  built  a city  there,  which  he  called  Anti- 
och, in  honor  of  his  father,  and  made  it  the 
capital  of  his  dominions.  He  also  made  war 
against  Demetrius  and  Lysimaehus,  though 
he  had  originally  married  Stratonice,  the 


daughter  of  the  former,  and  had  lived  in  the 
closest  friendship  with  the  latter.  Seleucus 
was  at  last  foully  murdered  by  one  of  his 
servants  called  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  a man  on 
whom  he  had  bestowed  the  greatest  favors, 
and  whom  he  had  distinguished  by  acts  of 
the  most  unbounded  confidence. 

According  to  Arrian,  Seleucus  was  the 
greatest  and  most  powerful  of  the  princes 
who  inherited  the  Macedonian  empire  after 
the  death  of  Alexander.  His  benevolence 
has  been  commended;  and  he  founded  no 
less  than  thirty-four  cities  in  different  parts 
of  his  empire,  which  he  peopled  with  Greek 
colonies,  whose  national  industry,  learning, 
religion,  and  spirit  were  communicated  to  the 
indolent  and  luxurious  inhabitants  of  Asia. 

Seleucus  was  a great  benefactor  to  the 
Greeks ; he  restored  to  the  Athenians  the 
library  and  statues  which  Xerxes  had  carried 
away  from  their  city  when  he  invaded  Greece, 
and  among  the  latter  were  those  of  Harmo- 
dius  and  Aristogiton.  Seleucus  was  mur- 
dered b.c.  280,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of 
his  reign,  and  the  seventy-eighth,  or  accord- 
ing to  others  the  seventy-third,  year  of  his  age, 
as  he  was  going  to  conquer  Macedonia,  and 
intended  to  finish  his  da}rs  in  peace  and  tran- 
quillity in  that  province,  where  he  was  born. 

SELEUCUS  II.,  surnamed  Callinicns , 
succeeded  his  father  Antiochus  Theus  on  the 
throne  of  Syria.  He  attempted  to  make  war 
against  Ptolemy,  King  of  Egypt,  but  his 
fleet  was  shipwrecked  in  a violent  storm,  and 
his  armies  soon  after  conquered  by  his  ene- 
my. He  was  at  last  taken  prisoner  by  Arsa- 
ces,  an  officer  who  made  himself  powerful  by 
the  dissensions  which  reigned  in  the  house 
of  the  Selcucidas,  between  the  two  brothers 
Seleucus  and  Antiochus  ; and  after  he  had 
been  a prisoner  for  some  time  in  Parthia,  he 
died  of  a fall  from  his  horse,  b.c.  226,  after 
a reign  of  twenty  3rears.  Seleucus  received 
the  surname  of  Pogon,  from  his  long  beard, 
and  that  of  Callinicus,  ironically  to  express 
his  very  unfortunate  reign.  He  married 
Laodice,  the  sister  of  one  of  his  generals,  by 
whom  he  had  two  sons,  Seleucus  and  Anti- 
ochus, and  a daughter  wrhom  he  gave  in  mar- 
riage to  Mithridates,  King  of  Pontus. 

SELEUCUS  III.  succeeded  his  father 
Seleucus  II.  on  the  throne  of  Syria,  and 
received  the  surname  of  Ceraunus , by  ant> 


SEL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


791 


phrasis,  as  he  was  a very  weak,  timid,  and 
irresolute  monarch.  He  was  murdered  by 
two  of  his  officers  after  a reign  of  three  years, 
b.c.  223,  and  his  brother  Antiochus,  though 
only  fifteen  years  old,  ascended  the  throne, 
and  rendered  himself  so  celebrated  that  he 
acquired  the  name  of  the  Great. 

SELEUCUS  IV.  succeeded  his  father 
A ntiochus  the  Great,  on  the  throne  of  Syria. 
He  was  surnamed  Philopater , or,  according 
to  Josephus,  So  ter.  His  empire  had  been 
weakened  by  the  Romans  when  he  became 
monarch,  and  the  yearly  tribute  of  a thousand 
talents  to  those  victorious  enemies,  concurred 
in  lessening  his  power  and  consequence 
among  nations.  Seleucus  was  poisoned  after 
a reign  of  twelve  years,  b.c.  175.  His  son 
Demetrius  had  been  sent  to  Rome,  there  to 
receive  his  education,  and  he  became  a prince 
of  great  abilities. 

SELEUCUS  Y.  succeeded  his  father  Deme- 
trius Nicator  on  the  throne  of  Syria,  in  the 
twentieth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  put  to 
death  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  b.c.  124, 
by  Cleopatra  his  mother,  who  had  also  sacri- 
ficed her  husband  to  her  ambition.  He  is  not 
reckoned,  by  many  historians,  in  the  number 
of  the  Syrian  monarchs. 

His  brother  Antiochus  Grypus  took  the 
crown,  and  when  Cleopatra  would  have  poi- 
soned him,  he  forced  the  deadly  draught  to 
her  own  lips. 

SELEUCUS  VI.,  son  of  Antiochus  Gry- 
pus, killed  his  uncle  Antiochus  Cyzicenus, 
who  wished  to  obtain  the  crown  of  Syria. 
He  was  some  time  after  banished  from  his 
kingdom  by  Antiochus  Pius,  son  of  Cyzice- 
nus, and  fled  to  Cilicia,  where  he  was  burnt 
in  a palace  by  the  inhabitants,  b.c.  93. 

SELEUCUS,  a prince  of  Syria,  to  whom 
the  Egyptians  offered  the  crown  of  which 
they  had  robbed  Auletes.  Seleucus  accepted 
it,  but  he  soon  disgusted  his  subjects,  and 
received  the  surname  of  Cybiosactes,  or 
‘ scullion,’  for  his  meanness  and  avarice.  He 
was  at  last  murdered  by  Berenice,  whom  he 
had  married. 

SELEUCIA,  a city  in  Mesopotamia,  upon 
the  river  Tigris,  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  a 
few  miles  south  of  the  modern  Bagdad,  in 
the  form  of  an  eagle  with  extended  wings. 
It  contained  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  600,000 
inhabitants,.  and  was  once  the  most  impor- 


tant city  in  the  east.  It  was  twice  burnt  by 
the  Romans,  in  the  eastern  expedition  of 
Trajan,  and  again  by  Lucius  Verus,  the  col- 
league of  Aurelius,  when  it  had  500,000 
inhabitants.  It  was  also  taken  by  Severus, 
from  which  time  it  seems  to  have  been  almost 
abandoned  by  its  inhabitants. 

SEMIRAMIS,  a celebrated  queen  of  Assy- 
ria. Semiramis,  when  grown  up,  married 
Menones,  the  governor  of  Nineveh,  and  accom- 
panied him  to  the  siege  of  Bactria,  where,  by 
her  advice  and  prudent  directions,  she  hast- 
ened the  king’s  operations  and  took  the  city. 
These  eminent  services,  but  chiefly  her  un- 
common beauty,  endeared  her  to  Ninus.  The 
monarch  asked  her  of  her  husband,  and 
offered  him  instead  his  daughter  Sosana  ; 
but  Menones,  who  tenderly  loved  Semiramis, 
refused,  and  when  Ninus  had  added  threats 
to  entreaties,  he  hung  himself.  No  sooner 
was  Menones  dead,  than  Semiramis,  who  was 
of  an  aspiring  soul,  married  Ninus,  by  whom 
she  had  a son  called  Ninias. 

Ninus  was  so  fond  of  Semiramis,  that  at 
her  request  he  resigned  the  crown  to  her, 
and  commanded  her  to  be  proclaimed  queen 
and  sole  empress  of  Assyria.  Of  this,  how- 
ever, he  had  cause  to  repent ; Semiramis  put 
him  to  death,  the  better  to  establish  herself  on 
the  throne.  When  she  had  no  enemies  to 
fear  at  home,  she  began  to  repair  the  capital  of 
her  empire,  and  by  her  means  Babylon  became 
the  most  superb  and  magnificent  city  in  the 
world.  She  visited  every  part  of  her  domin- 
ions, and  left  everywhere  monuments  of  her 
greatness. 

To  render  the  roads  passable  and  commu- 
nication easy,  she  hollowed  mountains  and 
filled  up  valleys ; and  water  was  conveyed 
at  a great  expense,  by  large  and  convenient 
aqueducts,  to  barren  deserts  and  unfruitful 
plains.  She  was  not  less  distinguished  as  a 
warrior;  many  of  the  neighboring  nations 
were  conquered ; and  when  Semiramis  was 
once  told,  as  she  was  dressing  her  hair,  that 
Babylon  had  revolted,  she  left  her  toilet  with 
precipitation,  and  though  only  half  dressed, 
refused  to  have  the  rest  of  her  head  adorned 
before  the  sedition  was  quelled,  and  tranquil- 
lity re-established. 

Semiramis  has  been  accused  of  licentious- 
ness, and  modern  authors  have  drawn  a par- 
allel between  her  and  Catharine  of  Russia* 


SEM 


792 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


there  being  a great  resemblance  between 
them  in  the  principal  events  of  their  lives, 
their  masculine  talents,  and  their  private  im- 
morality of  conduct.  The  reign  of  Semira- 
mis  was  at  last  terminated  by  a conspiracy 
of  her  own  son  Ninias,  who  is  said  to  have 
put  her  to  death  with  his  own  hand.  Her 
fame  was  very  great  throughout  the  east. 
After  her  death  she  received  immortal  honors 
in  Assyria.  It  is  supposed  that  she  lived 
about  1965  yekrs  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  that  she  died  in  the  sixty-second  year 
of  her  age,  and  the  forty-second  of  her 
reign. 

SENECA,  M.  Annaeus,  a native  of  Cordu- 
ba  in  Spain,  who  married  Helvia,  a woman 
of  Spain,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons,  Sen- 
eca the  philosopher,  Annaeus  Novatus,  and 
Annaeus  Mela,  the  father  of  the  poet  Lucan. 
Seneca  made  himself  known  by  some  decla- 
mations, of  which  he  made  a collection  from 
the  most  celebrated  orators  of  the  age ; and 
from  that  circumstance,  and  for  distinction, 
he  obtained  the  appellation  of  declamator. 
He  left  Corduba,  and  went  to  Home,  where 
he  became  a Roman  knight. 

His  son,  L.  Annaeus  Seneca,  who  was  born 
about  a.d.  2,  was  early  distinguished  by  his 
extraordinary  talents.  He  was  taught  elo- 
quence by  his  father,  and  received  lessons  in 
philosophy  from  the  best  and  most  celebra- 
ted Stoics  of  the  age.  As  one  of  the  follow- 
ers of  the  Pythagorean  doctrines,  Seneca 
observed  the  utmost  abstinence,  and  in  his 
meals  never  ate  the  flesh  of  animals ; but 
this  he  abandoned  at  the  representation  of 
his  father,  when  Tiberius  threatened  to  pun- 
ish some  Jews  and  Egyptians  who  abstained 
from  certain  meats. 

In  the  character  of  a pleader,  Seneca  ap- 
peared with  great  advantage;  but  the  fear 
of  Caligula,  who  aspired  to  the  name  of  an 
eloquent  speaker,  and  who  consequently  was 
jealous  of  his  fame,  deterred  him  from  pursu- 
ing his  favorite  study,  and  he  sought  a safer 
employment  in  canvassing  for  the  honors  and 
offices  of  the  state.  He  was  made  quaestor, 
but  the  aspersions  which  were  thrown  upon 
him  on  account  of  a shameful  amour  with 
Julia  Livilla,  removed  him  from  Rome,  and 
the  emperor  banished  him  for  some  time  into 
Corsica.  During  his  banishment,  the  philos- 
opher wrote  some  spirited  epistles  to  his 


mother,  remarkable  for  eloquence  of  language 
and  for  sublimity  ;•  but  he  soon  forgot  his 
philosophy,  and  disgraced  himself  by  his  flat- 
teries to  the  emperor,  and  in  wishing  to  be 
recalled,  even  at  the  expense  of  his  innocence 
and  character. 

The  disgrace  of  Messalina  at  Rome,  and 
the  marriage  of  Agrippina  with  Claudius, 
proved  favorable  to  Seneca  ; and  after  he  had 
remained  five  years  in  Corsica,  he  was  re- 
called by  the  empress  to  take  care  of  the  ed- 
ucation of  her  son  Nero,  who  was  destined 
to  succeed  to  the  empire.  In  the  honorable 
duty  of  preceptor,  Seneca  gained  applause ; 
and  as  long  as  Nero  followed  his  advice,  Rome 
enjoyed  tranquillity,  and  believed  herself  safe 
and  happy  under  the  administration  of  the 
son  of  Agrippina. 

In  the  corrupt  age  of  Nero,  the  preceptor 
had  to  withstand  the  clamors  of  many  wicked 
and  profligate  ministers ; and  if  he  had  been 
the  favorite  of  the  emperor,  and  shared  his 
pleasures,  his  debauchery  and  extravagance, 
Nero  perhaps  would  not  have  been  so  anxious 
to  destroy  a man  whose  example,  from  vicious 
inclinations,  he  could  not  follow,  and  whose 
salutary  precepts  his  licentious  associates  for- 
bade him  to  obey.  Seneca  was  too  well 
acquainted  with  the  natural  disposition  of 
Nero  to  think  himself  secure ; he  had  been 
accused  of  having  amassed  the  most  ample 
riches,  and  of  having  built  sumptuous  houses, 
and  adorned  beautiful  gardens,  daring  the 
four  years  in  which  he  had  attended  Nero  as 
a preceptor  ; and  therefore  he  desired  his 
imperial  pupil  to  accept  of  the  riches  and 
the  possessions  which  attendance  on  his  per- 
son had  procured,  and  to  permit  him  to  retire 
to  solitude  and  study. 

Nero  refused,  with  artful  duplicity,  and  Sen- 
eca, to  avoid  further  suspicions,  kept  himself 
at  home  for  some  time,  as  if  laboring  under  a 
disease.  In  the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  which 
happened  some  time  after,  and  in  which  some 
of  the  most  noble  of  the  Roman  senators 
were  concerned,  Seneca’s  name  was  men- 
tioned by  Natalis  ; and  Nero,  who  was  glad 
of  an  opportunity  of  sacrificing  him  to  his 
secret  jealousy,  ordered  him  to  destroy  him- 
self. Seneca,  very  probably,  was  not  acces- 
sory to  the  conspiracy ; and  the  only  thing 
which  could  be  produced  against  him  as  a 
crimination,  was  trivial  and  unsatisfactory. 


SEN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


793 


Piso,  as  Natalis  declared,  had  complained  that 
he  never  saw  Seneca,  and  the  philosopher  had 
observed  in  answer,  that  it  was  not  proper  or 
conducive  to  their  common  interest,  to  see 
one  another  often.  He  further  pleaded  in- 
disposition, and  said  that  his  own  life  depend- 
ed upon  the  safety  of  Piso’s  person. 

Seneca  was  at  table  with  his  wife  Paulina 
and  two  of  his  friends,  when  the  messenger 
from  Nero  arrived.  He  heard  the  words 
which  commanded  him  to  destroy  himself, 
with  philosophical  firmness,  and  even  with 
joy ; and  observed  that  such  a mandate 
might  have  long  been  expected  from  a man 
who  had  murdered  his  own  mother, # and 
assassinated  all  his  friends.  He  wished  to 
dispose  of  his  possessions  as  he  pleased,  but 
this  was  refused ; and  when  he  heard  this, 
he  turned  to  his  friends,  who  were  weeping 
at  his  melancholy  fate,  and  told  them,  that 
since  he  could  not  leave  them  what  he  be- 
lieved his  own,  he  would  leave  them  at  least 
his  own  life  for  an  example, — an  innocent 
conduct  which  they  might  imitate,  and  by 
which  they  might  acquire  immortal  fame. 
Against  their  tears  and  wailings  he  exclaimed 
with  firmness,  and  asked  them  whether  they 
had  not  learnt  better  to  withstand  the  attacks 
of  fortune  and  the  violence  of  tyranny  ? 

As  for  his  wife,  he  attempted  to  calm  her 
emotions  ; and  when  she  seemed  resolved  to 
die  with  him,  he  said  he  was  glad  to  find  his 
example  followed  by  so  much  constancy. 
Their  veins  were  opened  at  the  same  moment, 
but  the  life  of  Paulina  was  preserved,  and 
Nero,  who  was  partial  to  her,  ordered 
the  blood  to  be  stopped  ; and  from  that  mo- 
ment, according  to  some  authors,  the  philos- 
opher’s wife  seemed  to  rejoice  that  she  could 
still  enjoy  the  comforts  of  life. 

Seneca’s  veins  bled  but  slowly ; the  sensi- 
ble and  animated  conversation  of  his  dying 
moments  was  collected  by  his  friends,  and 
has  been  preserved  among  his  works.  To 
hasten  his  death,  he  drank  a dose  of  poison, 
but  it  had  no  effect ; and  therefore  he  ordered 
himself  to  be  carried  into  a hot  bath,  to 
accelerate  the  operation  of  the  draught,  and 
to  make  the  blood  flow  mtx'e  freely.  This 
was  attended  with  no  better  success ; and  as 
the  soldiers  were  clamorous,  he  was  carried 
into  a stove,  and  suffocated  by  the  steam. 
a.d.  65. 


SERINGAPATAM,  a celebrated  city  of 
the  south  of  India.  In  the  month  of  Febru- 
ar}r,  1792,  it  was  invested  by  the  British  and 
allied  armies  under  Lord  Cornwallis,  amount- 
ing to  400,000  men.  Terrified  by  such  a 
host,  Tippoo  Sultan  relinquished  half  his 
dominions,  and  paid  three  and  a half  millions 
sterling  to  the  conquerors.  Seringapatam 
was  again  invested  in  1799,  by  the  British 
and  Nizam’s  forces,  and  was  stormed  on  the 
4th  of  May.  By  the  conquest  which  was 
thus  made,  it  became  the  property  of  th® 
British. 

SERTORIUS,  Quintus,  a Roman  general, 
born  at  Nursia.  His  first  campaign  was 
under  the  great  Marius,  against  the  Teutones 
and  Cimbri.  He  visited  the  enemy’s  camp  as 
a spy,  and  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  one  eye 
in  the  first  battle  he  fought.  When  Marius 
and  Cinna  entered  Rome  and  slaughtered  all 
their  enemies,  Sertorius  accompanied  them, 
but  he  expressed  his  sorrow  and  concern  at 
the  melancholy  death  of  so  many  of  his 
countrymen.  He  afterward  fled  for  safety 
into  Spain,  when  Sylla  had  proscribed  him, 
and  in  this  distant  province  he  behaved  him- 
self with  so  much  address  and  valor  that  he 
was  looked  upon  as  the  prince  of  the  country- 

The  Lusitanians  universally  revered  and 
loved  him,  and  the  Roman  general  did  not 
show  himself  less  attentive  to  their  interest, 
b}r  establishing  public  schools,  and  educating 
the  children  of  the  country  in  the  polite  arts, 
and  the  literature  of  Greece  and  Rome.  He 
had  established  a senate,  over  which  he  pre- 
sided with  consular  authority,  and  the  Ro- 
mans who  followed  his  standard,  paid  equal 
reverence  to  his  person  They  were  experi- 
mentally. convinced  of  his  valor  and  magna- 
nimity as  a general,  and  the  artful  manner  in 
which  he  imposed  upon  the  credulity  of  his 
adherents  in  the  garb  of  religion,  did  not 
diminish  his  reputation.  The  success  of 
Sertorius  in  Spain,  and  his  popularity  among 
the  natives,  alarmed  the  Romans. 

They  sent  some  troops  to  oppose  him,  but 
with  little  success.  Four  armies  were  found 
insufficient  to  crush  or  even  hurt  Sertorius  ; 
and  Pompey  and  Metellus,  who  had  never 
yet  engaged  an  enemy  without  obtaining  the 
victory,  were  driven  with  dishonor  from  the 
field.  But  the  favorite  of  the  Lusitanians 
was  exposed  to  the  dangers  which  usually 


SER 


794 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


attend  greatness.  Perpenna,  one  of  his  offi- 
cers, who  was  jealous  of  his  fame  and  tired 
of  a superior,  conspired  against  him.  At  a 
banquet  the  conspirators  began  to  open  their 
intentions  by  speaking  with  freedom  and 
licentiousness  in  the  presence  of  Sertorius, 
whose  age  and  character  had  hitherto  claimed 
deference  from  others.  Perpenna  overturned 
a glass  of  wine,  as  a signal  for  the  rest  of 
the  conspirators,  and  immediately  Antonius, 
one  of  his  officers,  stabbed  Sertorius,  and  the 
example  was  followed  by  all  the  rest,  b.c.  72. 

Sertorius  has  been  commended  for  his  love 
of  justice  and  moderation.  The  flattering 
description  which  he  heard  of  the  Fortunate 
Islands  when  he  passed  into  the  west  of 
Africa,  almost  tempted  him  to  bid  adieu  to 
the  world,  and  perhaps  he  would  have  retired 
from  the  noise  of  war,  and  the  clamors  of 
envy,  to  end  his  days  in  the  bosom  of  a 
peaceful  and  solitary  island,  had  not  the 
stronger  calls  of  ambition  and  the  love  of 
fame  prevailed  over  the  intruding  reflections 
of  a moment.  In  his  latter  days  Sertorius 
became  indolent,  and  fond  of  luxury  and  wan- 
ton cruelty  ; yet  in  affability,  clemency,  com- 
plaisance, generosity,  and  military  valor,  he 
surpassed  his  contemporaries. 

SERVIUS  TULLIUS,  the  sixth  king  of 
Rome,  belongs  to  the  mythical  period  of 
Roman  history.  The  legend  runs,  that  he 
was  son  of  Ocrisia,  a slave  of  Cornicu- 
lum,  by  Tullius,  a man  slain  in  the  defense 
of  his  country  against  the  Romans.  Ocrisia 
was  given  by  Tarquin  to  Tanaquil  his  wife, 
who  brought  him  up  as  her  son  in  the  king’s 
family,  and  added  the  name  of  Servius  to  that 
which  he  had  inherited  from  his  father,  to 
denote  his  slavery.  Young  Servius  was  edu- 
cated in  the  palace  of  the  monarch  with  great 
care,  and  though  originally  a slave,  he  raised 
himself  to  so  much  consequence,  that  Tarquin 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  His 
own  private  merit  and  virtues  recommended 
him  to  notice  not  less  than  the  royal  favors, 
and  Servius  became  the  favorite  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  darling  of  the  soldiers,  by  his 
liberality  and  complaisance,  and  was  easily 
raised  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father- 
in-law,  b.c.  578.  Rome  had  no  reason  to 
repent  of  her  choice. 

Servius  endeared  himself  still  more  as  a 
warrior  and  as  a legislator.  He  defeated  the 


Yeientes  and  the  Tuscans,  and  by  a proper 
act  of  policy  he  established  the  census,  which 
told  him  that  Rome  contained  about  eighty- 
four  thousand  inhabitants.  He  increased 
the  number  of  tribes,  he  beautified  and 
adorned  the  city,  and  enlarged  its  boundaries 
by  taking  within  its  walls  the  hills  Quirina- 
lis,  Viminalis,  and  Esquilinus.  He  also  divi- 
ded the  Roman  people  into  tribes,  and  that 
he  might  not  seem  to  neglect  the  worship  of 
the  gods,  he  built  several  temples  to  the  god- 
dess of  Fortune,  to  whom  he  deemed  himself 
particularly  indebted  for  obtaining  the  king- 
dom. He  also  built  a temple  to  Diana  on 
Mount  Aventine,  and  raised  himself  a palace 
on  the  hill  Esquilinus. 

Servius  married  his  two  daughters  to  the 
grandsons  of  his  predecessor  ; the  elder  to 
Tarquin,  and  the  younger  to  Aruns.  This 
union,  it  might  be  supposed,  tended  to  insure 
the  peace  of  his  family ; but  if  such  were 
his  expectations,  he  was  unhappily  deceived. 
The  wife  of  Aruns,  naturally  fierce  and  im. 
petuous,  murdered  her  own  husband  to  unite 
herself  to  Tarquin,  who  had  likewise  assassi- 
nated his  wife.  These  bloody  measures 
were  no  sooner  pursued,  than  Servius  was 
murdered  by  his  own  son-in-law,  and  his 
daughter  Tullia  showed  herself  so  destitute 
of  filial  gratitude  and  piety,  that  she  ordered 
her  chariot  to  be  driven  over  the  mangled 
body  of  her  father,  b.c.  534. 

SESOSTRIS,  or  Rameses,  the  Great,  was  a 
Pharaoh  of  the  Diospolitan  family,  under 
whom  ancient  Egypt  rose  to  its  greatest 
height  of  political  power  and  internal  splen- 
dor. This  greatest  of  the  Eg)^ptian  kings 
extended  his  conquests,  and  retained  domin- 
ion, from  the  Indus  to  the  Niger,  from  the 
Persian  Gulf  to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  He 
enriched  Egypt  with  the  spoils  of  these  many 
powerful  kingdoms  and  the  commerce  of 
India,  and  employed  his  treasures  in  building 
cities,  raising  banks  about  others,  or  eleva- 
ting with  immense  cost  the  whole  surface  of 
their  soil,  to  defend  them  from  the  inunda- 
tions of  the  Nile.  He  built  palaces  more 
magnificent  than  have  ever  before  or  since 
been  erected  by  the  hand  of  man.  Champol- 
lion  remarks  that  these  constructions  seem 
to  be  the  conceptions  of  men  one  hundred 
feet  high  ! Lost  in  admiration,  he  dared  not 
attempt  to  describe  his  feelings  before  struc- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


795 


tures  of  such  unequaled  majesty  and  beauty. 
But  the  highest  glory  of  Rameses  the  Great 
remains  to  be  told.  He  voluntarily  resigned 
the  power  his  ancestors  had  wrested  from  a 
savage  race  of  tyrants,  from  whom  the  foun- 
der of  their  dynasty  had  delivered  their 
native  country ; and  gave  to  the  people  the 
invaluable  right  of  possessing  property  in 
the  soil.  He  published  a written  code  of 
laws  more  than  1500  years  b.c.,  and  the 
wisdom  of  his  institutions  was  so  great,  that 
his  vast  empire  long  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  a 
wisely  administered  government.  Many  por- 
traits of  this  monarch  exist.  One  of  these 
was  taken  by  Champollion  with  the  greatest 
care  from  a colossal  statue  erected  by  him  at 
Memphis,  thirty-four  and  a half  feet  high  ; 
it  had  fallen  with  its  face  to  the  earth,  and 
thus  each  lineament  had  been  admirably  pre- 
served. 

Some  place  the  reign  of  Sesostris  about 
1618  b.c.,  others  more  than  a century  later; 
and  some  suppose  the  achievements  attrib- 
uted to  him  were  the  work  of  several  kings. 

SEVERUS,  Lucius  Septimius,  a Roman 
emperor,  born  at  Leptis  in  Africa,  of  a noble 
family,  a.d.  146.  He  gradually  exercised 
all  the  offices  of  the  state,  and  recommended 
himself  to  the  notice  of  the  world  by  an  am- 
bitious mind  and  a restless  activity,  that 
could,  for  the  gratification  of  avarice,  endure 
the  most  complicated  hardships.  After  the 
murder  of  Pertinax,  Severus  resolved  to 
remove  Didius  Julianus,  who  had  bought 
the  imperial  purple  when  exposed  for  sale 
by  the  licentiousness  of  the  praetorians,  and 
therefore  he  proclaimed  himself  emperor 
on  the  borders  of  Illyricum,  where  he  was 
stationed  against  the  barbarians.  To  sup- 
port himself  in  this  bold  measure,  he  took, 
as  his  partner  in  the  empire,  Albinus,  who 
was  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  forces  in  Bri- 
tain, and  immediately  marched  toward  Rome 
to  crush  Didius  and  all  his  partisans. 

He  was  received,  as  he  advanced  through 
the  country,  with  universal  acclamations,  and 
Julianus  himself  was  soon  deserted  by  his 
favorites,  and  assassinated  by  his  own  sol- 
diers. The  reception  of  Severus  at  Rome 
was  sufficient  to  gratify  his  pride  ; the  streets 
were  strewed  with  flowers,  and  the  submis- 
sive senate  were  ready  to  grant  whatever 
honors  or  titles  the  conqueror  claimed.  In 


professing  that  he  had  assumed  the  purple 
only  to  revenge  the  death  of  the  virtuous 
Pertinax,  Severus  gained  many  adherents, 
and  was  enabled  not  only  to  disarm  but  to 
banish  the  praetorians,  whose  insolence  and 
avarice  had  become  alarming,  not  only  to 
the  citizens  but  to  the  emperor. 

But  while  he  was  victorious  at  Rome,  Seve- 
rus did  not  forget  that  there  was  another 
competitor  for  the  imperial  purple.  Pescen- 
nius  Niger  was  in  the  east  at  the  head  of  a 
powerful  army,  and  with  the  name  and 
ensigns  of  Augustus.  Many  obstinate  bat- 
tles were  fought  between  the  troops  and  offi- 
cers of  the  imperial  rivals,  till  on  the  plains 
of  Issus,  which  above  five  centuries  before 
had  been  covered  with. the  blood  of  the  Per- 
sian soldiers  of  Darius,  Niger  was  totally 
ruined  by  the  loss  of  20,000  men.  The  head 
of  Niger  was  cut  off  and  sent  to  the  con- 
queror, who  punished  in  a most  cruel  manner 
all  the  partisans  of  his  unfortunate  rival. 
Severus  afterward  pillaged  Byzantium,  which 
had  shut  her  gates  against  him  ; and  after  he 
had  conquered  several  nations  in  the  east, 
he  returned  to  Rome,  resolved  to  destroy 
Albinus,  with  whom  he  had  hitherto  reluc- 
tantly shared  the  imperial  power.  He 
attempted  to  assassinate  him  by  his  emis- 
saries ; but  when  this  had  failed  of  success, 
Severus  had  recourse  to  arms,  and  the  fate 
of  the  empire  was  again  decided  on  the  plains 
of  Gaul. 

Albinus  was  defeated,  and  the  conqueror 
was  so  elated  with  the  recollection  that  he 
had  now  no  longer  a competitor  for  the  pur- 
ple, that  he  insulted  the  dead  body  of  his 
rival,  and  ordered  it  to  be  thrown  into  the 
Rhone,  after  he  had  suffered  it  to  putrefy 
before  the  door  of  his  tent,  and  to  be  torn  by 
his  dogs.  The  family  and  the  adherents  of 
Albinus  shared  his  fate ; and  the  return  of 
Severus  to  the  capital  was  followed  by  days 
as  bloody  as  those  of  Marius  and  Sylla.  The 
richest  citizens  were  sacrificed,  and  their 
money  became  the  property  of  the  emperor. 
The  wicked  Commodus  received  divine  hon- 
ors, and  his  murderers  were  punished  in  the 
most  wanton  manner. 

Tired  of  the  inactive  life  which  he  led  in 
Rome,  Severus  marched  into  the  east,  with 
his  two  sons  Caracalla  and  Geta,  and  with 
uncommon  success  made  himself  master  of 


SEY 


796 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Seleucia,  Babylon,  and  Ctesiphon ; and  ad- 
vanced without  opposition  far  into  the  Par- 
thian territories.  From  Parthia  the  emperor 
marched  toward  the  more  southern  provinces 
of  Asia ; he  entered  Alexandria,  and  after  he 
had  granted  a senate  to  that  celebrated  city, 
viewed  with  criticising  and  inquisitive  curi- 
osity the  monuments  and  ruins  of  Egypt. 
The  revolt  of  Britain  recalled  him  from  the 
east.  After  he  had  reduced  it  under  his 
power,  he  built  a wrall  across  the  northern 
part  of  the  island,  to  defend  it  against  the 
frequent  invasions  of  the  Caledonians.  Hith- 
erto successful  against  his  enemies,  Severus 
now  found  the  peace  of  his  family  disturbed. 
Caracalla  attempted  to  murder  his  father  as 
he  was  concluding  a treaty  of  peace  with  the 
Britons ; and  the  emperor  was  so  shocked  at 
the  undutifulness  of  his  son,  that  on  his  return 
home  he  called  him  into  his  presence,  and 
after  he  had  upbraided  him  for  his  ingrati- 
tude and  perfidy,  he  offered  him  a drawn 
sword,  adding,  “ If  you  are  so  ambitious  of 
reigning  alone,  now  imbrue  your  hands  in 
the  blood  of  your  father,  and  let  not  the  eyes 
of  the  world  be  witnesses  of  your  want  of 
filial  tenderness.”  If  these  words  checked 
Caracalla,  yet  he  did  not  show  himself  con- 
cerned, and  Severus,  worn  out  with  infirmi- 
ties, which  the  gout  and  the  uneasiness  of 
his  mind  increased,  soon  after  died,  exclaim- 
ing he  had  been  everything  man  could  wish, 
but  that  he  was  then  nothing. 

Some  say  that  he  wished  to  poison  himself, 
but  that  when  this  was  denied,  he  ate  to  great 
excess,  and  soon  after  expired  at  York,  a.d. 
211,  in  the  sixty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  after 
a reign  of  seventeen  years,  eight  months,  and 
three  days.  Severus  has  been  so  much  ad- 
mired for  his  military  talents,  that  some  have 
called  him  the  most  warlike  of  the  Homan 
emperors.  As  a monarch,  he  was  cruel,  and 
and  it  has  been  observed  that  he  never  did 
an  act  of  humanity  or  forgave  a fault  In 
his  diet  he  was  temperate,  and  he  always 
showed  himself  an  enemy  to  pomp  and  splen- 
dor. He  loved  the  appellation  of  a man  of 
letters,  and  he  even  composed  a history  of 
his  own  reign,  which  some  have  praised  for 
its  correctness  and  veracity.  However  cruel 
Severus  may  appear  in  his  punishments  and 
in  his  revenge,  many  have  endeavored  to 
exculpate  him,  and  observed  that  there  was 


need  of  severity  in  an  empire  whose  morals 
wrere  so  corrupt.  Of  him,  as  of  Augustus, 
some  were  found  to  say,  that  it  would  have 
been  better  for  the  world  if  he  had  never 
been  born,  or  had  never  died. 

SEVERUS,  Marcus  Aurelius  Alexander, 
a native  of  Phoenicia,  adopted  by  Heliogaba- 
lus.  His  father’s  name  was  Genisius  Marci- 
anus,  and  his  mother’s  Julia  Maminsea,  and 
he  received  the  surname  of  Alexander,  be- 
cause he  was  born  in  a temple  sacred  to 
Alexander  the  Great.  He  was  carefully  edu- 
cated, and  his  mother,  by  paying  particular 
attention  to  his  morals  and  the  character  of 
his  preceptors,  preserved  him  from  the  vices 
and  licentiousness  of  youth.  At  the  death 
of  Heliogabalus,  who  had  been  jealous  of 
his  virtues,  Alexander,  though  only  in  the 
fourteenth  year  of  his  age,  was  proclaimed 
emperor,  and  his  nomination  was  approved 
by  the  universal  shouts  of  the  army  and  the 
congratulations  of  the  senate.  He  had  not 
long  been  on  the  throne  before  the  peace'of 
the  empire  was  disturbed  by  the  incursions 
of  the  Persians.  He  marched  into  the  east 
without  delay,  and  soon  obtained  a decisive 
\ictory  over  the  barbarians. 

At  his  return  to  Rome,  he  was  honored 
with  a triumph,  but  the  revolt  of  the  Ger- 
mans soon  after  called  him  away  from  the 
indolence  of  the  capital.  His  expedition  in 
Germany  was  attended  with  some  success, 
but  his  virtues  and  amiable  qualities 
were  forgotten  in  the  stern  strictness  of  the 
disciplinarian.  His  soldiers,  fond  of  repose, 
murmured  against  his  severity  ; their  clamors 
were  fomented  by  the  artifice  of  Maximinus, 
and  Alexander  was  murdered  in  his  tent,  in 
the  midst  of  his  camp,  after  a reign  of  thir- 
teen years  and  nine  days,  on  the  18th  of 
March,  a.d.  235.  His  mother  shared  his 
fate,  with  all  his  friends ; but  this  was  no 
sooner  known  than  the  soldiers  punished  with 
immediate  death,  all  such  as  had  been 
concerned  in  the  murder,  except  Maximi- 
nus. 

SEVILLE,  on  the  Guadalquivir,  in  Anda- 
lusia, is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Spain ; population  85,000. 

This  is  the  Hespolis  of  the  Phoenicians, 
and  the  Julia  of  the  Romans.  It  is.  built  in 
the  Moorish  style,  and  contains  many  edifices 
noteworthy  for  their  age  or  their  architect- 


SEV 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


797 


are.  After  the  decline  of  the  Roman  colony, 
Seville  was  held  by  the  Goths. 

It  opened  its  gates  to  the  Moors  in  711, 
and  continued  in  their  possession  more  than 
five  centuries.  It  was  taken  by  the  Chris- 
tians in  1247,  after  one  of  the  most  obstinate 
sieges  mentioned  in  Spanish  history.  It  was 
the  capital  of  Spain,  until  Philip  II.  finally 
fixed  his  court  at  Madrid,  15G3.  In  1729  a 
treaty  was  concluded  here  between  Spain, 
England,  France,  and  Holland.  On  the  inva- 
sion of  Spain  by  Bonaparte,  in  1808,  Seville 
asserted  the  national  independence,  and 
received  the  junta  when  driven  from  Madrid. 
It  surrendered,  however,  to  the  French,  on 
the  1st  of  February,  1810,  and  remained  in 
their  hands  till  the  27th  of  August,  1812, 
when  they  were  compelled  to  leave  it  in  con- 
sequence, not  of  insurrection  on  the  part  of 
the  inhabitants,  but  of  the  general  evacua- 
tion of  the  south  of  Spain  consequent  on 
their  defeat  at  Salamanca. 

SEYMOUR,  Edward,  Duke  of  Somerset, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  John  Seymour,  by 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Sir  Henry  Went- 
worth. In  1533,  he  accompanied  the  Duke 
of  Suffolk  to  France,  and  was  knighted  the 
same  year.  On  his  sister’s  marriage  to  Henry 
VIII.,  he  was  created  Viscount  Beauchamp.  In 
1544  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  of 
the  north,  and  commanded  an  expedition 
against  the  Scots.  The  same  year  he  was  at 
the  siege  of  Boulogne,  where  he  defeated  the 
French,  who  lay  encamped  before  the  place. 
By  the  king’s  will,  he  was  nominated  one  of 
his  executors  and  governor  of  his  son ; and 
soon  after  was  declared  protector  of  the  king- 
dom. In  1548  he  was  appointed  lord  treas- 
urer, created  Duke  of  Somerset,  and  made 
earl  marshal  of  England.  The  same  year  he 
marched  into  Scotland,  and  gained  the  victo- 
ry of  Musselburgh ; but  though  this  raised 
his  reputation,  his  fate  was  now  fast  approach- 
ing, to  which  the  execution  of  his  brother, 
the  admiral,  greatty  contributed.  His  great- 
est enemy  was  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  and 
though  a marriage  had  been  effected  between 
their  children,  yet  when  that  nobleman  be- 
came Duke  of  Northumberland,  he  accused 
Seymour  of  treason,  and  the  latter  was  exe- 
cuted on  Tower  Hill,  Jan.  22d,  1552. 

SFORZA,  James,  called  the  Great,  was 


born  of  mean  parents,  at  Cotignola,  in  13G9. 
His  original  name  was  Giacomo  Attendolo, 
and  he  was  called  Sforza  because  of  his  great 
vigor.  He  entered  the  army  as  a common 
soldier,  and  by  his  good  conduct  rose  to  the 
rank  of  general,  and  afterward  was  made 
constable  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Pope 
John  XXIII.  also  appointed  him  gonfalonier 
of  the  church,  and  created  him  a count.  He 
compelled  Alphonso  of  Arragon  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Naples  ; but  in  pursuing  the  flying 
enemy,  he  fell  into  the  river  near  Pescara, 
and  was  drowned  in  1424. 

His  natural  son,  Francis  Sforza,  com- 
manded with  distinction  in  the  service  of 
Naples  ; after  which  he  married  the  daughter 
of  the  Duke  of  Milan,  on  whose  death  he  was 
chosen  general  of  the  duchy  ; but  he  abused 
that  trust,  and  usurped  the  dukedom.  He 
also  made  himself  master  of  Genoa,  and  died 
in  14G6.  His  descendants  held  the  duchy  for 
several  generations. 

SHAFTESBURY.  The  first  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury  was  a brilliant  but  inconsistent 
statesman  in  the  reigns  of  the  second  Charles 
and  James  in  England.  He  was  born  in 
1621.  Although  a royalist,  he  accepted  a 
commission  from  parliament,  but  contributed 
to  the  restoration  of  the  king,  and  was 
accordingly  rewarded.  Having  been  acquit- 
ted on  his  trial  for  high  treason  in  1 G81,  he 
died  in  Holland  in  1688.  His  grandson, 
Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  the  third  earl, 
attained  distinction  as  an  elegant  philosophi- 
cal writer.  He  was  born  in  London  in  1671, 
and  died  at  Naples  in  February,  1713.  His 
style,  though  labored,  is  lofty  and  musical. 

SHAKSPEARE,  William,  was  born  at 
Stratford  upon  Avon,  a market  town  of  War- 
wickshire in  England,  in  1564.  His  birth- 
day is  not  known  with  certainty,  but  it  is 
conjectured  to  have  been  the  23d  of  April. 
His  father  was  named  John.  His  mother 
was  Mary  Arden,  of  the  ancient  family  of  the 
Ardens.  John  Shakspeare  has  been  called  a 
butcher,  a wool-stapler,  a glover : in  that 
age  of  less  subdivision  of  occupations,  he 
may  have  been  all  three.  Of  Shakspeare’s 
youth  little  is  known : some  say  he  was 
an  attorney’s  clerk  : a general  tradition  is 
that  he  was  a wild  young  fellow,  given  to 
poaching  and  deer-stealing.  At  Shottery,  a 


SHA 


798 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


pretty  village  within  a mile  of  Stratford,  the 
cottage  is  still  standing  where  dwelt  Ann 
Hathaway,  whom  he  wooed  and  won,  and 
who  became  his  wife  in  1582.  By  this  mar- 
riage there  were  two  daughters  and  a son : 
Susanna,  Hammett,  and  Judeth.  Hammett 
died  in  1596  : the  daughters  survived  their 
father,  and  inherited  his  property. 

Soon  after  his  marriage,  Shakspeare  re- 
moved'to  London,  and  became  connected  with 
the  Blackfriars  Theatre,  of  which  he  was 
shortly  one  of  the  proprietors.  For  this  his 
plays  were  written,  to  very  few  of  which, 
however,  can  any  positive  dates  be  assigned. 
Here  he  grew  to  be  well  to  do  in  the  world, 
and  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  he  retired  to  his  native  town,  where 
he  resided,  looked  up  to  by  his  neighbors, 
thenceforth  till  his  death.  His  eldest  daugh- 
ter, in  1607,  married  Dr.  Hall,  an  eminent 
physician  in  Stratford,  and  died  in  1649. 
Judeth  married  Thomas  Quincy,  a thriving 
tradesman,  in  February,  1616,  and  died  in 
1662.  Neither  daughter  left  any  heir  male. 
Shakspeare  himself  died  in  April,  1616.  He 
was  buried  the  25th  of  April : the  day  of 
his  decease  is  not  known.  Ann,  his  wife, 
survived  till  1623.  Aubrey  speaks  of  the 
dramatist  as  “.a  handsome,  well  shaped  man, 
verie  good  company,  and  of  a verie  pleasant, 
reddie,  and  smooth  witt.” 

Shakspeare  lies  buried  beneath  the  chancel 
of  the  fine  old  parish  church  of  Stratford. 
On  the  flag  above  his  ashes  these  quaint 
words  are  cut : — - 

“ GOOD  FREND  FOR  IESUS  SAKE  FORBEARE, 

TODIGG  THE  DVST  ENCLOASED  HEARE  : 

BLESE  BE  YK  MAN  YT  SPARES  TIIES  STONES, 

AND  CVRST  BE  HE  YT  MOVES  MY  BONES.” 

SHARP,  Granville,  an  untiring  advocate 
for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  Great  Britain 
and  elsewhere,  died  in  1813,  aged  seventy- 
nine. 

SHEFFIELD,  John,  Duke  of  Buckingham- 
shire, was  the  son  of  Edward,  Earl  of  Mul- 
grave,  and  born  in  1049.  At  the  age  of  sev- 
enteen he  served  in  the  fleet,  and  afterward- 
had  the  command  of  a troop  of  horse.  In 
1680,  being  then  Lord  Mulgrave,  he  was  sent 
to  the  relief  of  Tangier,  which  service  he 
accomplished.  He  complied  very  much  with 
the  measures  of  Jame&  IT.,  and  yet  concurred 
in  the  revolution,  after  which  he  was  created 
Marques  of  Normandy  and  Duke  of  Buck- 


inghamshire. He  died  in  1720,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

He  is  said  to  have  ‘ made  love  ’ to  Queen 
Anne  when  they  both  were  young ; and  when 
she  became  sovereign,  she  did  not  forget  to 
exalt  him.  He  wrote  several  poems. 

SHELBY,  Isaac,  was  born  Dec.  11th, 
1750,  near  Hagerstown,  Md.  In  1776  he 
commanded  a company  raised  by  the  com- 
mittee of  safety  of  Virginia,  and  marched 
against  the  hostile  Indians.  After  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Revolutionary  war,  throughout 
which  he  behaved  with  courage,  he  settled  in 
Kentucky,  of  which  state  he  was  chosen  the 
first  governor  in  1792.  In  1813  he  emerged 
from  private  life  and  joined  Gen.  Harrison  on 
the  frontier  of  Ohio  with  4,CC0  volunteers. 
He  died  of  apoplexy,  July  18th,  1826. 

SHELLEY,  Percy  Bysshe,  was  the  son  of 
a wealthy  baronet  of  Sussex,  in  which  shire 
he  was  born,  Aug.  4th,  1792.  In  boyhood 
he  was  a republican  and  a skeptic.  Either 
of  these  characters  was  sufficient  to  brand 
one  of  his  position  as  an  outcast  from  Eng- 
lish society  ; and  his  life  was  blasted  and 
unhappy.  Its  later  years  were  passed  in 
Italy.  He  was  temperate  in  his  habits,  gen- 
tle, affectionate,  and  generous  ; so  that  even 
those  who  deplored  or  detested  his  opinions 
were  charmed  with  the  intellectual  purity 
and  benevolence  of  his  life.  He  was  acci- 
dentally drowned  in  the  Bay  of  Spezia,  the 
8th  of  July,  1822.  His  body  washed  ashore, 
was  reduced  to  ashes  by  fire,  and  those  were 
deposited  in  the  Protestant  burial-ground  at 
Rome,  near  the  remains  of  a child  he  had 
lately  lost.  Much  of  Shelley’s  poetry  is  ab- 
stract and  obscure ; too  many  of  its  scenes 
are  ghastly  and  repulsive ; yet  amid  these 
faults  are  some  of  the  purest  strains  in  our 
language, — the  odes  to  the  Cloud  and  the 
Skylark,  for  instance. 

SHENSTONE,  William,  born  in  1714,  at 
the  Leasowes,  his  father’s  little  estate  in 
Shropshire,  died  there  in  1763.  He  wrote 
“ The  Schoolmistress,”  and  some  lesser 
poems,  but  spent  most  of  his  time  and  too 
much  of  his  money  in  landscape  gardening 
and  ornamental  agriculture,  on  the  Leasowes. 

SHERIDAN,  Richard  Brinsley,  a cele- 
brated wit,  author,  and  statesman,  was  the 
son  of  Thomas  Sheridan,  and  was  born  in 
Dublin,  Oct.  30th,  1751.  Having  quitted  th* 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


799 


Dublin  school,  he  was  placed  at  Harrow, 
which  he  left  in  his  eighteenth  year.  While 
yet  at  school,  his  wit  and  humor  began  to 
appear,  though  in  learning  he  rated  as  a 
blockhead.  At  an  early  age  he  married  Miss 
Linley,  a beautiful  young  lady,  who,  at  the 
concerts  and  theatre  at  Bath,  had  attracted 
universal  admiration.  He  did  not  obtain  her 
without  difficulty,  for  he  was  forced  to  fight 
two  duels  with  a Captain  Matthews,  which 
stand  unequaled  in  the  history  of  single 
combats  for  ferocity  and  determination.  In 
1775  his  comedy  of  “The  Rivals”  was  pro- 
duced with  success  at  Covcnt  Garden  theatre. 
Although  this  comedy  has  not  the  wit  of 
“ The  School  for  Scandal,”  it  always  elicits 
rapturous  applause.  In  1780  Mr.  Sheridan 
was  returned  to  parliament  for  Stafford,  and 
soon  became  distinguished  as  a powerful 
speaker  on  the  side  of  the  opposition,  with 
Fox  and  Burke.  When  the  Rockingham 
party  came  into  power,  he  was  made  one  of 
the  under  secretaries ; and  in  the  coalition 
administration  he  was  appointed  to  the  treas- 
ury. That  post,  however,  he  did  not  hold 
long,  and  during  the  whole  of  Mr.  Pitt’s 
ascendency,  the  talents  of  Sheriden  were  dis- 
played in  combating  that  statesman.  On  the 
trial  of  Mr.  Hastings,  he  acted  a prominent 
part,  and  his  eloquence  had  an  electrifying 
effect  upon  his  auditors. 

On  the  conclusion  of  Mr.  Sheridan's  speech 
on  the  Begum  charge,  on  the  impeachment 
of  Mr.  Hastings,  the  whole  assembl}'-,  mem- 
bers, peers,  and  strangers,  involuntarily 
joined  in  a tumult  of  applause,  and  adopted  a 
mode  of  expressing  their  approbation  new 
and  irregular  in  Westminster  Hall,  by  loudl}r 
and  repeatedly  clapping  their  hands.  A mo- 
tion was  immediately  made  and  carried  for 
an  adjournment,  that  the  members,  who  were 
in  a state  of  delirious  insensibility  from  the 
talismanic  influence  of  such  powerful  elo- 
quence, might  have  time  to  collect  their  scat- 
tered senses  for  the  exercise  of  a sober  judg- 
ment. The  motion  was  made  by  Mr.  Pitt, 
who  declared  that  this  speech  “ surpassed  all 
the  eloquence  of  ancient  and  modern  times, 
and  possessed  everything  that  genius  or  art 
could  furnish,  to  agitate  and  control  the 
human  mind.” 

“ He  has  this  da}',”  said  Burke,  “ surprised 
the  thousands  who  hung  with  rapture  upon 


his  accents,  by  such  an  array  of  talents, 
such  an  exhibition  of  capacity,  such  a dis- 
play of  powers,  as  are  unparalleled  in  the 
annals  of  oratory ! a display  that  reflects  the 
highest  honor  upon  himself,  a lustre  upon 
letters,  renown  upon  parliament,  glory  upon 
the  country.  Of  all  species  of  rhetoric,  of 
every  kind  of  eloquence  that  has  been  wit- 
nessed or  recorded,  either  in  ancient  or  mod- 
ern times ; whatever  the  acuteness  hf  the 
bar,  the  dignity  of  the  senate,  the  solidity 
of  the  judgment  seat,  and  the  sacred  moral- 
ity of  the  pulpit,  have  hitherto  furnished, — 
nothing  has  surpassed,  nothing  has  equaled, 
what  we  have  this  day  heard  in  Westminster 
Hall.  No  holy  seer  of  religion,  no  states- 
man, no  orator,  no  man  of  any  literary  de- 
scription whatever,  has  come  up,  in  one 
instance,  to  the  pure  sentiments  of  morality, 
or,  in  the  other,  to  the  variety  of  knowledge, 
force  of  imagination,  propriety  and  vivacity 
of  allusion,  beauty  and  eloquence  of  diction, 
strength  and  copiousness  of  style,  pathos  and 
sublimity  of  conception,  to  which  we  have 
this  day  listened  with  ardor  and  admiration. 
From  poetry  up  to  eloquence,  there  is  not  a 
species  of  composition  of  which  a complete 
and  perfect  specimen  might  not  from  that 
single  speech  be  culled  and  collected.” 

The  specimens  of  the  speech  thus  extrava- 
gantly praised,  that  have  come  down  to  us, 
do  not  at  all  account  for  the  extraordinary 
effect  which  it  had  upon  an  audience  made 
up  of  the  brightest  talent  and  keenest  judg- 
ment of  the  time. 

In  1702  Mr.  Sheridan  had  the  misfortune 
to  lose  his  wife,  who  left  one  son,  Thomas 
Sheridan.  Three  years  afterward  he  married 
Miss  Ogle,  daughter  of  the  Dean  of  Winches- 
ter. But  neither  the  large  fortune  which 
this  lady  brought  him,  nor  the  receiver- 
generalship  of  Cornwall,  nor  his  interest  in 
Drury  Lane  theatre,  were  able  to  supply  Sher- 
idan’s extravagances,  and  put  him  beyond 
the  reach  of  pecuniary  embarrassment.  After 
the  death  of  Mr.  Fox,  Sheridan  was  deprived 
of  office.  His  intemperate  habits  and  indo- 
lence completed  the  ruin  which  the  burning 
of  Drury  Lane  theatre  began.  Yet  this 
calamity  was  borne  with  equanimity.  Some 
of  his  companions  found  Sheridan  at  a neigh- 
boring ale-house  quietly  surveying  the  raging 
flames  which  were  rapidly  consuming  his 


800 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


property.  On  observing  their  astonishment, 
Sheridan  coolly  observed,  u Why  shouldn’t  a 
man  enjoy  his  pot  and  pipe  by  his  own  fire- 
side.” 

Intemperance  had  undermined  his  consti- 
tution, and  he  died  in  miserable  circumstan- 
ces, July  7th,  1816.  His  plays  are  “The 
Rivals,”  “The  Duenna,”  “School  for  Scan- 
dal,” “St.  Patrick’s  Day,  or  the  Scheming 
Lieutenant,”  “ Trip  to  Scarborough,”  “ The 
Camp,”  “The  Critic,  or  Tragedy  Rehearsed,” 
“Robinson  Crusoe,  or  Harlequin  Friday,” 
and  “ Pizarro,”  a tragedy  translated  from 
the  German.  Byron’s  monody  on  Sheridan 
concludes  thus : — 

Ye  orators!  whom  yet  our  councils  lead, 

Mourn  for  the  veteran  hero  of  your  field ! 

The  worthy  rival  of  the  wondrous  three  ! 

Whose  words  were  sparks  of  immortality  ! 

Ye  bards  ! to  whom  the  drama’s  muse  is  dear ! 
He  was  your  master — emulate  him  here  ! 

Ye  men  of  wit  and  social  eloquence ! 

He  was  your  brother — bear  his  ashes  hence 
While  powers  of  mind  almost  of  boundless 
range, 

Complete  in  kind — as  various  in  their  change  ; 
While  eloquence — wit — poesy — and  mirth 
(That  humbler  harmonist  of  care  on  earth), 
Survive  within  our  souls — while  lives  our  sense 
Of  pride  in  merit’s  proud  pre-eminence, 

Long  shall  we  seek  his  likeness — long  in  vain, 
And  turn  to  all  of  him  which  may  remain, 
Sighing  that  Nature  formed  but  one  such  man, 
And  broke  the  die — in  moulding  Sheridan  ! 

Some  of  Sheridan’s  bon  mots  will  be  long 
remembered  for  their  brilliancy.  He  once 
remarked  that  the  tax  upon  mile-stones  was 
unconstitutional:  “Because,”  said  he,  “they 
are  a race  that  can  not  meet  to  remonstrate.” 

Young  Tom  Sheridan  once  said  to  his  fa- 
ther : “If  ever  I get  into  parliament,  I mean 
to  set  up  a sign  on  my  head,  inscribed  To  let.” 
“Aye,”  said  Sheridan,  “and  add — unfur- 
nished.” 

Sheridan  was  fond  of  practical  jokes,  one 
of  which  he  played  off  upon  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire.  Sheridan  was  in  the  habit  of 
frequenting  Dolly’s  chop-house,  where  he 
generally  called  for  deviled  shin-bone  of  beef. 
One  day,  coming  in  rather  later  than  usual, 
he  was  told  that  the  only  shin-bone  in  the 
larder  was  being  cooked  for  his  grace  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire.  Sheridan,  wdio  knew 
the  Duke’s  person,  though  not  acquainted 
with  him,  took  a seat  within  ear-shot  of  him 
and  began  a conversation  with  a friend  in  a 
loud  tone  of  voice.  “I  always  imagined,' 


said  he,  “ that  Dolly’s  chop-house  was  one 
of  the  neatest  establishments  in  London,  but 
I made  a discovery  this  morning  which  has 
convinced  me  that  I was  mistaken.”  The 
duke  listened  very  attentively.  “As  I was 
passing  the  kitchen  window,”  continued 
Sheridan,  “ I observed  a turnspit-boy  greed- 
ily gnawing  a shin-bone  of  beef.  Presently 
one  of  the  cooks  ran  up  to  him,  and  giving 
him  a blow  on  the  neck,  compelled  him  to 
drop  his  prize.  ‘You  dirty  little  rascal,’ 
said  the  cook,  ‘ couldn’t  you  find  nothing  else 
to  eat  ? Here  I’ve  got  to  cook  this  bone  for 
the  Duke  of  Devonshire.’  ” Soon  after  the 
conclusion  of  this  tale,  a waiter  entered  the 
room,  and  advanced  to  his  grace,  with  a cov- 
ered dish.  “Your  bone,  sir!”  “Take  it 
away,”  roared  the  duke,  with  a face  of  great 
disgust,  “ I can’t  touch  a morsel  of  it.” 
“Stay,  waiter!”  said  Sheridan,  humbly; 
“bring  it  to  me.  If  his  grace  can’t  eat  it,  I 
can.  Fetch  me  a bottle  of  claret — I don’t 
wish  a better  luncheon.” 

Two  young  sprigs  of  nobility  once  accosted 
Sheridan  in  Bond  street.  “ Sherry,”  said 
one  of  them  familiarly,  “ my  friend  and  I 
have  been  discussing  the  question  whether 
you  are  knave  or  fool.”  “ Why,”  said  the 
wit,  taking  an  arm  of  each,  I believe  I am 
between  both.” 

SHERMAN,  Roger,  a signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  wras  born  at  Newton, 
Mass.,  April  19th,  1721,  and  was  appren- 
ticed to  a shoemaker.  In  1743  the  family 
moved  to  New  Milford  in  Connecticut,  where 
he  entered  upon  trade  as  a country  merchant. 
Having,  however,  always  displayed  a desire 
for  knowledge,  he  studied  with  diligence,  and 
in  1754  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1759 
he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  court  of  com- 
mon pleas  in  Litchfield.  Two  years  after- 
ward he  removed  to  New  Haven,  and  in  1765 
was  appointed  judge  of  the  Superior  Court, 
and  treasurer  of  Yale  College.  After  holding 
a seat  in  the  general  assembly  of  Connecti- 
cut, he  was  sent  to  Congress  in  1775.  Mr. 
Sherman  was  one  of  the  committee  selected 
to  draft  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
was  a representative  in  the  first  federal  con- 
gress, and  in  1791  was  chosen  United  States 
senator  from  Connecticut.  He  died  July  23d, 
1793,  in  the  seventy-third  year  of  his  age. 

SIIIPPEN,  William,  professor  of  anatomy 


Sill 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


801 


in  the  Pennsylvania  University,  from  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  medical  school  until  his 
death,  in  1808. 

SHIRLEY,  James,  born  in  London  inl59fi, 
was  the  last  of  the  great  race  of  old  English 
dramatists.  He  was  designed  for  the  church, 
and  Laud  refused  to  ordain  him  because  of  a 
mole  that  disfigured  his  left  cheek.  When 
the  civil  wars  broke  out,  he  changed  the  pen 
for  the  sword,  and  fought  for  the  king.  The 
shutting  of  the  theatres  by  the  Puritans, 
ruined  his  occupation  as  a dramatist.  The 
restoration  did  not  mend  his  fortunes,  and  the 
great  fire  of  1666  in  London  left  him  house- 
less. Soon  after  this,  he  and  his  wife  died 
on  the  same  day. 

SHORE,  Jane,  mistress  of  Edward  IV.  of 
England,  and  afterward  of  the  unfortunate 
Lord  Hastings,  was  a woman  of  exquisite 
beauty  and  kind  heart,  but  not  of  virtue 
enough  to  resist  the  temptations  of  a royal 
lover.  She  was  fated  to  incur  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  who  had  been 
made  protector  of  the  realm  on  the  death 
of  Edward.  This  unfortunate  woman  was 
an  enemy  too  humble  to  excite  the  protect- 
or’s jealousy ; yet  as  he  had  accused  her  of 
witchcraft,  of  which  she  was  innocent,  he 
thought  proper  to  make  her  an  example  for 
those  faults  of  which  she  was  really  guilty. 
Jane  Shore  had  been  deluded  from  her  hus- 
band, who  was  a goldsmith  in  Lombard  street, 
and  not  the  best  of  husbands,  and  lived  with 
Edward  the  most  guiltless  mistress  in  his 
abandoned  court.  The  charge  against  her 
was  too  notorious  to  be  denied  ; she  pleaded 
guilty,  and  was  accordingly  condemned  to 
walk  barefoot  through  the  city,  and  do  pen- 
ance in  St.  Paul’s  church,  in  a white  sheet, 
with  a wax  taper  in  her  hand,  before  thou- 
sands of  spectators.  She  lived  above  forty 
years  after  this  sentence,  and  was  reduced  to 
the  most  extreme  indigence. 

SHOVEL,  Sir  Cloudesley,  a gallant  Eng- 
lish admiral,  was  born  near  Clay,  in  Norfolk, 
about  1650.  In  1674  he  was  a lieutenant 
under  Sir  John  Narborough,  who  sent  Mr. 
Shovel  to  the  Dey  of  Tripoli  with  a requisi- 
tion, which  the  Moor  treated  with  contempt. 
Sir  John  then  dispatched  the  lieutenant  on 
shore  again,  when  the  dey  behaved  much 
worse  than  before.  On  his  return,  Shovel 
stated  to  the  admiral  the  practicability  of 

51 


destroying  the  enemy’s  shipping,  which  ser- 
vice he  performed  the  same  night  without  the 
loss  of  a man.  For  this  exploit  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  a ship. 

After  the  revolution  he  was  knighted,  and 
made  a rear-admiral,  in  which  capacity  he 
had  a share  in  the  victory  of  La  Hogue.  In 
1703  he  commanded  a fleet  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  the  year  following  partook  in  the 
victory  off  Malaga.  In  1705  he  sailed  for 
England,  and  in  the  night  of  Oct.  22d,  fell 
by  mistake  upon  the  rocks  of  Sylla,  where 
his  ship  was  totally  lost,  with  some  others, 
and  all  on  board  perished.  His  body  being 
found  by  the  fishermen,  was  stripped  and 
buried  ; but  the  fact  becoming  known,  the 
remains  were  brought  to  London,  and  interred 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a monument 
was  erected  to  his  memory. 

SHREWSBURY,  Battle  of,  July  21st, 
1403,  between  the  army  of  Henry  IV.  and 
that  of  the  nobles  who  had  conspired  to  de- 
throne him.  The  latter  were  led  by  Percy 
(surnamed  Hotspur),  son  of  the  Earl  of  North- 
umberland. The  contest  was  most  bloody, 
till  the  death  of  Hotspur  by  an  unknown 
hand  decided  the  fate  of  the  day,  and  gave 
the  victory  to  the  king. 

SIAM,  a country  in  Asia,  containing 
250,000  square  miles  and  5,500,000  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  rich  in  natural  productions,  and 
its  forests  furnish  many  woods  of  trade. 
Elephants  are  found  in  Siam  in  great  num- 
bers and  perfection;  Lanjang,  the  name  of 
one  town,  signifies  ‘ the  place  of  ten  million 
elephants.’  Occasionally  white  elephants  are 
found  : they  are  regarded  with  great  venera- 
tion, kept  in  temples,  and  waited  on  by 
priests.  He  who  traps  a white  elephant 
receives  a handsome  reward,  and  if  the  ani- 
mal be  a very  fine  one  a pension,  which  is 
continued  to  his  descendants.  White  mon- 
keys, white  buffaloes,  and  white  deer  are  also 
found.  The  Siamese  are  of  Mongol  origin. 
Their  government  is  an  absolute  despotism, 
and  their  religion  Buddhism.  Bangkok,  a 
place  of  considerable  extent  and  commerce, 
with  400,000  inhabitants,  is  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom.  The  Portuguese,  in  1511, 
were  the  first  Europeans  \^io  established 
intercourse  with  Siam. 

SIBERIA,  the  Russian  dominion  in  Asia, 
includes  the  whole  northern  part  of  that  con- 


SIB 


802 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


tinent.  The  exploration  of  Siberia  may  be 
dated  from  the  period  when  Russia  emanci- 
pated herself  from  the  yoke  of  the  Tartar 
conquerors.  A body  of  wandering  Cossacks 
passed  the  Ural  mountains  in  1580,  and  found 
a Tartar  kingdom,  of  which  Sibir  was  the 
capital.  The  khan  or  ruler  having  been 
totally  defeated,  Yermack,  the  Cossack  chief, 
took  possession  of  the  kingdom,  but  was 
afterward  surprised  and  cut  off  by  an  ambus- 
cade of  Tartars.  The  Russian  power  spread, 
and  in  the  course  of  eighty  years,  a few  Cos- 
sacks and  hunters  had,  by  their  intrepid 
exertions,  added  to  Russia  a territory  larger 
in  extent  than  all  Europe.  However,  in 
extending  their  conquest,  they  came  in  con- 
tact with  the  Chinese  empire,  the  military 
force  of  which  defeated  the  Russians  on  the 
banks  of  the  Amour,  where  they  were  obliged 
to  terminate  their  progress,  and  which  river 
formed  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
two  empires. 

The  mines  and  furs  of  Siberia  render  it 
valuable  to  the  Russians,  but  it  is  most  noted 
as  the  place  of  banishment  for  those  who 
have  fallen  under  the  displeasure  of  the  Rus- 
sian government.  Many  an  unhappy  exile 
has  here  dragged  out  a miserable  existence, 
to  which  death  would  have  been  preferable. 
These  wretched  victims  of  state  intrigues 
and  ruthless  despotism,  have  contributed 
greatly  toward  the  civilization  and  improve- 
ment of  portions  of  this  country.  The  num- 
ber of  exiles  was  augmented  by  the  banish- 
ment to  this  dreary  region  of  hundreds  of  the 
unhappy  Poles,  whose  greatest  crime  was  a 
firm  attachment  to  an  oppressed  country. 
The  exile  of  great  officers  of  state  has  fre- 
quently been  attended  with  all  the  mystery 
which  characterized  the  seizures  of  the  inqui- 
sition. Often  some  deserving  man,  uncon- 
scious of  having  committed  any  crime  worthy 
of  so  severe  a punishment,  found  himself 
suddenly  in  the  hands  of  the  officers  of  jus- 
tice. If  he  asked  the  cause  of  his  seizure, 
he  was  commanded  to  be  silent : if  he  beg- 
ged to  take  leave  of  his  family,  his  request 
was  refused.  He  sank  into  the  stupor  of 
despair,  and  awakened  again  to  a sense  of 
hope  forever  Jpst,  as  he  found  himself  upon 
the  fatal  sledge  which  pursued  its  rapid  path 
to  the  hated  place  of  exile. 

SICILY.  This  island,  which  is  part  of  the 


kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies,  or  Naples,  is 
separated  from  Italy  by  the  straits  of  Mes- 
sina. Its  area  is  10,536  square  miles,  and  it 
contains  2,091,580  inhabitants.  The  prin- 
cipal cities  are  Palermo,  Syracuse,  Messina, 
and  Catania.  There  are  several  mountain 
groups,  among  them  the  noted  iEtna.  .The 
country  is  rich  and  fertile,  and  was  formerly 
the  granary  of  Italy ; but  it  is  no  longer  so 
well  cultivated.  It  produces  grain,  silk, 
wines,  -excellent  fruits,  wax,  and  honey. 

The  Sicilians  are  descended  from  a variety 
of  races,  who  have  made  the  island  their 
abode, — Greeks,  Carthaginians,  Romans,  Sar- 
acens, Normans,  and  Spaniards,  besides  the 
aboriginal  stock  ; accordingly  there  is  consid- 
erable difference  of  complexion  and  features. 
The  Sicilians  are  generally  dark,  and  yet  we 
sometimes  see  skins  as  fair  as  in  the  north  cf 
Italy.  Unless  bent  down  by  poverty  and 
disease,  the  Sicilian  exhibits  a spare  but  mus- 
cular and  erect  form,  lively  dark  eyes,  great 
elasticity  of  limb,  and  quickness  of  motion. 
He  is  shrewd,  keen  of  sight,  and  very  imi- 
tative. Although  the  climate  and  state  of 
society  incline  him  to  indolence,  he  is  more 
easily  roused  into . activity  than  the  Neapoli- 
tan, and  is  more  capable  of  perseverance. 
The  Sicilian  women  are  handsome  and  amor- 
ous, and  their  countenances  often  have  a 
strong  Grecian  cast.  The  mass  of  the  people 
are  very  illiterate.  Their  religion  is  the 
Roman  Catholic. 

This  island  was  anciently  known  by  the 
names  of  Sicania,  Sicilia,  and  Trinacria,  from 
its  triangular  form.  iEtna,  now  Mount 
Gibello,  still  emits  flames,  throws  up  stones 
and  ashes,  and  alarms  the  inhabitants  by  its 
roaring,  and  its  convulsions  have  frequently 
overturned  cities,  and  covered  the  island  with 
ruins.  The  fabled  Cyclops  dwelt  here.  In 
the  Tuscan  Sea,  near  Sicily,  lie  the  JEolian 
and  Vulcanian  Isles  (now  the  Lipari  Isles),  in 
which  Vulcan  is  fabled  to  have  had  his  forges, 
and  iEolus  to  have  confined  the  wind^  subject 
to  his  command.  Sicily  was  peopled  by 
Greeks  from  Chalcis,  Achaia,  Doris,  and  from 
Crete,  Rhodes,  and  other  islands,  and  by 
some  colonies  from  Italy.  Syracuse,  which 
was  founded  by  Corinthians,  b.c.  749,  became 
a leading  city.  It  was  at  first  governed  by 
kings ; and  afterward  a democracy  wras  estab- 
lished. Its  history  exhibits  a perpetual  alter- 


SIC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


803 


nation  of  slavery  under  tyrants,  and  of  lib- 
erty under  a popular  government.  Gelon  is 
said  to  have  introduced  himself  into  Syra- 
cuse by  his  address,  and  to  have  gained  the 
favor  of  the  people,  who  invested  him  with 
absolute  power,  b.c.  483.  He  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  that  immense  commerce  which  ren- 
dered Syracuse  strong  and  opulent.  He  pro- 
posed to  assist  the  Greeks  against  Xerxes, 
when  the  Carthaginians  landed  in  Sicily  an 
army  of  300,000  men  under  the  command 
of  Hamilcar. 

Gelon,  by  means  of  an  intercepted  letter, 
was  enabled  to  send  a body  of  cavalry,  that 
put  Hamilcar  to  death,  dispersed  the  troops, 
and  burnt  the  ships,  while  he  attacked  the 
other  camp.  An  assembly  of  the  Syracusans 
being  convened,  Gelon  was  invited  to  assume 
the  title  of  king,  and  invested  with  supreme 
authority.  The  people  also  passed  a decree, 
settling  the  crown,  after  his  death,  on  his  two 
brothers,  Hiero  and  Thrasybulus.  Gelon 
was  succeeded  by  his  elder  brother,  Hiero, 
b.c.  471,  whom  some  represent  as  an  excel- 
lent prince,  and  others  as  a covetous,  obsti- 
nate, and  cruel  tyrant. 

Hiero  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Thra- 
sybulus, b.c.  459,  a cruel  and  sanguinary 
tyrant,  who  massacred  all  those  subjects  who 
gave  him  the  least  cause  of  offense.  Incensed 
at  this  oppressive  conduct,  the  people  took 
up  arms,  and  expelled  the  tyrant,  who  retired 
to  Italy.  The  Syracusans,  attempting  to 
subdue  the  neighboring  cities,  the  latter 
requested  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians, 
who  had  long  wished  to  form  an  establish- 
ment in  Sicily.  Nicias,  a prudent  general, 
endeavored  to  dissuade  the  Athenians  from 
such  an  undertaking  ; but  they  were  hurried 
on  by  enthusiasm,  and  determined  to  sell  the 
Syracusans  and  their  allies  as  slaves,  and 
oblige  the  other  cities  of  Sicily  to  pay  an 
annual  tribute  to  Athens.  Accordingly,  they 
set  sail  and  arrived  before  Syracuse,  which 
they  besieged  both  by  sea  and  land,  b.c. 
416.  The  Syracusans  were  about  to  surren- 
der, when  Gylippus,  a Spartan  general, 
arrived  with  assistance  from  Lacedaemon. 

Nicias  found  himself  under  the  necessity 
of  demanding  a re-enforcement  from  Athens, 
which  dispatched  another  fleet,  commanded 
by  Demosthenes ; that  enterprising  general 
induced  Nicias  to  make  an  assault,  which  was 


not  successful.  At  length  the  Athenian  and 
Syracusan  armaments  met,  and  an  engage- 
ment ensued,  when  the  Athenians  were  com- 
pletely defeated.  Finding  no  other  resource 
left  than  to  endeavor  to  reach  some  towns  in 
alliance  with  them,  they  began  their  march. 
The  dead  and  the  dying  retarded  their  pro- 
gress ; the  enemy  briskly  pursued,  and 
allowed  them  scarcely  a moment  of  rest. 
Nicias  and  Demosthenes  were  made  prison- 
ers, and  after  being  publicly  scourged,  were 
thrown  from  a precipice.  The  soldiers  were 
shut  up  in  the  quarries,  where  they  received 
a scanty  allowance  of  food,  and  were  infected 
with  the  putrid  bodies  of  their  dead  compan- 
ions. Such  was  the  issue  of  this  war,  after 
it  had  continued  nearly  three  years. 

Sicily  was  soon  engaged  in  a new  contest. 
The  Egestines,  who  had  invited  the  Atheni- 
ans into  Sicily,  dreading  the  resentment  of 
the  Syracusans,  offered  to  put  their  city  into 
the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians,  from  whom 
they  requested  assistance  against  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Selinuntum.  The  Carthaginians 
committed  the  management  of  the  war  to 
Hannibal,  the  grandson  of  Hamilcar,  who 
landed  in  Sicily  with  an  army  of  300,000 
men.  The  Selinuntines  defended  their  walls, 
their  streets,  their  public  squares,  and  even 
their  houses,  but  were  everywhere  overpow- 
ered by  numbers.  Two  thousand  six  hun- 
dred of  them  escaped  to  Agrigentum,  and 
the  rest  were  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Carthagin- 
ians, who  committed  dreadful  cruelties  and 
atrocities.  The  conquerors  then  marched  to 
Himera,  before  which  Hamilcar  had  been 
killed  by  Gelon,  and  which  shared  the  same 
fate  as  Selinuntum.  Hannibal  ordered  three 
thousand  Himerians  to  be  barbarously  mas- 
sacred on  the  spot  where  his  grandfather  had 
been  defeated  and  killed ; and  after  thus  ter- 
minating the  campaign,  he  embarked  his 
troops,  and  se^  sail  for  Africa. 

Two  or  three  years  after,  the  Carthagin- 
ians returned  to  Sicily  with  300,000  men,  and 
attacked  Agrigentum.  In  the  first  sally,  the 
besieged  burnt  the  machines,  and  made  a 
prodigious  slaughter  of  the  enemy.  At 
length  Agrigentum  being  greatly  distressed 
for  want  of  provisions,  the  inhabitants 
resolved  to  leave  the  city,  which  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  Carthaginians.  The 
Agrigentines,  who  took  refuge  in  Syracuse, 


SIC 


804 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


filled  that  city  with  complaints  against  the 
Syracusan  commanders,  as  if  they  had  be- 
trayed Agrigentum  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy.  This  raised  such  disturbances  in 
Syracuse,  as  afforded  to  Dionysius,  a bold, 
eloquent,  and  aspiring  man,  an  opportunity 
of  seizing  on  the  sovereign  power.  After 
procuring  a guard  of  a thousand  men,  and 
being  joined  by  part  of  the  garrison  in 
Gela,  he  possessed  himself  of  the  citadel, 
and  publicly  declared  himself  king  of  Syra- 
cuse, b.c.  404.  But  on  the  first  defeat  he 
experienced  from  the  Carthaginians,  the  peo- 
ple revolted,  and  united  with  his ‘enemies. 
Dionysius,  however,  found  means  not  only  to 
appease  the  revolt,  but  to  conclude  a peace 
with  the  Carthaginians. 

Dionysius  again  declared  war  with  the 
Carthaginians,  from  whom  he  took  the  most 
important  of  the  towns  which  they  possessed 
in  Sicily;  but  they,  nevertheless,  appeared 
before  Syracuse,  to  which  they  laid  siege. 
The  Carthaginians  being  exhausted  by  a 
plague,  were  obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  and 
Dionysius  suffered  them  to  retire  unmolested 
into  other  parts  of  the  island,  on  condition 
that  they  paid  him  a large  sum  of  money, 
lie  then  turned  his  arms  against  Italy,  and 
took  Rhegiuin,  the  inhabitants  of  which  he 
treated  with  his  usual  inhumanity.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Dionysius,  who  was 
surnamed  the  younger,  b.c.  366,  and  who 
was  a weak  and  irresolute  prince.  Dion,  the 
brother  of  Aristomache,  the  wife  of  Dionysius 
the  elder,  a friend  and  disciple  of  Plato,  in- 
duced the  young  prince  to  banish  the  accom- 
plices of  his  debaucheries  and  to  recall  Plato. 
Through  a cabal  of  courtiers,  Dion  and  Plato 
were  disgraced,  and  obliged  to  retire  to  Ath- 
ens. Dionysius  not  only  refused  to  Dion  the 
revenue  arising  from  his  property,  but  com- 
pelled his  wife  Arete,  who  was  much  beloved 
by  her  husband,  to  espouse  Timocrates,  one 
of  his  courtiers.  These  provocations  incensed 
Dion,  who  collected  a small  band,  and  arriv- 
ing at  Syracuse  whilst  Dionysius  was  en- 
gaged with  the  war  in  Italy,  declared  that  he 
came  not  to  avenge  his  own  private  wrongs, 
but  to  emancipate  Syracuse  and  Sicily  from 
the  yoke  of  the  tyrant.  Under  this  standard 
of  liberty,  Dion  obtained  possession  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  city ; and  having  defeated 
Dionysius  in  an  engagement,  compelled  the  ( 


tyrant  to  flee  into  Italy.  Dion,  having  mur- 
dered one  of  his  generals,  was  assassinated 
in  his  own  house  by  his  guest  and  friend 
Calippus. 

The  death  of  Dion,  and  the  flight  of  Calip- 
pus, recalled  Dionysius,  b.c.  350,  who  again 
reinstated  himself  in  the  possession  of  his 
dominions,  which  he  retained  until  he  was 
again  expelled  by  an  army  under  Timoleon. 
This  general  overran  Sicily  as  a conqueror, 
subdued  the  tyrants  of  several  cities,  whom 
he  sent  to  Corinth  to  be  companions  of  Dio- 
nysius, and  defeated  the  Carthaginians,  who 
again  appeared  in  the  island.  For  the  space 
of  twenty  years,  the  Syracusans  enjoyed  the 
fruits  of  Timolcon’s  services.  Then  Syra- 
racuse  groaned  under  the  tyranny  of  Agath- 
ocles,  who  exceeded  all  his  predecessors  in 
cruelty  and  other  vices.  He  was  expelled  by 
Sosistratus,  who  had  usurped  the  supreme 
power.  He  then  retired  into  Italy  ; and  dur- 
ing his  abode  in  that  country,  Sosistratus  was 
obliged  to  abdicate  the  sovereignty,  and  quit 
Syracuse.  Sosistratus  and  the  other  exiles 
had  recourse  to  the  Carthaginians,  who  read- 
ily espoused  their  cause. 

Upon  this,  the  Syracusans  recalled  Agath- 
ocles,  whom  they  appointed  commander-in- 
chief, and  he  defeated  the  combined  armies  of 
Sosistratus  and  the  Carthaginians.  Agath- 
ocles,  therefore,  began  to  exercise  a sovereign 
power  over  his  fellow-citizens,  and  took  such 
measures  as  plainly  showed  that  he  aimed  at 
monarchy.  On  discovering  his  design,  the 
people  transferred  the  command  of  their  for- 
ces to  a Corinthian  ; and  Agathocles  saved  his 
life  only  by  stratagem. 

Agathocles  re-appeared  under  the  walls  of 
Syracuse,  at  the  head  of  a strong  army,  and 
under  pretense  of  a war  with  Erbita,  a neigh- 
boring city,  he  collected  a great  number  of 
soldiers,  whom  he  induced  to  pillage  Syra- 
cuse, and  to  massacre  all  the  chief  men.  In 
a few  hours  more  than  four  thousand  persons 
fell  a sacrifice  ; and  the  streets  were  covered 
with  slain.  He  ordered  the  pillage  and  mas- 
sacre to  be  continued  two  days  longer,  after 
which  he  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  few 
survivors. 

The  success  of  Agathocles  gave  uneasiness 
to  the  Carthaginians,  who  sent  against  him 
an  army  under  the  command  of  Hamilcar. 
This  general  gained  over  him  a complete  vic- 


SIC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


805 


tory,  which  obliged  Agathocles  to  confine 
himself  within  Syracuse.  Whilst  the  Car- 
thaginians besieged  that  city,  Agathocles 
embarked  some  of  his  best  troops,  b.c.  307, 
and  after  landing  in  Africa  burned  the  vessels 
which  had  conveyed  his  army.  An  engage- 
ment took  place  between  the  Syracusans  and 
the  Carthaginians,  the  latter  of  whom  were 
defeated,  with  the  loss  of  Hanno  their  gen- 
eral. 

Syracuse  was  now  reduced  to  great  extrem- 
ity, but  Agathocles  having  sent  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  that  city  the  head  of  Ilanno,  the 
sight  of  it  encouraged  them  to  support  with 
success  a last  assault.  They  afterward  at- 
tacked and  entirely  routed  the  Carthaginian 
army,  took  Hamilcar  prisoner,  and  sent  his 
head  to  Agathocles.  As  the  war  was  pro- 
longed, Agathocles  resolved  to  return  to  Sic- 
ily, and  having  given  the  necessar}7  orders 
during  his  absence,  embarked  with  him  two 
thousand  chosen  men,  and  arrived  at  Syra- 
cuse. After  restoring  order  to  the  govern- 
ment, and  destroying  a league  which  had 
been  formed  against  him,  he  set  out  once 
more  for  Africa.  But  finding  his  affairs  des- 
perate in  that  country,  he  determined  to 
abandon  his  troops,  and,  making  his  escape, 
put  to  sea.  In  the  first  transports  of  their 
fury,  the  soldiers  massacred  two  of  his  sons 
whom  he  had  left  behind,  and,  having  elected 
chiefs  for  themselves,  concluded  with  the  Car- 
thaginians a peace,  by  which  they  were  to  be 
transported  to  Sicily,  and  put  in  posses- 
sion of  the  city  of  Selinuntum.  At  length, 
after  a series  of  cruelties,  Agathocles  was 
burnt  on  the  funeral  pile,  b.c.  289. 

The  government  was  next  assumed  by  Moe- 
non,  who  was  expelled  by  Hycetas.  The 
latter  took  the  modest  title  of  praetor,  but 
was  deprived  of  the  sovereign  power  by 
Tcenion,  who  was  opposed  by  Sosistratus. 
But  being  attacked  by  the  Carthaginians, 
these  chiefs  united  and  called  into  their  assis- 
tance Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  who  was 
then  carrying  on  war  against  the  Romans. 
Pyrrhus  drove  the  Carthaginians  out,  and 
returned  into  Italy. 

Hierowas  appointed  to  command  the  Syra- 
cusan forces  against  the  Carthaginians,  b.c. 
275,  who  had  regained  most  of  the  places 
which  they  possessed  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Epirots.  He  concluded  a treaty  with 


the  Romans,  the  conditions  of  which  were 
faithfully  performed  on  both  sides.  The  de- 
feats which  the  Romans  sustained  at  the  Lake 
Thrasymene  and  at  Cannae,  could  not  shake 
his  constancy.  He  died  at  the  age  of  ninety. 

Hiero  appointed  his  grandson  Hierony- 
mus king,  b.c.  211,  with  a council  of  fifteen 
persons,  called  tutors.  His  vices  and  cruelty 
were  such,  that  a conspiracy  was  formed 
against  him.  He  was  assassinated  while 
passing  through  a narrow  street,  b.c.  208, 
and  the  people  showed  so  little  concern  for 
his  person,  that  they  suffered  the  body  to 
rot  in  the  place  where  it  had  fallen.  Hieron- 
ymus was  no  sooner  dead,  than  two  of  the 
conspirators  hastened  to  prevent  the  attempts 
of  Andranodorus,  and  of  others  of  the  king’s 
faction.  However,  he  soon  after,  in  concert 
with  Themistus,  the  husband  of  Harmonia, 
sister  of  the  deceased  king,  formed  a plot  to 
exterminate  the  chief  citizens  of  Syracuse. 
This  being  disclosed  to  the  senate,  Andran- 
odorous  and  Themistus  were  condemned, 
though  absent,  and  put  to  death  as  they  were 
entering  the  senate-house.  Soon  after  this 
the  guardians  and  tutors  of  the  late  king,  and 
all  the  royal  family,  were  put  to  death. 

The  Carthaginians  now  obtained  an  as- 
cendency in  Syracuse.  Two  of  the  gen- 
erals, Hippocrates  and  Epytides,  caused 
the  number  of  the  praetors  to  be  reduced 
to  two,  and  made  the  choice  fall  on  them- 
selves. Marcellus,  the  Roman  consul,  ap- 
peared at  the  gates  of  Syracuse,  b.c.  212, 
and  demanded  that  the  authors  of  the  late 
massacre  should  be  delivered  into  his 
hands ; but  finding  his  demand  treated  with 
ridicule,  he  commenced  hostilities,  and  at- 
tempted a general  assault  on  the  city.  How- 
ever, by  the  genius  of  Archimedes,  an  able 
mathematician,  without  employing  the  sword, 
two  Roman  armies  were  repulsed  on  this  occa- 
sion. Marcellus  was,  therefore,  obliged  to 
convert  the  siege  into  a blockade : and  at 
length  he  obtained  possession  of  the  city  by 
an  escalade.  The  soldiers  entered  the  houses 
of  the  Syracusans,  seized  all  the  valuables, 
but  offered  no  violence  to  the  persons  of  the 
inhabitants.  Acradina,  the  strongest  quar- 
ter of  the  city,  held  out  some  time  longer, 
but  was  at  length  taken  by  means  of  an  offi- 
cer who  gave  up  to  Marcellus  one  of  the 
gates.  After  the  capture  of  Syracuse,  Agri- 


Si  C 


806 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF' 


gentum  was  besieged  and  taken.  By  order 
of  the  consul  Laevinus,  the  chiefs  of  the  lat- 
ter city  were  scourged  and  beheaded,  and 
the  people  reduced  to  slavery  and  sold  by 
auction.  After  this  terrible  example,  no 
more  cities  resisted,  and  Sicily  was  converted 
into  a province  of  Rome,  b.c.  198. 

Sicily  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Ro- 
mans during  many  centuries.  At  length,  in 
the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  the  Saracens 
conquered  Sicily,  and  the  island  remained  in 
their  possession  two  hundred  years.  In  the 
eleventh  century  the  Normans  made  the  con- 
quest of  this  country,  and  in  1266  it  submit- 
ted to  Charles  of  Anjou,  a French  prince.  In 
1282,  the  terrible  massacre  of  the  French, 
called  the  Sicilian  Vespers,  took  place.  It 
commenced  at  Palermo,  March  30th,  1282. 
The  French  had  become  hateful  to  the  Sicil- 
ians, and  a conspiracy  against  Charles  of 
Anjou  was  already  ripe,  when  the  following 
occurrence  led  to  its  development  and  accom- 
plishment. On  Easter  Monday,  the  chief 
conspirators  had  assembled  at  Palermo  ; and 
while  the  French  were  engaged  in  festivities, 
a Sicilian  bride  happened  to  pass  by  with  her 
train.  She  was  observed  by  one  Drochet, 
a Frenchman,  who,  advancing  toward  her, 
began  to  use  her  rudely,  under  pretense  of 
searching  for  arms.  A young  Sicilian,  exas- 
perated at  this  affront,  stabbed  him  with  his 
own  sword  ; and  a tumult  ensuing,  two  hun- 
dred French  were  instantly  murdered.  The 
enraged  populace  now  ran  through  the  city, 
crying  out,  “ Let  the  French  die ! ” and,  with- 
out distinction  of  rank,  age,  or  sex,  they 
slaughtered  all  of  that  nation  they  could  find, 
to  the  number  of  eight  thousand.  Even  such 
as  had  fled  to  the  churches  found  no  sanctu- 
ary there  ; and  the  massacre  became  general 
throughout  the  island.  After  this  catastro- 
phe, the  inhabitants  transferred  the  sovereign- 
ty of  their  island  to  Spain,  with  whom  it  long 
remained,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Neapolitan 
territory,  to  which  Sicily  became  united  in 
1430.  Both  were  subject  to  the  crown  of 
Spain  in  1700.  In  1707,  Austria  obtained 
possession  of  Naples  and  Sicily  ; and  by  the 
peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  while  Naples  was 
confirmed  to  them,  Sicily  was  given  to  the 
duke  of  Savoy,  with  the  title  of  king.  In 
1720,  the  Austrians  prevailed  on  the  new 
possessor  of  Sicily  to  exchange  it  for  Sar- 


dinia, .and  added  the  former  to  the  kingdom 
of  Naples.  The  war  of  1734,  however, 
transferred  the  crown  of  the  two  Sicilies  to  a 
branch  of  the  royal  family  of  Spain,  and  it 
remained  in  their  hands  till  1799,  when  the 
royal  family  were  expelled  from  Naples.  The 
latter  took  refuge  in  Sicily,  were  afterward 
restored  to  Naples,  but  again  compelled  to 
take  refuge  in  Sicily. 

The  acquisition  of  Sicily  is  said  to  have 
been  a primary  object  with  Napoleon,  but  an 
attempt  at  invasion  in  1810  was  baffled  by 
the  British  troops.  In  1815,  the  overthrow 
of  Murat  led  to  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons to  the  throne  of  Naples.  Under  their 
rule,  Sicily  has  been  deprived  of  many  of 
its  ancient  rights.  In  1848  the  island  rose 
in  insurrection,  but  was  soon  reduced.  In 
1860,  Garibaldi  occupied  the  island;  Victor 
Emanuel  entered  Palermo  Dec.  1st,  and  Sicily 
became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

KINGS  OF  THE  TWO  SICILIES. 

1713.  Victor  Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy  ; he  ex- 
changed Sicily  for  Sardinia  in  1718. 
1718.  Charles  VI.  of  Austria,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many. 

1734.  Charles  (Bourbon),  second  son  of  the  King 
of  Spain : upon  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Ferdinand  VI.,  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Spain,  renouncing  Sicily  and 
Naples  to  his  third  son,  then  only  eight 
years  of  age. 

1759.  Ferdinand  IV.,  third  son  of  Charles;  mar- 
ried Caroline,  daughter  of  Maria  The- 
resa of  Austria. 

1806.  Joseph  Bonaparte:  transferred  to  the  Span- 
ish throne. 

1808.  Joachim  Murat:  shot  Oct.  13th,  1815. 
1815.  Ferdinand  I. : formerly  Ferdinand  IV.  of 
Naples,  and  intermediately  Ferdinand 
III.  oi  Sicily  : now  of  the  United  King- 
dom of  the  two  Sicilies. 

1825.  Francis  I.,  son  of  Ferdinand. 

1830.  Ferdinand  II.,  son  of  Francis. 

SIDDONS,  Sarah,  the  greatest  of  English 
actresses,  was  born  at  Brecknock  in  South 
Wales,  July  14th,  1755,  the  daughter  of 
Roger  Kemble.  She  married  Mr.  Siddons, 
an  actor  in  her  father’s  family,  in  1773.  Her 
career  of  dramatic  triump.h  commenced  With 
her  second  appearance  in  London,  Oct.  10th, 
1782.  Seven  years  before,  she  had  ventured 
with  ill  success,  upon  the  metropolitan  boards 
in  the  character  of  Portia.  Now,  as  Isabella, 
in  “ The  Fatal  Marriage,”  she  laid  the  corner 
stone  of  her  fame.  She  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1812,  and  died  June  8th,  1831.  She 
was  a woman  of  much  personal  beauty  and 


SID 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


807 


dignity  ; her  voice  was  very  melodious,  and 
her  mental  endowments  were  of  a high  or- 
der. Her  style  of  acting  was  grand,  noble, 
and  natural. 

SIDNEY,  Algernon,  was  the  second  son 
of  Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester,  by  Dorothy, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Northumberland, 
and  was  born  about  1621.  He  became  a 
colonel  in  thecarmy  of  the  parliament,  a mem- 
ber of  the  house  of  commons,  and  was  nom- 
inated one  of  the  king’s  judges,  but  did  not 
sign  the  warrant  for  his  execution.  The 
same  principles,  however,  which  led  him  to 
oppose  Charles,  made  him  hostile  to  Crom- 
well. In  1659  he  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners sent  to  mediate  between  Denmark  and 
Sweden.  On  the  restoration,  Sidney  re- 
mained abroad  till  1677,  when  he  received  a 
conditional  pardon;  but  in  1683,  being  impli- 
cated in  what  was  called  the  Rye-House  plot, 
he  was  arraigned  before  Chief-justice  Jeffreys, 
and  found  guilty,  though  the  evidence  was 
defective,  and  in  every  sense  illegal. ' He  suf- 
fered death  with  great  firmness  upon  Tower 
Hill,  on  the  7th  of  December  the  same  year, 
glorying  in  his  martyrdom  for  that  old 
cause  in  which  he  had  been  engaged  from 
his  youth.  He  was  firm  to  republican  prin- 
ciples. 

SIDNEY,  Sir  Philip,  the  author  of  “ The 
Arcadia,”  “Defense  of  Poesy,”  “Astrophel 
and  Stella,”  &c.,  was  born  Nov.  29th,  1554, 
at  Penshurst,  in  Kent,  the  seat  of  his  father, 
Sir  Henry  Sidney,  who  was  the  friend  of 
Edward  VI.,  and  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
became  lord  deputy  of  Ireland.  The  mother 
of  Sir  Philip  was  Mary,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Northumberland.  He  made  while  young 
the  tour  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and  in 
1575  returned  to  England,  where  he  became 
one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  court 
of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

In  1580  a tournament  was  held  at  court, 
where,  though  Sidney  displayed  his  prowess 
to  great  advantage,  the  victory  was  adjudged 
to  the  Earl  of  Oxford.  This  produced  a 
challenge  from  Sidney  ; but  the  duel  being 
prevented  by  the  queen’s  commands,  our 
ruffled  hero  retired  to  Wilton,  the  seat  of  his 
brother-in-law,  the  Earl  of  Pembroke, #and 
there  wrote  “ The  Arcadia.”  In  1585  Sid- 
ney was  named  as  a candidate  for  the  king- 
dom of  Poland,  but  Elizabeth  interposed  her 


authority  against  it,  “ refusing,”  says  the 
historian  Camden,  “ to  further  his  advance- 
ment, out  of  fear  that  she  should  lose  the 
jewel  of  her  times.” 

The  Protestants  of  the  Netherlands  Hav- 
ing solicited  the  assistance  of  England  to 
relieve  them  from  the  Spanish  yoke,  a mili- 
tary force  was  sent  over  under  the  command 
of  Sir  Philip,  who  on  his  arrival  at  Flushing, 
was  appointed  colonel  of  all  the  Dutch  regi- 
ments. Not  long  after,  his  uncle,  the  Earl 
of  Leicester,  joined  him  with  additional 
troops,  and  Sidney  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  general  of  the  horse. 

On  the  22d  of  September,  1586,  he  fell  in 
with  a convoy  sent  by  the  enemy  to  Zutphen, 
and  though  the  English  troops  were  inferior 
to  the  enemy,  they  gained  the  victory  ; but 
it  was  dearly  purchased  by  the  loss  of  their 
commander,  who,  after  one  horse  was  shot 
under  him,  mounted  another,  and  continued 
the  fight,  till  he  received  a fatal  ball  in  the 
left  thigh.  As  he  was  borne  from  the  field, 
languid  with  the  loss  of  blood,  he  asked  for 
water,  but  just  as  the  bottle  was  put  to  his 
lips,  seeing  a dying  soldier  looking  wistfully 
at  it,  he  resigned  it,  saying,  “Thy  necessity 
is  yet  greater  than  mine.”  He  died  on  the 
19th  of  October.  His  death  was  lamented 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  His  bravery  and 
chivalrous  magnanimity,  his  grace  and  polish 
of  manner,  the  purity  of  his  morals,  his 
learning  and  refinement  of  taste,  had  won 
him  love  and  esteem  wherever  he  was  known. 
By  the  direction  of  Elizabeth,  his  remains 
were  conveyed  to  London,  and  honored  with 
a public  funeral  in  old  St.  Paul’s. 

SILISTRIA,  a strong  fortified  town  on  the 
Danube,  in  Bulgaria,  a province  of  Turkey. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  1829,  after 
nine  months’  siege,  and  held  some  years  by 
them  as  a pledge  for  the  payment  of  a large 
sum  by  Turkey,  but  w'as  eventually  given 
up.  In  May,  1854,  it  was  besieged  by  a 
strong  Russian  force,  but  the  Turks  held  it 
against  fearful  assaults,  and  assuming  the 
offensive,  forced  the  raising  of  the  siege, 
June  15th.  The  loss  of  the  Russians  was 
enormous.  The  town  and  its  defenses  were 
battered  almost  to  ruins. 

SILK.  Wrought  silk  was  brought  from 
Persia  to  Greece,  325  b.c.  It  was  known  at 
Rome  in  the  time  of  Tiberias,  when  the  sen- 


SIL 


808 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ate  forbade  the  use  of  plate  of  massy  gold, 
and  also  that  men  should  debase  themselves 
by  wearing  silk,  fit  only  for  women.  Helio- 
gabalus  first  wore  a garment  of  silk,  a.d. 
220.  Silk  was  at  first  worth  its  weight  in 
gold,  and  was  thought  to  grow  like  cotton. 
Silk-worms  were  brought  from  India  to  Eu- 
rope in  the  sixth  century.  Charlemagne  sent 
Offa,  King  of  Mercia,  a present  of  two  silken 
vests,  a.d.  780.  At  Palermo,  1130,  the  Sicil- 
ians bred  the  worms,  and  spun  and  wove  the 
silk.  The  manufacture  spread  into  Italy  and 
Spain,  and  also  into  the  south  of  France, 
about  1510.  Henry  IY.  propagated  mulber- 
ry-trees and  silk-worms  throughout  France, 
in  1589.  Silken  mantles  were  worn  by  some 
high-born  English  ladies  at  a ball  at  Kenil- 
worth Castle,  1286.  Silk  was  worn  by  the 
English  clergy  in  1534.  Manufactured  in 
England  in  1604,  and  broad  silk  woven  from 
raw  silk  in  1620.  Brought  to  great  perfec- 
tion by  the  French  refugees  at  Spitalfields, 
1688. 

SIMNEL,  Lambert,  an  impostor  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  of  England,  1486,  that 
pretended  to  be  the  Duke  of  York,  son  of 
Edward  IY.,  who  with  his  brother  was  smoth- 
ered in  the  Tower  by  order  of  Richard  III. 
The  rebellion  was  soon  suppressed : Lambert 
was  discovered  to  be  a baker’s  son,  and  was 
only  punished  by  promotion  to  an  office  in 
the  royal  kitchen. 

SINOPE  (Sinoub),  an  ancient  seaport  of 
Asia  Minor,  on  the  Black  Sea,  formerly  caph 
tal  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontus,  and  the  repu- 
ted birth-place  of  Diogenes.  Nov.  30th, 
1853„  the  Turkish  fleet  lying  here  was  attack- 
ed by  a superior  Russian  armament,  and  to- 
tally burnt  or  sunk,  except  one  vessel  which 
escaped  to  Constantinople  with  tidings  of  the 
disaster.  The  Turks  fought  with  desperate 
valor.  Four  thousand  lives  were  lost  by  fire 
or  drowning,  and  Osman  Pacha,  the  Turkish 
admiral,  died  at  Sebastopol  of  his  wounds. 
The  town  and  citadel  were  demolished.  In 
consequence  of  this  event,  the  English  and 
French  fleets  entered  the  Black  Sea,  Jan.  3d, 
1854. 

SIXTUS  V.,  pope,  was  born  in  1521,  in 
the  signory  of  Montalto,  where  his  father, 
Pereto  Peretti,  was  a poor  vine-dresser.  He* 
was  christened  Felix.  At  the  age  of  four- 
teen, he  was  allowed  to  make  his  profession, 


and  in  1545  he  received  priest’s  orders,  and 
took  the  name  of  Father  Montalto.  His  pop- 
ularity as  a preacher  procured  him  many 
friends,  and  in  1555  he  was  appointed  inquis- 
itor-general at  Venice;  where,  however,  he 
gave  so  much  offense  by  his  severity,  as  to  be 
obliged  to  return  to  Rome.  Pius  Y.  made 
him  general  of  his  order,  next  Bishop  of  St. 
Agatha,  and  in  1570  raised  huh  to  the  pur- 
ple. Hitherto  Montalto  had  been  remarked 
for  his  haughty  demeanor,  but  now  he  as- 
sumed quite  an  opposite  character,  and 
appeared  all  humility,  meekness,  and  conde- 
scension. He  carried  this  hypocrisy  so  far, 
as  to  treat  his  family  with  neglect,  telling 
them,  “ that  he  was  dead  to  his  relations  and 
the  world.”  He  took  no  part  in  political  con- 
tentions, and  the  other  cardinals  were  so  com- 
pletely imposed  upon  by  him,  that  they  called 
him  “The  ass  of  La  Marca.”  In  this  way 
he  went  on  several  years,  adding  to  his  de- 
ceit, the  pretense  of  bodily  infirmities. 
At  length  Gregory  XIII.  died,  in  1585,  and 
the  election  of  a new  pope  was  contested 
between  three  cardinals,  whose  respective 
interests  were  so  equal,  that  they  agreed  to 
choose  Montalto  ; but  when  they  informed 
him  of  their  intention,  he  fell  into  such  a fit 
of  coughing,  that  they  thought  he  would 
have  expired.  The  election,  however,  took 
place,  and  no  sooner  was  it  announced,  than 
the  pope  threw  his  staff  into  the  middle  of 
the  chapel,  and  began  the  “ Te  Deum  ” with 
a loud  voice,  to  the  astonishment  of  all  who 
heard  him.  He  took  the  name  of  Sixtus  V., 
and  though  he  administered  justice  with 
rigorous  severity,  the  relaxed  state  of  man- 
ners called  for  it,  and  no  one  could  tax  him 
with  partiality.  Among  other  things,  he 
caused  the  Vulgate  edition  of  the  Bible  to  be 
revised,  and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  have 
an  Italian  version  of  it  printed,  which  excited 
great  alarm  among  bigoted  Catholics.  To- 
ward foreign  powers  he  behaved  with  spirit, 
and  took  away  from  their  ambassadors  the 
liberty  of  granting  protections,  saying  that 
he  was  determined  no  one  should  reign  at 
Rome  but  himself.  His  private  character 
was  free  from  reproach,  and  the  only  faults 
charged  upon  him  were,  the  hypocritical 
course  he  took  to  gain  the  papacy,  and  the 
inexorable  rigor  with  which  he  acted  while 
he  enjoyed  it.  He  died  August  27th,  1590. 


SIX 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  809 


SIX  NATIONS.  The  Mohawks,  Senecas, 
Cayugas,  Oneidas,  and  Onondagas,  important 
tribes  of  Indians  in  New  York  when  the 
French  and  English  came,  were  banded  to- 
gether in  a powerful  confederacy,  called  by 
the  French  the  Iroquois,  by  the  Dutch  the 
Maquas,  and  by  the  English  the  Five  Nations. 
Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  Tusca- 
roras  migrated  from  North  Carolina  and 
joined  the  union,  which  thus  came  to  be 
known  as  the  Six  Nations.  The  Mohawks 
were  the  leading  tribe. 

SLOANE,  Sir  Hans,  was  born  in  Ireland 
in  1660.  He  was  bred  to  medicine,  acquired 
a high  reputation,  and  was  physician  to 
George  II.  He  devoted  much  time  and  re- 
search to  his  favorite  sciences  of  botany  and 
natural  history.  Upon  his  death  in  1752,  he 
bequeathed  his  great  accumulation  of  objects 
of  natural  history,  art,  and  antiquities,  to- 
gether with  his  large  library,  to  the  British 
nation,  on  condition  that  his  daughters  should 
be  paid  £20,000.  The  collection  and  library 
cost  him  £50,000.  Parliament  accepted  the 
offer,  and  having  already  acquired  the  Ilar- 
leian  MSS.  and  the  Cottonian  library,  placed 
all  in  Montagu  House,  which  they  purchased 
for  the  purpose  ; and  thus  the  British  Muse- 
um had  its  origin. 

SMALLWOOD,  William,  a native  of  Mary- 
land, was  appointed  a brigadier  by  Congress 
in  1776,  and  a major-general  in  1780.  His 
command  suffered  severely  at  the  battle  of 
Long  Island ; it  was  chiefly  composed  of 
young  men  from  Maryland.  Gen.  Smallwood 
served  at  Brandywine  and  Germantown,  and 
accompanied  Gates  to  his  disastrous  southern 
campaign.  In  1785  he  was  a delegate  in 
Congress  from  Maryland,  and  was  chosen 
governor  the  same  year.  He  died  in  Febru- 
ary, 1792. 

SMEATON,  John,  an  eminent  civil  engi- 
neer in  England,  the  constructor  of  the  Eddy- 
stone  lighthouse,  born  at  Leeds  in  1724,  died 
Oct.  28th,  1792. 

SMITH,  Adam,  a great  Scotch  philosopher 
and  political  economist,  was  born  at  Kirkal- 
dy  in  Fifeshire,  June  5th,  1723.  He  occu- 
pied the  chair  of  logic  and  moral  philosophy 
in  the  university  of  Glasgow.  Resigning 
his  professorship  in  1763,  he  gave  himself  to 
the  production  of  his  great  work,  “ An  Inqui- 
ry into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth 


of  Nations,”  which  appeared  in  1766.  He 
died  at  Edinburgh,  July  8th,  1790. 

SMITH,  James,  a signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  in  Ireland  be- 
tween 1715  and  1720;  he  would  never  give 
the  date  of  his  birth.  He  was  educated  at 
Philadelphia,  studied  law,  and  eventually  set- 
tled at  York.  In  1774  he  was  a member  of 
an  assembly  of  delegates  from  all  the  coun- 
ties of  Pennsylvania,  and,  in  January,  1775, 
of  the  Pennsylvanian  convention.  Being 
elected  a member  of  Congress,  he  retained 
his  seat  in  that  body  until  November,  1778. 
He  died  July  11th,  1806. 

SMITH,  John,  was  born  at  Willoughby, 
in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1579.  He  early 
displayed  a roving  disposition,  and  was  fond 
of  feats  of  daring.  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a merchant  of 
Lynn,  whom  he  soon  quitted  to  enter  the 
service  of  a nobleman  who  was  going  to  the 
continent.  At  Orleans  he  was  discharged 
with  money  to  defray  the  expenses  of  his 
voyage  home ; but  meeting  with  a Scotch- 
man in  the  Low  Countries,  where  he  had 
enlisted  as  a soldier,  he  was  persuaded  to  go 
to  Scotland,  and  promised  the  countenance 
of  King  James.  Disappointed  in  his  expect- 
ations he  returned  to  his  native  town,  but 
finding  no  agreeable  companions,  he  built 
himself  a hut  in  the  woods,  and  studied 
works  on  the  military  art,  occasionally  amus- 
ing himself  with  his  horse  and  lance. 

In  1596  he  again  set  out  on  his  travels, 
going  first  to  Flanders  and  thence  to  France, 
where  he  fell  in  with  some  pilgrims  at  Mar- 
seilles, and  set  sail  in  their  company  for  Italy. 
The  pilgrims,  however,  attributing  the  storm 
which  overtook  them  to  the  presence  of  a 
heretic,  threw  overboard  Smith,  who  saved 
his  life  by  swimming  to  the  island  of  St. 
Mary,  off  Nice.  He  was  befriended  by  a 
shipmaster,  who  took  him  to  Alexandria, 
whence  he  coasted  the  Levant,  and  assisted 
in  the  capture  of  a Venetian  ship.  "With  his 
share  of  the  prize-money,  he  made  the  tour 
of  Italy,  and  then  entered  the  Austrian  ser- 
vice, having  command  of  a company  of  horse, 
with  which  he  accompanied  the  Transylva- 
nian army  against  the  Turks. 

'At  the  siege  of  Regal,  the  lord  Turbisha 
challenged  any  Christian  commander  to  fight 
with  him  in  presence  of  the  ladies  for  their 


SMI 


810 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


particular  amusement.  The  duty  of  encoun- 
tering this  champion  devolved  by  lot  upon 
Smith,  who  killed  him,  struck  off  his  head, 
and  bore  it  in  triumph  to  the  general  of  the 
Transylvanian  army.  A friend  of  Turbisha 
now  sent  Smith  a challenge  which  he  accept- 
ed. They  fought,  as  before,  in  the  presence 
of  the  ladies,  who  witnessed  the  defeat  of  the 
Turk,  and  his  decapitation  by  Smith.  The 
latter  now  sent  word  to  the  Ottomans,  that, 
for  the  further  gratification  of  their  ladies, 
he  would  encounter  any  champion  whom  they 
might  select.  One  Bonomalgro  accepted  the 
challenge,  and,  in  the  combat  which  took 
place,  Smith,  although  stricken  to  the  ground, 
regained  his  saddle  at  a fortunate  moment, 
and  severed  the  infidel’s  head  from  his  body. 
These  brilliant  exploits  procured  him  a sort 
of  military  triumph,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Romans,  a splendid  horse  and  sabre,  and  a 
major’s  commission.  On  the  capture  of  Re- 
gal, the  Prince  of  Transylvania  gave  Smith 
his  miniature  set  in  gold,  a pension,  and  a 
coat  of  arms  with  three  Turk’s  heads  in  a 
shield. 

After  this  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  made 
the  slave  of  the  mistress  of  a pacha  who 
resided  at  Constantinople.  This  lady  fell  in 
love  with  the  Christian  hero,  and  sent  him 
for  safety  to  her  brother,  a pacha  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Sea  of  Azoph.  This  dignitary, 
suspecting  the  passion  of  his  sister,  treated 
Smith  with  great  severity,  but  the  latter 
found  an  opportunity  to  kill  his  tyrant,  and, 
mounting  the  fine  charger  of  his  fallen  foe, 
he  made  his  way  into  Russia,  whence  he 
traveled  through  Germany,  France,  Spain, 
and  Morocco,  from  which  latter  place  he 
returned  to  England.  On  the  19th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1606,  he  sailed  for  America,  with  Gos- 
nold’s  expedition,  letters  patent  having  been 
.obtained  and  a council  nominated  for  the  col- 
ony of  Virginia.  After  some  time  the  weight 
of  the  administration  of  the  Jamestown  set- 
tlement devolved  upon  Smith,  who  was  ever 
active  and  energetic.  But  while  exploring 
James  River,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Indian  chief  Powhatan,  and  doomed  to  death  ; 
from  which  he  was  saved  only  by  the  coura- 
geous interposition  of  Pocahontas,  Powhat- 
an’s daughter,  who  procured  his  liberation. 

Smith,  having  been  elected  president  of 
the  colony,  ably  discharged  the  arduous  du- 


ties imposed  upon  him,  although  its  inevita- 
ble difficulties  were  increased  bjr  mutiny  and 
the  hostility  of  the  Indians.  In  1609  he 
returned  to  England;  but  in  1614  he  com- 
manded an  expedition  of  discovery  to  North 
Virginia,  now  New  England.  The  next  two 
vessels  belonging  to  the  council  of  Plymouth, 
of  which  he  had  obtained  the  command, 
were  driven  to  England  by  stress  of  weather. 
He  next  had  command  of  a small  vessel, 
which  was  seized  by  French  men-of-war  un- 
der pretense  of  piracy ; but  was  released 
after  being  detained  some  time.  He  now 
traveled  about  endeavoring  to  enlist  men  of 
note  in  his  schemes  for  colonizing  America, 
but  without  success.  He  urged  upon  Queen 
Anne  (the  wife  of  James  I.)  the  propriety  of 
rewarding  Pocahontas,  who  had  been  brought 
to  England ; and  he  published  a history  of 
Virginia  and  an  account  of  his  various  voy- 
ages and  hardships.  He  died  in  London,  in 
1681,  in  the  fifty-second  year  of  his  age. 

SMITH,  Joseph,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of 
the  Mormons,  was  born  December,  1805,  in 
Sharon,  Vt.,  removed  with  his  father,  about 
1815,  to  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  and  assisted  on  the 
farm  till  1826.  He  received  little  education, 
read  indifferently,  wrote  and  spelt  badly, 
knew  little  of  arithmetic,  and  in  all  other 
branches  of  learning  he  was,  to  the  day  of 
his  death,  exceedingly  ignorant.  His  own 
account  of  his  religious  progress  is,  that  as 
early  as  fifteen  years  of  age  he  began  to  have 
serious  ideas  concerning  the  future  state ; 
that  he  fell  into  occasional  ecstacies ; and 
that  in  1828,  during  one  of  these  ecstacies, 
he  was  visited  by  an  angel,  who  told  him  that 
his  sins  were  forgiven, — that  the  time  was 
at  hand  when  the  gospel  in  its  fullness  was  to 
be  preached  to  all  nations, — that  the  Ameri- 
can Indians  were  a remnant  of  Israel,  who, 
when  they  first  came  to  this  continent,  were 
an  enlightened  people  possessing  a knowledge 
of  the  true  God,  and  enjoying  his  favor, — 
that  the  prophets  and  inspired  writers  among 
them  had  kept  a history  or  record  of  their 
proceedings, — that  these  records  were  safely 
deposited, — and  that  if  faithful,  he  was  to  be 
the  favored  instrument  for  bringing  them  to 
light.  On  the  following  day,  according  to 
instructions  from  his  angelic  familiar,  he  went 
to  a hill  which  he  calls  Cumorah  in  PalmjTa* 
and  there  in  a stone  chest,  after  a little  dig- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


811 


ging,  he  saw  the  records  ; but  it  was  not  till 
September,  1827,  that  “ the  angel  of  the  Lord 
delivered  the  records  into  his  hands.” 

“ These  records  were  engraved  on  plates 
which  had  the  appearance  of  . gold,  were  sev- 
en by  eight  inches  in  size,  and  thinner  than 
common  tin,  and  were  covered  on  both  sides 
with  Egyptian  characters,  small  and  beauti- 
fully engraved.  They  were  bound  together 
in  a volume  like  the  leaves  of  a book,  and 
were  fastened  at  one  edge  with  three  rings 
running  through  the  whole.  The  volume 
was  about  six  inches  in  thickness,  bore  many 
marks  of  antiquity,  and  part  of  it  was  sealed. 
With  the  records  was  found  a curious  instru- 
ment, called  by  the  ancients  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim,  which  consisted  of  two  transparent 
stones,  clear  as  crystal,  and  set  in  two  rims 
of  a bow  ” — a pair  of  pebble  spectacles,  in 
other  words,  or  “ helps  to  read  unknown 
tongues.” 

By  the  “ gift  and  power  of  God,”  through 
the  means  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  he 
translated  the  records,  and  “ being  a poor 
writer,  he  employed  a scribe  to  write  the 
translation  as  it  came  from  his  mouth.”  In 
1830  a large  edition  of  the  “Book  of  Mor- 
mon” was  published.  It  professes  to  be  an 
abridgment  of  the  records  made  by  the 
prophet  Mormon,  of  the  people  of  the 
Nephites,  and  left  to  his  son  Moroni  to  finish. 
It  was  written,  there  is  good  reason  to  be- 
lieve, by  a clergyman  named  Spaulding, 
about  1812.  Smith  having  obtained  the  MS., 
resolved  to  palm  it  off  as  a new  revelation. 

In  this  he  was  well  abetted  by  one  Rigdon. 
In  1830  they  organized  a church  at  Kirtland, 
Ohio.  In  1831-2  they  founded  Zion,  in 
Jackson  county,  Missouri.  From  1833  to 
1839  the  sect  endured  much  persecution,  and 
driven  from  place  to  place,  were  compelled 
to  travel  westward  ; till  in  1840-1  the  city 
Nauvoo  was  laid  out  on  the  Mississippi,  in 
Illinois,  where  a temple  was  built.  In  1844 
Joseph  and  his  brother  Hiram,  when  in  pris- 
on on  a charge  of  treason,  were  shot  by  an 
infuriated  mob,  and  Brigham  Young  was 
chosen  seer. 

In  1845,  the  Mormons  being  much  har- 
assed by  their  neighbors,  departure  from 
Nauvoo  was  determined  on,  and  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  was  chosen  “for  an  everlasting 
abode,”  and  taken  possession  of,  July  24th, 


1847.  In  1849  the  valley  was  surveyed  by 
order  of  the  United  States  government,  and 
in  1850  the  colony  had  attained  to  great  pros- 
perit}7-.  The  provisional  government  was 
abolished  the  same  year,  and  Utah  territory 
organized,  Brigham  Young  being  appoint- 
ed the  first  governor. 

The  Mormons  command  payment  of  tithes, 
honor  and  encourage  labor,  permit  and  praise 
polygamy,  and  believe  in  the  power  of  their 
leaders  to  work  miracles.  • Missionaries  are 
sent  to  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  the  sect  re- 
ceives large  accessions  from  Europe.  In  1857 
the  Mormons  and  the  United  States  govern- 
ment came  in  collision,-  and  an  armed  force 
was  sent  into  the  territory.  Bloodshed,  how- 
ever, was  avoided,  for  the  ‘saints’  yielded 
after  much  bluster. 

SMITH,  Samuel  Stanhope,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
an  eminent  Presbyterian  clergyman,  and 
president  of  Princeton  College ; he  died  in 
1819,  aged  sixty-nine. 

SMITH,  Sydney,  who  for  half  a century 
was  conspicuous  as  critic  and  political  writer, 
was  born  at  Woodford,  county  of  Essex, 
England,  in  17G8.  He  received  an  excellent 
education  at  Winchester,  where  his  scholas- 
tic triumphs  won  him  a fellowship  at  Oxford ; 
and  commenced  his  clerical  life  as  curate  of 
Netheravon,  Wilts,  a wild  and  desolate  par- 
ish. He  soon  relinquished  it  in  order  to 
travel  with  the  son  of  Mr.  Beach,  member 
of  parliament  for  Cirencester.  This  event 
and  its  results,  he  has  humorously  described  : 
“ When  first  I went  into  the  church,  I had  a 
curacy  in  the  middle  of  Salisbury  Plain. 
The  squire  of  the  parish  took  a fancy  to  me, 
and  requested  me  to  go  with  his  son  to  reside 
at  the  university  of  Weimar.  Before  we 
could  get  there,  Germany  became  the  seat 
of  war,  and  in  stress  of  politics  we  put  into 
Edinburgh,  where  I remained  five  years. 
The  principles  of  the  French  revolution  were 
then  fully  afloat,  and  it  is  impossible  to  con- 
ceive a more  violent  and  agitated  state  of 
society.  Among  the  first  persons  with  whom 
I became  acquainted  were  Lord  Jeffrey,  Lord 
Murray  (late  lord  advocate  for  Scotland),  and 
Lord  Brougham  ; all  of  them  maintaining 
opinions  on  political  subjects  a little  too  lib- 
eral for  the  dynasty  of  Dundas,  then  exer- 
cising supreme  power  over  the  northern 
division  of  the  island.  One  day  we  happened 


812 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


to  meet  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  story  or  flat  in 
Buccleuch  place,  the  elevated  residence  of  the 
then  Mr.  Jeffrey  ; I proposed  that  we  should 
set  up  a Review ; this  was  acceded  to  with 
acclamation.  I was  appointed  editor,  and 
remained  long  enough  in  Edinburgh  to  edit 
the  first  number  of  the  Edinburgh  Review. 
The  motto  I proposed  for  the  Review  was — 

Tenui  mumrn  meditamur  avena — 

We  cultivate  literature  upon  a little  oatmeal. 

But  this  was  too  near  the  truth  to  be  admit- 
ted, and  we  took  our  present  grave  motto 
from  Publius  Syrus,  of  whom  none  of  us,  I 
am  sure,  had  ever  read  a single  line ; and  so 
began  what  has  since-  turned  out  to  be  a very 
important  and  able  journal.  When  I left 
Edinburgh  it  fell  into  the  stronger  hands  of 
Lord  Jeffrey  and  Lord  Brougham,  and  reached 
the  highest  point  of  popularity  and  success.” 

Smith  left  Edinburgh  for  London,  where 
he  became  a popular  preacher,  and  also  gained 
fame  for  eloquence  and  wit  as  a lecturer  upon 
belles  lettres  at  the  Royal  Institution. 
Throughout  his  life  his  pen  wras  busy  in 
political  effusions.  It  is  said  that  his  amus- 
ing “Letters  of  Peter  Plymley  ” did  more 
toward  effecting  Catholic  emancipation  than 
any,  and  perhaps  all,  of  the  many  other  pub- 
lications upon  the  subject. 

He  wras  for  several  years  rector  of  Combe 
Florey,  in  Somersetshire,  and  afterward  canon 
residentiary  of  St.  Paul’s.  He  died  in  1845, 
aged  seventy-six. 

SMITH,  William,  D.D.,  eminent  for  elo- 
quence and  the  advancement  of  literature  ; 
for  many  years  provost  of  the  college  of 
Philadelphia,  and  died  in  1803. 

SMITH,  Sir  William  Sydney  (commonly 
called  Sir  Sydney  Smith),  was  born  in  1764. 
At  twelve  years  of  age  he  was  a midshipman 
under  Lord  Rodney,  and  before  he  was  twen- 
ty, a post-captain.  In  an  attempt  to  cut  out 
a French  ship  at  Havre,  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner; and  under  a charge  that  he  had  vio- 
lated the  law  of  nations  by  landing  assassins 
in  France,  he  was  immured  in  the  prison  of 
the  Temple  at  Paris,  for  two  years.  He  was 
released  through  the  address  and  intrepidity 
of  Philippeaux,  a French  officer.  An  order 
of  the  minister  was  forged,  directing  the  gao- 
ler to  deliver  Smith,  to  be  transferred  to 
another  prison.  The  gaoler  obeyed,  and 
false  passports  bore  Smith  and  Philippeaux 


to  Rouen.  In  an  open  boat  they  hurried  out 
into  the  channel,  and  were  picked  up  by  a 
British  frigate. 

In  1798  Commodore  Smith  was  dispatched 
with  an  independent  command  to  the  coast 
of  Egypt.  His  aid  enabled  the  Turks  to  hold 
Acre,  and  the  plans  of  Napoleon  were  baffled. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  operations  by  which 
the  French  were  expelled  from  Egypt,  and  to 
the  close  of  the  war,  displayed  conspicuous 
gallantry  and  skill.  In  1814  he  was  made  a 
knight  commander  of  the  Bath,  and  received 
a pension  of  £1,000  a year.  He  subsequent- 
ly rose  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  He  endeavored 
to  procure  from  the  congress  of  Vienna,  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and  a joint  at- 
tack of  the  European  powers  upon  the  pirat- 
ical states  of  Barbary  ; but  fruitlessly.  He 
formed  at  Paris  an  association  called  the 
Anti-Piratic,  whose  influence  was  afterward 
seen  in  the  subjugation  of  Algiers.  Few 
characters  in  modern  history  are  so  chivalric 
as  Sir  Sydney  Smith.  He  died  at  his  resi- 
dence in  Paris,  May  26th,  1840. 

SMITHSON,  James,  an  illegitimate  son  of 
the  Duke  of  Northumberland  in  England, 
died  in  1829,  bequeathing  the  bulk  of  his 
large  property  to  the  United  States  “ to 
found  at  Washington,  under  the  name  oi  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  an  estanlishment  for 
the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge 
among  men.” 

SMOLENSK  O,  a considerable  town  of 
European  Russia,  and  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  same  name.  The  Russians 
made,  here,  their  first  serious  opposition  to 
the  advance  of  the  French,  in  the  campaign 
of  1812.  An  obstinate  conflict  took  place  on 
the  16th  and  17th  of  August,  in  which  the 
town  was  bombarded,  and  set  on  fire.  The 
Russians  were  compelled  to  fall  back,  and  the 
French  extinguished  the  flames.  On  quit- 
ting it  in  their  disastrous  retreat  in  Novem- 
ber following,  they  blew  up  part  of  the 
works. 

SMOLLETT,  Tobias  George,  a celebrated 
novelist,  was  born  near  Renton  in  Dumbar- 
tonshire, in  1721.  He  was  bred  a physician, 
but  made  literature  his  profession.  He  died 
near  Leghorn,  Oct.  21st,  1771. 

SOBIESKI,  John,  was  born  in  Galicia  in 
1629.  He  acquired  great  renown  by  his  suc- 
cesses over  the  Turks,  and  on  the  death  of 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


813 


Michael  in  1674,  he  was  chosen  King  of 
Poland.  The  Turks  still  assailed  their  west- 
ern neighbors,  and  to  Sobieski  Europe  owed 
a series  of  splendid  victories  which  checked 
the  progress  and  broke  the  iron  power  of  the 
Moslem.  To  him  at  the  battle  of  Vienna,  in 
1683,  Austria  was  indebted  for  her  deliver- 
ance at  the  hour  of  her  extremity.  With 
what  abominable  ingratitude  has  she  repaid 
her  debt  to  Poland  ! We  can  not  withhold 
from  the  reader  a sketch  of  this  momentous 
battle. 

The  Turks  offered  not  the  least  opposition 
to  the  Poles  as  they  crossed  the  bridge,  and 
all  the  imperial  troops  were  safely  assembled 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Danube  by  the 
7th  of  September,  and  amounted  to  about 
70,000  men.  They  could  hear  from  Tuln  the 
roar  of  the  Turkish  cannon.  Vienna  was,  in 
fact,  reduced  almost  to  its  last  gasp.  Most 
of  the  garrison  were  either  killed  or  wounded, 
and  disease  was  making  even  greater  ravages 
than  the  enemy’s  balls.  “ The  grave  con- 
tinued open  without  ever  closing  its  mouth.” 
As  early  as  the  22d  of  August,  the  officers 
had  estimated  that  they  could  not  withstand 
a general  attack  three  days.  If  the  vizier 
had  pursued  his  advantage,  Vienna  must 
have  fallen  into  his  hands.  But  it  was  his 
object  to  avoid  taking  it  by  storm,  in  which 
case  the  plunder  would  be  carried  off  by  the 
soldiers ; whereas,  if  he  could  oblige  it  to 
surrender,  he  might  appropriate  its  spoil  to 
his  own  use.  So  careless  was  he,  too,  in  his 
confidence,  that  he  had  not  yet  ascertained 
that  the  Poles  were  arrived,  till  they  were  in 
his  immediate  vicinity  ; and  when  the  news 
was  afterward  brought  to  him  that  the  King 
of  Poland  was  advancing,  “The  King  of 
Poland ! ” said  he,  laughing,  “ I know,  indeed, 
that  he  has  sent  Lubomirski  with  a few  squad- 
rons.” 

The  governor,  Starembourg,  who  had  as- 
sured the.Duke  of  Lorraine  that  “he  would 
not  surrender  the  place  but  with  the  last 
drop  of  his  blood,”  began  himself  to  despair 
of  being  longer  able  to  hold  out.  A letter 
which  he  wrote  at  this  period  contained  only 
these  words : “ No  more  time  to  lose,  my 
lord,  no  more  time  to  lose.” 

The  imperial  army  set  out  on  the  9th  of 
September  for  Vienna,  but  they  had  a march 
of  fourteen  miles  to  make  across  a ridge  of 


mountains,  over  which  the  Germans  could  not 
drag  their  cannon,  and  were  therefore  obliged 
to  leave  them  behind.  The  Poles  were  more 
persevering,  for  they  succeeded  in  getting 
over  twenty-eight  pieces,  which  were  all  they 
had  to  oppose  to  the  three  hundred  of  the 
enemy. 

On  the  11th  of  September  they  reached 
Mount  Calemberg,  the  last  which  separated 
them  from  the  Turks.  From  this  hill,  the 
Christians  were  presented  with  one  of  the 
finest  and  most  dreadful  prospects  of  the 
greatness  of  human  power, — an  immense 
plain  and  all  the  islands  of  the  Danube  cov- 
ered with  pavilions,  whose  magnificence 
seemed  rather  calculated  for  an  encampment 
of  pleasure  than  the  hardships  of  war ; an 
innumerable  multitude  of  horses,  camels,  and 
buffaloes ; 200,000  men  all  in  motion ; swarms 
of  Tartars  dispersed  along  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  in  their  usual  confusion  ; the  fire 
of  the  besiegers  incessant  and  terrible,  and 
that  of  the  besieged  such  as  they  could  con- 
trive to  make ; in  fine,  a great  city  distin- 
guishable only  by  the  tops  of  the  steeples, 
and  the  fire  and  smoke  that  covered  it.  But 
Sobieski  was  not  imposed  on  by  this  formi- 
dable sight.  “ This  man,”  said  he,  “ is  badly 
encamped ; he  knows  nothing  of  war ; we 
shall  certainly  beat  him.”  The  eagle  eye  of 
the  experienced  warrior  was  not  mistaken. 

On  the  eve  of  the  battle,  he  wrote  to  the 
queen  in  these  words  : “We  can  easily  see 

that  the  general  of  an  army  who  has  neither 
thought  of  intrenching  himself  nor  concen- 
trating his  forces,  but  lies  encamped  there  as 
if  we  were  a hundred  miles  from  him,  is  pre- 
destined to  be  beaten.” 

Sunday,  the  12th  of  September,  1683,  was 
the  important  day,  big  with  the  fate  of  Leo- 
pold, that  was  to  decide  whether  the  Turkish 
crescent  should  wave  on  the  turrets  of  Vien- 
na. The  cannonade  on  the  city  began  at  the 
break  of  day,  for  which  purpose  the  vizier  on 
his  part  had  withdrawn  from  his  army  the 
janizaries,  all  his  infantry,  and  nearly  all  his 
artillery.  The  light  cavalry,  the  Spahis,  the 
Tartars,  and  other  irregular  troops,  were  the 
forces  destined  to  encounter  the  enemy  ; so 
egregiously  did  Kara  Mustapha  miscalculate 
the  strength  of  his  opponents.  They  were 
commanded  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  who  was  re- 
garded by  the  Turks  as  one  of  the  greatest 


SOB 


814 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


generals  of  the  age ; but,  unfortunately  for 
them,  he  was  one  of  those  who  disapproved 
the  wTar,  and  particularly  the  present  plan  of 
it.  At  eight  in  the  morning  there  was  some 
skirmishing  ; at  eleven  the  Christian  army 
was  drawn  up  in  array  in  the  plain  ; and 
Kara  Mustapha,  beginning  to  apprehend  that 
the  allies  were  more  formidable  than  he  anti- 
cipated, had  changed  his  design,  and  came  to 
command  his  troops  in  person.  He  was  sta- 
tioned in  the  centre,  and  Sobieski  occupied 
the  same  situation  in  his  army. 

It  was  nearly  five  in  the  evening,  and  the 
engagement  had  only  been  partial ; for  Sobi- 
eski’s  infantry  had  not  come  up,  and  the 
vizier  was  to  be  seen  under  a superb  crimson 
tent,  quietly  sipping  coffee,  while  the  King 
of  Poland  was  before  him.  At  length  the 
infantry  arrived,  and  Sobieski  ordered  them 
to  seize  an  eminence  which  commanded  the 
vizier’s  position.  The  promptitude  and  gal- 
lantry with  which  this  maneuvre  was  exe- 
cuted decided  the  fate  of  the  day.  Kara 
Mustapha,  taken  by  surprise  at  this  unex- 
pected attack,  ordered  all  his  infantry  to  his 
right  wing,  and  the  movement  put  all  the  line 
in  confusion.  The  king  cried  out  that  they 
were  lost  men  ; he  ordered  the  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine to  attack  the  centre,  which  was  now 
exposed  and  weakened,  while  he  himself 
made  his  way  through  the  confused  Turks 
straight  for  the  vizier’s  tent.  He  was  in- 
stantly recognized  by  the  streamers  which 
adorned  the  lances  of  his  guard.  “ By  Al- 
lah ! ” exclaimed  the  cham  of  the  Tartars, 
“ the  king  is  writh  them  ! ” An  eclipse  of  the 
moon  added  to  the  consternation  of  the  su- 
perstitious Moslems.  At  this  moment  the 
Polish  cavalry  made  a grand  charge,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  with  his 
troops  added  to  the  confusion  ; and  the  rout 
of  the  Turks  became  general.  The  vizier  in 
vain  tried  to  rally  them.  “And  you,”  said 
he  to  the  cham  of  the  Tartars,  who  passed 
him  among  the  fugitives,  “ can  not  you  help 
me  ? ” “I  know  the  King  of  Poland  ! ” was 
the  answer.  “ I told  you  that  if  we  had  to 
deal  with  him,  all  we  could  do  would  be  to 
run  away.  Look  at  the  sky  ; see  if  God  is 
not  against  us.”  The  immense  Turkish  army 
was  wholly  broken  up,  and  Vienna  was  saved. 

So  sudden  and  general  was  the  panic 
among  the  Turks,  that  by  six  o’clock  Sobieski 


had  taken  possession  of  their  camp.  One 
of  the  vizier’s  stirrups,  finely  enameled,  was 
brought  to  him.  “ Take  this  stirrup,”  said 
he,  “ to  the  queen,  and  tell  her  that  the  per- 
son to  whom  it  belonged  is  defeated.”  Hav- 
ing strictly  forbidden  his  soldiers  from  plun- 
dering, they  rested  under  the  Turkish  tents. 

Such  were  the  events  of  the  famous  deliv- 
erance of  Vienna  as  they  were  seen  by  a 
looker-on  ; and  the  outline  of  the  narrative 
is  filled  up  by  one  who  was  the  best  informed, 
and  not  the  least  impartial,  no  less  than  the 
great  hero  himself.  “The  victory  has  been 
so  sudden  and  extraordmarj^,”  he  whites  to 
the  queen,  “ that  the  city,  as  well  as  the 
camp,  was  in  continual  alarm,  expecting  to 
see  the  enemy  return  every  moment.  Night 
put  an  end  to  the  pursuit,  and  besides,  the 
Turks  defended  themselves  with  f ury  in  their 
flight.  All  the  troops  have  done  their  duty 
well ; they  attribute  the  victory  to  God  and 
us.  At  the  moment  wrhen  the  enemy  began 
to  give  ground  (and  the  greatest  shock  was 
where  I was  stationed,  opposite  the  vizier), 
all  the  cavalry  of  the  rest  of  the  army  ad- 
vanced toward  me  on  the  right  wing,  the  cen* 
tre  and  the  left  wing  having  as  yet  but* little 
to  do.  The  emperor  is  about  a mile  and  a half 
distant.  He  is  coming  down  the  Danube  in 
a chaloupe ; but  I perceive  he  has  no  great 
wish  to  see  me,  perhaps  on  account  of  the 
etiquette.  I am  very  glad  to  avoid  these 
ceremonies  ; we  have  been  treated  with  noth- 
ing else  up  to  this  time.  Our  darling  is  brave 
in  the  highest  degree.” 

On  the  following  day  John  made  his  en- 
trance into  Vienna.  The  breach  made  by 
the  Turks,  and  through  which  they  expected 
to  march  to  the  destruction  of  the  city,  was 
the  road  which  admitted  its  deliverer.  The 
citizens  received  him  with  undisguised  ex- 
pressions of  gratitude  ; and,  stern  warrior  as 
he  wTas,  Sobieski  shed  a tear  of  joy  at  receiv- 
ing the  thanks  and  acclamations  of  the  vic- 
tims whom  he  had  rescued  from  destruction. 
“ Never,”  said  he,  “ did  the  crown  yield  me 
pleasure  like  this ! ” The  people  could  not 
help  comparing  him  with  their  own  disgrace- 
ful sovereign,  and  exclaiming,  “ Ah  ! why  is 
not  this  our  master  ?”  With  difficulty  could 
the  stern  looks  of  the  emperor’s  officers  check 
these  natural  expressions  of  feeling.  But 
Sobieski  did  not  arrogate  to  himself  only  the 


SOB 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


815 


glory  of  the  victory ; he  went  to  the  cathe- 
dral to  return  thanks,  and  began  to  sing  the 
Te  Deum  himself.  A sermon  was  afterward 
delivered,  and  the  preacher  chose  the  follow- 
ing text  for  the  occasion : “ There  was  a 

man  sent  from  God,  whose  name  was  John.” 

He  died  of  apoplexy,  June  17th,  1696, 
after  a reign  of  twenty -two  years  ; and  was 
justly  considered  the  most  accomplished  sov- 
ereign that  ever  sat  on  the  throne  of  Poland. 

SOCINUS,  Faustus,  founder  of  the  Socin- 
ian  sect,  was  born  at  Sienna  in  1539,  and 
died  near  Cracow  in  1604.  His  uncle  Laelius, 
who  died  at  Zurich  in  1562,  aged  thirty-seven, 
held  views  somewhat  similar. 

SOCRATES,  the  most  celebrated  philoso- 
pher of  all  antiquity,  was  a native  of  Athens. 
Philosophy  soon  became  the  study  of  Socra- 
tes ; and  under  Archelaus  and  Anaxagoras 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  that  exemplary  vir- 
tue which  succeeding  ages  have  ever  loved 
and  venerated.  He  appeared  like  the  rest 
of  his  countrymen  in  the  field  of  battle ; he 
fought  with  boldness  and  intrepidity ; and 
to  his  courage  two  of  his  friends  and  disci- 
ples, Xenophon  and  Alcibiades,  owed  the 
preservation  of  their  lives.  But  the  charac- 
ter of  Socrates  appears  more  conspicuous  and 
dignified  as  a philosopher  and  moralist,  than 
as  a warrior.  His  principles  were  enforced  by 
the  unparalleled  example  of  an  affectionate 
husband,  a tender  parent,  a warlike  soldier, 
and  a patriotic  citizen,  in  his  own  person. 
He  was  born  b.c.  470,  and  died  b.c.  400, 
being  unjustly  condemned  to  death.  Plato, 
who  was  one  of  his  disciples,  reverently  en- 
titled him,  “ the  best  of  all  men  of  this  time, 
the  wisest  and  most  just  of  all  men.” 

SOLON",  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of 
Greece,  was  born  at  Salamis,  and  educated  at 
Athens.  After  he  had  devoted  part  of  his 
time  to  philosophical  and  political  studies, 
Solon  traveled  over  the  greatest  part  of 
Greece,  but  at  his  return  home  he  was  dis- 
tressed with  the  dissensions  which  were 
kindled  among  his  countrymen.  All  fixed 
their  eyes  upon  Solon  as  a deliverer,  and  he 
was  unanimously  elected  archon  and  sove- 
reign legislator.  He  flourished  about  600 
B.C. 

SOLYMAN  IT.,  the  Great,  succeeded  his 
father  Selim  I.,  as  Sultan  of  Turkey  in  1520. 
Gazelles,  governor  of  Syria,  rebelling  after 


the  death  of  Selim,  and  having  made  himself 
master  of  a part  of  Egypt,  was  defeated  by 
Solyman’s  generals,  who  himself  resolved  to 
turn  his  arms  against  the  Christians.  Ac- 
cordingly, in  1521  ne  took  Belgrade,  and  the 
next  year  Rhodes.  This  victory  was  followed 
by  the  revolt  of  the  Egyptians  and  some  oth- 
er nations,  which  were  defeated  by  Ibrahim 
Bassa ; and  Solyman,  in  the  mean  time,  being 
advanced  with  his  army  into  Hungary,  won 
the  battle  of  Mohatz,  in  1526,  where  Lewis 
II.  of  Hungary  lost  his  life  in  a morass.  He 
made  several  other  expeditions  into  this  king- 
dom, where  he  took  Buda,  Pest,  Gran,  and 
some  other  places,  and  died  there  himself  at 
the  siege  of  Zigcth  or  Sigeth,  the  4th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1566,  being  seventy-two  years  of 
age.  In  1529  Solyman  besieged  Vienna,  but 
without  success  ; and  in  1535,  he  took  and 
plundered  Tauris ; and  his  generals  subdued 
several  cities  and  provinces  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa.  Besides  his  career  of  war,  he 
improved  the  administration  of  Turkey,  en- 
couraged learning,  opened  roads,  erected 
caravansaries,  hospitals,  and  libraries,  and 
in  other  ways  evinced  an  enlightened  policy. 

SOMERS,  John,  Lord,  a famous  English 
lawyer  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Worces- 
ter, March  4th,  1650.  In  1688  he  was  one 
of  the  counsel  for  the  seven  bishops;  and 
being  chosen  a member  of  the  convention 
parliament,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the 
conference  of  the  two  houses,  on  the  ques- 
tion about  the  abdication  of  the  throne. 
When  the  new  government  was  established, 
he  became,  successively,  solicitor  general  and 
attorney-general,  and  in  1693  lord-keeper. 
He  was  next  raised  to  the  peerage,  appointed 
chancellor,  and  rewarded  with  lands  in  the 
county  of  Surrey.  In  1700  he  was  deprived 
of  the  seals,  and  soon  after  impeached  by 
the  Commons.;  but  a misunderstanding  aris- 
ing between  the  two  houses,  the  Lords  pro- 
nounced a verdict  of  acquittal.  Lord  Somers 
projected  the  union  between  England  and 
Scotland,  and  was  one  of  the  managers  ap- 
pointed to  carry  that  measure  into  effect.  In 
1708  he  was  made  president  of  the  council, 
but  went  out  of  office  again  in  1710:  after 
which  he  led  a retired  life,  and  died  x\pril 
26th,  1716. 

SOPHOCLES  was  born  in  the  vicinity  of 
Athens,  b.c.  495.  At  the  age  of  twenty-seven 


SOP 


816 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


he  bore  the  prize  away  from  yEschylus,  who 
for  thirty  }rears  had  been  the  master  of  the 
Athenian  stage.  Twenty-seven  years  after, 
Sophocles  was  surpassed  by  Euripides.  Soph- 
ocles died  after  completing  his  ninetieth 
year.  Of  the  one  hundred  and  thirteen 
plays  that  he  wrote,  only  seven,  with  some 
fragments,  have  descended  to  us.  In  his 
hands  the  Athenian  tragedy  reached  its  high- 
est perfection. 

SOTHEBY,  William,  was  distinguished 
as  a translator.  Some  of  his  principal  works 
are,  Oberon,  from  the  German  of  Wieland  ; 
the  Georgies  of  Virgil  translated  into  English 
verse;  and  the  translation  of  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  of  Homer,  in  four  volumes  octavo, 
with  the  designs  of  Flaxman.  Mr.  Sotheby 
died  in  London,  Dec.  30th,  1833,  aged  seventy- 
six. 

He  was  upward  of  seventy  years  old  when 
he  commenced  his  spirited  and  faithful  ver- 
sion of  Homer. 


SOULT,  Nicole  Jean  de  Dieux,  was  born 
in  1769,  and  entered  the  army  in  1785. 
His  skill  and  bravery  won  him  rapid 
promotion;  he  was  the  first  of  the  mar- 
shals whom  Napoleon  created  in  1804,  and  as 
Duke  of  Dalmatia  he  was  the  first  of  the 
marshals  who  were  ennobled.  He  showed 
great  energy  and  talent  in  contending  with 
Wellington  in  Spain,  though  the  latter  drove 
him  into  France.  Soult  fought  for  Bonaparte 
at  Waterloo,  and  for  a time  was  proscribed 
by  the  Bourbons.  Ultimately  he  was  re- 
stored to  his  dignities.  He  died  Nov.  26th, 
1851. 

SOUTH,  Robert,  an  eminent  English  di- 
vine, was  born  at  Hackney  in  1633,  and  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  school,  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  He  had  a controversy  with 
Sherlock  concerning  the  Trinity,  and  both 
parties  were  charged  with  heresy.  South 
was  a man  of  great  wit.  His  sermons  are 
original  and  forcible.  He  died  in  1716. 


41 

SOUTH  CAROLINA  has  an  area  of 
28,000  square  miles.  In  1870  the  population 
was  705,606,  of  whom  289,667  were  whites 
and  415,814  colored.  In  form  South  Carolina 
is  a triangle,  wedged  in  between  North  Caro- 
lina and  Georgia,  with  the  Atlantic  for  a 
base. 

A tract  of  great  breadth,  with  occasional 
swamps,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  sea,  is 
perfectly  level ; but  proceeding  inland  we 
observe  the  land  to  become  more  elevated, 
and  gradually  to  present  an  undulating  and 
broken  appearance.  The  low  lands  are  an 


unhealthy  residence,  but  in  the  upper  regions 
the  inhabitants  enjoy  a salubrious  climate. 

The  principal  rivers,  such  as  the  Great 
Pedee,  the  Santee,  and  the  Congarce,  are 
navigable  for  small  craft ; in  the  lower 
part  of  their  course  they  are  shallow  and 
obstructed  by  bars.  Similar  obstacles  dimin- 
ish the  value  of  the  harbors. 

The  southern  part  of  the  coast  is  skirted 
by  a range  of  islands,  separated  from  the 
main  land  by  narrow  channels,  which  afford 
an  inland  steamboat  navigation  from  Charles- 
ton to  Savannah.  These  islands,  like  the 


SOU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


817 


neighboring  continent  are  low  and  flat,  but 
are  covered  with  forests  of  live  oak,  pine, 
and  palmettoes,  and  they  yield  the  black- 
seed  or  Sea-Islaiad  cotton.  Before  the  culti- 
vation of  cotton,  many  of  them  were  the 
haunts  of  alligators,  and  their  thick  woods 
and  rank  weeds  rendered  them  impenetrable 
to  man.  At  present,  they  are  under  culti- 
vation, and  well  inhabited ; and  as  the  voya- 
ger glides  by  their  shores,  he  is  enchanted 
with  the  prospect  of  their  lively  verdure, 
interspersed  with  thick  clumps  of  palmet- 
toes and  flowering  groves  of  orange-trees. 
The  live  oak,  which  is  so  called  on  account 
of  its  being  an  evergreen,  is  a noble  tree, 
with  a trunk  sometimes  twelve  feet  in  girth ; 
its  long  branches  are  spread  horizontally,  and 
festoons  of  moss  hang  from  them  almost 
sweeping  the  ground.  The  laurel  is  here 
seen  covered  with  large  white  blossoms, 
shaped  like  a lily,  and  a foot  in  circumference. 
The  long  sandy  beaches,  which  border  these 
islands  toward  the  sea,  are  covered  with 
thousands  of  water -fowl. 

Cotton  and  rice  are  the  great  agricultural 
staples ; the  former  of  which  clothes  more 
of  mankind  than  either  wool,  flax,  hemp,  or 
silk,  and  the  latter  feeds  more  of  the  human 
race  than  any  other  grain.  Rice  was  first 
sown  in  Carolina  in  1G93.  There  are  no 
manufactures  of  any  importance;  but  the 
commerce  of  the  state  is  extensive : it  con- 
sists of  exports  of  her  own  raw  produce, 
such  as  rice,  cotton,  tar,  pitch,  turpentine, 
and  lumber,  and  of  large  quantities  of  the 
productions  of  North  Carolina  and  Georgia, 
and  in  imports  for  home  consumption. 

South  Carolina  was  granted  to  Lord  Clar- 
endon and  others  in  1663,  but  no  permanent 
establishment  was  made  until  1680.  The 
celebrated  John  Locke  drew  up  a plan  of 
government  for  the  colony,  but  it  proved  im- 
practicable. In  1719  the  proprietary  govern- 
ment was  done  away,  the  two  Carolinas  were 
separated,  and  they  were  made  royal  colo- 
nies. During  the  Revolutionary  war,  this 
state  was  distinguished  for  its  exertions  in 
the  good  cause, . which  owed  much  to  the 
bravery  of  Marion,  Sumter,  and  Lee,  all  of 
whom  were  worthy  of  the  military  reputa- 
tion they  enjoyed.  In  1780  and  1781  it  was 
the  theatre  of  important  military  operations, 
and  was  overrun  by  the  British  troops. 

52 


The  present  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1790.  The  governor  is  chosen  for  four  years 
by  the  legislature,  whose  sessions  are  annu- 
al. He  is  not  re -eligible  for  the  next  four 
years.  The  representatives  and  half  the  sen- 
ators are  chosen  biennially.  The  constitution 
grants  the  right  of  suffrage  to  every  male  citi- 
zen of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  who  has 
resided  in  the  state  two  years,  and  has  been 
possessed  at  least  six  months  of  a freehold  of 
fifty  acres  of  land  or  a town  lot,  or  who  has 
resided  in  the  election  district  six  months  and 
paid  a tax  of  three  shillings  sterling  to  the 
state  the  preceding  year. 

South  Carolina  wras  the  first  state  to  secede 
during  the  late  rebellion.  She  had  been  in 
1832  the  hot-bed  of  nullification,  and  was 
now  again  the  headquarters  of  disunionism. 
The  state  was  for  a long  time  comparatively 
free  from  the  ravages  of  the  war,  owing  to 
her  distance  from  the  principal  areas  of  cam- 
paigning, but  during  Sherman’s  march  north- 
ward from  Savannah  the  Union  troops  lived 
at  free  quarters  on  the  country,  and  inflicted 
upon  South  Carolina  a considerable  share  of 
the  horrors  of  war. 

Columbia,  the  capital,  is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  the  Congaree,  just  below  the  junction 
of  the  Saluda  and  Broad  Rivers.  It  is  regu- 
larly laid  out,  with  very  wide  streets,  and  is 
a neatly  built  town  of  9,298  inhabitants.  It 
was  laid  out  in  1787.  [ See  Charleston.] 

SOUTHEY,  Robert,  was  one  of  the  most 
voluminous  and  learned  English  authors  of 
the  century.  A poet,  scholar,  antiquary, 
critic,  and  historian,  he  wrote  more  than  even 
Scott,  and  it  is  said  he  burned  more  verses 
between  Us  twentieth  and  thirtieth  years 
than  he  published  during  his  whole  life.  He 
was  a native  «of  Bristol,  the  son  of  a linen- 
draper,  and  was  born  Aug.  12th,  1774.  He 
was  indebted  to  a maternal  uncle,  Dr.  Her- 
bert, chaplain  to  the  English  factory  at  Lis- 
bon, for  most  of  his  education,  and  in  1792, 
was  admitted  to  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  hav- 
ing passed  with  credit  through  Westminster 
school.  He  was  designed  for  the  church  ; 
but  becoming  a Jacobin  in  politics  and  a 
Socinian  in  religion,  he  left  Oxford  in  1794. 
The  extreme  opinions  he  then  held  were 
embodied  in  a drama  called  “Wat  T}rlcr,” 
which  was  long  afterward  published  surrep- 
titiously by  a knavish  bookseller,  to  annoy 


SOU 


818 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


its  author.  In  1794  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Coleridge  ; and,  having  already  pub- 
lished poems  in  conjunction  with  his  friend 
Lovell,  he  now,  with  his  new  ally,  wrote 
“The  Fall  of  Robespierre”  and  “Joan  of 
Arc.”  In  1795  Southey  married,  at  Bristol, 
Edith  Frieker,  the  sister  oi  Mrs.  Coleridge 
and  Mrs.  Lovell.  According  to  De  Quincey, 
the  poet,  compelled  by  poverty,  parted  with 
his  wife  at  the  portico  of  the  church  immedi- 
ately after  the  marriage,  and  set  out  to  ac- 
company an  uncle  to  Lisbon.  On  his  return 
in  1797,  he  published  “Letters  from  Spain 
and  Portugal.”  He  was  still  reluctant  to 
embrace  literature  as  a profession.  The  study 
of  law  was  commenced  in  London,  but  never 
zealously  pursued,  and  gradually  deserted 
altogether  for  literary  study  and  composi- 
tion. His  circumstances  were  made  easier 
by  the  friendship  of  Mr.  Wynn,  who  allowed 
him  an  annuity  of  £160  till  he  obtained  the 
laureateship.  His  youthful  extremities  of 
opinion  were  already,  to  all  appearance,  quite 
extinct ; if  he  was  not  even  far  on  the  way 
toward  that  admiration  of  aristocratic  prin- 
ciples and  of  the  Anglican  hierarch}',  which, 
oddly  mingled  with  liberal  hobbies  of  his 
own,  he  entertained  and  uttered  so  vehement- 
ly in  the  later  stages  of  his  life. 

In  1801  he  accompanied  Mr.  Foster,  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  to  Ireland,  as  private 
secretary ; and  the  same  year  witnessed  the 
publication  of  another  epic,  “ Thalaba  the 
Destroyer,”  an  Arabian  fiction  of  great  beauty 
and  magnificence.  In  1803  he  settled  hirm, 
self  in  a. house  called  Greta  Hall,  near  Kes- 
wick ; and  there  he  resided  nearly  forty  years, 
laboring  at  his  desk  with  the  steadiness  of  a 
book-keeper,  and  dividing  his  time,  easily  and 
regularly,  between  the  tasks  by  which  h- 
made  his  bread  and  the  undertakings  by 
which  he  hoped  to  gain  immortality.  In 
1813  he  was  appointed  poet-laureate,  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
who  himself  declined  the  place.  His  pro- 
ductions in  this  capacity  won  him  little  credit, 
and  one  of  them,  “ The  Vision  of  Judgment,” 
cost  him  a merciless  and  witty  castigation 
from  Byron  in  a poem  of  the  same  name. 
Ilis  only  certain  source  of  income  was  his 
pension,  from  which  he  received  £1^5,  and 
the  laureateship,  which  was  £90  : the  larger 
portion  of  these  two  sums,  however,  went  to 


the  payment  of  his  life-insurance,  so  that  not 
more  than  £100  could  be  calculated  upon  as 
available ; and  the  Quarterly  Review  was 
therefore  for  many  years  his  chief  means  of  sup- 
port. He  received,  latterly,  £100  for  an  arti- 
' cle,  and  commonly  furnished  one  for  each  num- 
ber. What  more  was  needful  had  to  be  made 
up  by  his  other  works,  which,  as  they  were  al- 
ways published  on  the  terms  of  the  publisher 
taking  the  risk  •and  sharing  the  profit,  pro- 
duced him  but  little,  considering  the  length 
of  time  they  were  often  in  preparation  ; and 
as  he  was  constantly  adding  new  purchases 
to  his  library,  but  little  was  to  be  reckoned 
on  this  account.  For  the  “ Peninsular  War  ” 
he  received  £1,000,  but  the  copyright  re- 
mained the  property  of  the  publisher.  He 
was  a most  thoroughly  domestic  man,  in  that 
his  whole  pleasure  and  happiness  centered  in 
his  home  ; but  yet,  from  the  course  of  his 
pursuits,  his  family  necessarily  saw  but  little 
of  him.  Every  day,  every  hour,  had  its 
allotted  employment ; there  were  always 
engagements  to  publishers  imperatively  re- 
quiring punctual  fulfillment ; always  the  cur- 
rent expenses  of  a large  household  to  take 
anxious  thought  for : he  had  no  crops  grow- 
ing while  he  was  idle.  “ My  ways,”  he  used 
to  say,  “ are  as  broad  as  the  king’s  high  road, 
and  my  means  lie  in  an  inkstand.” 

But  out  of  the  gains  of  his  steady  toil,  the 
industrious  and  kind-hearted  man  of  letters 
supported  one  of  his  sisters-in-law  for  some 
time  in  his  house,  and  the  other  for  many 
years  ; while  he  brought  up  his  family  in 
respectability,  and  left  at  his  death  about 
twelve  thousand  pounds  in  cash  and  insur- 
ances, and  a large  and  valuable  library.  Ilis 
principal  poems,  besides  those  already  men- 
tioned, were  “ Madoc”  (1805),  “The  Curse 
of  Kchama”  (1810),  and  “ Roderick,  the  Last 
of  the  Goths”  (1814).  The.  first  is  inferior, 
but  the  latter  two  added  largely  to  his  al- 
ready splendid  reputation.  His  lives  of  Nel- 
son and  of  Wesley  were  highly  popular. 
His  prose  is  excellent  in  style,  easy  and  idio- 
matic, tasteful  and  clear,  though  wanting  in 
point  and  tending  to  verbosity.  “ The  Doc- 
tor,” whose  authorship  was  for  a long  time  a 
mystery,  was  published  anonymously  in 
1834 : it  has  much  that  is  clever  and  a great 
deal  that  is  amusing ; but  it  contains  rather 
Ihe  collections  of  a reading  man,  than  the 


SOU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


819 


Inventions  or  observations  of  a man  of 
genius. 

In  1835  Sir  Robert  Peel  wrote  to  Southey, 
informing  him  that  he  had  advised  the  king 
to  “adorn  the  distinction  of  the  baronetage 
■with  a name  the  most  eminent  in  literature,* 
and  which  had  claims  to  respect  and  honor 
that  literature  could  never  confer,” — that  of 
Southey.  He  accompanied  this  with  a pri- 
vate letter,  begging  to  know  if  there  was  any 
way  in  which  the  possession  of  power  would 
enable  him  to  be  of  service  to  Mr.  Southey. 
The  author  declined  the  baronetcy,  as  he  had 
not  the  means  of  supporting  it,  and  asked 
for  an  increase  of  his  pension,  w*hich  w*as 
then  £200.  Sir  Robert  soon  after  added  to 
this  a new  pension  of  £300,  on  the  principle 
of  “the  recognition  of  literary  and  scientific 
eminence  as  a public  claim.”  He  conferred, 
at  the  same  time,  a similar  pension  on  Prof. 
Airey,  of  Cambridge,  Mrs.  Somerville,  Sharon 
Turner,  and  James  Montgomery. 

In  1837  the  death  of  Mrs.  Southey,  after 
long  affliction,  deeply  depressed  her  husband, 
•already  worn  down  by  his  many  years  of  hon- 
orable toil.  In  1839  he  found  an  affectionate 
companion  for  his  decline  by  wedding  Miss 
Caroline  Bowles,  herself  a well-known  poet- 
ess. He  wras  attacked  by  paralysis,  his  mem- 
ory and  other  powers  failed  rapidly,  and  he 
had  been  imbecile  a good  while  before  his 
death,  wfflich  took  place  March  21st,  1843. 

A foible  of  Southey’s  was  his  fondness  for 
cats.  The  merry  nicknames  he  so  profusely 
bestowed  upon  his  human  acquaintances 
were  paralleled  by  those  he  gave  his  feline 
favorites.  Whimsical  mention  of  them 
abounds  in  his  correspondence.  Thus,  in  a 
letter  to  one  of  his  daughters,  he  grieves  to 
inform  her  of  the  “ illness  of  his  Serene 
Highness  the  Archduke  Rumpelstilzchen, 
Marquis  Macbun,  Earl  Tomlemagne,  Baron 
Raticide,  Waouhler  and  Skratsch.  His  Se- 
rene Highness  is  afflicted  with  the  mange.” 
And  in  1837  he  wrote  to  Mrs.  Bray,  “My 
cattery  consists  at  present  only  of  Thomas, 
Baron  Chincilta,  and  Grey  de  Bychen,  his 
spouse  and  half-sister,  Knurra-Murra-Purra- 
Ilurra-Skurra,  and  the  older  half-brother  of 
both,  who  is  an  out-of-door  freebooter,  and 
wThose  name  is  Chaka-chekka-chikka-cheeka- 
chokka-choaka-chowski.”  In  his  liking  for 
Grimalkin  he  is  only  equaled  by  the  captain 


with  whom  the  novelist  Fielding  sailed  to  Lis- 
bon. When  a kitten  fell  overboard,  he  had 
the  ship  put  about  to  save  it,  and  when  the 
unlucky  animal  was  afterward  suffocated  in 
a feather-bed,  his  lamentations  resembled  an 
Irish  howl. 

SPAIN,  an  extensive  country  of  Europe, 
separated  by  the  Pyrenees  from  France,  and 
surrounded  by  the  Mediterranean,  the  Atlan- 
tic, and  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  contains  177,718 
square  miles,  and  about  17,000,000  inhabit- 
ants. Spain  is  naturally  one  of  the  most 
fertile  countries  in  the  world.  Its  wfines, 
silks,  oil,  wool,  metals,  and  minerals  ; various 
fruits,  as  citrons,  lemons,  oranges,  pome- 
granates, almonds,  and  figs ; and  its  famous 
horses, — are  as  valuable  as  they  are  celebra- 
ted. The  principal  mountains  are  the  Pyre- 
nees, between  France  and  Spain;  Montserrat 
in  Catalonia  ; the  mountains  of  the  Asturias, 
those  of  the  kingdom  of  Leon  and  New  Cas- 
tile ; and  the  Sierra  Morena  in  Andalusia. 
The  principal  rivers  arc  the  Douro,  which 
rises  in  Old  Castile,  the  Tagus,  the  Guadiana, 
and  the  Guadalquivir,  all  flowing  into  the 
ocean.  The  Ebro,  whose  sources  are  in  the 
frontiers  of  Aragon,  discharges  itself  into  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  ancient  provinces  of  Spain  have  been 
supplanted  by  new  divisions,  but  as  their 
names  are  historic,  we  give  a list  of  them : 
Aragon,  Asturias,  Basque  provinces,  Old  and 
New  Castile,  Catalonia,  Cordova,  Estrema- 
dura,  Galicia,  Granada,  Jaen,  Leon,  Mercia, 
Navarre,  Seville,  and  Valencia.  A few  colo- 
nial possessions  have  been  preserved  from  the 
broad  dominions  once  under  Spanish  rule  in 
the  Old  World  and  the  New  ; as,  Cuba,  Por- 
to Rico,  and  some  lesser  islands  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  the  Philippines  in  the  East  Indies. 
The  Balearic  Isles  (Majorca,  Minorca,  &c.), 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Canaries  in 
the  Atlantic,  belong  to  Spain,  and  form  prov- 
inces of  the  kingdom.  The  commerce  and 
manufactures,  once  so  considerable,  have 
shared  the  general  decay. 

The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  established  reli- 
gion, and  the  only  faith  that  is  tolerated. 
Education  is  very  scantily  diffused,  the  poorer 
classes  receiving  little  or  none ; the  univer- 
sities once  so  famous  have  sunk  in  repute 
and  the  number  of  students,  and  many  have 
ceased  to  exist.  The  government  of  Spain 


820 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


is  a constitutional  monarchy,  the  national 
legislature  being  called  the  Cortes. 

Madrid,  the  capital  of  Spain,  and  of  the 
ancient  province  of  New  Castile,  has  about 

217.000  inhabitants.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 

brick  wall,  twenty  feet  high,  and  entered  by 
fifteen  gates.  As  one  approaches  it,  the  many 
fantastic  spires  of  churches  and  conventual 
buildings,  the  tiled  roofs  of  the  houses,  the 
sterility  of  the  neighborhood,  and  the  want 
of  villas  and  gardens  such  as  usually  mark 
the  environs  of  a great  city,  give  to*  Madrid  a 
gloomy  appearance.  The  interior  is  more 
comely.  It  was  a mere  village  until  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.  of  Castile.  The  wild 
boar  and  the  bear  were  abundant  in  the  adja- 
cent mountains,  and  his  love  of  hunting  them 
led  him  to  make  Madrid  his  residence  during- 
the  season  for  the  chase.  Philip  II.  made  it 
the  capital  of  the  Spanish  dominions.  We 
have  only  room  for  a list  of  other  principal 
towns,  with  their  population : Barcelona, 

140,000;  Valencia,  71,000;  Carthagena, 
28,000;  Malaga,  66,000;  Cadiz,  54,000; 
Corunna,  19,000;  Ferrol,  16,000;  Valladolid, 

20.000  ; Saragossa,  40,500  ; Granada,  70,000  ; 
Cordova,  42,000;  Toledo, 13,500 ; St.  Jago 
de  Compostella,  29,000  ; Seville,  85,000. 

The  clouds  which  cover  the  primitive  his- 
tory of  Spain,  do  not  begin  to  be  dissipated, 
till  the  period  when  the  Phoenicians  arrived, 
and  formed  establishments  in  the  country, 
before  uncivilized  and  unknown.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  they  landed  in  the  island  of  St. 
Peter,  where  they  constructed  the  temple  of 
Hercules,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  to 
be  seen  when  the  sea  ebbs  more  than  usual. 
Soon  afterward,  the  town  of  Gades,  or  Gadir, 
was  erected  ; Calpe  and  Abyla  became  re- 
nowned for  the  two  columns  denominated  the 
pillars  of  Hercules,  on  which  the  Phoenicians 
engraved  the  inscription,  Non  plus  ultra. 

The  Greeks,  the  pupils  of  the  Phoenicians 
in  the  art  of  navigation,  did  not  fail  to  share 
with  them  the  advantages  of  this  discovery. 
They  established  an  extensive  commerce  in 
Spain,  and  founded  several  cities,  among  the 
rest  Ampurias  and  the  unfortunate  Sagun- 
tum  ; but  the  Carthaginians,  possessing  still 
greater  skill  and  power,  soon  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  whole  peninsula ; and 
such  they  would  have  remained,  had  not  the 
Romans,  who  alone  were  able  to  dispute  with 


them  this  brilliant  conquest,  at  length  sue* 
ceeded  in  their  efforts  to  wrest  it  from  them. 
In  the  hope  of  escaping  from  servitude,  the 
Spaniards  sometimes  endeavored  to  defend 
themselves;  but  more  frequently,  deceived 
•by  the  phantom  of  a generous  alliance,  they 
faithfully  promoted  the  views  of  their  differ- 
ent oppressors. 

Thus,  three  cities  chose  rather  to  perish 
than  to  surrender ; Saguntum,  from  attach- 
ment to  the  Romans ; Astapa  in  Boetica,  to 
the  Carthaginians,  and  Numantiafor  the  sake 
of  liberty.  Exhausted  by  all  these  calami- 
ties, Spain  at  length  began  to  breathe,  and 
by  degrees  to  recruit  her  strength  under  the 
peaceable  dominion  of  the  Romans.  Induced 
by  the  fertility  of  her  soil,  and  the  richness 
and  variety  of  her  productions,  that  people 
founded  numerous  colonies  in  Spain  ; military 
roads  were  opened  in  every  quarter;  aque- 
ducts conveyed  to  the  cities  the  tribute  of 
the  waters  ; triumphal  arches  reminded  the 
conquerors  of  their  glory ; theatres  and  cir- 
cuses effaced  from  the  minds  of  the  van- 
quished the  memory  of  their  misfortunes. 
Saguntum  saw  its  walls  reared  once  more  ; 
Merida,  Tarragona^  Cordova,  Salamanca,  Se- 
govia, and  other  towns,  admired  the  splendor 
of  their  new  edifices,  the  glorious  testimo- 
nies of  the  predilection  of  Rome  for  this 
country,  the  rival  of  Italy. 

This  happy  administration  did  not  last 
long.  Rome,  when  mistress  of  the  world, 
soon  became  as  odious  as  Carthage.  Spain 
had  its  Clodius  and  its  Yerres  ; and  the  most 
beautiful  province  of  the  empire  of  the 
Caesars  was  also  the  most  wretched.  The 
Asturians  and  Cantabrians  alone  preserved 
their  independence,  amid  their  mountains. 
Augustus  undertook  their  subjugation  ; they 
defended  themselves,  and  most  of  them  per- 
ished sword  in  hand.  The  poets  of  Rome 
celebrated  this  cruel  victory,  but  posterity 
admired  only  its  victims. 

Spain  was  subject  to  the  Romans  till  toward 
the  conclusion  of  the  fourth  century.  The 
northern  nations,  after  having  ravaged  the 
other  countries  of  Europe,  penetrated  into 
Spain  during  the  reign  of  Honorius : the 
Suevi  made  themselves  masters  of  Galicia, 
and  part  of  Portugal ; the  Alani  and  Van- 
dals, of  Boetica.  The  Visigoths,  following  at 
the  heels  of  these  ferocious  conquerors,  com- 


SPA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


821 


pelled  the  Alani  and  Vandals  to  retire  to  Af- 
rica ; the  Suevi  made  a longer  resistance, 
but  at  length  they  ceased  to  be  a distinct 
people,  and  all  Spain  received  law  from  the 
Goths.  Tranquil  possessors  of  Spain,  and 
enlightened  by  the  gospel,  they  began  to  be 
civilized ; but  the  climate  which  softened 
their  character,  the  repose  which  enervated 
their  courage,  prepared  an  easy  victory  for 
new  conquerors. 

The  cruelty  of  King  Vitlza,  who  died  in 
711,  and  the  weakness  of  Roderick,  his  succes- 
sor, accelerated  the  fatal  moment,  and  Spain 
fell  a prey  to  enemies  till  then  unknown. 
The  Arabs  and  Moors  made  an  irruption  into 
the  south  of  Spain,  as  the  Goths  had  previ- 
ously done  in  the  north.  The  fate  of  Spain 
was  decided  in  the  unfortunate  battle  of 
Xerxes  de  la  Frontera,  where  Roderick  lost 
his  throne  and  his  life.  The  conquerors, 
finding  no  other  obstacles,  took  possession  of 
all  Spain,  except  those  same  Pyrenees  which 
had  so  long  preserved  their  ancient  inhabi- 
tants from  the  Roman  yoke.  These  moun- 
tains, and  their  caverns,  afforded  a refuge  to 
such  of  the  Spanish  Goths  as,  collected  by 
Pelagius,  a prince  of  the  blood-royal  of  that 
nation,  were  able  to  avoid  the  yoke  of  the 
Saracens. 

This  second  invasion,  which  might  natu- 
rally be  supposed  to  have  left  the  native 
Spaniards  no  trace  of  their  laws,  their  cus- 
toms, and  national  qualities,  produced  a con- 
trary effect : so  amply  have  the  blessings 
bestowed  on  this  happy  country  seemed  al- 
ways to  compensate  the  inhabitants  for  the 
severity  of  fortune.  The  Moors  were  not 
long  before  they  felt  that  influence  which  had 
softened  the  manners  of  the  Goths,  and 
taught  them  to  relish  the  charms  of  a tran- 
quil life.  No  sooner  were  the  new  conquer- 
ors happy,  than  they  ceased  to  be  barbarous. 
The  principle  of  civilization  was  developed 
among  them  with  extraordinary  rapidity ; the 
love  of  letters  ennobled  their  ideas,  and  puri- 
fied their  taste,  without  diminishing  their 
courage.  At  Seville,  at  Grenada,  at  Cordova, 
schools  and  public  libraries  were  opened ; 
and  while  Christian  Europe  was  covered  with 
the  clouds  of  ignorance,  the  genius  of  Aver- 
roes,  and  a multitude  of  learned  men,  enlight- 
ened the  civilized  Mussulmans.  Not  content 
with  patronizing  the  sciences,  the  Moorish 


kings,  themselves,  cultivated  them.  Those 
princes  united  the  private  virtues  with  mili- 
tary qualities ; they  were  poets,  historians, 
mathematicians,  philosophers,  and  great  cap- 
tains ; and  many  of  them  deserved  a still 
more  honorable  appellation,  that  of  the  best 
of  kings.  At  this  new  epoch  of  the  history 
of  Spain,  a new  taste  was  introduced  into  the 
arts,  and  gave  a direction  to  architecture  in 
particular.  The  ancient  structures  of  the 
Goths  did  not  harmonize  with  the  customs 
and  the  religion  of  the  Moors.  The  latter, 
indifferent  to  external  decorations,  reserved 
all  their  ingenuity  for  the  interior  of  their 
edifices.  There  they  lavished  whatever  was 
calculated  to  delight  the  senses  and  to  accord 
with  a sedentary  and  voluptuous  life.  Hence 
the  singular  magnificence  of  their  palaces 
and  their  mosques, — that  richness  in  their 
ornaments,  that  finish  in  the  smallest  details, 
which  far  surpass  the  beauty  of  the  whole. 

The  Moors  were  not  left  to  reign  in  quiet  : 
Pelagius  having  fled  to  the  mountains,  not 
only  defended  himself  there  with  courage, 
but  under  the  banners  of  the  cross  ventured 
to  conduct  his  troops  into  the  countries  con- 
tiguous to  his  retreat.  This  illustrious  man, 
concerning  whom  we  have,  unfortunately, 
but  few  particulars,  had  collected  all  the 
nobles  of  the  Asturias  and  the  rest  of  Spain. 
This  force,  which  long  proved  invincible,  was 
the  instrument  of  the  conquests  of  different 
chiefs,  the  ablest  of  whom  made  themselves 
sovereigns.  By  them  were  founded  the 
kingdoms  of  Castile,  Leon,  Aragon,  and 
Navarre,  successively  conquered  from  the 
Moors. 

This  war,  which  continued  several  centu- 
ries, has,  alternately,  the  air  of  history  and 
of  romance.  It  consists  of  battles,  sieges, 
assaults,  and  still  more  frequently  of  tourna- 
ments, banquets,  and  challenges,  given 
and  accepted  with  equal  audacity.  In 
these  celebrated  lists,  triumphed  the  heroes 
whose  exploits  are  recorded  in  the  Spanish 
romances ; and  of  these,  Rodrigo  de  Bivar, 
surnamed  the  Cid,  particularly  distinguished 
himself.  Equal  in  virtue,  and  superior  in 
power,  to  Bayard,  he  was,  like  him,  the  ob- 
ject of  the  veneration  not  only  of  his  breth- 
ren in  arms,  but  also  of  the  enemies  of  his 
country. 

Reduced  to  the  single  kingdom  of  Gre- 


SPA 


822 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


nada,  the  Moors  there  maintained  themselves 
for  several  centuries  ; but,  at  length,  expelled 
from  their  last  asylum,  they  were  obliged  to 
withdraw  to  Africa  in  1492.  This  important 
event  was  reserved  to  crown  the  felicity  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  the  arms  of  Gon- 
salvo  de  Cordova,  seconded  by  other  chiefs 
of  equal  celebrity.  Sovereigns  of  Spain  and 
of  the  New  World,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
after  having  attained  the  pinnacle  of  prosper- 
ity, had  the  misfortune  to  leave  their  im- 
mense possessions  to  a foreign  dynasty. 
They  formed  the  dowry  of  their  daughter 
Joan,  wife  of  Philip  the  Fair,  Archduke  of 
Austria,  and  mother  of  Charles  V. 

Fortune,  by  her  extraordinary  favors,  and 
Cardinal  Ximenes,  by  a wise  administration, 
threw  a lustre  upon  the  reign  of  Charles  Y., 
at  one  and  the  same  time  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many and  King  of  Spain.  The  talents  and 
genius  of  this  prince  seemed  to  have  destined 
him  for  universal  monarchy  ; and  to  his  own 
misfortune  and  that  of  the  world,  he  aspired 
to  it.  Palled,  however,  with  the  pomp  and 
pageantries  of  grandeur,  he  chose  to  end  his 
days  in  a monastery,  and  resigned  his  crown 
to  his  son  Philip,  in  1556. 

In  this  reign  of  Philip  II.,  Portugal  was 
made  a dependency  of  Spain.  Now,  too,  the 
great  armada  was  sent  forth  against  England. 
Philip  III.  ascended  the  throne  in  1598. 
During  this  reign,  the  Moors  were,  at  several 
times,  transported  into  Africa ; and  Spain 
sustained  a loss  of  about  600,000  useful  sub- 
jects. Philip  IY.  possessed  good  natural 
abilities ; and  though  the  greatest  part  of  his 
reign  was  clouded  by  misfortunes  or  disap- 
pointments, he  certainly  was  desirous  of  in- 
creasing the  grandeur  of  the  Spanish  mon- 
archy. The  young  king,  Charles  II.,  was 
inaugurated  in  1666,  and  displayed  promis- 
ing abilities.  He  was  twice  married,  but  had 
the  mortification  of  seeing  himself  without 
offspring.  When  he  resolved  to  make  a will 
in  favor  of  the  electoral  house  of  Bavaria, 
the  young  prince  whom  he  had  destined  for 
his  successor  died  soon  after.  Upon  hearing 
that  the  different  powers  of  Europe  had  actu- 
ally made  a partition  of  his  territories,  in 
order,  as  they  said,  to  avoid  a general  war, 
Charles  was  so  incensed,  that  he  left  his 
crown,  by  a new  will,  to  Philip,  Duke  of  An- 
jou, grandson  of  his  eldest  sister  and  of 


Louis  XIY.  He  expired  in  the  thirty -ninth 
year  of  his  age,  and  the  thirty-fifth  of  his 
reign ; and  in  him  ended  the  Austrian 
branch,  which  had  given  five  sovereigns  to 
the  Spanish  nation. 

Philip  of  Anjou  was  solemnly  proclaimed 
on  the  24th  of  November,  1700.  During  his 
absence  in  Italy  with  the  French  troops,  a 
league  was  formed  against  the  house  of 
Bourbon,  the  object  of  which  was  to  wrest 
the  crown  of  Spain  from  Philip  Y.,  and  to 
place  it  on  the  head  of  Charles,  Archduke  of 
Austria,  who  was  also  descended  from  a prin- 
cess of  Spain.  This  competitor  arrived  in 
Portugal,  which  had  also  joined  the  league, 
and  assumed  the  name  of  Charles  III.,  in 
1704,  and  being  supported  by  the  English, 
he  immediately  commenced  the  campaign. 
The  fate  of  these  two  princes,  during  the 
course  of  the  war,  was  as  various  as  singu- 
lar ; they  expelled  each  other  alternately 
from  the  capital. 

Philip  V.  died  after  a turbulent  reign  of 
forty-three  years.  Ferdinand  YI.  succeeded 
him’  in  1746,  and  died  after  a reign  of  fifteen 
years.  As  Ferdinand  had  no  issue,  the  crown 
devolved  on  his  brother  Charles  III.,  then 
King  of  Naples  and  the  Two  Sicilies,  who 
transferred  his  Italian  possessions  to  his  third 
son,  and  hastened  to  Madrid,  to  receive  the 
homage  of  his  new  subjects.  Charles  seemed 
to  devote  his  whole  attention  to  the  internal 
economy  of  his  dominions ; but  his  zeal  for 
the  family  compact  soon  roused  him  into 
action,  and  induced  him  to  proclaim  war 
against  Great  Britain  and  Portugal  in  1761. 
However,  this  war  was  unsuccessful,  and  on 
the  10th  of  February,  1763,  a treaty  of  peace 
was  concluded  between  the  courts  of  Madrid, 
Lisbon,  and  London.  When  the  war  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  her  American  colo- 
nies had  subsisted  for  some  time,  and  France 
had  taken  part  with  the  latter,  Spain  was 
also  induced  to  commence  hostilities  with 
England.  Accordingly,  they  laid  siege  to 
Gibraltar,  and  made  groat  naval  preparations 
in  1782;  but  all  their  exertions  proved  vain 
and  ineffectual.  The  sad  catastrophe  of  their 
armada  before  Gibraltar,  the  repeated  frus- 
tration of  all  their  designs  upon  Jamaica,  and 
the  very  embarrassed  state  of  their  finances, 
induced  the  Spaniards  to  terminate  so  long, 
expensive,  and  sanguinary  a tfTar,  and 


SPA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


823 


to  conclude  a peace  with  Great  Britain  in 
1783. 

Charles  IY.  ascended  the  throne  of  Spain 
in  1788,  and  declared  war  against  France  in 
1793.  After  making  every  effort,  his  Catho- 
lic majesty  concluded  a treaty.  Spain  wTas 
afterward  drawn  into  an  alliance  with  the 
French  republic,  and  persuaded  to  commence 
hostilities  against  Great  Britain.  In  the 
summer  of  1797,  a Spanish  fleet,  of  twenty- 
seven  sail  of  the  line,  was  appointed  to  form 
a junction  with  the  French  fleet  at  Brest ; 
and,  after  being  re-enforced  by  a numerous 
squadron  of  Dutch  vessels,  an  attempt  was 
to  be  made  on  some  part  of  the  British  do- 
minions. However,  before  the  intended 
junction  could  be  effected,  the  Spanish  fleet 
was  met  by  Admiral  Jervis,  near  Cape  St. 
Vincent,  and  an  engagement  ensued,  in  which, 
notwithstanding  the  great  inequality,  the 
English  captured  four  of  the  enemy’s  ves- 
sels. The  court  of  Madrid  again  issued  a 
declaration  of  war  against  England,  and  made 
great  preparations  for  prosecuting  hostilities 
with  vigor  and  effect.  After  the  junction  of 
the  French  Brest  fleet  with  that  of  Spain,  at 
Ferrol,  the  united  armament  experienced  sev- 
eral signal  defeats  from  the  victorious  British 
navy,  which  terminated  with  the  ever  mem- 
orable battle  of  Trafalgar,  Oct.  21st,  1805. 

In  1807  a treaty  was  concluded  between 
the  sovereigns  of  France  and  Spain,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  was  a partition  of  the  king- 
dom of  Portugal.  After  obtaining  posses- 
sion of  the  capital  of  Portugal,  and  securing 
free  access  for  his  troops  to  every  part  of  the 
peninsula,  the  Emperor  of  France  waited  for 
a favorable  opportunity  to  render  himself 
master  of  the  whole. 

In  1808  Charles  IY.  formed  the  design  of 
removing  the  seat  of  government  to  Mexico, 
in  America.  No  sooner  had  this  transpired, 
than  an  attack  was  made  on  the  palace  of 
Godoy  at  Aranjuez  ; and  though  the  prince 
effected  his  escape,  the  king  found  it  necessa- 
ry to  dismiss  him  from  all  his  employments. 
The  populace,  however,  still  remaining  in  a 
state  of  insurrection  at  Aranjuez  and  Madrid, 
and  the  king  being  deprived  of  his  prime 
minister,  Charles  published  another  decree, 
in  which  he  announced  that  he  had  abdicated 
the  throne  in  favor  of  his  son,  the  Prince  of 
Asturias,  March  19th,  1808;  and  in  the  fol- 


lowing May,  father  and  son  signed  a conven- 
tion at  Bayonne,  by  which  they  ceded  the 
Spanish  monarchy  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon. 
To  this  the  people  did  not  agree.  At  Mad- 
rid the  populace  rose  against  10,000  French 
troops  with  Murat  at  their  head.  A dread- 
ful carnage  took  place,  and  terminated  in  the 
defeat  of  the  insurgents,  and  the  disarming 
of  the  whole  city.  A junta  was  summoned 
to  meet  at  Bayonne,  where  a new  constitu- 
tion for  Spain  was  laid  before  them  for  their 
acceptance ; Joseph  Bonaparte,  the  new 
king,  transferred  from  the  throne  of  Naples 
to  that  of  Spain,  appeared  in  royal  state. 

An  explosion  of  indignant  patriotism  burst 
forth  from  one  extremity  of  Spain  to  the 
other.  Provincial  juntas  wrere  established, 
which  g'ave  a regular  organization  to  the 
popular  efforts ; and  the  junta  at  Seville  was 
the  first  to  proclaim  Ferdinand  VII.  and  war 
against  France.  The  friendship  and  assist- 
ance of  Great  Britain  were  solicited,  and 
immediately  granted.  A desperate  struggle 
now  commenced.  The  success  of  the  Span- 
iards was  various,  but  the  French  in  a short 
time  found  themselves  obliged  to  evacuate 
Madrid. 

Napoleon  now  determined  in  person  to 
change  the  fortune  of  the  war ; and  having 
put  his  veteran  troops  in  motion  for  Spain, 
he  proceeded  to  Bayonne,  and  thence  to  the 
head-quarters  of  the  French  army  at  Vitto- 
ria.  The  military  force  of  Spain  was  wholly 
unable  to  meet,  upon  equal  terms,  French 
armies  commanded  by  the  most  consummate 
generals  ; and  the  campaign  which  followed 
the  arrival  of  Napoleon,  was  a series  of  vic- 
tories to  the  one,  and  of  defeats  to  the  other. 
The  French  appeared  intent  on  subjugating 
the  whole  country ; but  Napoleon  was  obliged 
to  leave  Spain,  in  consequence  of  a breach 
between  France  and  Austria.  His  generals, 
however,  conducted  the  wTar  in  Spain  with  so 
much  ability,  that  the  cause  of  Spanish  inde- 
pendence was  rendered  almost  desperate ; 
and  in  1810,  King  Joseph  issued  a manifesto 
in  which  he  affected  to  consider  the  contest 
as  decided. 

The  cortes  of  Spain  assembled  at  Cadiz. 
This  body  of  national  representatives  was 
elected  by  the  provinces,  cities,  and  provin- 
cial juntas  ; and  they  were  termed  the  gen- 
eral or  extraordinary  cortes,  and  to  them 


SPA 


824 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


was  intrusted  the  sovereign  power.  They 
swore  fealty  to  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  declared 
the  renunciations  at  Bayonne  null  and  void. 
They  took  the  title  of  majesty  till  the  arrival 
of  Ferdinand,  and  assumed  the  legislative 
power  of  the  state. 

The  war  was  still  prosecuted  by  the  Span- 
iards, but  not  with  sufficient  vigor ; and  the 
French  actively  employed  their  superiority 
of  force  in  extending  their  conquests  through 
a considerable  part  of  Spain.  In  the  course 
of  two  months,  the  Spaniards  lost  the  for- 
tresses of  Tortosa,  Olivenca,  and  Badajos, 
without  any  sufficient  reason.  The  reduc- 
tion of  these  places  was  followed  by  that  of 
Tarragona,  in  which  every  outrage  and  cru- 
elty suffered  in  a town  taken  by  storm,  was 
inflicted  upon  the  inhabitants ; and,  by  this 
conquest,  the  French  became  possessed  of 
the  whole  coast  of  Catalonia. 

Lord  Wellington,  ■with  the  British  and 
Portuguese  forces,  recovered  possession  of 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz,  in  1812  ; an£ 
he  soon  after  gave  Marshal  Marmont  a signal 
defeat  at  Salamanca.  The  effects  of  this 
great  victory  were  felt  in  different  parts  of 
Spain  ; King  Joseph,  with  the  central  French 
army,  found  himself  obliged  again  to  leave 
Madrid ; and  the  French  deserted  the  long 
continued  blockade  of  Cadiz. 

The  Spanish  cortes  presented  the  august 
spectacle  of  a public  signature  of  the  articles 
of  that  constitution  which  had  so  long  been 
the  object  of  their  labors.  Deputies  from  all 
parts  of  the  monarchy  w'ere  present  in  this 
solemnity.  A commission  was  appointed  to 
carry  the  constitution  to  the  regency.  The 
deputies  swore  to  obey  the  constitution ; the 
regency  took  the  oath  of  office  ; and  the 
constitution  was  solemnly  proclaimed. 

The  next-important  event  was  the  battle 
of  Vittoria,  in  1818.  The  French  retired  by 
Pampeluna  ; and  being  driven  from  all  their 
strong  posts,  they  at  length  crossed  the  Bid- 
assoa,  and  re-entered  France.  The  allied  for- 
ces took  the  strong  castle  of  St.  Sebastian, 
in  the  operations  against  which  the  British 
navy  gave  effectual  assistance.  The  progress 
of  the  allies  in  France  afterward  produced  the 
capitulation  of  most  of  the  French  garrisons 
remaining  in  Spain ; and  at  length  the  state 
of  affairs  would  no  longer  permit  the  deten- 
tion of  Ferdinand. 


The  king  proceeded  to  Valencia  in  1814, 
where  he  was  joined  by  most  of  the  gran- 
dees and  many  prelates.  At  this  place, 
Ferdinand  issued  a royal  proclamation,  in 
which  he  declared  his  intention  not  only  not 
to  swear  or  accede  to  the  constitution,  or  to 
any  decree  of  the  cortes  derogating  from  his 
prerogatives  as  sovereign,  but  to  pronounce 
that  constitution  and  those  decrees  null  and 
of  no  effect.  The  decree  for  dissolving  that 
body  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the 
people  of  Madrid.  A great  number  of  per- 
sons were  arrested,  whose  names  comprised  al- 
most all  those  who  had  rendered  themselves 
conspicuous  during  the  reign  of  the  cortes  in 
favor  of  public  liberty.  Yet  Ferdinand  was 
received  in  Madrid  with  every  demonstration 
of  loyalty. 

The  period  from  1814  to  1820  has  been 
called  the  reign  of  terror  in  Spain.  The  court 
of  inquisition  was  re-established,  and  Spain 
was  effectually  thrown  back  to  that  degraded 
state  among  nations  from  which  she  had  seem- 
ed about  to  emerge.  During  the  captivity  of 
Ferdinand  in  France,  Mexico  and  South 
America  were  lost  to  Spain.  F erdinand  died 
in  1833.  His  will  named  Isabel,  his  infant 
daughter,  as  his  successor,  and  her  mother, 
Christina,  was  appointed  queen-regent.  Don 
Carlos,  his  brother,  laid  claim  to  the  throne, 
on  the  ground  that  by  the  Salique  law  women 
were  not  eligible.  A bloody  civil  strife  en- 
sued, lasting  till  September,  1840,  when  the 
Carlists  were  finally  defeated.  Queen  Isa- 
bella and  the  Bourbon  dynasty  were  over- 
thrown Sept.  1868.  Marshal  Serrano  became 
Pres,  of  the  Provisional  Government  Nov. 
1868.  Important  reforms  were  made,  viz  : 
universal  suffrage,  religious  liberty,  right  of 
public  assemblage,  trial  by  jury  and  equality 
of  all  before  the  law.  Promulgation  of  the 
Spanish  Constitution,  June  8, 1869. 

KINGS  OF  SPAIN. 

1512.  Ferdinand  V.,  the  Catholic.  He  was  the 
heir  to  the  throne  of  Aragon ; by  his 
marriage  with  Isabella  of  Castile  the 
two  kingdoms  were  united ; and  by  the 
conquest  of  Grenada  and  Navarre,  he 
became  monarch  of  all  Spain : suc- 
ceeded by  his  grandson. 

1516.  Charles  I.,  son  of  Joan  of  Castile  and 
Philip  of  Austria ; became  Emperor  of 
Germany  as  Charles  V.,  in  1519. 

1556.  Philip  II.,  his  son,  King  of  Naples  and 
Sicily. 

1598.  Philip  ill.,  his  son. 


SPA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


825 


1621.  Philip  IV.,  his  son. 

1665.  Charles  II.,  his  son. 

1700.  Philip  V.,  Duke  of  Anjou. 

1724.  Louis  I.,  reigned  a few  months. 

1724.  Philip  V.  again. 

1745.  Ferdinand  VI.,  his  son. 

1759.  Charles  III.,  brother  of  Ferdinand. 

1788.  Charles  IV.,  his  son. 

1808.  Ferdinand  VII.,  his  son. 

1808.  Joseph  Bonaparte. 

1814.  Ferdinand  VII.,  restored. 

1833.  Isabella  II.,  his  daughter, deposed,  1868  * 
1870.  Amadeus  I. 

SPARTA,  or  Lacedatmox,  was  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  cities  of  Gi  eece.  Laconia, 
the  country  of  which  Sparta  was  the  capital, 
was  bounded  north  by  Arcadia,  east  by  the 
Argolic  Gulf,  south  by  the  Ionian  Sea,  and 
west  by  Messenia.  The  Heraclidse,  when 
possessed  of  Greece,  founded  four  kingdoms, 
of  which  Sparta  and  Corinth  were  the  most 
distinguished.  For  nine  hundred  years 
the  Heraclidse  furnished  kings  to  Sparta, 
Lycurgus  gave  the  Spartans  their  cele- 
brated laws.  [ See  Lycurgus.]  The  helots 
were  enslaved  Messenians,  whose  country  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Spartans.  The  bravery 
of  the  Spartans  was  displayed  against  the 
Persians,  and,  unfortunately,  against  their 
own  countrymen  in  their  civil  wars.  The 
Peloponnesian  war  ended  (b.c.  404)  in  the 
overthrow  of  Athens,  and  the  supremacy  of 
the  Spartans  over  all  Greece.  They  were, 
however,  unable  to  contend  successfully 
against  the  Thebans  under  Epaminondas,  and 
were  defeated  by  him  in  the  battles  of  Leuc- 
tra  and  Mantinea,  the  last  of  which  was  fatal 
to  the  victor.  Like  the  rest  of  their  coun- 
trymen, they  fell  beneath  the  power  of  Mace- 
don.  They  were  distinguished  by  fierceness, 
fortitude,  austerity,  and  contempt  of  luxury. 

They  were  the  most  vigorous  of  the  Greeks, 
and  the  handsomest  men  and  women  were 
found  among  them.  A nation  of  warriors, 
the  painter,  the  sculptor,  the  poet,  the  histo- 
rian, did  not  flourish  among  them  ; and  agri- 
culture and  trade,  as  well  as  arts  and  letters, 
were  loft  to  the  Helots  and  other  inferior 
races.  Their  government  was  practically 
oligarchical.  The  kingly  or  hereditary 
authority  was  shared  by  two  persons  at  the 
same  time.  A few  scattered  ruins  mark  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Sparta. 

SPENSER,  Edmund,  whose  genius  was  one 
of  the  glories  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Eliza- 


beth, was  born  in  London  about  1553.  Sid- 
ney and  Raleigh  were  his  friends  and  patrons. 
In  1586,  Spenser  obtained  from  the  crown  a 
grant  out  of  the  forfeited  estates  of  the  Earl 
of  Desmond  in  the  so  ith  of  Ireland.  There, 
in  Kilcohnan  Castle,  he  wrote  the  most  of 
“ The  Faery  Queen  ; ” there  he  brought  home 
his  wife,  Elizabeth,  welcoming  her  with  that 
noble  strain  of  pure  and  fervent  passion, 
“ The  Epithalamium,”  the  most  magnificent 
spousal  verse  in  the  language ; and  there  he 
received  the  visits  of  Raleigh,  his  ‘ shepherd 
of  the  ocean,’  and  read  him  the  gorgeous  and 
'dnvalric  verse  of  his  great  poem, — 

“ Amongst  the  coolly  shade 

Of  the  green  aiders,  by  the  Mulla’s  shore.” 

“ The  Faery  Queen  ” was  welcomed  with  loud 
acclaim,  and  Spenser  acknowledged  as  the 
greatest  poet  of  the  time. 

In  Ireland,  all  the  English  interlopers  were 
hated  by  the  conquered  natives.  Spenser 
held  office  under  the  crown,  and  was  a stren- 
uous supporter  of  the  arbitrary  injustice  that 
might  called  right.  In  one  of  the  storms  of 
insurrection  Kilcolman  Castle  was  beset, 
plundered,  and  burned.  Spenser  and  his 
wife  escaped,  but  in  the  confusion  of  the 
calamity  their  new-born  child  perished  in  the 
flames.  The  impoverished  and  broken-hearted 
poet  reached  London,  to  die  in  about  three 
months,  Jan.  16th,  1599.  lie  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  the  Earl  of  Essex  defray- 
ing the  cost  of  the  funeral,  and  the  hearse 
attended  by  his  brother  poets,  w’ho  threw 
“ mournful  elegies  ” into  his  grave. 

SPINOLA,  Ambrose,  a famous  general, 
was  born  in  Spain,  of  a noble  Genoese  fam- 
ily, in  1571.  He  commanded  an  army  in 
Flanders,  and  in  1604  took  Ostend ; for  which 
great  exploit  he  was  made  general  of  all  the 
Spanish  troops  in  the  Low  Countries,  where 
he  was  opposed  by  Maurice  of  Nassau.  In 
the  war  occasioned  by  the  disputed  succession 
to  the  duchy  of  Cleves  and  Juliers,  Spmola 
took  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Wesel,  and  Breda.  He 
died  in  1630. 

SPINOZA,  Baruch,  or  Benedict,  born  in 
Amsterdam,  Nov.  24th,  1632,  died  at  the 
Hague,  Feb.  24th,  1677.  His  father  was  a 
wealthy  Portuguese  Jew. 

SPURZHEIM,  John  Gaspar,  the  celebra- 
ted phrenologist,  was  born  on  the  31st  of 
December,  1776,  at  the  village  of  Longwich 


SPU 


826 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


near  Treves,  on  the  Moselle,  in  Germany ; 
was  educated  at  the  university  of ' Treves  ; 
became  acquainted,  about  the  year  1800, 
with  Dr.  Gall,  the  founder  of  the  doctrine 
of  craniology,  as  it  was  then  called,  and 
afterward  became  an  associate  and  fellow- 
laborer  in  defending  and  propagating  their 
opinions  in  different  countries  of  Europe. 
After  having  given  lectures  in  various  cities 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  he  sailed  to  America  in 
1882,  and  on  the  17th  of  September  com- 
menced a course  of  lectures  on  phrenology  at 
Boston,  and  soon  after  another  .course  at 
Cambridge.  He  died  after  an  illness  of  about 
three  weeks,  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  10th, 
1832,  much  lamented  by  those  who  had  made 
his  acquaintance. 

STAEL-HOLSTEIN,  Anne  Louisa  Ger- 
maine Necker,  Baroness  de,  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Necker,  the  minister  of  finance,  and 
was  born  in  Paris,  in  1766.  Her  earliest 
productions  were  “Sophia,”  a comedy,  writ- 
ten in  1786,  and  the  tragedies  of  “Lady 
Jane  Grey”  and  “Montmorency.”  In  1786 
she  married  the  Baron  de  Stael-Holstein,  the 
Swedish  ambassador.  During  the  reign  of 
terror,  she  left  Paris,  but  on  the  recognition 
of  the  French  republic  by  Sweden,  her  hus- 
band returned  to  France  in  his  official  capaci- 
ty, bringing  his  wife  with  him.  He  died  in 
1798.  At  Paris,  Madam  de  Stael  first  beheld 
Napoleon  on  his  return  after  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Formio.  But  her  early  feelings  of 
admiration  for  him  were  soon  changed  into 
those  of  aversion  and  hatred.  She  was  ban- 
ished from  France  by  Bonaparte.  In  her 
exile  she  published  various  works,  among 
them  two  romances,  “Delphine”  and  “ Cor- 
inne  ou  Italie,”  the  last  the  fruits  of  her  toui- 
in  Italy.  She  visited  Germany  and  Russia, 
and  produced  a work  upon  the  former.  At 
Geneva  she  married  a young  French  officer 
by  the  name  of  De  Rocca,  but  did  not 
acknowledge  the  union  until  her  death.  In 
1814  she  returned  to  Paris,  but  Napoleon’s 
return  from  Elba  drove  her  to  Coppet.  She 
died  July  14th,  1817. 

STANDISH,  Miles,  served  some  time  in 
the  English  army  in  the  Netherlands,  and 
settled  with  Robinson’s  congregation  at  Ley- 
den. Ho  was  not  a member  of  the  church, 
— “never  entered  the  school  of  Christ,  or  of 


John  the  Baptist.”  He  came  over  in  the  May- 
flower, and  from  his  experience  in  warfare 
was  naturally  made  commander  of  the  mili- 
tary force  of  the  colony.  He  was  one  of  the 
magistrates  till  his  death  at  Duxbury  in  1656, 
aged  about  seventy-two. 

STANHOPE,  Charles,  the  third  earl,  was 
born  Aug.  3d,  1753.  In  1774,  he  stood  can- 
didate for  Westminster,  but  without  success. 
By  the  interest  of  the  Earl  of  Shelburne, 
however,  he  was  brought  into  parliament  for 
the  borough  of  Wycombe,  which  he  repre- 
sented till  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1786, 
called  him  to  the  upper  house.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  an  early  period  of  the 
French  Revolution,  by  an  open  avowal  of 
republican  sentiments,  and  went  so  far  as  to 
lay  aside  the  external  ornaments  of  the  peer- 
age. He  was  also  a frequent  speaker,  and 
on  some  occasions  was  left  single  in  a minor- 
ity. He  died  Dec.  16th,  1816.  He  distinguish- 
ed himself  by  several  valuable  inventions; 
among  them  a printing-press  known  by  his 
name.  His  first  wife  was  a daughter  of  Lord 
Chatham.  Their  daughter,  Lady  Ulster 
Stanhope,  retired  to  Syria  after  the  death  of 
her  uncle,  William  Pitt,  and  on  Mount  Leba- 
non led  a strange,  romantic  life;  till  her  death 
in  1839,  at  the  age  of  seventy-three. 

STANTON,  Edwin  M.  See  Ap’x,  p.  976. 

STARK,  John,  a general  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary war,  was  born  at  Londonderry,  N.  H., 
Aug.  17th,  1728.  In  the  French  war  of 
1755  he  served  with  distinction,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill  fought  at  the  head  of 
the  New  Hampshire  troops.  At  Trenton  and 
Princeton  his  voice  was  heard,  but  at  Ben- 
nington he  covered  himself  with  glory.  Pre- 
vious to  the  battle,  he  addressed  his  troops 
in  a style  well  calculated  to  win  their  atten- 
tion. “ We  must  beat  them,  my  boys,”  con- 
cluded he,  “ or  this  night  Molly  Stark  is  a 
widow.”  He  died  May  8th,  1822. 

STEELE,  Sir  Richard,  was  born  in  1671 
in  Ireland,  of  English  parentage.  Reckless- 
ness, wit,  vivacity,  and  good  humor  distin- 
guished him  through  life.  With  him  origi- 
nated the  periodical  essays,  the  “Tattler,” 
the  “Spectator,”  the  “Guardian,”  &c., which 
his  pen  and  that  of  Addison  so  richly 
adorned.  He  was  also  a vigorous  political 
writer,  sat  in  parliament,  and  was  knighted 
by  George  I.  Party  spirit  severed  the  frtend- 


STE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


827 


ship  so  long  existing  between  him  and  Addi- 
son ; Steele’s  conduct  in  the  affair  was  far  the 
most  creditable  and  manly.  His  carelessness 
embroiled  him  in  pecuniary  difficulties,  and 
he  died  in  Wales  in  1729. 

STEPHEN,  King  of  England,  was  the 
third  son  of  Adela,  fourth  daughter  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  and  of  Stephen,  Count 
of  Blois.  He  was  born  in  1105,  and  was 
invited  to  the  English  court  by  his  uncle, 
Henry  I.,  who  gave  him  lands  and  honors, 
and  promoted  his  marriage  with  Matilda,  the 
heiress  of  Boulogne.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
I.,  in  the  year  1135,  Stephen  assumed  the 
crown.  In  order  to  secure  himself  he  passed 
a charter,  granting  several  privileges  to  the 
different  orders  of  the  state ; to  the  nobility, 
a permission  to  hunt  in  their  own  forests  ; to 
the  clergy,  a speedy  filling  of  all  vacant  ben- 
efices ; and  to  the  Saxon  people,  restoration 
of  the  laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Ma- 
tilda, the  daughter  of  Henry,  asserting  her 
claim  to  the  crown,  landed  upon  the  coast  of 
Sussex,  assisted  by  Robert,  Earl  of  Glouces- 
ter. The  whole  of  Matilda’s  retinue  amounted 
to  no  more  than  one  hundred  and  forty 
knights,  who  immediately  took  possession  of 
Arundel  Castle  ; but  her  forces  every  day 
seemed  to  gain  ground.  Meantime  Stephen 
flew  to  besiege  Arundel,  where  she  had  taken 
refuge,  and  where  she  was  protected  by  the 
queen  dowager,  who  secretly  favored  her 
pretensions.  This  fortress  was  too  feeble  to 
promise  a long  defense,  and  would  have  been 
soon  taken,  had  it  not  been  represented  to 
the  king,  that  as  it  was  a castle  belonging  tq 
the  queen  dowager,  it  would  be  an  infringe- 
ment on  the  respect  due  to  her  to  attempt 
taking  it  by  force.  Stephen,  therefore,  per- 
mitted Matilda  to  come  forth  in  safety,  and 
had  her  conveyed  with  security  to  Bristol, 
another  fortress  equally  strong  with  that 
whence  he  permitted  her  to  retire.  Matilda’s 
forces  increased  every  day ; and  a victory 
gained  by  them,  threw  Stephen  from  the 
throne  and  exalted  Matilda  in  his  room. 
Matilda,  however,  affected  to  treat  the  nobil- 
ity with  a degree  of  disdain,  to  which  they 
had  long  been  unaccustomed  ; so  that  the 
nation  soon  began  to  desire  the  deposed 
king.  The  Bishop  of  Winchester  fomented 
these  discontents  ; and  when  he  found  the 
people  ripe  for  a tumult,  detached  a party  of 


his  friends  and  vassals  to  block  up  the  city 
of  London,  where  the  queen  then  resided, 
and  measures  were  taken  to  instigate  the 
Londoners  to  a revolt,  and  to  seize  her  per- 
son. Matilda  having  timely  notice  of  this 
conspiracy,  fled  to  Winchester,  whither  the 
bishop  followed  her.  His  party  was  soon 
sufficient  to  bid  the  queen  open  defiance  ; and 
to  besiege  her  in  the  very  place  where  she 
first  received  his  benediction.  There  she 
continued  for  some  time,  but  the  town  being 
pressed  by  famine,  she  was  obliged  to  escape, 
while  her  brother,  the  Earl  of  Gloucester, 
endeavoring  to  follow,  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
exchanged  for  Stephen,  who  still  continued 
a captive.  Thus  a sudden  revolution  once 
more  took  place  ; Matilda  was  deposed,  while 
Stephen  was  again  recognized  as  king.  His 
reign,  however,  was  soon  terminated  by  his 
death,  which  happened  about  a year  after  the 
treaty  at  Canterbury,  when  Henry,  Matilda’s 
son,  succeeded. 

STEPHENSON,  George,  an  eminent  civil 
engineer,  whose  name  is  linked  with  the 
development  of  England’s  railway  system, 
was  born  near  Newcastle,  in  April,  1787.  He 
commenced  life  with  picking  turnips  at  two- 
pence a day.  Of  course  his  advantages  for 
education  were  nothing.  His  ingenuity  in 
repairing  an  obstinate  defect  in  the  steam- 
engine  of  a colliery  at  Killingworth  gained 
him  the  charge  of  the  engine.  He  built  a 
rude  locomotive  as  early  as  1815.  The  first 
railroad  in  England  was  that  from  Stockton 
to  Darlington,  opened  in  1825  : Stephenson 
was  the  engineer.  His  locomotives  then 
traveled  six  miles  an  hour : the  speed  he 
foresaw,  under  suspicion  of  insanity,  he  lived 
to  realize.  With  the  construction  of  the 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway,  Mr. 
Stephenson  entered  upon  the  field  of  his 
great  fame.  He  died  Aug.  12th,  1848.  His 
son  Robert,  the  builder  of  the  Britannia 
tubular  bridge  over  the  Menai  Straits,  has 
succeeded  and  added  to  his  father’s  fame. 

STERNE,  Lawrence,  the  author  of  “ Tris- 
tram Shandy,”  was  born  at  Clonmel,  Ire- 
land, Nov.  24th,  1713,  bred  a clergyman,  and 
died  in  London,  March  18th,  1768. 

STEUBEN,  Frederick  William  Augustus, 
Baron  von ; a brave  Prussian  officer  who  en- 
tered the  American  service  during  our  Revo- 
lution, and  in  1778  was  appointed  by  Con- 


828 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


gress  inspector-general  of  the  forces,  with 
the  rank  of  major-general.  He  commanded  in 
the  trenches  at  Yorktown,  where  he  received 
the  first  offer  of  Cornwallis  to  capitulate. 
Baron  von  Steuben  was  generous  and  hospi- 
table, and  introduced  strict  and  efficient  dis- 
cipline into  the  army.  He  settled  in  Oneida 
county,  New  York,  where  he  had  received  a 
grant  of  land,  and,  by  the  exertions  of  Wash- 
ington and  Hamilton  obtained  a pension  of 
$2,500  from  the  general  government.  He  died 
in  1795  of  apoplexy. 

STEYENS,  Edward,  a native  of  Virginia, 
commanded  a battalion  of  riflemen  in  the 
battle  of  Great  Bridge,  near  Norfolk,  and 
behaved  with  gallantry  at  Brandywine,  Ger- 
mantown, Camden,  Guilford,  and  Yorktown. 
He  became  a brigadier-general.  He  died  in 
1820,  aged  seventy-six. 

STEWART,  Dugald,  a celebrated  philo- 
sophical writer,  born  in  Scotland,  1753,  died 
in  1828.  He  was  professor  of  moral  philos- 
oph}1'  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 

STIRLING,  William  Alexander,  Lord, 
was  born  at  New  York,  N.  Y.,  in  1726.  He 
was  a major-general  in  the  army  of  the  United 
States  during  the  Revolution,  and  distin- 
guished himself  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
eventful  struggle,  but  particularly  in  the 
battles  of  Long  Island,  Germantown,  and 
Monmouth.  He  died  at  Albany,  1783,  with 
the  reputation  of  a learned,  brave,  honest, 
and  patriotic  man.  The  title  of  Lord  Stir- 
ling was  given  him  by  courtesy,  as  he  claimed 
to  be  the  rightful  heir  to  the  earldom  of  that 
name  in  Scotland,  although  his  claims  were 
not  sustained  by  legal  tribunals. 

STOCKTON,  Richard,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  near 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Oct.  1st,  1730.  Having 
graduated  at  New  Jersey  College,  he  made 
the  tour  of  Great  Britain.  He  became  a law- 
yer of  eminence.  June  21st,  1776,  he  was  cho- 
sen by  the  provincial  congress  a delegate  to 
the  general  congress  assembled  at  Philadel- 
phia. Nov.  30th  of  the  same  year,  while  re- 
turning from  a visit  to  the  northern  army,  he 
was  seized  in  the  night  by  the  British,  and 
conveyed  to  New  York,  where  he  was  treated 
with  such  severity  that  his  constitution  was 
broken,  and  after  languishing  a long  time,  he 
died  at  Princeton,  Feb.  28th,  1781,  in  the 
fifty -first  year  ©f  his  age. 


STOICS.  The  disciples  of  Zeno,  the  cynic 
philosopher  (190  b.c.),  were  named  Stoics, 
because  they  listened  to  their  master’s  har- 
angues in  a porch  or  pgrtico  at*  Athene, 
called  in  the  Greek,  stoa.  Zeno  taught  that 
man’s  supreme  happiness  consisted  in  living 
agreeably  to  nature  and  reason,  and  that  God 
was  the  soul  of  the  world.  The  sect  were 
marked  by  stiffness,  patience,  apathy,  auster- 
ity, and  insensibility. 

STONE,  Thomas,  a signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  in  Charles 
county,  Maryland,  1742.  He  was  a law- 
yer by  profession,  and  he  was  a delegate  in 
congress,  1775-79  and  1784-85.  In  1784  he 
was  chosen  president  pro  tempore  of  con- 
gress. He  died  at  Port  Tobacco,  Md.,  Octo- 
ber 5th,  1787. 

STONY  POINT.  The  scenery  of  the  Hud- 
son river  bears  Nature’s  grandest  imprint. 
The  hand  that  framed  an  universe  of  worlds 
has  thrown  together  along  the  banks  of  this 
noble  stream  a wild  assemblage  of  rocks  and 
mountains.  The  Palisades,  as  they  are  called, 
commence  on  the  western  side  of  the  Hud- 
son, just  above  Weehawken,  and  extend  about 
twelve  miles  up  the  river.  They  are  bold, 
abrupt  demonstrations  of  omnipotence,  mould- 
ed bjr  Him  whose  power  is  not  bounded  by 
time  or  circumstance.  The  cannon  of  a 
thousand  armies  might  roar  out  their  ineffect- 
ual vengeance  against  this  natural  battery, 
which  frowns  over  the  broad  bright  stream 
at  an  elevation  of  from  sixty  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet ; and  the  parapet  would  laugh 
in  scorn  at  the  power  of  battle. 

After  the  Palisades  terminate,  a country 
of  hills  and  vales  succeeds ; the  former 
rounded  up  like  loaves  of  sugar,  and  the  lat- 
ter indented  like  dimples  on  the  cheek  of 
beauty.  Occasionally,  however,  Nature  has 
projected  into  the  stream  one  of  her  bold 
fronts, — a miniature  formation  of  those  “hills 
of  fear,”  which  cast  their  sombre  shadows 
across  the  pass  of  the  Highlands.  One  of 
these  projections  is  Stony  Point,  standing 
out  in  bold  relief  from  the  rural  scenery  just 
below.  The  impressions  which  crowd  into 
the  spectator’s  mind  in  this  region,  are  not 
all  derived  from  river,  mountain,  or  valley : 
tradition  and  history  lend  a melancholy  glory 
to  this  revolutionary  ground.  On  the  east- 
ern bank  stretches  away  the  celebrated 


STO 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


829 


“neutral  ground”  throughout  the  entire 
extent  of  Westchester  county,  where  regu- 
lars, cow-boys,  Virginia  horse,  and  continen- 
tals, Wliigs,  and  Tories,  appeared  and  disap- 
peared like  the  actors  of  a wild  and  bloody 
tragedy.  On  the  left,  Stony  Point  is  allied 
to  associations  of  military  achievements  of 
unfading  renown  ; while  farther  up,  the  mem- 
ory of  Arnold’s  treason,  Andre’s  capture,  and 
his  untimely  although  merited  fate,  twines 
around  the  memorable  rocks  of  West  Point. 

Stony  Point  is  about  forty  miles  above 
New  York  and  ten  or  fourteen  below  West 
Point.  It  is  a rounded,  gravelly  hill,  of 
small  extent,  jutting  into  the  stream,  and 
connected  with  the  main  land  by  a low  mo- 
rass which  is  partially  overflowed  with  the 
tide  waters.  It  was  fortified  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary war,  and,  occupied  by  a small  force, 
might  have  been  considered  as  a remote  out- 
post to  the  strong  fortress  of  West  Point. 
It  was  captured  by  the  British  in  the  year 
1779,  strongly  repaired,  and  garrisoned  by 
more  than  six  hundred  soldiers,  commanded 
by  the  brave  Lieut.  Col.  Johnson. 

A few  days  before  the  15th  of  July,  in  the 
same  year,  a tall,  commanding  personage, 
mounted  on  a strong  charger,  was  seen  on 
the  eminences  above  Stony  Point.  He  had  a 
glass  in  his  hand,  and  appeared  to  study  the 
character  of  the  defenses  with  an  intensity 
of  interest.  Johnson,  who  was  returning  the 
gaze  of  the  horseman  with  his  spy-glass, 
turned  to  one  of  his  staff  and  remarked  that 
the  apparition  on  the  hill  portended  no  good. 
Rumors  were  afloat  about  the  intrenchments 
that  the  same  tall  figure  hacf  been  seen  across 
the  river  on  the  highest  opposite  eminence 
the  day  before,  like  a horseman  painted 
against  the  sky.  A cow-boy  said  that  this 
figure  was  the  apparition  of  Washington, 
and  that  it  never  was  seen  excepting  just 
before  a battle  or  a thunder  storm.  But 
while  these  idle  rumors  floated  around  the 
atmosphere  of  the  camp,  the  redl  Washing- 
ton, from  observations  made  with  his  own 
eyes,  was  concerting  a soldier-like  plan  for 
its  surprise. 

On  the  night  of  the  15th  of  July,  1779,  by 
the  twinkl.ng  light  of  the  stars  that  broke 
over  and-  through  the  clouds,  two  columns 
of  soldiers  might  have  been  seen  under  tl?.e 
brow  of  the  eminence  in  the  rear  of  the  fort. 


They  were  stern  men — the  silent,  thoughtful 
men  of  New  England.  The  eagle-eyed 
Wayne  was  their  chief,  and  his  heart  was 
like  that  of  the  lion.  The  regiments  of  Feb- 
iger  and  Meigs,  with  the  youthful  Major 
Hull’s  detachment,  formed  the  right  column ; 
Butler’s  regiment,  with  two  companies  under 
Major  Murphy,  formed  the  left.  The  van  of 
the  right  was  formed  of  *one  hundred  and 
fifty  volunteers  at  whose  head  stood  the 
brave  Fleury  ; one  hundred  volunteers  under 
Stewart  composed  the  van  of  the  left.  And 
still  farther  advanced,  the  noblest  post  of  all, 
stood  two  forlorn  hopes  of  twenty  men  each ; 
one  commanded  by  Lieut.  Gibbons,  and  the 
other  by  Lieut.  Knox.  Wayne  stepped  from 
man  to  man  through  the  vanguards, — saw 
them  take  their  flints  from  their  pieces,  and 
fix  the  death-bayonet.  At  twenty  minutes 
past  eleven,  the  two  columns  moved  to 
the  bloody  work  before  them,  one  going 
to  the  left  and  the  other  to  the  right,  to  make 
their  attack  on  opposite  sides. 

The  inhabitants  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
river  first  heard  a sharp  crashing  as  the  for- 
lorn hope  on  either  side  broke  in  the  double 
row  of  abatis ; the  muskets  of  the  sentinels 
flashed  suddenly  amidst  the  darkness,  and  in 
a moment  the  fortress  vomited  out  flame  and 
thunder  as  if  a volcano  had  been  ignited,  and 
was  tossing  its  lava  upward.  The  cry  of 
battle,  not  to  be  mistaken,  shrill,  wild,  and 
fearful,  broke  upon  the  still  air  of  night. 
But  all  was  in  vain  for  the  fortress.  Under 
showers  of  grape,  and  full  in  the  red  eye  of 
battle,  the  two  gloomy,  still,  unwavering  col- 
umns moved  on,  and  their  vanguards  met  in 
the  centre  of  the  works.  The  British  made 
an  instant  surrender  to  avoid  the  extermina- 
tion which  awaited  the  deploy  of  the  columns 
upon  the  intrenchments.  Sixty -three  British 
soldiers  lay  dead  at  their  guns  ; five  hundred 
and  forty-three  were  made  prisoners  ; and  the 
spoils  were  two  standards,  two  flags,  fifteen 
pieces  of  ordnance,  and  other  materials  of 
war.  Of  the  assailants  fifteen  were  killed, 
and  eighty -three  wounded,  the  forlorn  hopes 
suffering  most  severely.  Wayne  led  the  right 
column.  At  the  inner  abatis  he  was  struck 
on  the  head  by  a musket-ball,  which  brought 
him  on  his  knees.  Believing  himself  mor- 
tally wounded,  he  exclaimed : “ March  on  ! 

Carry  me  into  the  fort,  for  I will  die  at  th« 


STO 


83) 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


head  of  my  column!”  His  aids,  Fishbow 
and  Archer,  raised  him  to  his  feet,  and  bore 
him  through  the  works.  The  wound  was  not 
fatal,  and  ‘Mad  Anthony  ’ joined  in  the  loud 
huzzas  that  arose  when  the  two  divisions  met 
victorious  within  the  fortress.  His  success- 
ful exploit  was  one  of  the  most  daring  and 
brilliant  achievements  of  the  Revolution. 

These  spots,  where  the  life-blood  of  the 
free  has  been  poured  out  like  water,  and 


where  the  traces  of  the  Revolutionary  ditch 
and  mound  still  remain,  are  altars  sacred  to 
the  high  recollections  of  freedom.  Green  be 
the  turf  over  these  departed  patriots.  The 
bold  bluff  of  Stony  Point  is  classic  ground. 
Hither  in  future  time  shall  the  poet  and  the 
sentimentalist  come  to  pay  their  tribute  of 
affection  and  honor,  where — 

“ Our  fathers  knelt 
In  prayer  and  battle  for  a world.” 


story’s  house  at 

STORY,  Joseph,  an  eminent  jurist,  was 
born  at  Marblehead,  Mass.,  in  1779.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1809,  and  at  the  end 
of  his  term  was  appointed  an  associate  jus- 
tice of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  in  which  capacity  he  served  with 
great  ability  and  distinction,  till  his  decease 
in  1845. 

STRAFFORD.  Thomas  Wentworth,  eld- 
est son  of  Sir  William  Wentworth,  of  York- 


CAMBR1DGE, MASS. 

shire,  was  born  in  Chancery  Lane,  London, 
April  13th,  1593.  In  1014  he  succeeded  to 
the  baronetcy,  and  in  1G21  entered  parlia- 
ment. At  the  commencement  of  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.,  during  the  arbitrary  adminis- 
tration of  Buckingham,  Wentworth  used  his 
eloquence  and  great  abilities  on  the  side  of 
the  opposition.  But  he  was  haughty,  ambi- 
tious, and  fond  of  power.  After  the  assassin- 
ation of  Buckingham,  he  proved  renegade 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


831 


to  the  popular  cause,  and  became  the  king’s 
most  trusted  counselor  in  military  and  politi- 
cal matters.  lie  was  made  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland  and  Earl  of  Strafford.  It  was  his 
aim  to  make  Charles  a monarch  as  absolute 
as  any  on  the  continent ; to  put  the  estates 
and  the  personal  liberty  of  the  whole  people 
at  the  disposal  of  the  crown  ; to  deprive  the 
courts  of  law  of  all  independent  authority, 
even  in  ordinary  questions  of  civil  right 
between  man  and  man,  and  to  punish  with 
merciless  rigor  all  who  murmured  at  the  acts 
of  the  government,  or  who  applied  even  in 
the  most  decent  and  regular  manner  to 
any  tribunal  for  relief  against  those  acts. 

Familiar  with  the  plans  of  the  statesmen 
from  whom  he  had  apostatized,  and  pursuing 
his  policy  with  an  admirable  firmness  and 
precision,  he  was  for  a time  successful.  In 
his  Irish  viceroyalty  he  had  established  a 
military  despotism  by  which  the  king  was  as 
absolute  as  any  prince  in  the  world  could  be. 
So  he  would  have  it  in  England,  and  thereto 
a standing  army  was  necessary.  The  illegal 
expedient  of  the  ship-money  was  tried,  and 
unjust  judges  sustained  it  against  the  oppo- 
sition of  John  Hampden.  But  just  as  Lord 
Strafford  was  exulting  in  the  near  success  of 
his  schemes,  the  attempt  of  Archbishop 
Laud  to  force  episcopacy  upon  Scotland, 
aroused  a tumult  which  endangered  them. 
His  imperious  will  to  carry  them  through  at 
all  hazards  increased  the  animosity  against 
him  and  his  measures.  Upon  the  assembling 
of  the  Long  Parliament  in  November,  1640, 
he  was  impeached,  as  well  as  Laud.  The 
legal  evidence  necessary  to  support  the  char- 
ges could  not  be  obtained,  and  his  enemies 
resorted  to  a bill  of  attainder.  The  kina* 
could  not  save  him,  and  he  was  beheaded 
May  12th,  1641. 

STUART.  The  founder  of  this  royal 
house  was  Walter  the  Steward  of  Scotland, 
whose  wife,  Marjory,  was  the  daughter  of 
the  great  Robert  Bruce.  David  II.,  son  of 
Robert  Bruce,  dying  without  issue  in  1371, 
the  son  of  Walter  and  Marjory  came  to  the 
throne,  under  the  name,  of  Robert  II.  He 
was  not  a warrior,  yet  the  usual  wars  with 
England  mark  his  reign.  His  eldest  son  and 
successor  was  also  better  fitted  for  the  clois- 
ter than  such  a seat  as  the  Scottish  throne  in 
those  troublesome  times.  The  younger  son, 


created  Duke  of  Albany  by  Robert  III.  (the 
first  instance  of  the  title  in  Scotland),  was  of 
a bolder  and  a baser  stamp.  The  baptismal 
name  of  Robert  III.  was  John : at  his  acces- 
sion he  took  that  more  fortunate  name  the 
great  Bruce  had  borne.  Ilis  eldest  son  David 
was  starved  to  death  by  the  cruel  and  ambi- 
tious Albany,  and  James,  whom  he  sent  to 
France  for  safety,  was  taken  captive  by  the 
English  and  detained  in  confinement.  Such 
sorrows  brought  Robert  to  the  grave,  April 
1st,  1406.  The  captivity  of  James  we  have 
elsewhere  described.  [Nee  James  I.]  During 
the  long  years  of  his  absence,  Albany  ruled 
as  regent,  and  afterward  his  son.  James  at 
last  returned,  reigned  fourteen  years,  and 
was  assassinated  by  conspirators  in  his  bed- 
chamber. James  II.,  only  a lad  of  seven  at 
his  father’s  death,  perished  by  the  bursting 
of  a cannon  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh  in 
1460.  James  III.,  his  son,  a weak  fellow, 
dabbled  in  astrology,  whose  starry  mandates 
led  him  to  murder  one  brother,  banish  anoth- 
er, and  so  bear  himself  in  divers  things  that 
his  subjects  were  stirred  to  revolt.  His  own 
son  (James  IY.)  appeared  in  the  field  with 
the  insurgents  ; the  father  was- mysteriously 
murdered  in  his  flight  from  defeat.  [See 
Bannockburn.]  James  IY.  wedded  Marga- 
ret Tudor  of  England,  but  this  did  not  save 
him  from  collision  with  her  brother,  Henry 
YIII.  With  the  flower  of  his  nobility,  and 
thousands  of  his  soldiery,  he  sank  amid — • 

“ The  stern  strife  and  carnage  drear 
Of  Flodden’s  fatal  field, 

Where  shivered  was  fair  Scotland’s  spear, 

And  broken  was  her  shield.” 

His  son,  James  Y.,  was  then  hardly  more 
than  a year  old.  As  he  grew  to  man’s  estate 
he  developed  many  virtues,  and  was  a hand- 
some, gallant,  brave,  and  accomplished  prince. 
He  died  in  1542,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty- 
nine.  He  had  married  Mary,  sister  of  the 
famous  Duke  of  Guise,  and  widow  of  the 
Duke  of  Longueville.  Seven  days  before 
her  husband’s  death,  on  the  7th  of  Decem- 
ber, a daughter  had  been  born  to  them, 
christened  Mary  ; she  became  a queen  by  the 
bereavement  which  made  her  an  orphan. 
Ten  months  after,  the  babe  was  crowned  at 
Stirling  by  Cardinal  Beaton,  and  solemnly 
proclaimed  Queen  of  Scotland.  James  Ham- 
ilton, Earl  of  Arran,  was  appointed  regent 


STU 


832 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


during  her  minority,  but  she  was  left  in  the 
care  of  her  mother,  who  was  respected  for 
her  wisdom  and  talents,  and  revered  for  her 
justice  and  piety,  although  she  was  not  free 
from  the  pride  and  ambition  which  marked 
the  house  of  Guise. 

The  regency  refused  the  politic  desire  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  England  to  unite  both  king- 
doms by  the  marriage  of  his  son  Edward  with 
the  heiress  of  Scotland.  Since  he  could  not 
make  a wedding,  ‘bluff  king  Hal’  made  war. 
Unconscious  of  the  disastrous  battle  of  Pinkie, 
and  the  ravages  of  the  English  armies,  was 
little  Mary  in  her  childhood.  Pier  mother 
selected  four  young  maidens  of  her  age,  to  be 
the  companions  of  her  studies  and  the  mates 
of  her  pleasures ; they  all  bore  the  same 
name,  and  were  afterward  called  the 
‘ Queen’s  Maries.’  They  were  Mary  Beaton, 
Mary  Seyton,  Mary  Fleming,  and  Mary  Liv- 
ingstone. An  old  ballad  says  : — 

“Last  night  the  queen  had  four  Maries; 

To-night  she’ll  hae  but  three : 

There  was  Mary  Seyton,  and  Mary  Beaton, 

And  Mary  Livingstone,  and  me  /” 

As  the  original  Maries,  one  by  one,  married 
and  left  her  service,  the  queen  replaced  them 
with  new  ones  of  the  same  name,  and  seems 
to  have  pleased  herself  with  the  fancy  of 
having  four  Maries  always  in  attendance  upon 
her. 

The  contest  with  England  led  Scotland  to 
a closer  alliance  with  France.  Mary  was 
affianced  to  the  infant  dauphin,  Francis,  the 
son  of  Henry  II.  It  was  agreed  that  she 
should  be  educated  in  the  French  court,  and 
a French  army  was  sent  to  Scotland  to  con- 
tend with  the  English.  In  France  Mary 
spent  thirteen  happy  years.  Her  naturally 
quick  capacity  had  the  advantage  of  the  best 
masters  in  music,  languages,  and  all  womanly 
accomplishments  ; and  her  beauty  (so  great 
that  “no  one  could  look  upon  her  without 
loving  her,”  says  one  that  looked)  was  as 
brilliant  as  were  her  attainments.  In  1558 
the  nuptials  between  her  and  Francis  were 
solemnized  with  great  splendor.  Her  hus- 
band was  shy  and  sickly,  but  they  sincerely 
loved  each  other.  When  Elizabeth,  soon 
after,  came  to  the  English  throne,  Mary,  who 
was  the  next  heir,  committed  her  first  politi- 
cal error,  in  deference  to  the  wishes  of  her 
father-in-law  and  uncles,  assuming  the  title 


and  arms  of  queen  of  England,  on  the  ground 
of  Elizabeth’s  illegitimacy  from  the  unlaw- 
fulness of  Catharine’s  divorce.  The  jealousy 
and  hatred  thus  aroused  in  the  breast  of 
Elizabeth  was  never  allayed. 

Henry  II.,  in  1559,  was  accidentally  slain 
in  a tournament,  and  Francis  and  Mary  were 
crowned  at  Rheims.  The  health  of  the 
young  king  was  rapidly  declining,  and  in  a 
few  months  Mary  was  a widow.  Exposed  to 
the  jealousy  of  Catharine  de  Medici,  the 
queen-regent,  and  deprived  of  the  counte- 
nance of  her  uncles  the  Guises,  who  had  been 
banished  from  court,  Mary  decided  to  return 
to  her  native  realm.  In  tears  again  and 
again  she  bade  adieu  to  the  shores  of  France, 
and  when  night  came  on,  she  lay  upon  a 
couch  spread  on  the  deck  and  wept  herself  to 
sleep.  She  landed  in  Scotland,  Aug.  20th, 
1561.  The  contrast  between  its  roughness 
of  soil  and  rudeness  of  manners,  and  the 
fertile  plains  and  polished  customs  of  France, 
was  very  keenly  felt.  During  her  absence 
the  ancient  religion  to  which  she  had  been 
bred,  had  been  supplanted  by  an  austere 
Calvinism  that  found  great  offense  in  the 
“fiddling,  uncomely  skipping,”  and  other 
joyousness  wherewith  she  sought  to  dispel 
the  gloom  of  Ilolyrood. 

The  conduct  of  the  government  she  en- 
trusted to  her  natural  brother,  Lord  James 
Stuart,  afterward  Earl  of  Murray,  an  able, 
artful,  and  ambitious  man.  For  two  or  three 
years  after  her  return  from  France,  her  life 
was  comparatively  tranquil  and  happy.  She 
had  to  bear  severe  and  sometimes  insolent 
reprimands  from  John  Knox,  whose  zeal  and 
undoubted  piety  were  not  tempered  by  mild- 
ness, and  occasionally  burst  beyond  his  judg- 
ment ; but  she  endeavored  to  conciliate  the 
reformers,  and  win  the  affection  of  her  sub- 
jects. Many  desired  her  hand, — princes  of 
foreign  states,  and  aspiring  men  among  her 
own  nobility.  She  unfortunately  selected 
her  cousin,  young  Henry  Stuart,  Lord  Darn- 
ley,  four  years  her  junior,  and  also  second 
cousin  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  They  were  mar- 
ried July  29th,  1565.  He  was  a headstrong, 
conceited  youth,  and  his  drunkenness  and 
ill  temper  soon  alienated  the  love  of  the 
queen,  while  his  ambition  raised  murmurs 
among  the  nobility.  Mary  relied  much  upon 
the  advice  of  her  secretary,  David  Rizzio,  an 


STU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


833 


Italian.  Darnley,  the  Earl  of  Morton,  and 
others,  resolved  upon  his  murder.  On  the 
9th  of  March,  1566,  while  sitting  at  supper 
with  the  queen  and  some  other  ladies,  in 
Holyrood,  he  was  attacked  by  the  assassins, 
stabbed  over  Mary’s  shoulder  as  she  tried  to 
defend  him,  then  dragged  from  the  room  and 
dispatched  at  the  head  of  the  staircase. 

In  the  following  June,  Mary  gave  birth  to 
a son  at  Edinburgh  Castle.  Her  husband 
had  deeply  alienated  her,  and  incurred  gene- 
ral contempt  and  odium  by  the  weakness  and 
ill  temper  he  everywhere  displayed.  It  was 
now  that  James  Hepburn,  the  restless,  ambi- 
tious, dissolute,  and  daring  Earl  of  Bothwell, 
found  favor  at  court.  His  character  was  w~ell 
known,  but  amid  all  the  treason  about  her, 
he  had  been  faithful  to  her  interests.  Both- 
well, Murray,  Huntley,  Maitland,  and  others 
of  her  counselors,  urged  upon  Mary  a divorce 
from  Darnley,  but  she  was  loath.  It  was 
Bothwell’s  design  to  make  himself  master  of 
her  and  of  the  government ; he  decided  upon 
the  murder  of  Darnley,  who  was  then  re- 
covering from  the  small-pox,  and  lodging  for 
the  benefit  of  the  air  in  a house  called  the 
Kirk-of-Field,  just  out  of  Edinburgh.  On 
Sunday  night,  the  9th  of  February,  1567, 
the  house  was  blown  up  with  gunpowder ; 
the  bodies  of  Darnley  and  his  servant  were 
found  in  a garden  at  some  distance.  Both- 
well stood  a mock  trial,  and  was  acquitted. 
His  next  object  was  to  marry  the  queen. 
Mary  was  returning  from  Stirling  with  a small 
retinue,  when  Bothwell,  at  the  head  of  a 
thousand  armed  men,  encountered  her  near 
Linlithgow,  seized  the  reins  of  her  horse,  and 
carried  her  to  the  castle  of  Dunbar,  where 
he  kept  her  closely  sequestrated  for  a fort- 
night. He  procured  certain  leading  nobles 
and  prelates  to  recommend  him  as  a fit  and 
proper  husband  for  the  queen,  and  having 
got  a divorqe  from  his  wife,  Lady  Jane  Gor- 
don, he  brought  Mary  back  to  Edinburgh  on 
the  3d  of  May ; and  on  the  15th  of  May  the 
guilty  and  disgraceful  nuptials  were  solem- 
nized. The  month  which  Mary  spent  with 
Bothwell  was  the  most  miserable  of  her  life.. 
A powerful  confederacy  of  nobles  was  formed 
against  her  husband  ; Mary  placed  herself  in 
their  hands,  and  Bothwell  fled,  to  end  his  life 
miserably  in  Norway. 

The  confederate  lords  obliged  Mary  to  sign 

53 


a renunciation  of  her  crown  in  favor  of  her 
son,  and  she  herself  was  committed  as  a pris- 
oner, and  secluded  from  her  friends.  The 
place  of  her  confinement  in  the  castle  of 
Lochleven  was  all  but  inaccessible ; but 
Mary’s  beauty  had  procured  her  a friend  in  one 
of  her  attendants,  and  by  his  means  she  con- 
trived to  escape.  She  found  herself  very 
speedily  at  the  head  of  a considerable  body 
of  troops,  who  proclaimed  her  pretensions, 
and  prepared  to  maintain  them  against  those 
of  the  regent  Murray.  They  were,  however, 
worsted  in  an  engagement  which  ensued  near 
Glasgow ; and  Mary,  panic-struck,  fled  to- 
ward England,  and  put  herself  under  the 
protection  of  one  of  Elizabeth’s  governors. 

This  was  exactly  what  that  princess  had 
hoped.  She,  however,  disguised  her  designs 
under  the  mask  of  friendship  ; affected  to 
pity  the  forlorn  condition  of  the  fugitive 
queen ; and,  under  the  idea  of  granting  her 
an  asylum,  betrayed  her  into  a prison.  Eliz- 
abeth thus  became  the  arbiter  between  Mary 
and  her  late  subjects,  and  a sort  of  court  was 
appointed  to  hear  both  parties,  and  decide 
between  them ; but  the  proceedings  were 
stopped  by  Mary  refusing  to  answer  the  accu- 
sations brought  against  her. 

During  Mary’s  continuance  in  confinement, 
she  engaged  the  affection  of  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  a favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  but 
who  seems  very  readily  to  have  entered  into 
those  ambitious  views  which  such  an  alliance 
would  naturally  open  to  him.  The  design, 
however,  was  discovered,  and  Norfolk  was 
committed  to  the  Tower,  tried  for  high  trea- 
son, condemned,  and  executed. 

Elizabeth  had  no  peace  while  Mary  lived. 
She  tried  to  inculpate  the  captive  in  various 
plots;  she  tampered  with  some  of  her  offi- 
cers to  induce  them  to  become  assassins.  At 
last  the  English  parliament  enacted  that  not 
only  conspirators  themselves,  but  those  per- 
sons (however  innocent  or  ignorant  of  their 
purpose)  in  whose  cause  they  conspired, 
were  equally  guilt}'  of  treason.  Under  this 
infamous  law,  Mary  was  made  an  accomplice 
in  Babington’s  plot  in  1583. 

Mary’s  character  rose  with  her  misfortunes, 
and  now  at  their  climax  displayed  a firmness 
and  an  energy  of  which  her  impetuous  tem- 
per and  fluctuating  policy  had  excited  little 
suspicion.  After  a long  confinement  at  Coy- 


STU 


834 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


entry,  she  was  removed  to  Fotheringay  Cas- 
tle, to  undergo  the  formality  of  a trial. 
When  brought  before  the  commissioners  she 
disclaimed  their  authority,  and  asserted  her 
innocence.  The  commissioners,  after  hearing 
her  defense,  declared  her  guilty  of  conspiring 
the  death  of  Elizabeth,  and  condemned  her 
to  death.  She  received  the  tidings  with  com- 
placency. 

The  last  letter  which  Mary  addressed  to 
Elizabeth  read  as  follows  : — 

“ Madam,  I thank  God  from  the  bottom  of  my 
heart  that,  by  the  sentence  which  has  been  passed 
against  me,  he  is  about  to  put  an  end  to  my  te- 
dious pilgrimage.  I would  not  wish  it  prolonged 
though  it  were  in  my  power,  having  had  enough 
of  time  to  experience  its  bitterness.  I write  at 
present  only  to  make  three  last  requests,  which, 
as  I can  expect  no  favor  from  your  implacable 
ministers,  I should  wish  to  owe  to  your  majesty 
and  to  no  other.  First,  as  in  England  I can  not 
hope  to  be  buried  according  to  the  solemnities 
of  the  Catholic  church  (the  religion  of  the  ancient 
kings*  your  ancestors  and  mine,  being  now 
changed),  and  as  in  Scotland  they  have  already 
violated  the  ashes  of  my  progenitors,  I have  to 
request  that  as  soon  as  my  enemies  have  bathed 
their  hands  in  my  innocent  blood,  my  domestics 
may  be  allowed  to  inter  my  body  in  some  consecra- 
ted ground ; and  above  all,  that  they  may  be  per- 
mitted to  carry  it  to  France,  where  the  bones  of  the 
queen,  my  most  honored  mother,  repose.  Thus 
that  poor  frame  which  has  never  enjoyed  repose 
so  long  as  it  has  been  joined  to  my  soul,  may  find 
it  at  last  when  they  will  be  separated.  Second, 
as  I dread  the  tyranny  of  the  harsh  men  to  whose 
power  you  have  abandoned  me,  I entreat  your 
majesty  that  I may  not  be  executed  in  secret, 
but  in  the  presence  of  my  servants  and  other 
persons  who  may  bear  testimony  of  my  faith  and 
fidelity  to  the  true  church,  and  guard  the  last 
hours  of  my  life  and  my  last  sighs  from  the  false 
rumors  which  my  adversaries  may  spread  abroad. 
Third,  I request  that  my  domestics,  who  have 
served  me  through  so  much  misery  and  with  so 
much  constancy,  may  be  allowed  to  retire  with- 
out molestation  wherever  they  choose,  to  enjoy 
for  the  remainder  of  their  lives  the  small  legacies 
which  my  poverty  has  enabled  me  to  bequeath  to 
them.  I conjure  you,  madam,  by  the  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ,  by  our  consanguinity,  by  the  mem- 
ory of  Henry  VII.,  our  common  father,  and  by 
the  royal  title  which  I carry  with  me  to  death, 
not  to  refuse  me  those  reasonable  demands,  but 
to  assure  me,  by  a letter  under  your  own  hand, 
that  you  will  comply  with  them  ; and  I shall  then 
die  as  I have  lived,  your  affectionate  sister  and 
prisoner,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.” 

Whether  Elizabeth  ever  answered  this  let- 
ter, does  not  appear ; but  it  produced  so  lit- 
tle effect,  that  epistles  from  her  to  Sir  Amias 
Paulct  still  exist,  which  prove  that  in  her 
anxiety  to  avoid  taking  upon  herself  the  re- 


sponsibility of  Mary’s  death,  she  wished  to 
have  her  privately  assassinated  or  poisoned. 
Paulet,  however,  though  a harsh  and  violent 
man,  positively  refused  to  sanction  so  nefari- 
ous a scheme.  Yet  in  the  very  act  of  insti- 
gating murder,  Elizabeth  could  close  her 
eyes  against  her  own  iniquity,  and  affect 
indignation  at  the  alleged  offenses  of  another. 
But  perceiving,  at  length,  that  no  alter- 
native remained,  she  ordered  her  secretary 
Davidson  to  bring  her  the  warrant  for  Mary’s 
execution,  and  afteii  perusing  it,  she  delib- 
erately affixed  her  signature.  She  then 
desired  him  to  carry  it  to  Walsingham,  say- 
ing, with  an  ironical  smile,  and  in  a “merry 
tone,”  that  she  feared  he  would  die  of  grief 
when  he  saw  it.  Walsingham  sent  the  war- 
rant to  the  chancellor,  who  affixed  the  great 
seal  to  it,  and  dispatched  it  by  Beal,  with  a 
commission  to  the  Earls  of  Shrewsbury, 
Kent,  Derby,  and  others,  to  see  it  put  in  exe- 
cution. Davidson  was  afterward  made  the 
victim  of  Elizabeth’s  artifice ; to  complete 
the  solemn  farce  she  had  been  playing,  she 
pretended  he  had  obeyed  her  orders  too 
quickly,  and  doomed  him  in  consequence  to 
perpetual  imprisonment. 

From  tyrants  like  these  who  would  have 
expected  either  mercy  or  justice  ? Mary  was 
perfectly  resigned  to  her  fate,  and  met  it  like 
one  who  placed  the  most  unwavering  reliance 
in  the  efficacy  of  the  religion  she  professed. 
After  hearing  the  warrant  for  her  execution, 
she  ‘said  that  though  “she  was  sorry  it  came 
from  Elizabeth,  she  had  long  been  expecting 
the  mandate  for  her  death,  and  was  not  un- 
prepared to  die.”  “ For  many  3rears,”  she 
added,  “ I have  lived  in  continual  affliction, 
unable  to.  do  good  to  myself  or  to  those  who 
are  dear  to  me;  and  as  I shall  depart  inno- 
cent of  the  crime  which  has  been  laid  to  my 
charge,  I can  not  see  why  I should  shrink 
from  the  prospect  of  immortality?”  She  then 
laid  her  hand  on  the  New  Testament,  and 
solemnly  protested  that  she  had  never  either 
devised,  compassed,  or  consented  to  the  death 
of  the  Queen  of  England.  Before  leaving 
the  world,  Mary  felt  a natural  curiosity  to  be 
informed  upon  several  subjects  of  public 
interest,  which,  though  connected  with  her- 
self, and  generally  known,  had  not  penetrated 
the  walls  of  her  prison.  She  asked  if  no 
foreign  princes  had  interfered  in  her  behalf; 


STU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


835 


if  her  secretaries  were  still  alive  ; if  it  was 
intended  to  punish  them  as  well  as  her ; if 
they  brought  no  letters  from  Elizabeth  or 
others;  and,  above  all,  if  her  son,  the  King 
of  Scotland,  was  well,  and  had  evinced  any 
interest  in  the  fate  of  a mother  who  had  al- 
ways loved  and  never  wronged,  him.  Being 
satisfied  upon  these  points,  she  proceeded  to 
inquire  when  her  execution  was  to  take 
place  ? Shrewsbury  replied  that  it  Was  fixed 
for  the  next  morning  at  eight.  She  appeared 
startled  and  agitated  for  a few  minutes,  say- 
ing that  it  was  more  sudden  than  she  had 
anticipated,  and  that  she  had  yet  to  make 
her  will,  which  she  had  hitherto  deferred,  in 
the  expectation  that  the  papers  and  letters 
which  had  been  forcibly  taken  from  her 
would  be  restored.  She  soon,  however, 
regained  her  self-possession ; and  informing 
the  commissioners  that  she  desired  to  be  left 
alone  to  make  her  preparations,  she  dismissed 
them  for  the  night. 

Upon  Bourgoine  making  the  remark  that 
“ more  than  a few  hours  was  allowed  to  the 
meanest  criminal,”  she  said  “she  must  sub- 
mit with  resignation  to  her  fate,  and  learn  to 
regard  it  as  the  will  of  God.”  She  then 
requested  her  attendants  to  kneel  with  her, 
and  she  prayed  fervently  for  some  time  in  the 
midst  of  them.  Afterward,  while  supper 
was  preparing,  she  employed  herself  in  put- 
ing  all  the  money  she  had  by  her  into  sepa- 
rate purses,  and  affixed  to  each,  with  her.  own 
hand,  the  name  of  the  person  for  whom  she 
intended  it.  At  supper,  though  she  sat 
down  to  table,  she  ate  little.  Her  mind, 
however,  was  in  perfect  composure ; and 
during  the  repast,  though  she  spoke  little, 
placid  smiles  were  frequently  observed  to  pass 
over  her  countenance.  The  calm  magnanim- 
ity of  their  mistress  only  increased  the  dis- 
tress of  her  servants.  They  saw  her  sitting 
among  them  in  her  usual  health,  and  with 
almost  more  than  her  usual  cheerfulness,  par- 
taking of  the  viands  that  were  set  before  her  ; 
yet  they  knew  that  it  was  the  last  meal  at 
which  they  should  ever  be  present  together, 
and  that  the  interchange  of  affectionate  ser- 
vice upon  their  part,  and  of  condescending 
attention  and  endearing  gentleness  on  hers, 
which  had  linked  them  to  her  for  so  many 
years,  was  now  about  to  terminate  forever. 
Far  from  attempting  to  offer  her  consolation, 


they  were  unable  to  discover  any  for  them- 
selves. As  soon  as  the  melancholy  meal  was 
over,  Mary  desired  that  a cup  of  wine  should 
be  given  to  her ; and  putting  it  to  her  lips, 
drank  to  the  health  of  each  of  her  attendants 
by  name.  She  requested  that  they  would 
pledge  her  in  like  manner ; and  each,  falling 
on  his  knee,  and  mingling  tears  with  the 
wine,  drank  to  her,  asking  pardon  at  the 
same  time  for  all  the  faults  he  had  ever  com- 
mitted. In  the  true  spirit  of  Christian  hu- 
mility, she  not  only  willingly  forgave  them, 
but  asked  their  pardon  also.  The  inventory 
of  her  wardrobe  and  furniture  was  then 
brought  to  her  ; and  she  wrote  in  the  margin 
opposite  each  article  the  name  of  the  person 
to  whom  she  wished  it  should  be  given.  She 
did  the  same  with  her  rings,  jewels,  and  all 
her  most  valuable  trinkets  ; and  there  was 
not  one  of  her  friends  or  servants,  either  pres- 
ent or  absent,  to  whom  she  forgot  to  leave  a 
memorial. 

These  duties  being  discharged,  Mary  sat 
down  to  her  desk  to  arrange  her  papers,  to 
finish  her  will,  and  to  write  several  letters. 
She  then  drew  up  her  last  will  and  testa- 
ment ; and  without  ever  lifting  her  pen  from 
the  paper,  or  stopping  at  intervals  to  think, 
she  covered  two  large  sheets  with  close  writ- 
ing, forgetting  nothing  of  any  moment,  and 
expressing  herself  with  all  that  precision  and 
clearness  which  distinguished  her  style  in  the 
very  happiest  moments  of  her  life.  She 
named  as  her  four  executors,  the  Duke  of 
Guise,  her  cousin-german  ; the  Archbishop 
of  Glasgow,  her  ambassador  in  France  ; Les- 
ley, Bishop  of  Ross  ; and  Monsieur  de  Ruys- 
seau,  her  chancellor.  She  next  wrote  a letter 
to  her  brother-in-law,  the  King  of  France,  in 
which  she  apologized  for  not  being  able  to 
edter  into  her  affairs  at  greater  length,  as  she 
had  only  an  hour  or  two  to  live,  and  had  not 
been  informed  till  that  day  after  dinner  that 
she  was  to  be  executed  next  morning. 
“Thanks  be  unto  God,  however,”  she  added, 

“ I have  no  terror  at  the  idea  of  death,  and 
solemnly  declare  to  you  that  I meet  it  inno- 
cent of  every  crime.  The  bearer  of  this  let- 
ter, and  my  other  servants,  will  recount  to  . 
you  how  I comported  myself  in  my  last  mo- 
ments.” The  letter  concluded  with  earnest 
entreaties  that  her  faithful  followers  should 
be  protected  and  rewarded.  Her  anxiety  on 


STU 


836 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


their  account  at  such  a moment  indicated  all 
that  amiable  generosity  of  disposition  which 
was  one  of  the  leading  features  of  Mary’s 
character.  About  two  in  the  morning  she 
sealed  up  all  her  papers,  and  said  she  would 
now  think  no  more  of  the  affairs  of  this 
world,  but  would  spend  the  rest  of  her  time 
in  prayer  and  commune  with  her  own  con- 
science. She  went  to  bed  for  some  hours ; 
but  she  did  not  sleep.  Her  lips  were  observed 
in  continual  motion,  and  her  hands  were  fre- 
quently folded  and  lifted  up  toward  heaven. 

On  the  morning  of  Wednesday,  the  8th  of 
February,  Mary  rose  with  the  break  of  day  ; 
and  her  domestics,  who  had  watched  and 
wept  all  night,  immediately  gathered  round 
her.  She  told  them  that  she  had  made  her 
will,  and  requested  that  they  would  see  it 
safely  deposited  in  the  hands  of  her  execu- 
tors. She  likewise  besought  them  not  to 
separate  until  they  had  carried  her  body  to 
France ; and  she  placed  a sum  of  money  in 
the  hands  of  her  physician  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  the  journey.  Her  earnest  desire 
was,  to  be  buried  either  in  the  church  of  St. 
Denis  in  Paris,  beside  her  first  husband, 
Francis,  or  at  Rheims,  in  the  tomb  which 
contained  the  remains  of  her  mother.  She 
expressed  a wish,  too,  that,  besides  her  friends 
and  servants,  a number  of  poor  people  and 
children  from  different  hospitals  should  be 
present  at  her  funeral,  clothed  in  mourning 
at  her  expense,  and  each,  according  to  the 
Catholic  custom,  carrying  in  his  hand  a 
lighted  taper. 

She  now  renewed  her  devotions,  and  was 
in  the  midst  of  them,  with  her  servants  pray- 
ing and  weeping  round  her,  when  a messen- 
ger from  the  commissioners  knocked  at  the 
door,  to  announce  that  all  was  ready.  She 
requested  a little  longer  time  to  finish  her 
prayers,  which  was  granted.  As  soon  as  she 
desired  the  door  to  be  opened,  the  sheriff', 
carrying  in  his  hand  the  white  wand  of 
office,  entered  to  conduct  her  to  the  place  of 
execution.  Her  servants  crowded  round  her 
and  insisted  on  being  allowed  to  accompany 
her  to  the  scaffold.  But  contrary  orders 
having  been  given  by  Elizabeth,  they  were 
told  that  she  must  proceed  alone.  Against 
such  a piece  of  arbitrary  cruelty  they  remon- 
strated loudly,  but  in  vain  ; for  as  soon  as 
Mary  passed  into  the  gallery,  the  door  was 


closed,  and  believing  that  they  were  separa- 
ting from  her  forever,  the  shrieks  of  the 
women,  and  the  scarcely  less  audible  lamen- 
tations of  the  men,  were  heard  in  distant 
parts  of  the  castle. 

At  the  foot  of  the  staircase  leading  down 
to  the  hall  below,  Mary  was  met  by  the  Earls 
of  Kent  and  Shrewsbury ; and  she  was  al- 
lowed to  stop  and  take  farewell  of  Sir  Andrew 
Melvil,  the  master  of  her  household,  whom 
her  keepers  had  not  allowed  to  come  into  her 
presence  for  some  time  before.  With  tears 
in  his  eyes  Melvil  knelt  before  her,  kissed 
her  hand,  and  declared  that  it  was  the  heav- 
iest hour  of  his  life.  Mary  assured  him  that 
it  was  not  so  to  her.  “ I now  feel,  my  good 
Melvil,”  said  she,  “ that  all  this  world  is  van- 
ity. When  you  speak  of  me  hereafter,  men- 
tion that  I died  firm  in  my  faith,  willing  to 
forgive  my  enemies,  conscious  that  I had 
never  disgraced  Scotland  my  native  country, 
and  rejoicing  in  the  thought  that  I had 
always  been  true  to  France,  the  land  of  my 
happiest  years.  Tell  my  son,”  she  added, 
and  when  she  named  her  only  child,  of  whom 
she  had  been  so  proud  in  his  infancy,  but  in 
whom  all  her  hopes  had  been  so  fatally 
blasted,  her  feelings  for  the  first  time  over- 
powered her,  and  a flood  of  tears  flowed  from 
her  eyes — “Tell  my  son  that  I thought  of 
him  in  my  last  moments,  and  that  I have 
never  yielded,  either  by  word  or  deed,  to 
aught  that  might  lead  to  his  prejudice ; de- 
sire him  to  preserve  the  memory  of  his  un- 
fortunate parent ; and  may  he  be  a thousand 
times  more  happy  and  more  prosperous  than 
she  has  been.” 

Before  taking  leave  of  Melvil,  Mary  turned 
to  the  commissioners,  and  told  them  that  her 
three  last  requests  were,  that  her  secretary 
Curl,  whom  she  blamed  less  for  his  treachery 
than  Naw,  should  not  be  punished  ; that  her 
servants  should  have  free  permission  to  depart 
to  France ; and  that  some  of  them  should  be 
allowed  to  come  down  from  the  apartments 
above  to  see  her  die.  The  earls  answered 
that  they  believed  the  two  former  of  these 
requests  would  be  granted  ; but  that  they 
could  not  concede  the  last,  alleging,  as  theii 
excuse,  that  the  affliction  of  her  attendants 
would  only  add  to  the  severity  of  her  suffer- 
ings. But  Mary  was  resolved  that  some  of 
her  own  people  should  witness  her  last  mo* 


STU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


837 


ments.  “ I will  not  submit  to  the  indignity,” 
she  said,  “ of  permitting  my  body  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  strangers.  You  are  the  ser- 
vants of  a maiden  queen,  and  she  herself 
were  she  here,  would  yield  to  the  dictates  of 
humanity,  and  permit  some  of  those  who 
have  been  so  long  faithful  to  me  to  assist  me 
at  my  death.  Remember,  too,  that  I am 
cousin  to  your  mistress,  and  the  descendant 
of  Henry  VII.  ; I am  the  dowager  of  France, 
and  the  anointed  queen  of  Scotland.” 
Ashamed  of  any  farther  opposition,  the  earls 
allowed  her  to  name  four  male  and  two  female 
attendants,  whom  they  sent  for,  and  permit- 
ted to  remain  beside  her  for  the  short  time 
she  had  to  live. 

The  same  hall  in  which  the  trial  had  taken 
place  was  prepared  for  the  execution.  At 
the  upper  end  was  the  scaffold,  covered  with 
black  cloth,  and  elevated  about  two  feet  from 
the  floor.  A chair  was  placed  on ' it  for  the 
Queen  of  Scots.  On  one  side  of  the  block 
stood  two  executioners,  and  on  the  other  the 
Earls  of  Kent  and  Shrewsbury  ; Beal  and  the 
sheriff  were  immediately  behind.  The  scaf- 
fold was  railed  off  from  the  rest  of  the  hall, 
in  which  Sir  Amias  Paulet  with  a body  of 
guards,  the  other  commissioners,  and  some 
gentlemen  from  the  neighborhood,  amount- 
ing altogether  to  about  two  hundred  persons, 
were  assembled.  Mary  entered,  leaning  on 
the  arm  of  her  physician,  while  Sir  Andrew 
Melvil  carried  the  train  of  her  robe.  She 
was  in  full  dress,  and  looked  as  if  she  were 
about  to  hold  a drawing-room,  not  to  lay  her 
head  beneath  the  axe.  She  wore  a gown  of 
black  silk,  bordered  with  crimson  velvet, 
over  which  was  a satin  mantle ; a long  veil 
of  white  crape,  stiffened  with  wire,  and  edged 
with  rich  lace,  hung  down  almost  to  the 
ground ; round  her  neck  was  suspended  an 
ivory  crucifix,  and  the  beads  which  the  Cath- 
olics use  in  their  prayers  were  fastened  to  her 
girdle.  The  symmetry  of  her  fine  figure  had 
long  been  destroyed  by  her  sedentary  life  ; 
and  years  of  care  had  left  many  a trace  on 
her  beautiful  features.  But  the  dignity  of 
the  queen  was  still  apparent ; and  the  calm 
grace  of  mental  serenity  imparted  to  her 
countenance  at  least  some  share  of  its  former 
loveliness.  With  a composed  and  steady 
step  she  passed  through  the  hall,  and  ascend- 
ed the  scaffold  ; and  as  she  listened  unmoved 


while  Beal  read  aloud  the  warrant  for  her 
death,  even  the  myrmidons  of  Elizabeth 
looked  upon  her  with  admiration. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots  died  in  the  forty- 
fifth  year  of  her  age.  Her  remains  were 
interred  in  Peterborough  cathedral ; they 
were  removed  by  her  son,  and  now  repose  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  about  ten  yards  from 
the  tomb  of  Elizabeth. 

James  had  been  reared  to  contemn  and 
detest  his  unfortunate  mother  ; to  regard  her 
with  selfish  fear  as  one  who  might  deprive 
him  of  his  throne  ; and  when  Mary  sent  him 
a present  of  a vest  embroidered  with  her  own 
hands,  accompanied  by  a tender  letter,  and 
some  jewels  which  remained  in  her  posses- 
sion, all  were  returned  to  her  with  disdain, 
and  the  messenger  refused  even  an  audience, 
because  his  mother,  never  having  surrendered 
her  own  rights,  addressed  him  as  the  Prince, 
and  not  as  the  King  of  Scotland,  fie  had 
Buchanan  for  his  instructor,  who,  when  ac- 
cused of  having  made  his  pupil  a pedant, 
replied,  “ that  he  could  make  nothing  else  of 
him.”  In  1589  he  married  Anne,  daughter 
of  Frederick  of  Denmark,  whom  he  brought 
from  Copenhagen.  In  1600  while  hunting, 
an  attempt  was  made  to  seize  his  person  by 
the  Earl  of  Gowrie,  who,  with  his  brother, 
was  slain,  while  the  king  escaped  unhurt 
In  1603  he  succeeded  to  the  English  throne  ; 
and  the  year  following,  the  Hampton  Court 
conference,  between  the  divines  of  the  estab- 
lished church  and  the  Puritans,  was  held  in 
his  presence.  The  next  year  the  gunpowder 
plot  was  discovered.  The  condemnation  and 
death  of  Raleigh  was  the  greatest  blot  on  the 
character  and  reign  of  James,  who  also  les- 
sened his  popularity  by  undertaking  the  de- 
fense of  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  and 
then  abandoning  their  cause.  He  died  in 
March,  1625. 

James  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Charles  I., 
an  unfortunate  monarch,  whose  disasters 
were  prepared  for  him  by  his  predecessors, 
and  by  the  increasing  spirit  of  liberty,  but 
precipitated  and  increased  by  the  alternate 
obstinacy  and  fickleness  of  his  disposition. 
He  ascended  the  throne  in  1625,  and  found 
that  his  reign  was  likely  to  be  troubled  by 
a strong  opposition ; but  he  could  not  find 
courage  to  make  those  concessions  which  the 
people  were  minded  to  demand  of  royalty. 


STU 


838 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


The  friends  of  liberty  were  disposed  to  view 
with  a stern  eye,  the  stand  which  the  king  took. 
They  had  already  impeached  his  favorite  min- 
ister, and  his  unsuccessful  attempt  to  relieve 
Rochelle  in  1627  increased  their  enmity. 
Charles,  blinded  by  the  monarchical  doctrines 
of  his  hither  James,  although  he  saw  that  his 
popularity  was  daily  declining,  took  no  steps 
to  gain  the  affections  and  confidence  of  his 
people.  The  parliament  refused  to  sanction 
the  wishes  of  the  monarch,  and  passed  the 
famous  bill  of  rights,  which  he  was  obliged 
to  confirm. 

Having  made  peace  with  France  and  Spain, 
Charles  determined  to  rely  on  his  own  resour- 
ces, but  resorted  to  the  desperate  expedient 
of  levying  ship  money.  This,  and  the  king’s 
attempt  to  force  the  liturgy  on  the  Scotch, 
brought  upon  him  the  opposition  of  Hampden 
and  the  Covenanters,  to  both  of  whom  he 
was  forced  to  submit.  After  several  parlia- 
ments had  been  called  and  dissolved,  Charles 
called  the  long  parliament  of  1640.  Straf- 
ford and  Laud  were  impeached,  and  the  fury 
of  the  Puritans  was  excited  against  the 
church  and  the  bishops.  The  signal  for 
insurrection  was  given  by  the  king  going 
himself  to  the  house  and  demanding  the  per- 
sons of  five  members  whom  he  accused  of 
treason.  Civil  war  broke  out;  many  en- 
gagements took  place,  with  various  success, 
but  on  the  king’s  defeat  at  Naseby,  he  retired 
to  Oxford,  and  on  the  approach  of  Fairfax, 
the  parliamentary  general,  threw  himself 
on  the  protection  of  the  Scots,  who  sold  him 
to  the  parliament.  The  army,  now  divided 
from  the  parliament,  conveyed  him  to  Hamp- 
ton Court,  whence  he  escaped  with  the  inten- 
tion of  quitting  the  kingdom,  but  was  retaken 
and  brought  back.  Charles  now  professed 
himself  ready  to  grant  all  the  terms  demanded 
for  his  release,  except  the  abolition  of  epis- 
copacy. He  was  arraigned  for  high  treason, 
tried,  and  condemned.  His  conduct  during 
his  trial  was  a noble  pattern  of  Christian 
meekness  and  firmness,  and  this  he  retained 
to  his  death.  He  was  beheaded  at  White- 
hall, on  the  30th  of  January,  1648. 

Charles  had  wedded  Henrietta  Maria, 
daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  sev- 
eral children  issued  from  the  union.  Charles 
II.  succeeded  to  his  father’s  rights.  He  was 
born  in  1630,  and  was  at  the  Hague  when 


his  father  was  executed.  The  Scots,  who 
had  betrayed  the  father,  sent  an  invitation  to 
the  son  which  he  accepted  ; he  was  crowned 
at  Scone,  in  1651,  when  he  was  obliged  to 
take  the  covenant.  But  he  had  ho  mean 
opponent  in  Cromwell,  who  defeated  the 
Scotch  at  Dunbar,  and  Charles  at  Worcester. 
The  appearance  of  the  two  armies  was  strik- 
ingly contrasted.  The  parliamentarians  were 
remarkable  for  the  plainness  of  their  dress 
and  equipments,  their  hair  being  cropped 
close  (whence  their  appellation  of  round 
heads),  and  nothing  merely  ornamental  ap- 
pearing on  their  persons.  The  cavaliers,  on 
the  contrary,  despising  the  austerity  of  their 
antagonists,  were  distinguished  by  their  long 
curling  locks,  the  finish  of  their  equipments, 
and  the  reckless  gayety  of  their  bearing. 
From  the  battle  of  Worcester,  Charles  made 
his  escape,  and  lay  hidden  in  the  thick 
branches  of  an  oak  in  Boscobel  wood,  while 
his  pursuers  actually  seated  themselves  under 
the  tree.  After  many  journey ings,  in  various 
disguises,  he  escaped  to  France. 

In  1660  he  was  restored;  and  with  him 
licentiousness  and  infidelity  returned  in  a 
full  tide.  In  1662  he  married  the  Princess 
Catherine  of  Portugal,  by  whom  he  had  no 
children,  although  his  illegitimate  offspring 
were  numerous.  With  the  exception  of  the 
sale  of  Dunkirk  to  supply  his  extravagan- 
ces, the  acts  of  Charles’s  reign  can  scarcely 
be  considered  as  his  own,  and  belong  rather 
to  the  history  of  his  country.  He  lived  in 
the  indulgence  of  his  appetites,  interfering 
little  in  matters  of  state  policy.  The  few  he 
meddled  with  were  of  an  odious  nature. 
Charles  died  of  an  aploplectic  fit,  Feb.  6th, 
1685,  and  by  receiving,  in  his  last  moments, 
the  sacrament  from  a popish  priest,  proved 
that  he  lived  a hypocrite  as  well  as  a liber- 
tine. 

By  affability  and  wit,  by  going  abroad  with- 
out ostentation,  and  mixing  with  the  lowest 
of  his  subjects,  Charles  obtained  a certain 
degree  of  popularity,  and  the  name  of  the 
Merry  Monarch  distinguished  him  during  his 
life.  His  wit  was  ready  and  pleasant,  as 
Rochester,  whose  disposition  much  resembled 
the  monarch’s,  happily  expressed  in  the  epi- 
gram in  which  he  speaks  of  Charles  as  one — 
“ Who  never  said  a foolish  thing, 

And  never  did  a wise  one.” 

j?. 


STU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


839 


T*  this  the  king  replied  : “ The  matter  was 
easily  accounted  for : his  discourse  was  his 
own  ; his  actions  were  his  ministry’s.” 

Charles  and  his  courtiers  being  one  day 
present  at  the  exhibition  of  a man  wrho  dar- 
ingly climbed  to  the  point  of  che  spire  of  Salis- 
bury cathedral,  and  planted  a flag  there,  the 
king  said  to  his  favorite,  “ Faith  ! Rochester, 
this  man  shall  hq,ve  a patent,  that  no  one  may 
do  this  but  himself!” 

James  II.,  Charles’s  brother  and  successor, 
had  as  bad  traits  as  he,  without  hi's  popular- 
ity. An  insurrection  headed  by  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth,  was  the  first  disturbance  in  his 
reign.  Monmouth  had  ever  been  the  darling 
of  the  people,  and  some  averred  that  Charles 
had  married  his  mother,  and  owned  his  legit- 
imacy on  his  death-bed.  The  Duke  of  Ar- 
gyle,  in  the  north,  seconded  his  views,  and, 
with  Monmouth,  planned  a double  insurrec- 
tion, but  both  were  defeated  and  executed. 
James  suspended  the  exercise  of  the  Protest- 
ant'religion,  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of 
the  pope,  and  allowed  the  Jesuits  to  establish 
themselves  in  the  kingdom.  The  indignation 
of  the  people  was  now  roused,  and  they  hailed 
with  joy  the  arrival  of  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
before  whom  James  fled.  He  was  hospitably 
received  by  Louis  XIY.  of  France,  who  aided 
him  in  his  subsequent  unsuccessful  attempts 
to  regain  his  throne.  James  died  at  St.  Ger- 
main in  France,  1701. 

James’s  first  wife  was  Anne  Hyde,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  who  died  be- 
fore her  husband’s  accession.  Mary,  their 
oldest  daughter,  was  the  consort  of  William 
of  Orange,  and  reigned  jointly  with  him. 
Anne,  her  sister,  succeeded  to  the  crown,  and 
is  known  by  the  grateful  title  of  good  Queen 
Anne.  Though  thirteen  children  were  born 
to  her  and  her  husband,  Prince  George  of 
Denmark,  all  died  young. 

James’s  second  wife  was  Mary  Beatrice  of 
Modena.  Their  son  is  known  in  English  his- 
tory as  the  Pretender,  or  the  Chevalier  de 
St.  George.  [ See  Pretender.]  He  was 

acknowledged  by  Louis  XIV.  as  James  III. 
of  England,  and  Anne  is  said  to  have  long 
entertained  the  hope  of  securing  the  succes- 
sion to  him  ; her  dying  words  were,.“0  my 
dear  brother,  how  Ipity  thee  ! ” 

Charles  Edward,  the  Young  Pretender,  was 
the  grandson  of  James  II.,  and  was  born  at 


Rome  in  1720.  In  1745  he  landed  in  Scot- 
land, and  published  a manifesto,  exhibiting 
the  claims  of  his  father  to  the  English  throne. 
He  was  joined  by  several  Highland  chiefs, 
who,  entering  Edinburgh,  caused  his  father 
to  be  proclaimed.  Charles  Edward  was  pass- 
ing the  night  in  the  village-  of  Stateford,  and 
had  thrown  himself  upon  his  couch  in  a state 
of  agitation,  which  prevented  his  sleeping 
for  more  than  two  hours.  As  soon  as  he 
learned  that  Edinburgh  was  occupied  by  the 
Highlanders  of  Lochiel,  Keppoch,  Arlshied, 
and  O’Sullivan,  he  mounted  his  horse,  and  on 
the  given  signal,  the  army  was  in  readiness 
to  enter  the  city.  The  castle  still  held  out 
for  the  house  of  Hanover.  To  avoid  the 
balls  of  the  enemy,  who  commanded  the  most 
direct  road,  the  prince  and  his  followers, 
diverging  from  the  main  route,  came  by  the 
way  of  Duddingston  to  the  royal  park,  which 
they  entered  through  a breach  in  the  wall. 
The  royal  park,  the  favorite  promenade  of 
James  II.  when  he  was  at  Edinburgh, 
being  then  Duke  of  York,  comprises  Arthur’s 
Seat,  which  seems  to  shelter  Holyrood  at  its 
feet,  the  basaltic  rocks  of  Salisbury  crags, 
the  hermitage  of  St.  Anthony,  and  the  valley 
of  St.  Leonard,  spots  to  which  poetry  and 
romance  have  given  an  interest  that  history 
has  failed  to  confer. 

From  an  eminence  near  the  hermitage, 
Charles  could  contemplate,  for  the  first  time, 
the  palace  of  his  ancestors,  with  its  quadrangu- 
lar court,  and  the  round  towers  of  the  principal 
facade.  No  alteration  had  taken  place  since 
the  time  of  his  grandfather.  The  entire 
building  was  standing,  and  the  standard  of 
the  Stuarts  waved  proudly  in  the  wind  that 
swept  over  the  majestic  pile.  The  gothic 
chapel  only  was  in  ruins,  as  if  to  remind  the 
prince  that,  in  the  revolution  of  1688,  the 
war  was  particularly  directed  against  the 
faith  of  his  grandfather,  who  decorated  this 
place  with  such  pomp.  Charles  dismounted. 
Already  the  park  and  the  surrounding  gar- 
dens were  filled  with  a dense  crowd  of  all 
ranks,  ages,  and  parties.  There  were  many 
merely  curious  spectators,  but  more  warm 
Jacobites,  and  the  latter  hastened  to  congrat- 
ulate the  prince,  who  received  them  with 
ease,  and  that  smiling  look  of  pleasure  which 
was  so  seductive  to  all. 

His  youth,  his  fine  form,  his  light  locks, 


STU 


840 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


his  delicate  completion,  so  different  from  the 
bilious  hue  that  characterized  the  counte- 
nances of  his  ancestry,  the  perfect  oval  of  his 
face,  his  intelligent  blue  eyes,  the  correct 
arch  of  his  eyebrows,  his  regular  nose,  and 
mouth  of  aristocratic  diminutiveness,  were 
all  curiously  analyzed  by  the  spectators. 
Some  troubled  wdiigs  declared  that  there  was 
in  the  countenance  of  the  prince  an  air  of 
melancholy,  which  was  a presage  of  disaster 
in  the  midst  of  his  triumph  ; but  the  Jacob- 
ites, and  particularly  the  ladies  of  Edinburgh 
and  Perth,  wete  in  raptures  at  the  graces  of 
their  Charlie,  as  he  was  familiarly  and  pop- 
ularly termed.  They  delighted  to  dwell  upon 
his  picturesque  costume.  Upon  his  vest  of 
tartan  plaid,  glittered  the  national  star  of  the 
order  of  St.  Andrew  ; a scarf  of  gold  and 
azure  served  him  as  a baldric,  and  to  his 
neat  blue  velvet  cap  was  attached  the  white 
cockade,  W'hich  called  to  mind  the  rose  of 
Lancaster.  When  he  mounted  the  splendid 
bay  charger  which  had  been  presented  to 
him  by  the  Duke  of  Perth,  the  acclamations 
of  the  spectators  redoubled,  for  the  prince 
was,  in  fact,  a most  accomplished  cavalier. 
“ Our  hero  looks  like  Robert  Bruce,”  cried 
the  Jacobites,  and  they  wrere  not  deceiving 
themselves,  for  the  portrait  of  Bruce  at  Holy- 
rood  served  to  verify  the  resemblance. 

In  the  midst  of  an  enthusiasm  wffiich  might 
almost  be  called  general,  Charles  could  well^ 
forget,  in  this  concourse  of  his  father’s  sub- 
jects, the  hostile  terms  of  wrhig  and  tor}", 
and  saw  around  him  only  Scotchmen,  inter- 
ested, like  himself,  in  severing  the  bonds  im- 
posed upon  Scotland  under  the  specious 
name  of  the  union.  In  all  the  manifestoes 
of  the  Stuart  family,  since  1715,  they  ap- 
pealed as  frequently  to  the  memory  of  na- 
tional independence,  as  to  the  claims  of  their 
house.  * Thus,  when  Charles  Edward  was 
approaching  the  gate  of  the  palace,  he  was 
suddenly  met  by  a hoary -headed  gentleman, 
James  Hepburn  of  Keith,  who  was  known  to 
be  opposed  from  principle  to  the  “right 
divine  of  kings,”  and  who  had  more  than 
once  haughtily  blamed  the  government  of 
James  II.  This  gentleman,  wrho  wTas  es- 
teemed by  all  parties,  was  the  first  to  show" 
himself  the  partisan  of  Charles  Edward, 
whom  he  regarded  as  the  champion  of  the 
deliverance  of  Scotland.  Hepburn  wished 


to  be,  in  a manner,  his  herald  into  the  palace 
of  his  fathers,  and  drawing  his  sword,  he 
marshaled  the  prince  with  dignity  to  the 
apartment  destined  for  his  reception. 

At  intervals,  the  hostile  cannon  of  the  cas- 
tle growled  upon  the  city,  as  if  to  still  the 
exulting  shouts  of  the  people.  A ball  di- 
rected at  the  palace  shattered  a tower,  to  th^ 
indignation  of  the  populace,  who  knew  that 
the  English  soldiery  would  dishonor,  without 
remorse,  the  most  precious  monument  of 
their  ancient  city. 

With  what  emotions  must  Charles  Edward 
have  explored  the  royal  halls  of  Ilolyrood, 
condemned  for  sixty  years  to  a kind  of  soli- 
tary widowhood  by  the  exile  of  his  family. 
In  the  first  gallery  he  beheld  that  long  range 
of  royal  portraits,  which  the  pride  of  Edin- 
burgh holds  so  dear.  In  adjacent  apartments 
he  found  the  first  traces  of  that  beautiful 
queen,  whose  tragic  fate  alone  occupies  the 
mind,  even  among  the  multitude  of  histori- 
cal and  fabulous  images.  Here  were  her 
bed  and  curtains,  the  chairs  where  she  was 
seated,  those  which  she  herself  embroidered  ; 
and  alas  ! was  there  not  the  imperishable 
stain  of  Rizzio’s  blood? 

The  shouts  of  the  people,  eager  to  behold 
their  prince,  more  than  once  banished  the 
reflections  in  which  Charles  Edward  was  in- 
dulging, and  forced  him  to  appear  at  the  win- 
dow's and  show  himself  to  the  citizens  of 
Edinburgh.  A part  of  the  crowd  w"as  called 
ofl*  to  assist  at  the  ceremony  at  the  Cross  of 
the  High  street,  now  destroyed — a place 
where  the  proclamation  of  public  acts  had 
taken  place  from  time  immemorial.  The 
gallery  in  which  the  heralds  and  pursuivant 
at  arms,  clad  in  their  official  costume,  ap- 
peared, was  decorated  with  tapestry.  A 
troop  of  Highlanders  were  formed  in  lines 
two  deep  on  each  side  of  the  street,  the  trum- 
pets sounded  a flourish,  the  bagpipes  played 
their  pibrochs,  and  wrhen  the  crow’d  was 
silenced,  James  III.  wras  proclaimed,  the  com- 
mission appointing  Charles  Edward  regent 
read,  as  well  as  the  manifesto  of  the  prince, 
dated  Paris,  May  16th,  1745.  The  innumer- 
able windows  of  the  houses  in  the  High 
street,  some  of  which  were  more  than  ten 
stories  high,  were  filled  with  ladies,  w'ho 
waved  their  wrhite  handkerchiefs,  to  excite 
the  shouts  of  the  people  ; the  attachment  to 


STU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


841 


the  legitimate  monarch  appeared  universal, 
as  if  the  faults  of  the  dynasty  had  been  ex- 
piated by  its  misfortunes.  While  the  her- 
alds were  proclaiming  James  and  his  son,  at 
the  foot  of  the  gallery,  the  Lady  Broughton 
of  Murray,  a woman  of  uncommon  beauty, 
appeared  upon  a splendid  horse,  with  a drawn 
sword  in  her  hand,  like  a heroine  of  Ariosto 
or  Tasso,  while  other  ladies  distributed  white 
ribbons  to  their  brothers  and  admirers. 

Charles  Edward  was  at  first  successful, 
defeating  General  Cope  at  Preston  Pans,  but 
he  returned  to  Edinburgh  and  wasted  his 
time  in  idle  parades.  Being,  however,  joined 
by  several  discontented  chiefs,  he  marched 
as  far  as  Manchester,  but  hearing  that  the 
king  was  about  to  take  the  field,  he  returned 
to  Scotland,  and  defeated  the  English  forces 
under  Hawley  at  Falkirk.  In  the  mean  time 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland  advanced  to  Edin- 
burgh, and  thence  to  Aberdeen,  the  Preten- 
der retreating  before  him.  At  length  the 
two'armies  met  at  Culloden,  when,  after  an 
obstinate  conflict,  in  which  the  Highlanders 
displayed  signal  courage,  the  royal  army  was 
successful,  and  the  rebels  fled,  leaving  3,000 
of  their  number  dead  upon  the  field. 

A well  authenticated  anecdote  of  this  bat- 
tle strikingly  displays  the  simplicity  and 
ferocity  of  the  Highlanders.  An  English 
officer,  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  a mus- 
cular adversary,  who  had  thrown  away  his 
musket,  and  was  brandishing  a broadsword, 
supplicated  for  quarter.  u Quarter  ! quar- 
ter ! ” cried  the  irritated  Highlander,  “ I hae 
nae  the  time  to  quarter  ye,  sae  ye  must  een 
be  contentit  to  be  cuttit  in  twa,”  suiting  the 
action  to  the  word. 

Charles  Edward  wandered  for  a long  time 
in  disguise,  chiefly  among  the  Hebrides,  and 
finally  effected  his  escape  to  France.  Nothing 
throws  a clearer  light  on  the  fidelity  and 
honor  of  the  Scotch,  than  the  fact  that  al- 
though Charles  was  frequently  at  the  mercy 
of  some  of  the  poorest  mountaineers,  the 
high  price  which  was  set  upon  his  head 
could  not  tempt  them  to  betray  him.  One 
time,  after  having  been  without  food  for  days, 
his  dress  torn  to  tatters  by  his  briery  hiding- 
places,  Charles,  finding  himself  near  the 
house  of  a whig  gentleman,  sought  shelter  in 
it.  “ I am  your  political  opponent,”  said  the 
high-minded  whig ; “ but  I am  also  your  fel- 


low-man. I scorn*to  take  advantage  of  your 
distress,  and  will  protect  you  as  long  as  you 
choose  to  remain  beneath  my  roof.”  He 
kept  his  word,  and  even  furnished  the  unhap- 
py prince  with  a disguise  which  facilitated 
his  escape.  This  feeling  of  forbearance  to 
Charles,  after  his  defeat,  was  manifested  in  a 
higher  quarter.  King  George,  being  at  a 
ball,  a lady,  who  did  not  know  him,  asked 
him  to  drink  to  the  health  of  the  Pretender. 
“Willingly,”  replied  the  king  ; “I  cannot 
refuse  to  drink  to  the  health  of  every  unfor- 
tunate prince.”  « 

With  the  defeat  of  the  Pretender  ended 
all  the  hopes  of  the  unfortunate  Stuart  fam- 
ily. Charles  Edward  died  at  Florence,  in  1788. 

STUART,  Gilbert,  a celebrated  American 
portrait-painter,  born  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  in 
1755.  He  studied  under  Sir  B.  West,  in 
London,  where  he  pursued  his  profession 
with  great  success.  Upon  his  return  to 
America,  he  resided  successively  in  Philadel- 
phia, Washington,  and  Boston,  in  which  lat- 
ter city  he  died  in  1828. 

SUCHET,  Louis  Gabriel,  a brave  and 
skillful  general  in  the  armies  of  Napoleon, 
was  born  at  Lyons  in  1772.  He  gained  the 
rank  of  marshal  and  Duke  of  Albufera,  and 
died  in  1826. 

SUE,  Eugene,  a celebrated  French  novelist, 
born  at  Paris  in  1807,  the  son  of  an  eminent 
surgeon.  Having  squandered  his  patrimony 
in  extravagant  living,  he  was  driven  to  writ- 
ing romances.  “The  Mysteries  of  Paris” 
and  “The  Wandering  Jew”  were  his  most 
successful  works.  He  died  in  exile  in  Savoy, 
Aug.  3d,  1857. 

SUEYI.  In  the  time  of  Caesar,  the  Suevi 
were  numbered  among  the  most  warlike 
nations  of  Germany,  and  agreed  in  customs 
and  manners  with  the  other  inhabitants  of 
that  extensive  country.  Their  situation  is 
said  to  have  been  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
Vistula.  Tiberius  transported  some  thou- 
sands of  them  into  Gaul,  and  assigned  lands 
to  others  beyond  the  Danube.  The  Suevi 
formed  a kingdom  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
towns  of  Merida,  Seville,  and  Carthagena, 
in  Spain,  which,  in  the  year  585,  was  reduced 
to  a province  of  the  Gothic  monarchy,  by 
Leovigild,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  after  it  had 
subsisted  one  hundred  and  seventy-four 
years. 


SUE 


842 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


SULLIVAN,  James,  brother  of  Gen.  Sul- 
livan, was  born  at  Berwick,  Maine,  April 
22d,  1744,  and  studied  law  under  his  brother. 
He  was  for  several  years  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  held  some  high  judicial  offices. 
He  died  Dec.  10th,  1808,  in  the  sixty-fifth 
year  of  his  age. 

SULLIVAN,  John,  was  born  at  Berwick, 
Me.,  Feb.  17th,  1740.  For  a few  years  be- 
fore the  Revolution,  he  practiced  law  in  New 
Hampshire.  He  resigned  his  seat  in  the 
congress  of  1774,  to  enter  the  army,  in 
which  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  in 
1775.  In  the  battle  of  Long  Island  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  but  was  soon  exchanged,  and 
intrusted  with  the  command  of  the  right 
division  in  the  battle  of  Trenton.  He  also 
commanded  the  right  wing  at  the  battles  of 
Brandywine  and  Germantown.  The  differ- 
ences between  Count  d’Estaing  and  Sullivan 
caused  the  failure  of  the  siege  of  Newport 
in  August,  1777.  In  1779  he  defeated  the 
Six  Nations  of  Indians  in  New  York.  His 
extensive  calls  for  military  stores,  and  stric- 
tures on  the  conduct  of  Congress  with  re- 
gard to  him,  were  followed  by  his  resigna- 
tion of  his  command  on  the  9th  of  Novem- 
ber. After  the  close  of  the  war,  in  1786,  he 
was  elected  president  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  held  the  office  for  three  years.  In  Octo- 
ber, 1789,  he  was  appointed  district  judge 
of  New  Hampshire.  He  died  Jan.  23d,  1795. 

SULLY.  Maximilian  de  Bethune,  Baron 
de  Rosni,  and  Duke  of  Sully,  was  born  at 
the  castle  of  Rosni  in  1559.  At  the  age  of 
eleven,  his  father  presented  him  to  the  Queen 
of  Navarre,  who  gave  him  an  appointment 
about  the  person  of  her  son  Henry,  with 
whom  Sully  was  educated.  Soon  after  this 
the  queen,  on  the  invitation  of  Charles  IX., 
went  to  Paris,  and  -died  there,  not  without 
suspicion  of  poison  ; which  opinion  received 
confirmation  when  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew occurred  soon  afterward.  In  that 
carnage,  Sully  escaped  by  passing  through 
the  crowd  as  a student  to  the  college  of 
Burgundy,  where  the  principal  locked  him 
up  in  a closet  for  three  days.  In  1576  Henry 
of  Navarre  eluded  the  vigilance  of  his  guards 
and  arrived  at  Tours,  accompanied  by  Sully, 
who,  in  the  war  that  ensued,  carried  his  valor 
almost  to  excess,  which  made  Henry  say  to 
him  one  day,  “ I admire  your  courage,  but 


wish  you  to  reserve  it  for  better  occasions/’ 
In  all  the  battles  and  sieges  that  followed, 
he  bore  a prominent  part.  Henry  IV.  made 
him  governor  of  Poitou,  grand  master  of  the 
ports  and  harbors  of  France,  and  erected,  in 
his  favor,  the  lands  of  Sully  upon  the  Loire 
into  a duchy.  To  the  wise  counsels  and 
reforms  of  Sully,  who  now  shone  as  a great 
statesman,  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  owes  a 
major  part  of  its  renown.  On  the  murder 
of  that  great  monarch,  in  1610,  the  duke 
retired  from  court,  and  employed  himself  in 
writing  his  memoirs.  He  died  at  his  castle 
at  Villabon,  Dec.  22d,  1641. 

SUMATRA,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas, 
the  largest  of  the  Sunda  Isles,  is  divided  ob- 
liquely by  the  equator,  and  contains  about 
160,000  square  miles;  it  is  fertile,  but  the 
interior  is  little  known.  It  is  partly  subject 
to  native  tribes,  and  partly  to  the  sway  and 
influence  of  the  Dutch. 

SUMMERFIELD,  JonN,  a very  popular 
preacher  of  the  Methodist  church,  died  at 
New  York,  in  1825,  aged  twenty-seven.  He 
was  born  in  England. 

SUMTER,  Thomas,  a distinguished  parti- 
san officer,  during  the  American  revolution- 
ary war,  whose  operations  were  principally 
confined  to  South  Carolina,  where  he  died  in 
his  ninety-eighth  year,  June  1st,  1832.  In 
the  halls  of  congress  he  served  his  country, 
as  well  as  in  the  field.  Sumter  was  younger 
than  Marion,  larger  in  frame,  better  fitted  in 
strength  of  body  for  the  toils  of  war,  and, 
like  his  compeer,  devoted  to  the  freedom  of 
his  country.  His  aspect  was  manly  and 
stern,  denoting  insuperable  firmness  and 
lofty  courage.  Determined  to  deserve  suc- 
cess, he  risked  his  own  life  and  the  lives  of 
his  associates  without  reserve. 

SUW ARROW,  Peter  Alexis,  field-marshal 
and  generalissimo  of  the  Russian  armies,  was 
born  about  1730.  He  made  his  first  cam- 
paign in  the  seven  years’  war,  and  distin- 
guished himself  so  much,  that  in  1762  he 
was  appointed  colonel  of  infantry.  In  1768 
he  was  made  brigadier  ; soon  after  which  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general ; and 
for  his  services  in  Poland,  he  received  the 
orders  of  St.  Anne,  St.  George,  and  Alexan- 
der. In  1773  he  had  a command  against  the 
Turks,  whom  he  defeated  at  Tourtakaye  ; on 
i which  occasion  he  wrote  to  Marshal  Roman- 
SUW 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


zoff,  as  follows : “ Glory  to  God  ! Glory  to 

thee ! Tourtakaye’s  taken,  and  taken  by 
me  ! ” On  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  1787, 
Suwarrow  defended  Kinburn,  and  was 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Oxzakow.  Sept. 
22d,  1789,  he  gained,  in  conjunction  with 
the  Austrian  general  Saxe  Coburg,  the  vic- 
tory of  Rymnik,  though  the  Turks  mustered 
four  to  one  against  the  allies.  This  achieve- 
ment was  followed  by  the  taking  of  Bender 
and  Belgrade,  for  his  share  in  which,  Suwar- 
row was  created,  by  the  Emperor  Joseph,  a 
count  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  by  his 
own  sovereign,  a count  of  the  empire  of 
Russia,  with  the  title  of  Rymnikski.  In 
1790  he  took  Ismail,  where,  though  the  plun- 
der was  immense,  Suwarrow  would  not  take 
a single  article  for  himself.  After  this, 
Suwarrow  had  a principal  concern  in  the 
operations  which  produced  the  partition  of 
Poland,  for  which  he  was  made  a field-mar- 
shal, and  presented  with  an  estate.  When 
the  Emperor  Paul  embarked  in  the  confede- 
racy against  France,  Suwarrow  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  combined  army  in  Italy, 
where  he  gained  some  advantages,  particu- 
larly the  battle  of  Novi.  After  this  he 
crossed  the  Alps,  and  marched  into  Switzer- 
land, but  being  disappointed  of  re-enforce- 
ments, he  was  obliged  to  retreat  toward 
the  lake  of  Constance.  ITe  was  then  re- 
called, and  died  of  chagrin,  May  18th, 
1800. 

SWEDEN  occupies  the  eastern  and  larger 
portion  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  in 
the  north  of  Europe.  It  contains  170,715 
square  miles,  and  has  3,641,600  inhabitants. 
Its  only  foreign  possession  is  St.  Bartholo- 
mew’s Island  in  the  West  Indies.  The  north 
of  Sweden  is  mountainous,  wild,  and  thinly 
populated.  The  number  of  lakes  is  very 
great : it  is  estimated  that  they  cover  nearly 
one-eighth  of  the  area  of  the  kingdom : 
Wener,  Wetter,  and  Malar  are  the  principal. 
The  only  navigable  rivers  are  those  that  have 
been  made  so  by  art.  The  climate  and  soil 
do  not  favor  the  growth  of  grain.  Forests 
cover  over  a fourth  of  the  surface,  principally 
pines,  firs,  and  birch.  Besides  timber,  tar, 
and  pitch  for  export,  they  supply  firewood 
and  charcoal,  of  which  there  is  a large  con- 
sumption, since  Sweden  has  no  coal.  She  is 
rich  in  other  minerals ; there  are  valuable 


843 

copper  mines,  but  her  subterranean  stores 
of  iron  are  the  most  important. 

The  government  is  a constitutional  mon- 
archy. The  supreme  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  the  diet,  which,  as  of  old,  consists 
of  the  four  orders  of  nobles,  clergy,  burgh- 
ers, and  peasants  (landholders  who  are  not 
noble).  It  meets  at  Stockholm  every  fifth 
year,  and  the  sessions  are  limited  to  three 
months,  unless  protracted  by  press  of  business. 
The  Lutheran  religion  is  the  established 
creed.  There  is  a large  university  at  Upsa- 
la,  and  another  at  Lund.  Subordinate  schools 
of  various  grades  are  sustained  by  the  gov- 
ernment. In  many  districts  sparseness  of 
population  renders  it  necessary  that  the 
schoolmasters  should  be  ambulatory.  It  is 
a general  practice  for  parents,  especially 
those  in  the  country,  to  instruct  their  chil- 
dren in  the  long  winter  evenings. 

Stockholm,  the  capital,  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  Lake  Malar  with  an  inlet  of  the 
Baltic,  about  thirty-six  miles  from  the  sea  as 
the  channel  goes.  It  is  built  partly  on  the 
mainland  and  partly  on  nine  islands.  It  is  a 
handsome  city,  surrounded  by  delightful 
environs,  and  is  the  most  industrious  and 
commercial  town  in  Sweden.  It  contains 
93,000  inhabitants. 

The  early  chronicles  of  Sweden  are  a mass 
of  fables  and  heroic  legends.  The  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity,  by  Ansgarius,  Bishop 
of  Bremen,  in  829,  seems  to  present  the  first 
certain  period  of  Swedish  history.  The  early 
history  of  all  the  northern  nations,  even  dur- 
ing the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  is  confused 
and  uninteresting,  and  often  doubtful,  but 
sufficiently  replete  with  murders,  massacres, 
and  ravages.  That  of  Sweden  is  void  of 
consistency,  till  about  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  when  it  assumes  an  appear- 
ance more  regular  and  consistent.  The 
Swedes  perished  in  the  dissensions  between 
their  prelates  and  lay  barons,  or  between 
those  and  their  sovereigns ; they  were  drained 
of  the  little  riches  they  possessed,  to  support 
the  indolent  pomp  of  a few  magnificent 
bishops ; and,  what  was  still  more  fatal,  the 
unlucky  situation  of  their  internal'  affairs 
exposed  them  to  the  inroads  and  oppression 
of  the  Danes,  who,  by  their  neighborhood 
and  power,  were  always  able  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  dissensions  in  Sweden.  In 


SWE 


844 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


1397  Margaret,  Queen  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way, joined  Sweden  with  them.  The  tyran- 
ny of  her  grand-nephew  Eric  was  not  endur- 
able, and  the  Danes  were  expelled  in  1433. 
For  nearly  a century  the  Danish  monarchs 
strove  to  subjugate  the  land.  In  1520  Chris- 
tian II.  of  Denmark  determined  to  destroy  at 
once  all  the  Swedish  nobility,  in  order  to  re- 
venge the  troubles  they  had  occasioned,  and 
to  prevent  the  people  from  revolting  in  future, 
by  depriving  them  of  proper  persons  to  con- 
duct their  operations.  He  cut  off  the  chief 
men  of  the  nation  with  the  axe  of  the  execu- 
tioner. The  entire  senate  were  conducted  to 
death  before  the  eyes  of  the  citizens  of  Stock- 
holm. The  cruelty  of  Christian  is  almost 
inconceivable ; he  indiscriminately  pillaged 
all  ranks  of  people,  erected  every  where 
scaffolds  and  gibbets,  and  brandished  the 
sej^the  of  death  over  every  head.  He  did 
not  consider  it  as  a sufficient  gratification  to 
deprive  his  victims  of  life ; he  took  a pleas- 
ure in  prolonging  the  duration  of  their  suf- 
ferings by  the  sight  of  the  preparations 
which  preceded  the  execution,  and  he  wished 
to  give  them  as  it  were  a full  relish  of  all  the 
bitterness  of  death.  Among  other  instances 
of  cruelty  and  barbarity,  he  obliged  women 
to  sew  with  their  own  hands  the  sacks  in 
which  they  were  to  be  tied  up  and  drowned. 

Gustavus  Yasa,  whose  father  was  one  of 
the  victims  of  the  massacre,  roused  his  coun- 
trymen to  arms,  and  the  expulsion  of  the 
Danes  (Christian  II.  being  opportunely  de- 
throned at  the  same  time  in  Denmark)  was 
followed  by  the  coronation  of  Gustavus.  In 
1528  the  confession  of  Augsburg  was 
solemnly  adopted  as  the  national  standard  of 
faith.  Under  Gustavus  Sweden  rose  from 
her  semi-barbarous  condition  to  a considera- 
ble affluence  and  prosperity.  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus was  the  greatest  of  his  successors. 
The  illustrious  Oxenstiern  aided  him  in  the 
improvement  of  the  kingdom.  He  gained 
broad  conquests  in  his  wars  with  Russia  and 
Poland,  and  fell  in  the  moment  of  triumph 
as  the  champion  of  the  Protestant  faith  in 
German}^.  Christina,  his  daughter,  succeeded 
at  the  age  of  six  years,  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  Oxenstiern,  who  administered  the 
kingdom  with  consummate  ability.  A war 
with  Denmark  (1643-1645)  ended  to  the 
advantage  of  Sweden;  and  at  the  general 


peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  Sweden  received 
Pomerania,  Rugen,  Bremen,  &c.,  with  the 
annexed  rights  as  a state  of  the  empire, — 
acquisitions  which  raised  her  to  the  rank  of 
a first-rate  power.  In  1654  Christina  abdi- 
cating the  crown  in  favor  of  her  cousin,  the 
Count  Palatine  of  Deux-Ponts,  retired  to 
France,  and  afterward  to  Rome,  where  she 
died  a Roman  Catholic  in  1689.  The  new 
monarch,  Charles  Gustavus,  renewed  war 
with  Poland,  overran  the  country,  and 
attacked  Denmark,  which  had  sided  with 
Poland,  obtaining  the  cession  of  various  Dan- 
ish provinces.  In  a subsequent  attack  on 
Denmark,  the  Swedes  were  repulsed  from 
Copenhagen  by  the  aid  of  the  Prussians 
and  the  Dutch,  and  the  disappointed  ambi- 
tion of  the  king  is  said  to  have  hastened  his 
death.  During  the  minority  of  his  son 
Charles  XI.,  the  long  contest  with  Poland 
was  concluded  by  the  peace  of  Oliva  ; Livo- 
nia, Esthonia,  and  Oegel  were  confirmed  to 
Sweden,  and  the  claim  of  the  Polish  kings  to 
the  Swedish  crown  was  given  up.  In  the 
war  with  Prussia  and  Denmark  (1675-1679), 
the  Swedes  were  worsted,  but  at  the  peace  of 
Fontainebleau  (1679)  they  regained  all  they 
had  lost.  This  reign  was  the  epoch  of  the 
first  struggle  between  the  crown,  supported 
by  the  burghers  and  peasants,  and  the  power 
of  the  senate  and  nobles.  In  1693  the  king 
was  formally  declared  absolute  by  an  act  of 
the  diet.  Fie  left  his  dominions  in  1697  to 
his  son,  the  famous  Charles  XII.,  then  a lad 
of  fifteen.  The  kingdom  was  in  the  highest 
state  of  prosperity  and  power ; yet  the  inex- 
perience of  the  young  king  tempted  his 
neighbors  to  attack.  A coalition  was  formed 
against  him  by  Poland,  Denmark,  and  Prus- 
sia. Charles  assumed  the  offensive,  humbled 
Denmark  in  six  weeks,  routed  the  Czar  be- 
fore Narva,  and  then  invading  Poland,  ex- 
pelled Frederick  Augustus  of  Saxony  from 
the  throne.  But  Charles’s  invasion  of  Rus- 
sia in  1708  and  1709  was  fatal  to  his  schemes 
of  ambition : in  the  course  of  a few  years  his 
conquests  were  lost  as  rapidly  as  they  had 
been  won  ; and  when  in  1718  he  fell  at  the 
siege  of  Fredericshall  in  Norway,  Sweden 
was  on  the  verge  of  ruin.  His  sister  Ulrica 
Eleonora  was  soon  forced  to  renounce  the 
crown  in  favor  of  her  husband,  Frederick  of 
Flesse  Cassel.  A treaty  with  Russia,  by 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


845 


which  Livonia,  Ingria,  Esthonia,  Carelia, 
Oesel,  &c.,  were  ceded  to  the  czar,  gained 
peace  for  the  exhausted  kingdom.  For  the 
next  twenty  years  the  court  of  Stockholm 
was  a scene  of  foreign  intrigue  and  corrup- 
tion, in  which  the  Hats,  or  French  party,  and 
the  Caps,  or  Russian  faction,  alternately  pre- 
dominated. Agriculture  and  commerce  flour- 
ished nevertheless ; Linnaeus  and  his  disci- 
ples gave  a new  impulse  to  science ; and  leg- 
islation was  improved  by  a new  code,  1634. 
In  a war  with  Russia  (1641)  the  Swedes  were 
everywhere  defeated,  and  at  the  peace  of 
Abo  (1743),  through  British  mediation,  part 
of  Finland  was  given  to  Russia. 

The  reign  of  Adolphus  Frederick  was 
peaceful  in  its  foreign  relations,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  share  taken  against  Russia, 
through  the  influence  of  the  Hats,  in  the 
Seven  Years’  war.  Gustavus  III.,  in  1772, 
supported  by  the  army  and  the  body  of  the 
people,  forcibly  repealed  the  constitution  of 
1720,  re-establishing  the  relative  powers  of 
the  various  branches  of  government  nearly 
as  before  1680 ; the  party  names  of  Hats  and 
Caps  were  forever  prohibited,  the  use  of  tor- 
ture abolished,  and  the  press  declared  free. 
In  1780  Sweden  joined  the  armed  neutrality 
of  the  northern  powers  against  England ; 
and  in  1783  a commercial  treaty  was  con- 
cluded with  the  United  States.  An  alliance 
with  the  Porte  in  1787  led  to  a war  with 
Russia  and  her  ally  Denmark  ; and  the  muti- 
nous conduct  of  the  Swedish  officers,  who 
refused  to  invade  Russia  without  orders  from 
the  states,  produced  the  4 act  of  safety  ’ 
(1789),  which  gave  the  king  absolute  power 
of  war  and  peace,  and  abolished  the  senate, 
the  last  stronghold  of  aristocratic  power. 
The  peace  of  Werela  (1790)  was  concluded 
on  the  basis  of  mutual  restoration.  In  1792 
Gustavus  III.  was  shot  by  Ankerstroem  at  a 
masquerade.  His  successor,  Gustavus  IV., 
formed  an  alliance  with  Russia  and  England 
against  Napoleon  in  1805  : the  French  occu- 
pied Pomerania  and  Stralsund  in  1807  ; Rus- 
sia, after  the  conferences  of  Tilsit,  turned 
her  arms  upon  her  late  ally,  and  seized 
upon  Finland,  the  impregnable  fortress  of 
Sveaborg  being  betrayed  by  the  governor; 
an  auxiliary  force  of  11,000  English,  under 
Sir  John  Moore,  was  dismissed  without  effect- 
ing anything ; the  Danes  also  declared  war ; 


and  Tornea  and  the  Aland  Isles  were  taken 
by  the  Russians.  These  multiplied  misfor- 
tunes were  ascribed  to  the  incapacity  of  the 
king,  who  had  shown  symptoms  of  mental 
derangement ; he  was  deposed  in  1809,  and 
his  uncle  Charles  XIII.  called  to  the  throne, 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  son  of  Gustavus,  who 
was  declared  incapable  of  ever  inheriting. 
Peace  with  Russia  was  dearly  purchased  by 
the  cession  of  Finland,  East  Bothnia,  and 
Aland, — nearly  a quarter  of  the  territory  of 
the  kingdom,  with  a third  of  its  population  ; 
but  France  restored  Pomerania  in  1810,  on 
the  adoption  of  Napoleon’s  continental  sys- 
tem. In  1810,  on  the  election  of  a crown- 
prince,  in  consequence  of  the  age  of  the  king 
and  the  want  of  an  heir,  the  choice  of  the 
states  fell  upon  Bernadotte,  one  of  Napoleon’s 
ablest  marshals.  He  assumed  the  reins  of 
government,  and  soon  leagued  with  Russia 
and  England  against  the  declining  power  of 
the  great  Corsican  The  services  of  Sweden 
were  rewarded  in  1814  by  the  acquisition  of 
Norway,  which  Denmark  was  compelled  to 
yield,  Sweden  at  the  same  time  relinquishing 
to  Prussia  Pomerania  and  her  remaining  Ger- 
man possessions.  The  crowns  of  Sweden 
and  Norway  were  declared  indissolubly  uni- 
ted, though  each  kingdom  retained  its  sepa- 
rate constitution.  In  1818  the  king  died, 
and  Bernadotte  ascended  the  throne  as  Charles 
XIV.  His  rule  was  marked  by  the  uniform 
and  increasing  prosperity  of  the  Scandina- 
vian kingdoms. 

KINGS  OF  SWEDRN. 

1520.  Christiern  or  Christian  II.  of  Denmark. 
1523.  Gustavus  Vasa  : by  whose  valor  the  Swedes 
are  delivered  from  the  Danish  yoke. 
1560.  Eric  XIV.,  son  of  Gustavus:  dethroned, 
and  died  in  prison. 

1568.  John  III.,  brother  of  Eric. 

1592.  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland,  son  of  John 
III. : disputes  for  the  succession  contin- 
ued the  whole  of  this  reign. 

1604.  Charles  IX.,  brother  of  John  III. 

1611.  Gustavus  (Adolphus)  II.,  the  Great. 

1633.  [Interregnum.] 

1633.  Christina,  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus.- 

1654.  Charles  X.  (Gustavus),  son  of  John  Casi- 
mir,  Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine. 

1660.  Charles  XI.,  son  of  the  preceding. 

1697.  Charles  XII.,  stvled  the  44  Alexander,”  the 
“Quixote,”  and  the  “Madman  of  the 
North.” 

1719.  Ulrica  Eleonora,  his  sister,  and  her  con- 
sort Frederick  I. 

1741.  Frederick  reigned  alone. 


846  COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


1761.  Adolphus  Frederick,  of  Holstcin-Gottorp, 
descended  from  the  family  of  Vasa. 
1771.  Gustavus  (Adolphus)  III. 

1792.  Gustavus  (Adolphus)  IV. : dethroned,  and 
the  government  assumed  by  his  uncle, 
the  Duke  of  Sudermania. 

1809.  Charles  XIII.,  Duke  of  Sudermania. 

1818.  Charles  (John)  XIV.  (Bernadotte),  the 
French  Prince  of  Ponte  Corvo. 

1844.  Oscar,  his  son,  ascended  throne,  Mar.  8th 
1859.  Charles  XV. 

SWEDENBORG,  Emanuel,  an  eminent 
mathematical,  philosophical,  and  mystical 
writer,  .died  in  London,  March  29th,  1772. 
He  was  born  in  Stockholm,  Jan.  29th,  1G88. 

SWIFT,  Jonathan,  was  born  in  Dublin 
(some  say  at  Cashel  in  Tipperary),  Nov.  80th, 
1667.  Born  a posthumous  child,  and  bred 
up  an  object  of  charity  by  his  uncle,  this  sin- 
gular and  haughty  man  early  adopted  the  cus- 
tom of  observing  his  birthday  as  an  occasion 
for  sorrow  rather  than  joy,  and  of  reading, 
as  it  annually  recurred,  that  striking  scrip- 
ture in  which  Job  laments  and  curses  the 
day  upon  which  it  was  said  in  his  father’s 
house  that  a man-child  was  born.  Swift  was 
sent  to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  which  he 
left  in  his  twenty-first  year,  and  was  received 
into  the  house  of  Sir  William  Temple,  a dis- 
tant kinsman  of  his  mother.  Afterward  he 
took  orders  in  the  Irish  church,  but  soon 
tired  of  the  life  and  income  of  an  obscure 
country1-  clergyman,  threw  up  his  living,  and 
returned  to  the  service  of  Sir  William  Tem- 
ple. That  gentleman  died  in  1699,  and  Swift 
was  glad  to  accompany  Lord  Berkeley  to  Ire- 
land as  chaplain.  From  that  nobleman  he 
obtained  the  rectory  of  Aghar  and  the  vicar- 
ages of  Laracor  and  Rathveggan,  to  which 
was  afterward  added  the  prebend  of  Dunla- 
vin  ; in  all  making  his  income  only  some 
£200  a year.  At  Moorpark  Swift  had  con- 
tracted an  intimacy  with  Miss  Hester  John- 
son, daughter  of  Sir  William  Temple’s  stew- 
ard ; and  on  his  settlement  in  Ireland,  this 
lady,  accompanied  by  another  female,  of  mid- 
dle age,  came  to  reside  in  his  neighborhood. 
He  has  immortalized  her  under  the  name  of 
Stella.  In  1701  Swift  became  a political  wri- 
ter on  the  whig  side,  and  on  his  visits  to  Eng- 
land, he  associated  with  Addison,  Steele,  and 
Arbuthnot.  In  1710,  conceiving  that  he  was 
neglected  by  the  ministry,  he  quarreled  with 
the  whigs,  and  was  welcomed  by  Harley  and 
the  tory  administration  with  open  arms. 


He  carried  with  him  shining  weapons  for 
party  warfare — irresistible  and  unscrupulous 
satire,  steady  hate,  and  a dauntless  spirit. 
From  his  new  allies  he  received,  in  1713,  the 
deanery  of  St  Patrick’s.  The  accession  of 
the  house  of  Hanover  ruined  his  hopes,  and 
he  retired  to  Ireland  a disappointed  man. 

During  his  residence  in  England,  he  had 
engaged  the  affections  of  another  young 
lady,  Esther  Vanhomrigh,  who,  under  the 
name  of  Vanessa,  rivaled  Stella  in  poetical 
celebrity  and  in  personal  misfortune.  After 
the  death  of  her  father,  Miss  Vanhomrigh 
and  her  sister  retired  to  Ireland,  where  they 
had  a small  property  near  Dublin.  Swift’s 
pride  or  ambition  led  him  to  postpone  indefi- 
nitely his  marriage  with  Stella.  Though  he 
declared  he  loved  her  better  than  his 
life  a thousand  millions  of  times,  he  kept 
her  in  a state  of  hope  deferred,  injurious 
-alike  to  her  peace  and  her  reputation.  He 
dared  not  confess  his  situation  to  Vanessa 
when  this  second  victim  avowed  her  passion. 
He  was  flattered  that  a girl  of  eighteen,  beau- 
tiful and  accomplished,  should  sigh  for  ‘a 
gown  of  forty-four,’  and  he  did  not  stop  to 
weigh  the  consequences.  The  removal  of 
Vanessa  to  Ireland,  as  Stella  had  gone  before, 
to  be  near  his  presence;  her  irrepressible 
passion,  which  no  neglect  could  quench ; bur 
life  of  deep  seclusion,  checquered  onlyr  by 
the  occasional  visits  of  Swift,  each  of  w hich 
she  commemorated  by  planting  with  her  own 
hand  a laurel  in  the  garden  where  they  met ; 
her  agonizing  remonstrances,  when  all  her 
offerings  and  devotion  had  failed, — are  touch- 
ing beyond  expression.  Swift  could  give 
but  the  coldest  return.  The  tragedy  deep- 
ened. Eight  years  had  Vanessa  nursed  her 
hopeless  attachment  in  solitude.  At  length 
she  wrote  to  Stella,  to  ascertain  the  nature 
of  her  connection  w ith  Swift : the  latter  ob- 
tained the  fatal  letter,  and  rode  instantly  to 
Marley  Abbey,  Vanessa’s  residence.  As  he 
entered,  the  sternness  of  his  countenance 
struck  the  unfortunate  w’oman  with  such 
terror  that  she  could  scarce  ask  whether  he 
wTould  not  sit  down.  He  answered  by  fling- 
ing a letter  on  the  table ; and  instantly 
leaving  the  house,  mounted  his  horse  and 
returned  to  Dublin.  When  Vanessa  opened  the 
packet,  she  found  only  her  own  letter  to  Stel- 
la. It  was  her  death-warrant  She  sunk  at 


SWI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


847 


once  under  the  disappointment  of  the  delayed 
yet  cherished  hopes  which  had  so  long  sick- 
ened her  heart,  and  beneath  the  unrestrained 
wrath  of  him  for  whose  sake  she  had  indulged 
them.  She  survived  this  last  interview  only 
a few  weeks.  Stella  and  Swift  were  at  last 
secretly  married  in  the  garden  of  the  deanery, 
when  on  her  part  all  but  life  had  faded  away. 
Just  before  her  death,  he  offered  to  acknowl- 
edge the  union,  but  she  replied,  “ It  is  too 
late.”  The  fair  sufferers  were  deeply  re- 
venged ; in  a few  years  the  malady  came 
which  Swift  had  long  foreseen  and  dreaded. 
After  various  attacks  of  giddiness  and  deaf- 
ness, his  temper  became  ungovernable,  and 
his  reason  gave  way.  His  almost  total  si- 
lence during  the  last  three  years  of  his  life 
(for  the  last  year  he  spoke  not  a word)  appalls 
and  overawes  the  imagination.  He  died  on 
the  19th  of  October,  1745,  and  was  interred 
in  St.  Patrick’s  cathedral,  amid  the  tears  and 
prayers  of  his  countrymen.  His  fortune, 
amounting  to  about  £19,000,  he  left  chiefly 
to  found  a lunatic  asylum  in  Dublin. 

Swift’s  “ Drapier’s  Letters  ” gave  him  un- 
bounded popularity  in  Ireland.  “Gulliver’s 
Travels”  and  the  “Tale  of  a Tub”  are  the 
chief  corner-stones  of  his  fame.  His  prose 
is  a model  of  simple  and  vigorous  English. 
Ills  verse  is  of  a homely  stamp,  but  strikingly 
true  to  nature.  There  have  been  few  so 
faithful  depicters  of  human  nature,  in  its 
frailties  and  weakness,  as  the  misanthropic 
Dean  of  St.  Patrick’s. 

In  Swift’s  version  of  iEsop’s  fable  of  the 
apples  and  the  ordure,  when  he  came  to  the 
address  of  the  latter  to  the  former, — 

“ IIow  we  apples  swim,” — 
he  subjoined  the  following  lines  upon  a pomp- 
ous, pragmatical  limb  of  the  law  whom  he 
disliked : — 

“ So  at  the  bar  the  booby  Bcttesworth, 

Though  half  a crown  outpays  his  sweat’s  worth, 
Who  knows  in  law  nor  text  nor  margent, 

Calls  Singleton  his  brother  sergeant.'1'1 

Singleton  was  a first-rate  barrister.  The 
poem  was  sent  to  Bettesworth  at  a time  when 
he  was  surrounded  by  his  friends  in  a con- 
vivial party.  He  read  it  aloud  till  he  had 
finished  the  lines  relative  to  himself.  He 
flung  it  down  with  great  violence,  trembled 
and  turned  pale.  After  some  pause,  his  rage 
for  a while  depriving  him  of  utterance,  he 


took  out  his  penknife,  and,  opening  it,  vehe- 
mently swore,  “ With  this  very  penknife  I 
will  cut  olf  his  ears.”  He  went  to  the  dean’s 
house,  and,  not  finding  him  at  home,  fol- 
lowed him  to  the  house  of  a friend,  where, 
being  shown  into  aback  room,  he  desired  the 
dean  might  be  sent  for.  On  Swift  entering 
the  room,  and  asking  what  were  his  com- 
mands, “Sir,”  said  he,  “lam  Sergeant  Bettes- 
worth.”— “Of  what  regiment,  pray,  sir?” 
said  Swift. — “Oh,  Mr.  dean,  we  know  your 
powers  of  raillery — you  know  me  well 
enough  ; I am  one  of  his  majesty’s  sergeants- 
at-law,  and  I am  come  to  demand  if  you  are 
the  author  of  this  poem  [producing  it]  and 
these  villainous  lines  on  me.” — “Sir,”  said 
Swift,  “ when  I was  a young  man,  I had  the 
honor  of  being  intimate  with  some  great 
legal  characters,  particularly  Lord  Somers, 
who,  knowing  my  propensity  to  satire,  ad- 
vised me,  when  I lampooned  a knave  or  fool, 
never  to  own  it.  Conformably  to  that  advice, 
I tell  you  I am  not  the  author.”  Bettesworth 
went  off  grumbling,  saying  Swift  was  like 
one  of  his  own  vile  Yahoos,  besmearing  peo- 
ple with  his  filth,  and  out  of  the  reach  of 
punishment. 

SWITZERLAND,  a country  in  Europe, 
lying  between  France,  Germany,  and  Ita- 
ly, contains  15,179  square  miles,  and 
2,400,000  inhabitants.  More  than  half  the 
country  is  mountainous,  the  Jura  Mountains 
separating  it  from  France,  and  the  ranges  of 
the  Alps  occupying  the  southern  and  eastern 
portions.  Its  picturesque  and  sublime  scene- 
ry is  well  known ; from  the  snowy  sum- 
mits and  icy  glaciers  of  the  drear  Alpine 
heights,  enclosing  pastoral  valle)^  of  surpris- 
ing verdure  and  loud  torrents  plunging  in 
wild  cascades,  to  the  placid  lakes  of  Leman, 
Constance,  Zurich,  Luzern,  Neufchatel,  and 
scores  of  lesser  beauties,  that  sleep  in  the 
plains  below.  With  such  a variety  of  sur- 
face the  climate  and  productions  also  widely 
vary.  The  valleys  and  plains  are  fertile,  and 
the  lower  regions  of  the  mountains  afford 
fine  pastures  for  herds  and  flocks. 

The  Swiss  confederation  consists  of  twen- 
ty-two cantons, — Aargau,  Appenzell,  Basel, 
Bern,  Freyburg,  St.  Gall,  Geneva,  Glams, 
Grisons,  Luzern,  Neufchatel,  Schaffhausen. 
Schwyz  (from  which  the  country  has  its 
name),  Soleure,  Thurgau,  Ticino,  Unterwai- 


SWI 


848 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


den,  Uri,  Valais,  Vaud,  Zug,  and  Zurich. 

The  sovereign  authority  is  vested  in  the  fed- 
eral assembly,  which  consists  of  two  repre- 
sentative chambers.  The  city  of  Bern  is  the 
federal  metropolis.  A majority  of  the  Swiss 
are  Calvinists ; yet  there  are  many  Catho- 
lics, and  some  of  the  cantons  are  almost  ex- 
clusively of  the  Romish  faith.  Liberty  of 
conscience  and  freedom  of  worship  are  en- 
joyed by  all.  Education  is  generally  diffused. 
Some  of  the  private  schools  are  famous  for 
combining  industrial  training  with  scientific 
instruction.  Hospitals  for  the  infirm  poor 
exist  in  every  town,  and  some  are  richly 
endowed.  The  Swiss  formerly  sought  ser- 
vice in  large  numbers  in  the  armies  of  France, 
Holland,  Spain,  Naples,  &c.,  ; foreign  enlist- 
ment is  now  generally  prohibited. 

Some  portions  of  Switzerland  have  been 
busy  with  manufactures  for  centuries.  The 
canton  of  Zurich  has  thousands  of  hands 
employed  in  making  silks,  handkerchiefs, 
ribbons,  and  cotton  cloths  and  prints.  The 
city  of  Basel  (whose  clocks  in  former  times 
were  an  hour  in  advance  of  those  of  other 
places),  a great  centre  of  trade,  makes  many 
ribbons  and  satins,  and  much  leather,  paper, 
and  tobacco.  Geneva’s  watches  and  musical 
boxes  are  known  to  all  Europe  and  Amer 
ica. 

The  exaggerated  accounts  given  of  the  riches 
and  milder  climate  of  Italy,  occasioned  the 
successive  inroads  of  various  troops  of  barbari- 
ans who  gloried  in  the  common  name  of  Gauls. 

In  all  these  expeditions,  the  Helvetians  took 
a considerable  share,  and  afterward  joined 
the  Cimbri  and  the  Teutones  against  the  Ro- 
mans. However,  their  want  of  discipline 
finally  proved  fatal  to  them ; and  the  arms 
of  Marius  and  Sylla  obtained  over  the  com- 
bined forces  of  Germany  the  most  complete 
and  decisive  victory.  From  this  era,  the  Hel- 
vetians lived  in  friendship  and  alliance  with 
the  Romans,  till  the  arts  of  Orgetorix,  one 
of  their  chieftains,  involved  them  in  that 
unfortunate  expedition  which  ended  in  their 
being  deprived  of  liberty  and  independence 
by  Julius  Caesar,  57  b.c.  Helvetia  thus  be- 
came a province  of  Rome.  The  decline  of 
the  Roman  power,  and  the  irruption  of  the 
Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  and  other  northern 
tribes  hastened  the  downfall  of  the  unhappy 
Helvetians.  Of  those  who  settled  in  Helve- 

SWI 


tia,  the  chief  were  the  Burgundians  and  the 
more  barbarous  Alemanni,  a German  nation, 
who  made  their  first  appearance  in  214,  and 
settled  in  the  duchy  of  Wirtemberg.  On 
the  downfall  of  the  western  nation,  the  Ale- 
manni overran  that  part  of  Gaul  since  kno  wh 
by  the  name  of  Alsace;  and  being  joined  by 
their  countrymen  in  Germany,  they  entered 
the  territories  of  the  Ripuarian  Franks,  and 
put  all  to  fire  and  sword.  This  unprovoked 
attack,  summoning  Clovis,  king  of  theSalian 
Franks,  to  the  defense  of  his  allies,  the  Ale- 
manni were  entirely  defeated  in  a general  en- 
gagement, with  the  loss  of  their  king ; and 
this  nation  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of 
Clovis,  in  496,  who  gradually  subdued,  and 
afterward  civilized  the  greatest  part  of  Hel- 
vetia. Under  the  Franks  it  remained  till 
888,  when,  upon  the  death  of  Charles  the 
Gross,  it  was  seized  by  Raoul,  and  became 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  which 
was  given  by  Rodolf,  the  last  king  of  Burgun- 
dy, to  Conrad  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  in 
1032 ; from  which  time  it  was  esteemed  a 
part  of  the  empire ; but  being  unjustly 
treated  by  Albert,  Duke  of  Austria,  the  in- 
habitants revolted  in  1308.  Werner  StaufF- 
acher  of  Schwyz,  Walter  First  of  Uri,  and 
Arnold  von  Melchthal  of  Unterwalden,  con- 
spired to  free  their  land  from  the  tyranny  of 
Gessler,  and  the  imperial  minion  was  slain 
by  brave  William  Tell.  In  a cavern  near 
the  lake  of  Luzern,  the  three  founders  of  the 
Helvetic  confederacy,  are  said,  in  Swiss  tra- 
ditions, to  sleep.  The  herdsmen  say  that 
they  lie  there,  in  their  antique  garb,  in  quiet 
slumber  ; and  when  Switzerland  is  in  her 
utmost  need,  they  will  awaken  and  regain 
the  liberties  of  the  land. 

When  Uri’sbeechen  woods  wave  red 
In  the  burning  hamlet’s  light, 

Then  from  the  caverns  of  the  dead, 

Shall  the  sleepers  wake  in  might ! 

With  a leap,  like  Tell’s  proud  leap, 

When  away  the  helm  he  flung, 

And  boldly  up  the  steep 

From  the  flashing  billow  sprung! 

They  shall  wake  beside  their  forest  sea 
In  the  ancient  garb  they  wore, 

When  they  linked  the  hands  that  made  us  free, 
On  the  Grutli’s  moonlit  shore  ; 

And  their  voices  shall  be  heard, 

And  be  answered  with  a shout, 

Till  the  echoing  Alps  are  stirred, 

And  the  signal-fires  blaze  out ! 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


849 


And  the  land  shall  see  such  deeds  again, 

As  those  of  that  proud  day, 

When  Wiulcelried,  on  Sempach’s  plain, 
Through  the  serried  spears  made  way ! 

And  when  the  rocks  came  down 
On  the  dark  Morgarten  del!, 

And  the  crowned  helms  o’ertnrown 
Before  our  fathers  fell ! 

For  the  Kiihreihen’s*  notes  must  never  sound 
In  a land  that  wears  the  chain, 

And  the  vines  on  Freedom’s  holy  ground 
Untrampled  must  remain. 

And  the  yellow  harvests  wave, 

For  i>o  stranger’s  hand  to  reap, 

While  within  their  silent  cave 
The  men  of  Gi  ucli  sleep  ! 

In  1315  the  several  states  of  which  this 
country  was  composed  made  their  league 
perpetual;  and  in  1648  tneir  liberty  was 
absolutely  fixed  by  the  treaty  of  Westpha- 
lia. The  peace  of  Aarau,  in  1712,  termina- 
ted the  intestine  struggles  of  the  Swiss, 
which  long  rent  in  sunder  the  bonds  of  their 
union.  Under  the  protection  of  the  Helvetic 
league,  the  whole  territory  of  Switzerland 
became,  and  for  ages  continued,  an  industri- 
ous, a free,  a blameless,  and  a happy  nation, 
until  they  were  attacked  by  their  neighbors 
the  French.  In  1798  the  directory  of  France 
having  become  daring  by  the  peace  whioh 
they  had  dictated  to  the  emperor,  suddenly 
declared  war  against  Switzerland. 

Partly  by  force,  and  partly  by  treachery, 
they  succeeded  in  their  attempt,  and,  after 
changing  the  government  from  a federal  into 
an  united  republic,  continued  to  levy  contri- 
butions, and  impose  exactions,  with  the  most 
unpardonable  severity.  The  treaties  of 
Luneville  and  of  Amiens  held  out  to  the  Hel- 
vetic confederacy  a guarantee  of  her  ancient 
freedom  and  independence,  which  were  never 
fully  realized.  By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  the  integrity  of  the  nineteen  cantons, 
as  they  existed  in  a political  body,  was  recog- 
nized as  the  basis  of  the  Helvetic  System. 
To  Switzerland  were  united  the  Valais,  the 
territory  of  Geneva,  and  the  principality  of 
Neufchatel,  which  formed  three  new  cantons ; 
and  to  the  Helvetic  confederation  were  added 
the  bishopric  of  Basel,  and  the  city  and  ter- 
ritory of  Bienne,  which  form  part  of  the 
canton  of  Bern. 

* The  Kuhreihen  is-the  melody  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Ranz  des  Vaches,  which  was  forbidden  to  be  played  by  the 
royal  bands  in  Paris,  because  it  caused  the  Swiss  guards  to 
desert,  and  return  to  their  native  mountains,  of  which  it 
powerfully  reminded  them. 

54  Si 


The  canton  of  Neufchatel  was  formerly  a 
principality,  which  finally  came  into  the 
possession  of  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia.  In 
1806  it  was  ceded  to  France,  and  Napoleon 
bestowed  it  upon  his  general  Berthier,  who 
enjoyed  it  till  1815,  when  it  fell  at  thedisposal 
of  the  allies.  They  restored  the  king  of 
Prussia  the  title  of  prince,  with  certain  rights, 
but  made  the  country  part  of  the  Swiss  con- 
federation. In  1848  the  inhabitants  repudi- 
ated their  allegiance  to  Prussia,  and  pro- 
claimed Neufchatel  a free  and  independent 
member  of  the  Swiss  republic.  In  1856 
Prussia  threatened  a war  to  regain  possession. 
Great  energy  and  determination  were  shown 
by  the  Swiss  in  reply.  On  the  intervention 
of  France  and  England  the  dispute  was  at 
last  adjusted  by  treaty  in  1857.  For  a pecu- 
niary compensation  the  Prussian  king  re- 
nounced his  claims,  retaining  the  title  of 
Prince  of  Neufchatel  without  any  political 
rights. 

SYLLA,  L.  Cornelius,  a celebrated  Ro- 
man, of  a noble  family.  He  first  entered  the 
army  under  the  great  Marius,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  Numidia,  in  the  capacity  of 
quaestor.  He  rendered  himself  conspicuous 
in  military  affairs,  and  Bocchus,  one  of  the 
princes  of  Numidia,  delivered  Jugurtha  into 
his  hands* for  the  Roman  consul.  The  rising 
fame  of  Sylla  gave  umbrage  to  Marius,  who 
was  always  jealous  of  an  equal,  as  well  as  of 
a superior  ; but  the  ill  language  which  he 
made  use  of,  rather  inflamed  than  extin- 
guished the  ambition  of  Sylla.  He  left  the 
conqueror  of  Jugurtha,  and  carried  arms 
under  Catullus.  For  his  services  in  the  Social 
or  Marsic  war,  he  was  rewarded  with  the 
consulship,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  age. 
In  this  capacity  he  wished  to  have  the 
administration  of  the  Mithridatic  war;  but 
he  found  an  obstinate  adversary  in  Marius, 
and  he  attained  the  summit  of  his  wishes 
only  when  he  had  entered  Rome  sword  in 
hand.  After  he  had  slaughtered  his  enemies, 
set  a price  upon  the  head  of  Marius,  and  put 
to  death  the  tribune  Sulpitius,  who  had  con- 
tinually opposed  his  views,  he  marched 
toward  Asia,  disregarding  the  flames  of  dis- 
cord which  he  left  behind  him  unextinguished. 
Mithridates  was  already  master  of  the  great- 
est part  of  Greece,  and  Sylla,  when  he 
reached  the  coast  of  Peloponnesus,  was  de- 


850 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


layed  by  the  siege  of  Athens,  and  of  the 
Piraeus.  His  boldness  succeeded,  the  Piraeus 
surrendered,  and  the  conqueror  spared  the 
city  of  Athens.  Two  celebrated  battles,  at 
Chaeronea  and  Orchomenus,  rendered  him 
master  of  Greece.  He  crossed  the  Helles- 
pont, and  attacked  Mithridates  in  the  very 
heart  of  his  kingdom.  The  artful  monarch, 
who  well  knew  the  valor  and  perseverance 
of  his  adversary,  made  proposals  of  peace, 
and  Sylla  did  not  hesitate  to  put  an  end  to  a 
war  which  had  rendered  him  master  of  so 
much  territory,  and  which  enabled  him  to 
return  to  Rome  like  a conqueror.  Muraena 
was  left  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  forces  in 
Asia,  and  Sylla  hastened  to  Italy.  In  the 
plains  of  Campania,  he  was  met  by  a few  of 
his  adherents,  and  was  informed  that  if  he 
wished  to  contend  with  Marius,  he  must  en- 
counter fifteen  generals,  followed  by  twenty- 
five  well  disciplined  legions.  Pompey  em- 
braced his  cause,  and  marched  to  the  camp 
with  three  legions.  Soon  after  he  appeared 
in  the  field  to  advantage;  the  confidence  of 
Marius  decayed  with  his  power,  and  Sylla 
entered  Rome,  a tyrant  and  a conqueror. 
The  streets  were  daily  filled  with  dead  bodies, 
and  seven  thousand  citizens,  to  whom  the 
conqueror  had  promised  pardon,  were  sud- 
denly massacred  in  the  circus.  ♦ 

Wholesale  confiscation  of  the  property  of 
his  opponents  enabled  Sylla  to  reward  his 
partisans.  When  unbridled  murder  had 
raged  for  several  days,  one  ventured  to  ask 
the  dictator  when  there  was  to  be  an  end  of 
it.  “We  do  not  ask,”  said  he,  “to  save 
those  whom  you  wish  to  destroy,  but  to  free 
from  fear  those  whom  you  mean  to  save.” 
Sylla  answered  that  he  did  not  yet  know 
whom  he  would  spare.  “ Then  tell  us  whom 
you  will  punish.”  To  this  Sylla  assented; 
and  at  once  posted  the  names  of  eighty  per- 
sons. Day  by  day  he  added  to  this  list, 
which  was  hung  up  in  the  forum,  and  called 
the  proscription.  These  atrocities  were  not 
confined  to  Rome : proscription  and  confis- 
cation stalked  throughout  Italy.  Sylla’s 
object  was  to  break  down  the  democracy, 
and  establish  the  ancient  aristocratic  form  of 
the  government.  In  the  height  of  his  su- 
premacy,— in  the  struggle  for  which  more 
than  a hundred  thousand  lives  had  been  sac- 
rificed, throngs  thrust  into  exile,  and  multi- 


tudes reduced  to  beggary  by  confiscation, — 
the  cold-blooded  tyrant  laid  down  his  dicta- 
torship, and  calmly  retired  to  private  life! 
He  took  up  his  abode  at  Cumae,  where  he 
passed  his  time  in  writing  his  memoirs,  hunt- 
ing and  fishing,  and  licentious  debauches. 
Within  a year  he  was  attacked  by  a most 
loathsome  disease,  and  one  day  hearing  that 
a magistrate  of  the  adjacent  town  of  Puteoli 
was  putting  off  the  payment  of  a debt  to  the 
corporation,  in  expectation  of  his  death,  he 
had  him  brought  to  his  chamber,  and 
strangled  in  his  presence.  The  exertions  he 
made  caused  him  to  throw  up  a quantity  of 
blood,  and  he  djed  that  night,  in  the  sixtieth 
year  of  his  age,  b.c.  78. 

SYPHAX,  a king  of  Numidia,  married 
Sophonisba,  the  daughter  of  Asdrubal,  and 
forsook  the  alliance  of  the  Romans  to  join 
himself  to  the  interest  of  his  father-in-law, 
and  of  Carthage.  He  was  conquered  in  a bat- 
tle by  Masinissa,  the  ally  of  Rome,  and  given 
to  Scipio  the  Roman  general.  The  conqueror 
carried  him  to  Rome,  where  he  adorned  his 
triumph.  Syphax  died  in  prison,  b.c.  201, 
and  his  possessions  were  given  to  Masinissa. 

SYRACUSE,  a celebrated  city  of  Sicily, 
founded  about  b.c.  732,  by  Archias,  a Corin- 
thian, and  one  of  the  Heraclidae.  It  was 
under  different  governments  ; and  after  being 
freed  from  the  tyranny  of  Thrasybulus,  b.c. 
466,  it  enjoyed  security  for  sixty-one  years, 
till  the  usurpation  of  the  Dionysii,  who  were 
expelled  by  Timoleon,  b.c.  343.  In  the  age 
of  the  elder  Dionysius,  an  army  of  one  hun- 
dred thousand  foot  and  ten  thousand  horse, 
and  four  hundred  ships,  were  kept  in.  con- 
stant pay.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans,  under  the  consul  Marcellus,  after  a 
siege  of  three  years,  b.c.  212.  Modern  Syra- 
cuse has  only  14,000  inhabitants. 

SYRIA,  a country  of  western  Asia,  border- 
ing on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  forming  part 
of  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  containing  about 
70,000  square  miles,  and  1,500,000  inhabit- 
ants. W e mention  its  principal  towns.  Alep- 
po once  ranked  as  the  third  city  of  the  Otto- 
man dominions.  The  population  in  1795  is 
said  to  have  amounted  to  250,000  : it  is  now 
less  than  a third  of  that.  Seen  from  a dis- 
tance, this  city  presents  a picturesque  appear- 
ance ; its  gay  terraces,  graceful  mosques, 
airy  arches,  and  shadowing  trees,  afford  a 


SYR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


851 


combination  which  is  grateful  to  the  senses ; 
but  a nearer  approach,  like  daylight  on  a 
phantasmagoria,  dispels  the  illusion.  Walk- 
ing through  the  streets,  the  eye  wanders 
over  high  stone  walls  which  flank  the  way, 
or  turns  baffled  from  the  lattices  with  which 
the  infrequent  windows  of  the  houses  are 
churlishly  guarded.  The  inhabitants  of  Alep- 
po differ  but  little  from  those  of  other  Mo- 
hammedan cities  and  countries.  They  have 
the  same  love  for  indolent  pleasures,  the  same 
fondness  for  the  luxuries  of  the  bath.  The 
Jews. of  Aleppo  have  in  their  synagogue  a man- 
uscript of  the  Old  Testament  which  they  con- 
sider to  be  of  great  antiquity.  As  a com- 
mercial place,  Aleppo  has  degenerated  in 
modern  times.  The  English,  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  established  a factory  here,  and 
consuls  of  various  nations  reside  in  the  place 
at  present.  The  city,  including  the  suburbs, 
is  seven  or  eight  miles  in  circumference. 
Eight  thousand  inhabitants,  together  with 
two-thirds  of  the  city,  were  destroyed  by 
earthquakes  in  1822  and  1823.  The  plague 
has  often  made  fearful  ravages  here.  Aleppo 
has  also  been  the  scene  of  fanatical  massa- 
cres. In  October,  1850,  the  Mohammedans 
mercilessly  attacked  the  Christian  inhabit- 
ants, slew  many,  and  burned  or  plundered 
their  dwellings  and  churches. 

Antioch  is  another  famous  town.  It  is 
fifty  miles  west  of  Aleppo,  on  the  Orontes, 
twenty-one  miles  from  the  sea.  The  popula- 
tion is  less  than  10,000,  the  houses  low,  and 
the  land  neglected.  The  appearance  of  the 
city  is-melancholy,  and  no  remains  recall  the 
splendors  of  the  day  when  it  was  the  third 
city  in  the  world,  for  beauty,  greatness,  and 
population.  It  was  built  by  Scleucus  Nica- 
nor,  b.c.  300,  partly  on  a hill,  and  partly  in  a 
plain,  and  named  for  Antiochus,  his  father. 
It  was  for  a great  length  of  time  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Macedonian  kings  of  Syria,  and 
of  the  Roman  governors  when  Syria  became 
a province  of  that  empire.  The  Christian 
(aith  was  established  at  Antioch  by  St.  Paul 


and  St.  Barnabas,  and  here  their  disciples 
first  bore  the  name  of  Christians.  It  con- 
tinued to  be  a city  of  great  importance, 
notwithstanding  frequent  and  awful  earth- 
quakes, till  a.d.  538,  when  Chosroes  the 
Persian  razed  it  to  the  ground.  It  was  re- 
built by  Justinian,  again  became  a considera- 
ble place,  and  continued  such  till  the  time  of 
the  crusades.  In  1098  it  was  taken  by  God- 
frey, and  became  the  seat  of  an  European 
principality",  which  was  overthrown  by  the 
Turks  in  1269.  Its  commerce  and  importance 
passed  to  Aleppo. 

Damascus  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns 
in  the  world,  being  mentioned  as  existing  in 
the  days  of  Abraham  (Genesis  xiv.  and  xv.), 
and  it  is  one  of  the  few  that  have  maintained 
a flourishing  prosperity  in  all  ages,  though 
often  subject  to  the  devastating  fortune  of 
war.  It  was  possessed  in  turn  by  Assyri- 
ans, Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Saracens, 
and  Turks.  Tamerlane  destroyed  it  in  1400. 
Here  St.  Paul  began  to  preach  the  gospel, 
a.d.  52.  Damask  linens  and  silks  were  first 
manufactured  at  Damascus ; and  damask  roses 
were  transplanted  to  Europe  from  its  gar- 
dens, whence  the  name  in  each  case. 

Syria  formed  a part  of  the  Assyrian, 
Babylonian,  Persian,  and  Macedonian  em- 
pires in  succession.  After  the  battle  of 
Ipsus,  b.c.  301,  it  became  the  centre  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae,  the  usual  abode 
of  the  kings  being  at  Antioch,  its  capital. 
Their  dominion  was  destroyed,  and  Syrria 
declared  a Roman  province  by  Pompey,  b.c. 
65.  Under  the  Caesars  it  was  one  of  the 
most  populous,  flourishing,  and  luxurious 
provinces  of  the  empire.  It  had  a consider- 
able commerce,  and  proved  indeed  the  empo- 
rium that  connected  the  eastern  and  western 
quarters  of  the  world.  The  Saracens  wrested 
the  land  from  the  declining  eastern  empire  in 
the  seventh  century.  In  1516  it  was  con- 
quered and  united  to  the  Turkish  empire  by 
the  Sultan  Selim  II. 


SYR 


852 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


T. 


TACITUS,  Caius  Cornelius,  a celebrated 
Roman  historian,  was  born  about  a.d.  58. 
The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

TALAVERA,  a town  of  Spain,  situated  on 
the  Tagus,  thirty-five  miles  west  of  Toledo, 
famous  for  the  battle  fought  here  July  28th, 
1809,  between  the  French  and  the  allies  un- 
der Sir  Arthur  Wellesley.  The  French  army 
amounted  to  47,000  men,  and  the  allied  force 
to  19,000  British  and  80,000  Spaniards.  In 
the  afternoon  of  the  27 th,  the  French  opened 
a cannonade  on  the  left  of  the  British  posi- 
tion, while  their  cavalry  attacked  the  Span- 
ish infantry,  and  attempted  to  win  the  town 
of  Talavera  ; they  were  finally  repulsed.  At 
nine  in  the  evening,  the  action  ceased,  but 
Soult,  the  French  commander,  ordered  a 
night  attack  to  be  made  on  the  height  occu- 
pied by  General  Hill,  which  he  considered 
the  key  of  the  English  position.  Of  this 
height  the  French  gained  a momentary  pos- 
session, but  it  was  recovered  at  the  point  of 
the  bayonet.  At  daybreak,  the  28th,  the 
French  again  attacked  Hill’s  position,  and 
were  repulsed ; faiting  also  in  their  other 
attempts,  they  rested  about  eleven,  and,  it  is 
said,  cooked  their  dinners  on  the  field.  At 
noon,  Soult  ordered  a general  attack  along 
the  whole  line.  At  the  close  of  the  day,  the 
French  were  repulsed  at  all  points,  and  effect- 
ually defeated. 

Marshals  Victor  and  Sebastiani  commanded 
the  French  advance.  Soult,  Ney,  and  Mortier 
being  in  the  rear,  compelled  Wellesley  to 
retire  after  the  battle. 

TALBOT,  Lord,  born  at  Blechmore,  in 
Shropshire,  in  1373.  In  the  first  year  of 
Henry  V.  he  was  appointed  lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land, where  he  suppressed  a rebellion,  and 
brought  the  chief,  Donald  McGuire,  to  Eng- 
land. He  next  served  in  France,  to  the  con- 
quest of  which  he  greatly  contributed.  His 
name  struck  terror  into  the  French  soldiers, 
till  the  appearance  of  Joan  of  Arc,  as  a super- 
natural being,  turned  the  scale,  and  the 
English  army  retreated.  The  battle  of  Patay 
completed  the  disaster,  and  Lord  Talbot  fell 
wounded  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  At 
the  end  of  three  years  and  a half,  he  was 


ransomed,  and  again  led  the  English  to  vic- 
tory. He  took  a number  of  strong  places, 
and  carried  his  arms  to  the  walls  of  Paris, 
for  which  he  was  created  Earl  of  Shrews- 
bury. In  1443  he  concluded  a treaty  with 
the  French  king ; and  the  following  year 
went  again  to  Ireland  as  lord  lieutenant ; but 
in  1450  he  was  recalled  to  serve  in  France, 
where  he  fell  at  the  battle  of  Castillon,  in 
his  eightieth  year,  July,  1453. 

T ALLARD,  Camille  d’IIostun,  Count  and 
Duke  de,  marshal  of  France,  was  born  in 
1652,  in  Dauphiny.  He  served  under  Tur- 
enne  in  Holland,  in  1672.  In  1693  he  was 
made  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1697  was 
sent  ambassador  to  England.  The  war  being 
renewed,  he  assumed  the  command  on  the 
Rhine  in  1702,  and  the  year  following  made 
himself  master  of  Landau,  after  defeating 
the  Prince  of  Hesse ; but  in  1704  he  lost  the 
battle  of  Blenheim,  and  was  taken  prisoner 
by  Marlborough,  to  whom  he  said,  u Your 
grace  has  beaten  the  finest  troops  in  Europe.” 
The.duke  replied,  “ You  will  except,  I hope, 
those  who  defeated  them.”  Marshal  Tallard 
remained  in  England  till  1712,  when  he  re- 
turned to  Paris,  and  was  created  a duke.  He 
died  in  1728. 

It  is  said  that  he  was  the  first  to  introduce 
celery  to  the  English  tables,  during  his  cap- 
tivity. 

TALLEYRAND-PERTGORD,  Charles 
Maurice  de,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1754,  bred 
to  the  church,  and  though  his  life  was  not 
very  consistent  with  the  cloth,  he  rose  to  be 
Bishop  of  Autun.  His  participation  in  the 
measures  that  preceded  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution,  led  to  his  excommunication  by 
the  pope,  and  he  became  a diplomatist,  the 
part  for  which  nature  destined  him.  A fail- 
ure in  some  of  his  intrigues  rendered  flight 
necessary,  and  he  remained  in  the  United 
States  till  after  the  reign  of  terror.  Return- 
ing, he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
under  the  Directory,  and  retained  the  post 
under  Napoleon,  by  whom  he  was  made 
Prince  of  Benevento.  In  1809  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  offices,  and  conspired  against 
the  emperor.  He  was  minister  under  Louis 


TAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


853 


XVIII.,  retired  from  public  life  before  the 
storm  of  1830,  came  forth  under  Louis  Phil- 
ippe, and  was  ambassador  to  England  till 
1835.  He  died  in  1838.  Napoleon  said, 
“Talleyrand  was  always  in  a state  of  trea- 
son, but  it  was  a treasonable  complicity  with 
Fortune  herself ; his  circumspection  was  ex- 
treme ; he  conducted  himself  toward  his 
friends  as  if  at  some  future  time  they  might 
be  his  enemies,  and  toward  his  enemies  as  if 
they  might  become  his  friends.” 

TALMA,  Fkancis  Joseph,  the  Garrick  of 
the  French  stage,  was  born  in  Paris  about 
1770,  but  his  youth  was  passed  in  London, 
where  his  dramatic  taste  was  formed  by  wit- 
nessing the  acting  of  Kemble  and  the  match- 
less Siddons.  He  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  19  th, 
1826. 

TAMERLANE  (a  corruption  of  Timour 
Lenk,  Timour  ‘the  lame’)  was,  according  to 
some  authorities,  the  son  of  a shepherd,  and 
to  others,  of  royal  descent.  He  was  born  in 
1335,  at  Kesch,  in  the  ancient  Sogdiana,  and 
became  sovereign  of  Tartary  in  1369.  His 
first  conquest  was  that  of  Balkh,  the  capital 
of  Khorassan,  on  the  frontiers  of  Persia,  fie 
next  made  himself  master  of  Kandahar,  and 
after  reducing  all  ancient  Persia  under  his 
dominion,  he  turned  back  in  order  to  subdue 
the  people  of  Transoxana.  Thence  he 
marched  to  lay  siege  to  Bagdad,  which  he 
took,  and  proceeding  with  his  victorious 
army  into  India,  he  subdued  the  whole  of 
that  nation,  and  entered  Delhi,  the  capital  of 
the  empire.  After  Tamerlane  had  completed 
the  conquest  of  India,  he  marched  his  army 
back,  and  falling  upon  Syria,  he  took  Damas- 
cus. Thence,  in  1401,  he  suddenly  returned 
to  Bagdad,  which  had  partly  shaken  off 
the  yoke.  He  soon  became  master  of  it 
again,  and  gave  it  up  to  the  fury  of  the  sol- 
diers, on  which  occasion  eight  hundred  thous- 
and inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed, and  the  city  was  razed  to  the 
ground.  About  this  time  five  Mohammedan 
princes,  who  had  been  dispossessed  by  the 
Sultan  Bajazet  of  their  dominions,  situated 
on  the  borders  of  the  Euxine  Sea,  implored 
Tamerlane’s  assistance ; and  at  length  he 
was  prevailed  on  to  march  his  army  into  Asia 
Minor.  He  began  with  sending  ambassadors 
to  Bajazet,  who  were  ordered  to  insist  on  his 
raising  the  siege  of  Constantinople,  and  doing 


justice  to  the  five  Mohammedan  princes 
whom  he  had  stripped  of  their  dominions. 
Bajazet  disdaining  these  proposals,  Tamerlane 
declared  war  against  him,  and  put  his  troops 
in  motion.  Bajazet  raised  the  siege  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  July  28th,  1402,  the  ever 
memorable  battle  took  place,  between  Caesa- 
rea and  Angora.  After  an  obstinate  contest 
Bajazet  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner. 
Tamerlane,  who  had  hitherto  fought  with  the 
scymitar  and  with  arrows,  employed  several 
field-pieces  in  this  engagement,  and  the  Turks 
employed  cannon  and  the  ancient  Greek  fire. 
Tamerlane’s  splendid  victory  did  not,  how- 
ever, deprive  the  Turkish  empire  of  a single 
city.  Musa,  the  son  of  Bajazet,  became  sul- 
tan, but  notwithstanding  the  protection  of 
Tamerlane,  he  was  unable  to  oppose  his 
brothers ; and  a civil  war  raged  thirteen 
years  among  the  family.  Soon  after  this, 
Tamerlane  ravaged  Syria,  and  from  thence 
he  repassed  the  Euphrates,  and  returned  to 
Samarcand.  He  conquered  nearly  as  great 
an  extent  of  territory  as  Genghis  Khan.  He 
was  scarcely  settled  in  his  newly  acquired 
empire,  India,  when  he  began  to  plan  the 
conquest  of  China,  but  he  died  in  the  midst 
of  his  extraordinary  career,  early  in  the  year 
1405. 

TARQUINTUS,  Lucius,  surnamed  Priscus , 
the  fifth  king  of  Rome.  He  distinguished 
himself  so  much  by  his  liberality  and  enga- 
ging manners,  that  Ancus  Martins,  the  reign- 
ing monarch,  nominated  him  the  guardian  of 
his  children,  and  after  his  death  the  people 
chose  Tarquin  king.  Tarquin  reigned  with 
moderation  and  popularity.  He  increased 
the  number  of  the  senate,  and  made  himself 
friends  by  electing  one  hundred  new  senators 
'from  the  plebeians.  The  glory  of  the  Roman 
arms,  which  was  supported  with  so  much 
dignity  by  the  former  monarchs,  was  not 
neglected  in  this  reign,  and  Tarquin  showed 
that  he  possessed  vigor  and  military  pru- 
dence in  the  victories  which  he  obtained  over 
the  united  forces  of  the  Latins  and  Sabines, 
and  in  the  conquest  of  the  twelve  nations  .of 
Etruria.  He  laid  the  foundations  of  the  cap- 
ital, and  to  the  industry  and  the  public  spirit 
of  this  monarch,  the  Romans  were  indebted 
for  aqueducts  and  subterranean  sewers, 
which  supplied  the  city  with  fresh  and  whole- 
some water,  and  removed  all  the  filth  and 


TAR 


854 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


ordure,  which,  in  a great  capital,  too  often 
breed  pestilences  and  diseases.  Tarquin  was 
the  first  who  introduced  among  the  Romans 
the  custom  to  canvass  for  offices  of  trust  and 
honor;  he  distinguished  the  monarch,  the 
senators,  and  other  inferior  magistrates,  with 
particular  robes  and  ornaments,  with  ivory 
chairs  at  spectacles,  and  the  hatchets  carried 
before  the  public  magistrates,  were,  by  his 
order,  surrounded  with  bundles  of  sticks,  to 
strike  more  terror,  and  to  be  viewed  with 
greater  reverence.  Tarquin  was  assassinated 
by  the  two  sons  of  his  predecessor,  in  the 
eightieth  year  of  his  age,  thirty-eight  of 
which  he  had  sat  on  the  throne,  b.c.  576. 

TARQUINIUS  Superbus  was  grandson  of 
Tarquinius  Priscus.  He  ascended  the  throne 
of  Rome  after  his  father -in  law  Servius  Tullius, 
and  was  the  seventh  and  last  king  of  Rome.  He 
murdered  his  father-in-law,  and  seized  the 
kingdom.  The  crown  which  he  had  obtained 
with  violence,  he  endeavored  to  keep  by  a 
continuation  of  tyranny.  He  paid  no  regard 
to  the  decisions  of  the  senate,  or  the  appro- 
bation of  the  public  assemblies,  and  by  wish- 
ing to  disregard  both,  he  incurred  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  one  and  the  odium  of  the  other. 
He  was  successful  in  his  military  operations, 
and  the  neighboring  cities  submitted ; but 
while  the  siege  of  Ardea  was  continued,  the 
wantonness  of  the  son  of  Tarquin  at  Rome 
forever  stopped  the  progress  of  his  arms ; 
and  the  Romans,  whom  a series  of  barbarity 
and  oppression  had  hitherto  provoked,  no 
sooner  saw  virtuous  Lucretia  stab  herself, 
not  to  survive  the  loss  of  her  honor,  than  the 
whole  city  and  camp  arose  with  indignation 
against  the  monarch.  The  gates  of  Rome 
were  shut  against  him,  and  Tarquin  was  for- 
ever banished  from  his  throne,  b.c.  509. 
Tarquin  died  in  the  ninetieth  year  of  his  age, 
about  fourteen  years  after  his  expulsion  from 
Rome. 

TARQUINIUS,  Sextus,  the  eldest  of  the 
sons  of  Tarquin  the  Proud,  rendered  himself 
known  by  a variety  of  adventures.  When 
hrs  father  besieged  Gabii,  young  Tarquin 
publicly  declared  that  he  was  at  variance 
with  the  monarch,  and  the  report  was  the 
more  easily  believed  when  he  came  before 
Gabii  with  his  body  all  mangled  and  covered 
with  stripes.  This  was  an  agreement  be- 
tween the  father  and  the  son,  and  Tarquin 


had  no  sooner  declared  that  this  proceeded 
from  the  tyranny  and  oppression  of  his  father, 
than  the  silly  people  of  Gabii  intrusted  him 
with  the  command  of  their  armies,  fully  con- 
vinced that  Rome  could  never  have  a more 
inveterate  enemy.  When  he  had  thus  suc- 
ceeded, he  dispatched  a private  messenger  to 
his  father,  but  the  monarch  gave  no  answer  to 
be  returned  to  his  son.  Sextus  inquired 
more  particularly  about  his  father,  and  when 
he  heard  from  the  messenger  that  when  the 
message  was  delivered,  Tarquin  cut  off  with 
a stick  the  tallest  poppies  in  his  garden,  ti  e 
son  followed  the  example  by  putting  to  death 
the  most  noble  and  powerful  citizens  of 
Gabii.  The  town  soon  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Romans.  The  violation  of  Lucretia  by 
Sextus  led  to  the  expulsion  of  the  family 
from  the  throne.  Sextus  was  at  last  killed 
in  battle  during  a war  which  the  Latins  sus- 
tained against  Rome  in  the  attempt  of  re- 
establishing the  Tarquins  on  the  throne. 

TASSO,  Tokquato,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  Italian  poets,  was  born  at  Sorrento, 
on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Naples, 
about  1544.  His  unfortunate  days  were 
partly  spent  in  a madhouse.  He  died  at 
Rome  in  1595.  “Jerusalem  Delivered”  is 
his  greatest  work. 

TAYLOR,  George,  a signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  was  born  in  Ireland 
in  1716.  He  came  to  America  while  a young 
man,  with  no  fortune  but  good  character 
and  sound  honesty.  He  obtained  a humble 
position  in  the  extensive  iron  works  of  Mr. 
Savage  on  the  Delaware,  rose  to  be  clerk, 
and  afterward  married  his  employer’s  widow, 
and  became  possessed  of  large  property. 
After  having  been  a member  of  the  colonial 
legislature,  he  was  chosen  to  congress  in 
1776.  He  died  Feb.  23d,  1781. 

TAYLOR,  Jeremy,  the  most  eloquent  and 
imaginative  of  England’s  divines,  was  born 
at  Cambridge  in  August,  1613.  He  has 
been  styled  by  some  the  Shakspeare,  and  by 
others  the  Spenser,  of  theological  literature. 
In  the  civil  war  he  accompanied  the  royal 
army  as  chaplain,  and  in  1644  he  was  taken 
prisoner  in  the  battle  fought  before  Cardigan 
Castle  in  Wales.  He  was  soon  released, 
and  continued  in  Wales,  writing  discourses 
that  form  so  noble  a monument  to  his  mem- 
ory. After  the  restoration  he  was  made 


TAY 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


855 


Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor  in  Ireland.  lie 
was  a man  of  learning,  fervent  piety,  en- 
lightened toleration,  and  great  gentleness  of 
demeanor.  He  died  Aug.  13th,  1667. 

TAYLOR,  Zachary,  twelfth  president  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  Orange  coun- 
ty, Virginia,  Nov.  24th,  1784;  being  the 
second  son  of  Col.  Richard  Taylor,  whose 
ancestors  emigrated  from  England  in  1692, 
and  settled  in  Eastern  Virginia.  Col.  Rich- 
ard was  a companion  in  arms  of  Washington, 
and  distinguished  alike  for  patriotism  and 
valor ; his  wife,  the  mother  of  Zachary,  was 
a woman  of  high  spirit  and  intelligence.  In 
1790  Col.  Taylor  removed  with  his  family  to 
Kentucky,  settling  on  the  ‘ dark  and  bloody 
ground,’  where  Zachary  was  reared  amid 
the  startling  and  nerving  incidents  of  a bor- 
der life,  to  which  doubtless  W’as  owing  the 
hardihood  that  marked  him  during  his  mili- 
tary life.  Till  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  fol- 
lowed the  life  of  a farmer.  The  military 
service  very  early  engaged  his  affections  and 
excited  his  ambition.  When  the  movements 
of  Aaron  Burr  began  to  excite  suspicion, 
volunteer  companies  were  raised  in  Ken- 
tucky, to  oppose  his  designs  by  arms  should 
occasion  demand.  In  such  a troop  Zachary 
and  his  brothers  were  enrolled ; but  events 
did  not  require  the  services  of  the  volunteers, 
and  Zachary  returned  to  his  farm. 

On  the  death  of  his  brother,  Lieut. 
Hancock  Taylor,  who  held  a commission 
in  the  United  States  army,  a chance  for 
the  vacancy  was  afforded  to  Zachary. 
Through  the  influence  of  his  relative,  James 
Madison,  then  secretary  of  state,  and  of  his 
uncle,  Major  Edmund  Tajdor,  he  received 
from  President  Jefferson,  May  3d,  1808,  his 
commission  as  first-lieutenant  in  the  seventh 
regiment  of  infantry.  In  the  twenty-fourth 
year  of  his  age,  he  was  in  the  enjoyment  of 
a competency  as  a farmer  ; but  his  active 
mind,  and  his  love  for  a soldier’s  life,  led  him 
to  prefer  the  care  and  privations  of  the  camp 
and  the  field  to  the  quiet  comfort  of  a landed 
proprietor  at  home.  The  outbreak  of  the 
war  with  England  in  1812  found  him  promo- 
ted to  the  rank  of  captain.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  the  successful  defense  of  Fort 
Harrison  on  the  Wabash  against  a large  force 
of  Miami  Indians.  The  garrison  numbered 
but  fifty-two  men,  of  whom  nearly  two- 


thirds  were  invalids,  and  he  himself  was  just 
recovering  from  a fever.  This  gallant  re- 
pulse, at  odds  so  unfavorable,  was  highly 
praised,  and  it  forthwith  procured  from  Pres- 
ident Madison  a preferment  to  the  rank  of 
brevet  major,  the  first  brevet,  it  is  said,  ever 
conferred  in  the  American  army. 

Taylor  rose  from  grade  to  grade  till  he  be- 
came general  in  the  Indian  wars  of  Florida 
and  Arkansas.  His  greatest  achievement  in 
Florida  was  the  victory  of  Okeechobee, 
which  was  gained  on  Christmas  day,  1837 ; 
one  of  the  most  memorable  battles  in  our 
annals  of  Indian  wars,  and  remarkable  for 
skill  and  bravery  on  both  sides.  But  he  ac- 
quired his  greatest  reputation  as  a military 
chieftain,  in  the  invasion  of  Mexico  in  1846. 
The  victories  of  his  little  army  at  Palo  Alto, 
Resaca  de  la  Palma,  Monterey,  and  Buena 
Vista,  wrere  largely  due  to  his  merit  as  a 
commander,  which  was  acknowledged  by  his 
countrymen  in  every  form  of  popular  rejoic- 
ing and  congratulation.  He  was  nominated 
for  the  presidency  by  the  whig  party,  and 
was  successful  over  his  competitor,  Gen. 
Cass.  His  inauguration  took  place  March  4th, 
1849.  He  was  not  destined  to  serve  out  his 
term  : a short  illness  terminated  his  life,  July 
9th,  1850.  Among  his  last  words  were,  “I 
have  done  my  duty.  I am  not  afraid  to  die.” 
Ilis  sudden  death  was  sincerely  mourned 
throughout  the  land. 

TCIIERNAYA,  Battle  of  the.  Aug. 
16th,  1855,  the  lines  of  the  allied  army  in  the 
Crimea,  on  the  river  Tchernaya,  were  at- 
tacked by  50,000  Russians  under  Prince 
Gortschakoff.  The  brunt  of  the  attack  was 
borne  by  the  French  and  Sardinians,  and  the 
.Russians  w’ere  severely  repulsed. 

TEKELI,  Emeric,  Count  of,  a Hungarian 
noble  who  went  into  Transylvania  in  1671, 
and  with  some  others  soon  distinguished 
himself  at  Prince  Abafti’s  court,  where  he 
became,  in  a little  time,  first  minister  of  state, 
and  afterward  generalissimo  of  the  troops 
sent  to  assist  the  insurgent  Hungarians' 
against  Austria,  with  which  he  made  himself 
master  of  several  places  in  Upper  and  Lower 
Hungary.  Eventually  he  was  forced  to  seek 
refuge  in  Turkey,  and  died  at  Constantino- 
ple in  1705. 

TELL,  William,  a Swiss  patriot,  was  an 
inhabitant  of  Burgelm  in  Uri.  In  1307  Her- 


TEL 


856 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


man  Gessler,  the  Austrian  governor  of  that 
province,  set  his  cap  on  a pole,  to  which  all 
who  passed  were  required  to  pay  obeisance. 
This  order  Tell  disobeyed,  for  which  Gessler 
commanded  him,  on  pain  of  death,  to  shoot 
an  arrow  at  an  apple  placed  upon  the  head 
of  his  own  son.  Tell,  who  was  an  excellent 
marksman,  cleft  the  apple  without  hurting 
the  child;  after  which  he  declared,  that  if 
he  had  missed  his  aim,  it  was  his  intention 
to  have  directed  another  arrow  through  the 
heart  of  the  tyrant.  Gessler  then  caused 
Tell  to  be  taken  into  a boat,  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  him  out  of  the  province ; but 
in  crossing  the  lake  a storm  arose,  and  as  the 
prisoner  was  an  experienced  steersman,  he 
was  intrusted  with  the  helm,  of  which  he 
was  no  sooner  possessed  than  he  steered 
close  to  a rock,  leaped  on  shore,  and  soon  after- 
ward shot  Gessler  near  Kuznacht.  The  Swiss 
rose  in  arms,  and  the  Austrian  government 
was  overthrown.  Tell  perished  in  an  inun- 
dation in  1354. 

TEMPLARS.  The  Knights  Templars,  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  orders  of  knighthood, 
originated  in  the  following  manner.  In  the 
year  1118,  Hugh  de  Paganes  and  Godfrey  de 
St.  Amor,  with  seven  gentlemen,  went  to  the 
Holy  Land,  where  they  determined  to  erect 
and  enter  into  a brotherhood.  Being  at  Jeru- 
salem they  consulted  what  they  should  do, 
that  might  be  a service  acceptable  to  God  ; 
and  being  informed  that  in  the  town  of  Zaff, 
there  resided  many  thieves  that  used  to  rob 
the  pilgrims  that  resorted  to  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, they  resolved  to  make  the  passage  more 
free  by  dispersing  these  robbers  ; and  for  the 
encouragement  of  these  gentlemen  in  so  good 
an  undertaking,  the  king  of  Jerusalem  as- 
signed them  lodgings  in  his  palace  adjoining 
to  Solomon’s  palace,  from  which  place  they 
were  called  Knights  Templars. 

Baldwin  II.,  third  king  of  Jerusalem,  and 
Guarimond  the  patriarch,  finding  their  ac- 
tions successful,  furnished  them  with  neces- 
sary provisions  ; and  though  their  charitable 
services  made  them  acceptable  unto  all,  yet 
for  the  first  nine  years  they  were  in  so  great 
distress,  they  were  forced  to  accept  the  char- 
ity of  well  disposed  people.  But  many 
Christians  resorted  to  them,  and  increased 
their  numbers  greatly.  When  at  war,  their 
banner  was  one  half  black,  the  other  half 


white,  signifying  that  they  were  white  and 
fair  to  Christians,  but  black  and  terrible  to 
their  enemies.  Pope  Honorius,  at  the  request 
of  Stephen,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  pre- 
scribed unto  them  an  order  of  life,  whereby 
they  were  to  wear  a white  garment,  to  which 
Pope  Eugenius  added  a red  cross.  They 
made  their  vows,  in  the  presence  of  the  be- 
fore mentioned  patriarch,  of  obedience,  pov- 
erty, and  chastity,  and  to  live  under  the  rule 
of  the  regular  canons  of  St.  Augustine. 

The  Knights  Templars  (according  to  Bug- 
dale)  wore  linen  coifs  and  red  caps  close  over 
them : on  their  bodies  shirts  of  mail,  and 
swords  girded  on  with  a broad  belt : over  all 
they  had  a white  cloak  reaching  to  the 
ground,  with  a cross  on  their  left  shoulder. 
They  used  to  wear  their  beards  of  great 
length,  w'hereas  most  of  the  other  orders 
shaved.  The  badge  of  the  order  was  a patri- 
archal cross,  enameled  red,  and  edged  with 
gold,  worn  on  the  breast  pendant  to  a ribbon. 

The  Templars  being  numerous  and  famous 
for  their  enterprises,  not  only  for  securing 
the  passages,  but  for  fighting  both  by  sea 
and  land  against  the  infidels,  they  became 
highly  favored  by  the  Christian  princes,  who 
assigned  to  them  great  revenues  to  be  spent 
in  God’s  service.  In  process  of  time,  they 
became  exceedingly  wealthy  and  powerful, 
so  that  they  grew  proud,  and  withdrew 
themselves  from  their  obedience  to  the  patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem,  and  attached  themselves 
to  the  pope.  But  in  the  end  they  did  not 
receive  that  favor  they  expected  from  the 
pope,  for  by  him  or  through  his  consent, 
upon  some  infamous  crimes  charged  against 
them,  their  lands  and  possessions  were  seized 
upon,  and  otherwise  disposed  of,  their  order 
suppressed,  and  they  themselves  imprisoned, 
condemned,  and  cruelly  executed.  Accord- 
ing to  the  opinions  of  many  authors,  they 
were  unjustly  accused  by  subornation  of  witj 
nesses,  merely  to  gain  their  revenues,  which 
were  exceedingly  great,  having  no  less  than 
sixteen  thousand  lordships  in  Europe. 

The  first  settlement  of  this  order  in  Eng- 
land (according  to  Dugdale)  was  in  Holborn 
in  London,  but  their  chief  residence,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.,  was  the  Temple  in  Fleet 
street,  which  was  erected  by  them,  and  the 
church  (built  after  the  form  of  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem)  dedicated  to  God  and  our 


. TEM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


857 


Blessed  Lady,  by  Ileraclius,  patriarch  of 
Jerusalem,  in  the  year  1185. 

On  Wednesday  after  the  feast  of  the  Epiph- 
any, in  the  year  1307,  the  first  of  Edward 
II.,  by  the  king’s  special  command,  and  a 
bull  from  the  pope,  the  Knights  Templars 
generally,  throughout  England,  were  seized 
and  cast  into  prison,  and  in  a general  coun- 
cil held  at  London,  being  convicted  of  vari- 
ous impieties,  all  their  possessions  were  con- 
fiscated by  the  crown. 

The  order  was  condemned  in  a general 
council  at  Vienna,  under  Pope  Clement  V., 
in  1311,  and  by  a general  decree  of  the  said 
Clement,  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  papacy, 
they  were  incorporated  with  the  Knights  Hos- 
pitallers. After  this  numbers  of  the  order 
were  burned  alive  and  hanged,  and  it  suffered 


great  persecution  throughout  Europe,  partic- 
ularly in  France  in  the  reign  of  Philip  of- 
Valois.  It  was  finally  extirpated  in  England 
in  1340. 

TEMPLE,  Sir  William,  a celebrated  states- 
man, born  in  London  in  1G28.  In  1G65  he 
went  on  a secret  mission  to  the  Bishop  of 
Munster  ; after  which  he  was  employed  in 
forming  the  triple  alliance  between  England, 
Sweden,  and  Holland.  He  next  became  the 
resident  minister  at  the  Hague,  and  in  that 
capacity  promoted  the  marriage  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange  and  the  Princess  Mary.  In  1679 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  ; but  the 
next  year  he  resigned  that  situation,  and  re- 
tired to  his  country  seat  in  Surrey,  where  he 
was  often  visited  by  Charles  II.,  James  II., 
and  William  III.  He  died  in  1698. 


TENNESSEE,  with  an  area  of  44,000 
square  miles,  had  in  1870,  a population  of 
1 258,520,  of  whom  936,119  were  whites,  and 
322,331  colored. 

The  western  part  of  this  state  is  level  or 
gently  undulating,  the  middle  is  broken  by 
hills,  and  the  eastern  part  is  mountainous. 
There  can  be  nothing  grand  and  imposing  in 
scenery,  nothing  striking  and  picturesque  in 
cascades  and  precipitous  sides  of  mountains 
covered  with  woods,  nothing  romantic  and 
delightful  in  deep  and  sheltered  valleys, 
through  which  wind  still  and  clear  streams, 
that  is  not  found  in  this  state. 

Tennessee  is  bountifully  supplied  with 
noble  rivers,  and  fine  pure  streams.  The 
Mississippi  washes  its  western  border  ; the 


Tennessee  and  the  Cumberland  have  a large 
part  of  their  course  within  its  limits.  Gold 
has  been  found  in  the  south-eastern  section 
of  the  state ; iron  occurs  throughout  the  re- 
gion east  of  the  Tennessee  ‘x  and  coal  of  abun- 
dance and  excellent  quality  is  found  among 
the  Cumberland  Mountains.  Salt  is  also  a 
valuable  product.  Agriculture  forms  the 
principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  A 
large  portion  of  the  land  is  productive,  and 
many  of  the  valleys  of  East  Tennessee,  and 
much  of  the  middle  and  western  sections, 
are  eminently  fertile.  Indian  corn  and  cot- 
ton are  the  staple  crops,  and  a good  deal  of 
tobacco,  hemp,  and  wheat  are  raised.  In 
East  Tennessee  large  droves  of  live  stock 
are  raised  for  eastern  markets.  The  pine 


TEN 


858 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


forests  of  this  section  yield  tar,  turpentine, 
rosin,  and  lampblack.  The  chief  articles 
which  are  sent  to  the  New  Orleans  market 
are  cotton,  corn,  whiskey,  hogs,  horses,  cat- 
tle, flour,  gunpowder,  saltpetre,  poultry, 
bacon,  lard,  butter,  apples,  pork,  coarse  lin- 
en, tobacco,  &c. 

Tennessee  appears  to  have  been  first  visited 
by  hunters  and  Indian  traders  from  North 
Carolina,  about  1730.  Like  Kentucky,  it 
was  found  to  abound  in  buffalo,  elk,  and 
other  game.  Fort  Loudon  was  built  on  the 
Little  Tennessee  in  1757,  and  several  settle- 
ments were  made.  These  were  broken  up 
by  the  Indians,  the  Cherokees,  Choctaws, 
Chickasaws,  and  Shawnees.;  but  they  were 
renewed  a few  jmars  afterward,  and  though 
hostilities  continued  to  retard  their  progress, 
immigrants  continued  to  pour  into  the  new 
country,  which  belonged  to  the  province  of 
North  Carolina.  In  1784  the  settlers  of  Ten- 
nessee made  an  abortive  attempt  to  form  a 
separate  government  under  the  name  of 
Frankland.  In  1790  a territory  south-west 
of  the  Ohio,  including  the  present  states  of 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  was  organized  ; in 
1794  the  latter  was  constituted  a separate  ter- 
ritory bjr  its  present  name ; and  in  1796  it  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  a sovereign  state. 

Tennessee  did  not  secede  in  fprm,  but  the 
center  and  west  of  the  state  were  strongly 
rebel.  In  the  east,  intensely  Unionist,  the 
rebels  exercised  great  brutality.  The  princi- 
pal military  occurrence  here  was  Longstreet’s 
siege  of  Burnside  in  Knoxville,  which  he  how- 
ever raised  Dec.  4,  1863,  and  retreated.  After 
the  fall  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  Nash- 
ville at  once  fell  into  Union  hands  (Feb  24, 
1862),  and  so  remained.  The  surrender  of 
Island  No.  10,  soon  after,  and  that  of  Mem- 
phis, (April  and  June,  ’62,)  gave  the  Union 
ists  possession  of  most  of  the  state.  Rose- 
crans’s  victory  at  Murfreesboro,  in  the  last 
days  of  1863,  drove  Bragg  from  the  southern 
part,  and  the  only  serious  attempt  on  it  after- 
wards was  Hood’s  invasion  in  the  end  of  1864, 
which  resulted  in  his  defeat  at  Franklin,  Nov. 
30,  1864,  and  the  utter  annihilation  of  his 
army  at  Nashville  shortly  afterwards.  Ten- 
nessee passed  an  emancipation  law  in  Janu- 
ary, 1865. 

Nashville,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Cumberland,  in  a rich 


and  picturesque  tract;  population  in  1870, 
25,865.  Murfreesboro  was  formerly  the  cap- 
ital. Memphis,  on  the  Mississippi,  occupies 
the  only  advantageous  site  between  the  Ohio 
and  Vicksburg,  on  either  bank  of  the  great 
river,  a distance  of  650  miles  ; population  in 
1870,  40,226. 

Knoxville,  the  leading  town  of  East  Ten- 
nessee, at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  IIol- 
ston,  a head-stream  of  the  Tennessee,  had 
8,(182  inhabitants  in  1870. 

TERENCE,  a celebrated  author  of  come- 
dies, was  born  at  Carthage,  and  a slave  in 
Rome;  his  master  Terentius  Nuncanus  gave 
him  a good  education  and  his  liberty ; he 
was  drowned  on  his  voyage  home  from 
Greece,  159  b.c. 

TEWKESBURY,  a market  town  of  Glou- 
cestershire, in  England.  It  was  at  this  place 
that  the  last  battle  was  fought  between  the 
adherents  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancas- 
ter j May  4th,  1471.  This  battle,  it  is  well 
known,  proved  fatal  to  the  Lancastrians ; 
Queen  Margaret  and  her  son  were  taken  pris- 
oners.  The  field  in  wdiich  it  was  fought  is 
still  called  the  Bloody  Meadow,  and  is  situ- 
ated about  half  a mile  from  the  town.  In 
the  civil  war  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I., 
Tewkesbury  was  the  scene  of  severe  contests 
between  the  contending  forces. 

TEXAS  comprises  an  area  of  325,520 
square  miles.  By  the  census  of  1870  it  had 
818,579  inhabitants,  classified  as  follows: 
whites,  564,700;  colored,  253,475;  Indians, 
379;  Chinese,  25.  The  country  along  the 
coast  is  low  and  level ; back  of  this,  an  un- 
dulating prairie  region,  and  the  western  sec- 
tion is  hilly  and  mountainous.  Cotton  is 
the  staple  product ; tobacco,  sugar-cane,  and 
the  cereal  grains  produce  abundant  crops ; 
the  vine  grows  abundantly  ; the  fruits  of 
northern  and  southern  climes  ripen  here  side 
by  side.  Texas  is  believed  to  have  a very 
rich  store  of  minerals.  Her  forests  of  live 
oak  and  cedar  surpass  those  of  any  other 
state  in  the  Union.  The  entire  coast,  the 
river  bottoms,  and  the  chief  part  of  the  east- 
ern section,  are  heavily  timbered  with  pine, 
oak,  ash,  hickory,  cedar,  cypress,  and  other 
forest  trees,  often  of  noble  dimension^  Her 
prairies  furnish  pastures  for  thousands  of 
horses  and  cattle  ; swine  are  also  raised  in 
large  numbers. 


Until  1836  Texas  formed  a part  of  Mexico. 
Upon  the  defeat  of  Santa  Anna,  then  presi- 
dent of  Mexico,  by  Gen.  Houston  at  San  Ja- 
cinto, he  was  made  prisoner.  As  a condition 
of  release,  he  signed  a treaty  acknowledging 
the  independence  of  Texas.  In  1845  the 
republic  was  annexed  to  the  United  States  as 
a sovereign  member  of  the  Union. 

Texas  was  a seceding  state,  and  within  her 
limits  the  main  body  of  the  small  regular 
army  of  the  United  States  was  treacherously 
surrendered  to  the  rebels  by  the  contrivance 
of  General  Twiggs,  early  in  the  year  1861. 
The  remote  situation  of  the  state  saved  it  in 
a great  measure  from  the  sufferings  of  war, 
but  it  contributed  many  men  to  the  rebel 
army,  and  aided  in  maintaining  the  war  also 
by  the  introduction  of  supplies  from  Mexico. 

Austin,  the  capital,  had  4,428  inhabitants 
in  1870.  Galveston  is  the  chief  town  and 
port  of  the  state;  population  in  1870,  13,818. 

THAMES,  Battle  of  the.  This  was  a 
decisive  contest  between  the  Americans  under 
Gen.  Harrison,  and  the  British  and  Indians 
commanded  by  Col.  Proctor  and  the  celebra- 
ted Tecumseh,  fought  Oct.  5th,  1813,  near 
the  Moravian  towns  on  the  river  Thames 
in  Upper  Canada.  Harrison’s  troops  were 
victors,  and  Tecumseh  was  slain. 

THEBES,  a celebrated  city,  capital  of 
Boetia,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Ismenus.  Cadmus  is  supposed  to  have  first  | 
begun. to  found  it  by  building  the  citadel 
Cadmea.  It  was  afterward  finished  by  Am- 
phion  and  Zethus;  but,  according  to  Varro, 
it  owed  its ‘origin  to  Ogyges.  The  early  gov- 


ernment of  Thebes  was  monarchical,  and 
many  of  the  sovereigns  are  celebrated  for 
their  misfortunes,  such  as  Lais,  (Edipus,  Poly- 
nices,  Eteocles,  &c.  The  war  which  Thebes 
supported  against  the  Argives,  is  famous,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  Epigoni. . Under  Epami- 
nondas,  the  Thebans,  though  before  depend- 
ent, became  masters  of  Greece,  and  every- 
thing was  done  according  to  their  will  and 
pleasure.  When  Alexander  invaded  Greece, 
he  ordered  Thebes  to  be  totally  demolished, 
because  it  *had  revolted  against  him,  except 
the  gates,  the  temples,  and  the  house  where 
the  poet  Pindar  had  been  born  and  educated. 
In  this  dreadful  period,  6,000  of  its  inhabi- 
tants were  slain,  and  30,000  sold  for  slaves. 
Thebes  was  afterward  repaired  by  Cassan- 
der,  the  son  of  Antipater,  but  it  never  rose 
to  its  original  consequence,  and  Strabo,  in 
his  age,  mentions  it  merely  as  an  inconsider- 
able village.  The  monarchical  government 
was  abolished  there  at  the  death  of  Xanthus, 
about  1190  years  before  Christ,  and  Thebes 
became  a republic. 

THEBES,  the  No  of  Scripture,  an  ancient 
celebrated  city  of  Egypt;  called  alsoHecatom- 
[ pylos  on  account  of  its  hundred  gates,  and 
at  a later  day,  Diospolis,  as  being  sacred  to 
Jupiter.  The  original  circumference  of  this 
gigantic  city  is  said  to  have  been  140  stadia. 
It  was  ruined  by  Cambyses,  king  of  Persia. 
Its  most  magnificent  ruins  are  those  of 
Luxor  and  Karnac. 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  stupendous 
and  noble  ruins  of  Thebes.  Beyond  all  oth- 
ers they  give  you  the  idea  of  a ruined,  yet 


THE 


860 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


imperishable  city  ; so  vast  is  their  extent, 
that  you  wander  a long  time  confused  and 
perplexed,  and  discover  at  every  step  some 
new  object  of  interest.  The  ruins  of  the 
great  temple  of  Luxor  are  near  the  water’s 
side,  and  its  lofty  yellow  pillars,  each  thirty 
feet  in  circumference,  and  ranged  in  long  col- 
onnades, instantly  arrest  the  attention.  The 
entrance  is  through  a magnificent  propylon, 
or  gateway,  covered  with  elaborate  sculp- 
tures. From  the  temple  of  Luxor  to  that  of 
Karnac,  the  distance  is  a mile  and  a half, 
and  they  were  formerly  connected  by  a long 
avenue  of  sphinxes,  the  mutilated  remains 
of  which,  the  heads  being  broken  off  the 
greater  part,  still  line  the  whole  path.  Ar- 
rived at  the  end  of  this  avenue,  you  first 
pass  under  a very  elegant  arched  gateway, 
seventy  feet  high,  and  quite  isolated.  About 
fifty  yards  farther  you  enter  a temple  of  in- 
ferior dimensions.  You  then  advance  into  a 
spacious  area,  strewed  with  broken  pillars, 
and  surrounded  with  vast  and  lofty  masses 
of  ruins, — all  parts  of  the  great  temple  : a 
little  on  your  right  is  the  magnificent  portico 
of  Karnac,  the  yivid  remembrance  of  which 
will  never  leave  him  who  has  once  gazed  on 
it.  Its  numerous  colonnades  of  pillars,  of 
gigantic  form  and  height,  are  in  excellent 
preservation,  but  without  ornament.  Passing 
hence,  you  wander  amidst  obelisks,  porticoes, 
and  statues,  the  latter  without  grace  or  beau- 
ty, but  of  a most  colossal  kind.  If  you 
ascend  one  of  the  hills  of  rubbish,  and  look 
around,  you  see  a gateway  standing  afar, 
conducting  only  to  solitude;  detached  and 
roofless  pillars,  while  others  lie  broken  at 
their  feet ; the  busts  of  gigantic  statues  ap- 
pearing above  the  earth,  while  the  rest  of 
the  body  is  yet  buried,  or  the  head  torn 
away,  while  others  lie  prostrate  or  broken 
into  useless  fragments.  On  the  left  spread 
the  dreary  deserts  of  the  Thebais,  to  the 
edge  of  which  the  city  extends.  In  front  is 
a pointed  and  barren  range  of  mountains  : 
the  Nile  flows  at  the  feet  of  the  temple  of 
Luxor  ; but  the  ruins  extend  far  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river,  to  the  very  feet  of 
those  formidable  precipices,  and  into  the 
wastes  of  sand. 

TIIEMISTOCLES,  a celebrated  statesman 
and  general  of  Athens.  When  Xerxes  in- 
vaded Greece,  Themistocles  was  at  the  head 


of  the  Athenian  republic,  and  in  this  capa- 
city the  fleet  was  intrusted  to  his  care. 
While  the  Lacedsemonians  under  Leonidas 
were  opposing  the  Persians  at  Thermopylae, 
the  naval  operations  of  Themistocles  and  of 
the  combined  fleet  of  the  Peloponnesians  were 
directed  to  destroy  the  armament  of  Xerxes, 
and  to  ruin  his  maritime  power.  The  battle 
which  was  fought  near  the  island  of  Salamis, 
b.c.  480,  was  decisive  ; the  Greeks  obtained 
the  victory,  and  Themistocles  the  honor  of 
having  destroyed  the  formidable  navy  of 
Xerxes.  These  signal  services  to  his  country 
endeared  Themistocles  to  the  Athenians,  and 
he  was  universally  called  the  most  warlike 
and  most  courageous  of  all  the  Greeks  who 
fought  against  the  Persians.  He  was  received 
with  the  most  distinguished  honors  ; and  by 
his  prudent  administration,  Athens  was  soon 
fortified  with  strong  walls,  the  Piraeus  was 
rebuilt,  and  her  harbors  were  filled  with  a 
numerous  and  powerful  navy,  which  ren- 
dered her  the  mistress  of  Greece.  Yet  in 
the  midst  of  that  glory,  the  conqueror  of 
Xerxes  incurred  the  displeasure  of  his  coun- 
trymen, which  had  proved  so  fatal  to  many 
of  his  illustrious  predecessors.  He  was  ban- 
ished from  the  city,  and  after  he  had  sought 
in  vain  a safe  retreat  among  the  republics  of 
Greece  and  the  barbarians  of  Thrace,  he 
threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  a monarch 
whose  fleets  he  had  defeated,  and  whose 
father  he  had  ruined.  Artaxerxes,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Xerxes,  received  the  illustrious 
Athenian  with  kindness.  Themistocles  died 
in  the  sixty -fifth  year  of  his  age,  about  449 
years  before  the  Christian  era. 

THEOCRITUS,  a Greek  pastoral  poet, 
flourished  260  b.c. 

THEODORIC  I.,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  in 
the  south  of  France,  succeeded  Wallia,  in 
41 9.  He  laid  siege  to  Arles,  but  was  repulsed 
by  Aetius ; some  time  after  he  defeated  Lito- 
rius,  general  of  the  Roman  army,  and  led 
him  prisoner  to  Toulouse.  But  when  the 
formidable  forces  of  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns, 
put  all  the  princes  of  the  Gauls  into  a great 
consternation*  he  united  his  forces  with  Mer- 
ovee,  king  of  France,  xVctius,  and  Gundicaire, 
king  of  the  Burgundians,  and  fought  and 
defeated  Attila  at  Chalons.  Theodoric  was 
killed  in  the  battle,  in  451. 

THEODORIC  II.,  son  of  the  above,  mur- 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


861 


dered  his  eldest  brother  Thorismond,  in  453, 
and  made  himself  master  of  the  town  of 
Narbonne,  which  was  surrendered  to  him  by 
Count  Agrippin,  in  462.  Advancing  into 
Spain,  Rechaire,  king  of  the  Suevi,  his  brother- 
in-law,  gave  him  battle ; but  having  worsted 
and  taken  Rechaire  in  his  retreat,  Theodoric 
sentenced  him  to  death,  and  was  himself 
killed  soon  after  by  the  contrivance  of  one  of 
his  brothers  called  Evaric,  who  ascended  the 
throne  in  466. 

THEODORIC,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
founded  their  dominion  in  Italy,  493.  His 
name,  like  that  of  Charlemagne  after  him, 
was  celebrated  in  heroic  songs,  while  politi- 
cal writers  and  historical  critics  commend 
alike  his  talents  and  his  virtues.  He  died  at 
Ravenna  in  526,  aged  sixty-one. 

THEODOSIUS  FLAVIUS,  a Roman  em- 
peror, surnamed  Magnus,  from  the  greatness 
of  his  exploits.  He  was  invested  with  the 
imperial  purple  by  Gratian,  and  appointed 
over  Thrace  and  the  eastern  provinces,  which 
had  been  in  the  possession  of  Valentinian. 
The  first  years  of  his  reign  were  marked  by 
different  conquests  over  the  barbarians.  The 
Goths  were  defeated  in  Thrace,  and  four 
thousand  of  their  chariots,  with  an  immense 
number  of  prisoners  of  both  sexes,  were  the 
reward  of  the  victory.  Conspiracies  were 
formed  against  the  emperor,  but  Theodosius 
totally  disregarded  them  ; and  while  he  pun- 
ished his  competitors  for  the  imperial  purple, 
he  thought  himself  sufficiently  secure  in  the 
love  and  the  affection  of  his  subjects.  He 
triumphed  over  the  barbarians,  and  restored 
peace  in  every  part  of  the  empire.  He  died 
of  a dropsy  at  Milan  in  the  sixtieth  year  of 
his  age,  after  a reign  of  sixteen  years,  the 
17th  of  January,  a.d.  395.  Theodosius  was 
the  last  of  the  emperors  who  was  the  sole 
master  of  the  whole  Roman  empire.  His 
want  of  clemency,  in  one  awful  instance, 
was  too  openly  betrayed  ; for  when  the  peo- 
ple of  Thessalonica  had  unmeaningly,  per- 
haps, killed  one  of  his  officers,  the  emperor 
ordered  his  soldiers  to  put  all  the  inhabitants 
to  the  sword,  and  no  less  than  six  thousand 
persons,  without  distinction  of  rank,  age,  or 
sex,  were  cruelly  butchered  in  that  town  in 
the  space  of  three  hours.  This  violence  irri- 
tated the  ecclesiastics,  and  Theodosius  was 
compelled  by  St.  Ambrose  to  do  open  pen- 


ance in  the  church,  and  publicly  to  make 
atonement  for  an  act  of  barbarity  which  had 
excluded  him  from  the  bosom  of  the  church 
and  the  communion  of  the  faithful.  In  his 
private  character  Theodosius  was  an  exam- 
ple of  soberness  and  temperance  ; his  palace 
displayed  becoming  grandeur,  but  still  with 
moderation.  He  never  indulged  luxury,  or 
countenanced  superfluities.  He  was  fond  of 
bodily  exercise,  and  never  gave  himself  up 
to  pleasure  and  enervating  enjoyments.  The 
laws  and  regulations  which  he  introduced  in 
the  Roman  empire,  were  of  the  most  salutary 
nature. 

THERx^MENES,  an  Athenian  philosopher 
and  general  in  the  age  of  Alcibiades,  was 
one  of  the  thirty  tyrants  of  Athens.  He 
was  accused  by  Critias,  one  of  his  colleagues, 
because  he  opposed  their  views,  and  he  was 
condemned  to  drink  hemlock,  though  de- 
fended by  his  own  innocence  and  the  friendly 
intercession  of  the  philosopher  Socrates. 
He  drank  the  poison  with  great  composure, 
and  poured  some  of  it  on  the  ground,  with 
the  sarcastical 'exclamation  of,  “This  is 
to  the  health  of  Critias.”  This  happened 
about  404  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

THERMOPYLAE,  a small  pass  leading 
from  Thessaly  into  Locris  and  Phocis.  It 
has  a large  ridge  of  mountains  on  the  west, 
and  the  sea  on  the  east,  with  deep  and  dan- 
gerous marshes,  being  in  the  narrowest  part 
only  twenty-five  feet  in  breadth.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  a battle  which  was  fought  there 
b.c.  480,  on  the  7th  of  August,  between 
Xerxes,  and  the  Greeks  under  Leonidas. 
Xerxes  assembled  his  troops  and  encamped 
on  the  plains  of  Thracis.  Xerxes  having  no 
particular  quarrel  with  the  Spartans,  sent 
messengers  to  desire  them  to  lay  down  their 
arms ; to  which  the  Lacedaemonians  boldly 
replied,  “Let  Xerxes  come  and  take  them.” 
On  the  evening  of  the  seventh  day  after 
Xerxes  had  arrived  at  the  straits  of  Thermo- 
pylae, twenty  thousand  chosen  men,  com- 
manded by  Hydarnes,  and  conducted  by  the 
traitor  Epialtes,  who  had  offered  to  lead 
them  through  another  passage  in  the  moun- 
tains, left  the  Persian  camp.  The  next  morn- 
ing they  perceived  a thousand  Phocians, 
whom  Leonidas  had  sent  to  defend  this  im- 
portant, but  general^  unknown,  pass.  The 
immense  shower  of  darts  from  the  Persians 


THE 


862 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


compelled  the  Phocians  to  abandon  the  pas- 
sage they  had  been  sent  to  guard ; *and  they 
retired  to  the  highest  part  of  the  mountain. 
This  gave  the  Persians  an  opportunity  of 
seizing  the  pass,  through  which  they  marched 
with  the  greatest  expedition.  In  the  dead 
of  the  night  the  Spartans,  headed  by  Leoni- 
das, and  full  of  resentment  and  despair, 
marched  in  close  battalion  to  surprise  the 
Persian  camp.  Dreadful  was  the  fury  of  the 
Greeks ; and  on  account  of  want  of  disci- 
pline, there  being  no  advance  guard  or  watch, 
greatly  destructive  to  the  Persians.  Num- 
bers fell  by  the  Grecian  spears,  but  far  more 
perished  by  the  mistakes  of  their  own  troops, 
who,  in  the  confusion  that  prevailed,  could 
not  distinguish  friends  from  foes.  W earied 
with  slaughter,  the  Greeks  penetrated  to  the 
royal  tent ; but  Xerxes,  with  his  favorites, 
had  fled  to  the  extremity  of  the  encamp- 
ments. The  dawn  of  day  discovered  to  the 
Persians  a dreadful  scene  of  carnage.  The 
handful  of  Greeks  by  whom  this  terrible 
slaughter  had  been  made,  retreated  to  the 
straits  of  Thermopylae;  an.d  the  Persians, 
by  menaces,  stripes,  and  blows,  could  scarce- 
ly be  compelled  to  advance  against  them. 
The  Greeks  halted  where  the  pass  was  wid- 
est, to  receive  the  charge  of  the  enemy.  The 
shock  was  dreadful.  After  the  Greeks  had 
blunted  or  broken  their  spears,  they  attacked 
with  sword  in  hand,  and  made  an  incredible 
havoc.  Four  times  they  dispelled  the  thick- 
est ranks  of  the  enemy,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  sacred  remains  of  their  king  Leonidas, 
who  had  fallen  in  the  engagement.  Two 
days  had  they  held  the  pass : on  the  third, 
when  their  unexampled  valor  was  about  to 
carry  off  the  inestimable  prize,  the  hostile 
battalions  under  the  conduct  of  Epialtes, 
were  seen  descending  the  hill.  All  hopes 
were  now  dispersed,  and  nothing  remained  to 
be  attempted  but  the  last  effort  of  a gener- 
ous despair.  Collecting  themselves  into  a 
phalanx,  the  Greeks  retired  to  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  strait ; and  on  a rising  ground, 
took  post  behind  a wall  which  the  Phocians  had 
sometime  raised,  now  mostly  in  ruins.  As 
they  made  this  movement,  the  Thebans, 
whom  fear  had  hitherto  restrained  from  de- 
fection, revolted  to  the  Persians  ; declaring 
that  their  republic  had  sent  earth  and  water 
in  token  of  their  submission  to  Xerxes  ; and 


that  they  had  been  reluctantly  compelled  to 
resist  the  progress  of  his  arms.  In  the  mean 
time,  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Thespians  were 
assaulted  on  every  side  ; the  wall  was  beaten 
down,  and  the  enemy  entered  the  breaches. 
But  instant  death  befel  the  Persians  that 
entered.  In  this  last  struggle,  the  most  he- 
roic and  determined  courage  was  displayed 
by  every  Grecian.  It  being  observed  to 
Diocenes,  the  Spartan,  that  the  Persian  ar- 
rows were  so  numerous  as  to  intercept  the 
light  of  the  sun,  he  replied  this  was  a favor- 
able circumstance,  because  the  Greeks  there- 
by fought  in  the  shade.  At  length  it  became 
impossible  for  the  Greeks  to  resist  the  impet- 
uosity and  weight  of  the  darts  and  other  mis- 
siles continually  poured  upon  them.  They 
therefore  fell,  not  conquered,  but  buried  un- 
der a trophy  of  Persian  arms.  In  this  dread- 
ful conflict,  the  Persians  lost  20,000  men, 
and  according  to  some  historians,  the  whole 
of  the  Persian  army  amounted  to  five  mil- 
lions ! 

Of  the  300  Spartans  one  only  returned, 
and  he  was  fiercely  reproached  for  escaping 
from  a field  where  all  his  companions  had 
fallen.  After  the  defection  of  the  Thebans, 
Leonidas  had  only  his  countrymen  and  700 
Thespians. 

THESPIS,  a famous  Greek  tragic  poet, 
and  first  representer  of  tragedy  at  Athens  ; 
flourished  536  b.c.  His  stage  was  a wagon. 

THESSALY  was  one  of  the  principal  di- 
visions of  Northern  Greece.  It  contained 
four  provinces,  mostly  surrounded  with 
mountains.  In  the  centre  of  Thessaly,  on 
the  river  Enipeus,  were  the  city  and  plain  of 
Pharsalus,  famous  for  the  battle  fought  there 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey.  Thessaly  was 
governed  by  its  own  kings  till  it  became  sub- 
ject to  Macedon. 

With  the  exception  of  a short  period  under 
Jason  of  Pherae,  b.c.  371,  Thessaly  never 
assumed  a prominent  position  in  the  affairs 
of  Greece.  This  region  was  the  cradle  of 
many  of  the  Grecian  nations,  as  the  Dorians, 
the  Achaians,  the  AEtolians,  &c.  Here  were 
Olympus,  Ossa,  and  Pclion,  mountains  great 
in  fable,  and  here  was  laid  the  scene  of  many 
a classical  adventure. 

TIIISTLEWOOD,  Arthur,  a disappointed 
man  and  desperate  politician,  who,  in  1819, 
planned  a conspiracy  to  assassinate  the  Brit- 


THI 


HISTORY  AND 

ish  ministers,  at  a cabinet  dinner  in  Grosve- 
nor  square,  and  overthrow  the  government. 
He,  and  his  confederates,  fifteen  or  sixteen 
in  number,  assembled  in  a stable-loft  in  Cato 
street,  Mary-le-bone,  on  the  evening  on  which 
they  proposed  to  effect  their  purpose,  but  the 
police  having  notice,  they  were  surrounded, 
and  most  of  them  captured.  Thistlewood 
and  four  others  were  tried  at  the  Old  Bailey, 
and  being  convicted,  were  executed  in  the 
usual  manner  in  which  death  is  inflicted  for 
high  treason,  May  1st,  1S20. 

The  plot  is  called  the  Cato  street  conspir- 
acy. Rumor  attributed  this,  with  other  com- 
binations of  the  time,  to  the  machinations 
of  ministerial  spies,  who  perfidiously  abetted 
the  designs  of  malcontents,  so  as  to  bring 
them  within  the  clutch  of  the  law. 

THOMSON,  Charles,  secretary  of  the  con- 
tinental Congress,  was  born  in  Ireland,  No- 
vember, 1729,  and  came  to  America  at  the 
age  of  eleven.  He  went  into  business  in 
Philadelphia,  where  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  early  opposition  to  the  obnoxious 
measures  of  the  British  ministry.  From 
1774  till  his  resignation  in  1789  he  was  the 
untiring  secretary  of  Congress.  He  died 
Aug.  10  th,  1824. 

THOMSON,  James,  was  born  in  Roxburgh- 
shire, Scotland,  in  1700,  and  spent  his  boy- 
hood among  the  Cheviot  Hills.  After  study- 
ing at  Edinburgh,  he  sought  his  fortunes  in 
London.  The  publications  of  the  “ Seasons  ” 
gained  him  friends  and  fame  at  once.  He 
died  at  Kew,  near  London,  Aug.  27th, 
1748. 

THORNTON,  Matthew,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
Ireland  in  1714,  and  when  only  three  years 
of  age  was  brought  by  his  father  to  America. 
He  was  bred  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  studied 
medicine,  and  served  as  surgeon  in  the  expe- 
dition of  1745  against  Louisburg.  He  set- 
tled as  a physician  in  Londonderry,  N.  H. ; 
was  sent  to  the  continental  congress  in  1776. 
The  same  year  he  was  made  chief-justice  of 
the  court  of  common  pleas  of  New  Hamp- 
shire and  afterward  he  was  raised  to  the 
bench  of  the  superior  court.  He  died  in 
Massachusetts,  June  24th,  1803. 

THORWALDSEN,  Albert,  was  born  at 
Copenhagen,  Nov.  19th,  1770.  He  was  long 
a student  and  resident  in  Rome,  and  gained  a 


BIOGRAPHY.  863 

lofty  reputation  as  a sculptor.  He  died  at 
Copenhagen,  March  24th,  1844. 

THRACE,  a large  country  of  ancient  Eu- 
rope, south  of  Scythia,  bounded  by  Mount 
Haemus.  It  had  the  iEgean  Sea  on  the  south, 
on  the  west  Macedonia  and  the  river  Stry- 
mon,  and  on  the  east  the  Euxine  Sea,  the 
Propontis,  and  the  Hellespont.  Its  northern 
boundaries  extended  as  far  as  the  Ister  (now 
the  Danube),  according  to  Pliny  and  others. 
The  Thracians  were  looked  upon  as  a cruel 
and  barbarous  nation  ; they  were  naturally 
brave  and  warlike,  addicted  to  drinking  and 
licentious  pleasures,  and  they  sacrificed, 
without  the  smallest  humanity,  their  ene- 
mies on  the  altars  of  their  gods.  Their  gov- 
ernment was  originally  monarchical,  and 
divided  among  a number  of  independent 
princes.  Thrace  received  its  name  from 
Thrax,  the  son  of  Mars,  the  chief  deity  of 
the  country.  The  first  inhabitants  lived 
upon  plunder,  and  on  the  milk  and  flesh  of 
sheep. 

THRASYBULUS,  a famous  general  of 
Athens,  who  began  the  expulsion  of  the  thirty 
tyrants  of  his  country,  though  he  was  only 
assisted  by  thirty  of  his  friends.  His  efforts 
were  attended  with  success,  b.c.  401,  and  the 
only  reward  he  received  for  this  patriotic 
action,  was  a crown  made  with  two  twigs  of 
an  olive  branch ; a proof  of  his  own  disin- 
terestedness and  of  the  virtues  of  his  coun- 
trymen. The  Athenians  employed  a man 
whose  abilities  and  humanity  were  so  con- 
spicuous, and  Thrasybulus  was  sent  with  a 
powerful  fleet  to  recover  their  lost  power  in 
the  iEgean,  and  on  the  coast  of  Asia.  After 
he  had  gained  many  advantages,  this  great 
man  was  killed  in  his  camp  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Aspendus,  whom  his  soldiers  had 
plundered  without  his  knowledge,  b.c.  391. 

THRASYMENUS,  a lake  of  Italy  near 
Perugia,  celebrated  for  a battle  fought  on  its 
shore  between  Hannibal  and  the  Romans, 
under  Flaminius,  b.c.  217.  No  less  than 
15,000  Romans  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of 
battle,  and  10,000  taken  prisoners,  or,  ac- 
cording to  Livy,  6,000,  or  Polybius  15,000. 
The  loss  of  Hannibal  was  about  1,500  men. 
About  10,000  Romans  made  their  escape, 
covered  with  wounds.  This  lake  is  now 
called  the  Lake  of  Perugia. 

THUCYDIDES  was  an  Athenian,  born 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


B64 


about  b.c.  471.  He  held  a command  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  and  for  failing  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Amphipolis,  was  sent  into  exile. 
For  twenty  years  he  was  a refugee.  During 
this  time  he  busied  himself  with  the  history 
of  the  war,  which  has  given  him  a high  rank 
among  classic  authors.  When  peace  was 
concluded  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  b.c. 
404,  the  return  of  exiles  was  permitted,  and 
Thucydides  was  restored  to  his  country  the 
next  year.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was  assas- 
sinated at  Athens,  about  391  b.c. 

THURLOW,  Lord  Edward,  a famous 
chancellor  of  England  during  the  reign  of 
George  III.,  died  in  1806,  at  the  age  of  sev- 
enty-four. 

TIBERIUS,  Claudius  Nero,  a Roman 
emperor  after  the  death  of  Augustus,  was 
descended  from  the  family  of  the  Claudii. 
His  first  appearance  in  the  Roman  armies 
was  under  Augustus,  in  the  war  against  the 
Cantabri ; and  afterward  in  the  capacity  of 
general,  he  obtained  victories  in  different 
parts  of  the  empire,  and  was  rewarded  with 
a triumph.  He  had  the  command  of  the  Roman 
armies  in  Illyricum,  Pannonia,  and  Dalmatia, 
and  seemed  to  divide  the  sovereign  power 
■with  Augustus.  At  the  death  of  this  cele- 
brated emperor,  Tiberius,  who  had  been 
adopted,  assumed  the  reins  of  government. 
The  beginning  of  his  reign  seemed  to  prom- 
ise tranquillity  to  the  world  ; Tiberius  was  a 
watchful  guardian  of  the  public  peace ; he 
was  the  friend  of  justice  ; and  never  assumed 
the  sounding  titles  which  must  disgust  a free 
nation,  but  he  was  satisfied  to  say  of  himself 
that  he  was  the  master  of  his  slaves,  the  gen- 
eral of  his  soldiers,  and  the  father  of  the  cit- 
izens of  Rome.  That  seeming  moderation, 
however,  which  was  but  the  fruit  of  the 
deepest  policy,  soon  disappeared,  and  Tibe- 
rius was  viewed  in  his  real  character.  The 
armies  mutinied  in  Pannonia  and  Germany, 
but  the  tumults  were  silenced  by  the  pru- 
dence of  the  generals  and  the  fidelity  of  the 
officers,  and  the  factious  demagogues  wTere 
abandoned  to  their  condign  punishment. 
This  acted  as  a check  upon  Tiberius  in 
Rome ; he  knew  from  thence,  that  his  power 
was  precarious,  and  his  very  existence  in 
perpetual  danger.  He  continued,  as  he  had 
begun,  to  pay  the  greatest  deference  to  the 
senate : all  libels  agains  thim  he  disregarded, 


and  he  observed,  that,  in  a free  city,  the 
thoughts  and  the  tongue  of  every  man  should 
be  free.  While  Rome  exhibited  a scene  of 
peace  and  public  tranquillity,  the  barbarians 
were  severally  defeated  on  the  borders  of 
the  empire,  and  Tiberius  gained  new  honors, 
by  the  activity  and  valor  of  Germanicus  and 
his  other  faithful  lieutenants.  He  at  last 
retired  to  the  island  of  Capreae  on  the  coast 
of  Campania,  where  he  buried  himself  in 
unlawful  pleasures.  The  care  of  the  empire 
was  intrusted  to  favorites,  among  whom  Se- 
janus  for  a while  shone  with  uncommon 
splendor.  In  this  solitary  retreat,  the  em- 
peror proposed  rewards  to  such  as  invented 
new  pleasures,  or  could  produce  fresh  luxu- 
ries. While  the  emperor  was  lost  to  himself 
and  the  world,  the  provinces  were  harassed 
on  every  side  by  the  barbarians,  and  Tibe- 
rius found  himself  insulted  by  those  enemies 
whom  hitherto  he  had  seen  fall  prostrate  at 
his  feet  with  every  mark  of  submissive  adu- 
lation. At  last  grown  weak  and  helpless 
through  infirmities,  he  thought  of  his  ap- 
proaching dissolution ; and  as  he  well  knew 
that  Rome  could  not  exist  without  a 
head,  he  nominated,  as  his  successor,  Caius 
Caligula.  Tiberius  died  at  Misenum,  the 
16th  of  March,  a.d.  37,  in  the  seventy-eighth 
year  of  his  age,  after  a reign  of  twenty-two 
years,  six  months,  and  twenty-six  days.  It 
has  been  wittily  observed  by  Seneca,  that  he 
never  was  intoxicated  but  once  all  his  life, 
for  he  continued  in  a perpetual  state  of  intox- 
ication from  the  time  he  gave  himself  to 
drinking,  till  the  last  moment  of  his  life. 

TICONDEROGA,  Fort,  was  situated  on  a 
peninsula  at  the  junction  of  the  outlet  of 
Lake  George  with  Lake  Champlain.  The 
French  built  a fortress  here  in  1756.  An 
English  army  under  Abercrombie  attacked 
it,  July  6th,  1758,  and  was  severely  repulsed 
by  the  forces  of  Montcalm.  Lord  Amherst 
was  more  successful  in  1759.  He  commenced 
a siege;  the  garrison  saw  that  surrender 
would  be  inevitable,  so  that  they  dismantled 
the  works,  and  their  flight  left  it  to  the  pos- 
session of  the  English.  The  bold  exploit  of 
Ethan  Allen  secured  it  to  the  Americans  in 
1775,  the  10th  of  May.  It  was  evacuated 
by  Gen.  St.  Clair  when  threatened  by  the 
host  of  Burgoyne  in  1777.  The  fortress  is 
now  in  ruins. 


TIC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


865 


TTGRANES,  akingof  Armenia,  who  made 
himself  master  of  Assyria  and  Cappadocia. 
By  the  advice  of  Mithridates,  his  father-in-law, 
he  declared  war  against  /the  Romans.  He 
despised  these  distant  enemies,  and  even  or- 
dered the  head  of  the  messenger  to  he  cut 
off  who  first  told  him  that  the  Roman  general 
was  boldly  advancing  toward  his  capital.  Hie 
pride,  however,  was  soon  abated,  and  though 
he  ordered  the  Roman  consul  Lucuilus  to  be 
brought  alive  into  his  presence,  he  fled  with 
precipitation  from  his  capital,  and  was  soon 
after  defeated  near  Mount  Taurus.  This  to- 
tally disheartened  him  ; he  refused  to  receive 
Mithridates  into  his  palace,  and  even  set  a 
price  upon  his  head.  His  mean  submission 
to  Pompey,  the  successor  of  Lucuilus  in 
Asia,  and  a bribe  of  60,000  talents,  insured 
him  on  his  throne;  he  received  a garri- 
son in  his  capital,  and  continued  at  peace 
with  the  Romans.  His  second  son,  of  the 
same  name,  revolted  against  him,  and  at- 
tempted to  dethrone  him  with  the  assistance 
of  the  king  of  Parthia,  whose  daughter  he 
had  married.  This  did  not  succeed,  and  the  son 
had  recourse  to  the  Romans,  by  whom  he  was 
put  in  possession  of  Sophene,  while  the  father 
remained  quiet  on  the  throne  of  Armenia. 
The  son  was  afterward  sent  in  chains  to 
$ome,  for  his  insolence  to  Pompey. 

TILLOTSON,  John,  an  eminent  English 
divine  (1630-1694),  was  the  son  of  a clothier 
pt  Sowerby,  near  Halifax  and  was  bred  in 
the  Calvinistic  faith  of  the  Puritans.  While 
studying  at  Cambridge,  his  views  were  some- 
what modified,  and  at  the  passing  of  the  act 
*if  uniformity  in  1662,  he  submitted  to  the 
»aw,  and  accepted  a curacy.  He  quickly  be- 
came noted  as  a preacher,  rose  in  the  church, 
and  after  the  revolution  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury. 

TILLY,  John  Tzerkles,  Count  de,  a cele- 
brated general  in  the  ‘ thirty  years  war  ’ in 
Germany,  was  born  near  Brussels,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  originally  a Jebiiit,  which  order  he 
quitted  for  the  Spanish  army,  and  served  un- 
der Alva  in  Flanders.  He  commanded  the  Ba-  ! 
varian  troops  under  Duke  Maximilian,  and  had 
a great  share  in  the  battle  of  Prague,  Nov.  8th, 
1620.  At  that  of  Lutter,  in  Lunenburg,  in 
1626,  he  defeated  the  king  of  Denmark,  with 
whom  he  afterward  concluded  a treat}'.  In 
1631  he  took  the  city  of  Magdeburg,  where 


he  committed  a horrible  massacre.  The 
same  year  he  was  routed  by  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus ; and  while  defending  the  passage  of 
the  Lech  against  the  Swedes,  he  received  a 
mortal  wound,  April  30th,  1632. 

TILSIT,  a town  on  the  Niemen  in  East 
Prussia,  celebrated  for  a memorable  treaty 
concluded  between  France  and  Russia,  July 
7th,  1807,  whereby  Napoleon  restored  to  the 
Prussian  monarch  one-half  his  dominions, 
and  Russia  recognized  the  confederation  of 
the  Rhine,  and  the  elevation  oi  Joseph, 
Louis,  and  Jerome  Bonaparte  to  the  thrones 
of  Naples,  Holland,  and  Westphalia.  Napo- 
leon and  Alexander  met  on  a raft  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  Niemen  to  arrange  the  terms  of 
this  peace. 

TIME.  TnE  year. — The  Egyptians,  it  is 
said,  were  the  first  who  fixed  the  length  of 
the  year.  The  Roman  year  was  intro- 
duced by  Romulus,  738  b.c.  The  solar  or 
astronomical  year  was  found  to  comprise  365 
d.,5  h.,48m.,  51.6  s.,  265  b.c.  The  sidereal 
year , or  return  to  the  same  star,  is  365  d.  6 h., 

9 m.,  11  s.  A lunar  year  is  the  space  of  time 
comprehended  in  twelve  lunar  months,  or 
354  d.,  8 h.,  48  m.,  and  was  in  use  among  the 
Chaldeans,  Persians,  and  ancient  Jews. 
Once  in  every  three  years  was  added  another 
lunar  month,  so  as  to  make  the  solar  and  the 
lunar  years  nearly  agree.  But  though  the 
months  were  lunar,  the  year  was  solar ; that 
is,  the  first  month  was  of  thirty  days,  the 
second  of  twenty-nine,  and  so  alternately ; 
and  the  month  added  triennially  was  called 
the  second  Adar.  The  Jews  afterward  fol- 
lowed the  Roman  style  of  computing  time. 
The  sabbatical  year  was  every  seventh  year 
among  the  Jews.  Then  the  ground  lay  fal- 
low, and  people  and  beasts  had  rest. 
Every  seventh  sabbatical  year  was  called  the 
1 jubilee  year.  Then  there  was  joy  and  re- 
joicing ; all  debts  were  forgiven ; all  slaves 
were  set  at  liberty. 

Different  nations  commenced  the  year  at 
different  seasons.  The  Jews  dated  the  be- 
ginning in  the  month  of  March ; the  Athe- 
nians began  the  year  in  the  month  of  June ; 
the  Macedonians  on  the  24th  of  September  ; 
the  Christians  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  on  the 
29th  or  30th  of  August,  and  the  Persians 
and  Armenians  on  the  11th  of  the  same 
month.  Nearly  all  the  nations  of  Christen- 


TIM 


866 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


dom  now  commence  the  year  with  the  1st 
of  January.  Charles  IX.  ordered  this  in 
France  in  1564.  The  English  began  their 
year  on  the  25th  of  December,  until  the  Con- 
quest. William  the  Conqueror  having  been 
crowned  Jan.  1st,  the  year  thereafter  began 
at  that  time.  But  though  the  historical  year 
thus  began,  the  civil  or  legal  year  did  not 
commence  till  the  25th  of  March,  and  this 
continued  as  late  as  1752,  the  time  of  the 
change  from  old  to  new  style.  This  discrep- 
ancy caused  great  practical  inconveniences  ; 
since  January,  February,  and  part  of  March 
sometimes  bore  two  dates  ; and  we  often  find 
in  old  records,  1745-1746,  or  1745-6,  or 
174|.  Such  reckoning  often  led  to  chrono- 
logical errors;  thus  the  revolution  of  1688, 
as  it  is  generally  called,  happened  in  Febru- 
ary of  the  year  1688,  according  to  the  then 
mode  of  computation ; but  if  the  year  were 
held  to  begin,  as  it  does  now,  on  the  1st  of 
January,  it  would  be  the  revolution  of  1689. 

The  Roman  calendar  has  in  great  part 
been  adopted  by  almost  all  nations.  Romu- 
lus divided  the  year  into  ten  months,  com- 
prising three  hundred  and  four  days.  Being 
fifty  days  shorter  than  the  lunar  year,  and 
sixty-one  less  than  the  solar,  its  commence- 
ment of  course  did  not  correspond  with  any 
fixed  season.  Numa  Pompilius  (718  b.c.) 
corrected  this  calendar,  by  adding  two 
months  ; and  Julius  Caesar,  desirous  to  make 
it  more  correct,  fixed  the  solar  year  as  being 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  six  hours, 
45  b.c.  The  six  hours  were  set  aside,  and 
at  the  end  of  four  years  forming  a day,  the 
fourth  year  was  made  to  consist  of  three 
hundred  and  sixty-six  days.  The  day  thus 
added  was  called  intercalary,  and  was  counted 
before  the  24th  of  February,  which  among 
the  Romans  was  the  6th  of  the  calendar,  and 
which  was  therefore  counted  twice  and  called 
1 bissextile . It  is  now  the  29th  of  Februarj^. 
This  almost  perfect  arrangement  was  denom- 
inated the  Julian  style,  and  prevailed  general- 
ly throughout  the  Christian  world  till  the  time 
of  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  It  was  defective  in 
this  particular ; that  the  solar  year  consisted 
of  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  five 
hours,  and  forty-nine  minutes,  and  not  of 
three  hundred  and  sixt}^-five  days,  six  hours. 
This  difference  of  eleven  minutes,  each  year, 
at  the  time  of  Gregory  had  amounted  to  ten 


entire  days,  the  vernal  equinox  falling  on 
the  11th  instead  of  the  21st  of  March.  To 
obviate  this  error,  Gregory  ordained,  in  1582, 
that  that  year  should  consist  of  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty -five  days  only ; and  to  prevent 
further  irregularity,  it  was  determined  that  a 
year  beginning  a century  should  not  be  bis- 
sextile, with  the  exception  of  that  beginning 
each  fourth  century  : thus,  1700  and  1800 
were  not  bissextile,  nor  will  1900  be  so,  but 
the  year  2000  will  be  a leap  year.  In  this 
manner  three  days  are  retrenched  in  four 
hundred  years,  because  the  lapse  of  the 
eleven  minutes  each  year  makes  three  days 
in  about  that  period.  The  year  of  the  calen- 
dar is  thus  made  as  nearly  as  possible  to  cor- 
respond with  the  true  solar  year,  and  future 
errors  of  chronology  are  avoided. 

The  new  calendar  was  called  the  Grego- 
rian, from  the  pontiff  who  had  ordained  the 
alteration,  and  was  at  once  adopted  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  states  of  Europe.  England, 
Denmark,  and  Sweden  rejected  it  then  ; but 
in  1751  an  act  of  parliament  ordered  its  use 
in  Great  Britain.  To  the  time  of  Gregory, 
the  deficiency  in  the  Julian  calendar  had 
amounted  to  ten  days,  we  have  seen  ; in  1751 
there  was  a difference  of  another  day.  Eleven 
days,  therefore,  were  dropped  from  the  Brit- 
ish September,  in  1752,  the  third  being  made 
the  fourteenth.  The  former  reckoning  is 
known  as  old  style , while  that  of  the  Grego- 
rian calendar  is  called  new  style. 

The.  Months. — January  was  added  to  the 
year  by  Numa  when  he  reformed  the  Roman 
calendar,  and  derives  its  name  from  Janus,  a di- 
vinity among  the  early  Romans.  Numa  placed 
it  about  the  winter  solstice,  and  made  k the 
first  month,  because  Janus  was  supposed  to 
preside  over  the  beginning  of  all  business. 
The  first  day  was  a festival.  February  was 
also  added  by  Numa,  and  so  called  from  Feb- 
rua,  a feast  which  was  held  in  behalf  of  the 
manes  of  deceased  persons,  when  sacrifices 
were  performed,  and  the  last  offices  were  paid 
to  the  shades  of  the  dead.  March  was  the 
first  month  of  the  year  till  the  time  of  Numa. 
Romulus  gave  it  the  name  of  his  supposed 
father,  Mars ; though  Ovid  observes  that  the 
people  of  Italy  had  the  month  of  March 
before  the  rule  of  Romulus,  but  that  they 
placed  it  very  d;fferently  in  the  calendar. 
Of  the  origin  of  April  we  have  no  account. 


TIM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  867 


May  received  its  name,  some  say,  from  Rom- 
ulus, who  gave  it  this  appellation  in  respect 
to  the  senators  and  nobles  of  his  city,  who 
were  denominated  major es ; though  others 
suppose  it  was  so  called  from  Maia,  the 
mother  of  Mercury,  to  whom  sacrifices  were 
offered  on  the  first  day.  On  May-day  the 
ancient  Romans  went  in  procession  to  the 
grotto  of  Egeria.  It  has  been  immemorially 
observed  in  England  as  a rural  festival ; and 
high  poles,  called  May -poles,  are  yet  in  many 
places  thickly  hung  with  garlands  wreathed 
in  honor  of  the  day.  June  some  derive 
a Junone , and  others  a Junioribus,  this  being 
for  the  young,  as  the  month  of  May  was  for- 
aged persons.  Ovid,  in  his  Fasti , introduces 
Juno  as  claiming  this  month.  July  was 
named  by  Marc  Antony  in  honor  of  Julius 
Caesar,  whose  birth  fell  in  it.  August , in 
like  manner,  was  so  called  in  honor  of 
Augustus  Caesar,  because  in  this  month  he 
was  born,  was  created  consul,  thrice  tri- 
umphed in  Rome,  subdued  Egypt  to  the 
Roman  empire,  and  made  an  end  of  the  civil 
wars.  It  was  previously  called  Sextilis , or 
the  sixth  from  March.  September  being  the 
seventh  month  in  the  year  before  January 
and  February  were  added,  has  its  name  from 
s^timus,  seventh.  The  emperor  Domitian 
gave  it  his  own  name,  Germanicus ; the  sen- 
ate under  Antoninus  Pius  called  it  Antoni- 
nus ; Commodus  gave  it  his  surname,  Hercu- 
leus ; and  the  emperor  Tacitus  his  own 
name,  Tacitus.  But  these  names  all  fell  into 
disuse.  So,-  also,  the  senate  ordered  October 
to  be  called  Faustinus,  in  honor  of  Faustina; 
wife  of  Antoninus  the  emperor  ; Commodus 
would  have  had  it  called  Invinctus,  and 
Domitian  Domitianus : in  spite  of  all  these 
changes,  the  month  retains  the  name  denot- 
ing that  it  was  at  first  eighth  in  the  year. 
October  was  sacred  to  Mars.  November  was 
anciently  the  ninth  month,  whence  its  name. 
When  the  Roman  senators  would  have  called 
this  month  after  Tiberius,  in  imitation  of 
the  similar  honor  paid  to  Julius  Caesar  and 
Augustus,  the  emperor  absolutely  refused, 
saying,  “ What  will  you  do,  conscript  fathers, 
if  you  have  thirteen  Caesars?”  December 
took  its  name  from  decern , being  at  first  the 
tenth  nrvonth.  In  the  reign  of  Commodus,  it 
was  called  Amazonius,  in  flattery  of  a 
courtesan  whom  that  emperor  passionately 


loved,  and  had  got  painted  like  an  Ama- 
zon. 

Days  of  the  Week. — The  week  is  supposed 
to  have  been  first  used  among  the  Jews,  who 
observed  the  Sabbath  every  seventh  day. 
They  had  three  sorts  of  weeks  : the  first  the 
common  one  of  seven  days ; the  second  of 
years,  which  was  seven  years  ; the  third  of 
seven  times  seven  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
was  the  jubilee. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the  days 
of  the  week  among  several  nations: — 


Latin. 

Saxon 

English. 

Dies  Solis, 

Sun’s  Day, 

Sunday, 

Dies  Luna?, 

Moon’s  Day, 

Monday, 

Dies  Martis, 

Tiw’s  day, 

Tuesday, 

Dies  Mercurii, 

Woden’s  day, 

Wednesday, 

Dies  Jo  vis, 

Thor’s  day, 

Thursday, 

Dies  Veneris, 

Friga’s  day, 

F riday, 

Dies  Saturni, 

Sa:erne’s  day, 

Saturday. 

German. 

French. 

» Spanish. 

Sormtag, 

Dimanche, 

Domingo, 

Montag, 

Lundi, 

Lunes, 

Dienstag, 

Mardi, 

Mereredi, 

Martes, 

Miercoles, 

Mittwoche, 

Donnerstag, 

Jeudi, 

Jueves, 

Freitag, 

Vendredi, 

Yiernes. 

Sonnabend,  or 
Sanistag, 

Samedi, 

Sabado. 

The  present  English  names  are  all  derived 
from  the  Saxon.  Sunday  was  the  day  on 
which,  anciently,  divine  adoration  was  paid 
to  the  sun.  Among  Christians  it  is  com- 
monly called  Dies  Dominica,  or  Lord’s  day, 
on  account  of  the  Saviour’s  appearance  after 
the  resurrection,  in  commemoration  whereof 
it  is  observed  as  the  Christian  Sabbath.  In 
the  year  960  the  Sabbath  was  ordained  to  be 
kept  holy  in  England  from  Saturday  at  three 
in  the  afternoon  till  Monday  at  break  of  day. 
It  is  very  remarkable  that  the  heathen  na- 
tions, who  can  not  be  supposed  to  have  had 
any  knowledge  of  the  law  or  history  of 
Moses,  accounted  one  day  of  the  seven  more 
sacred  than  the  rest.  Hesiod  styles  the  sev- 
enth day  “ the  illustrious  light  of  the  sun 
and  Homer  says,  “then  came  the  seventh 
day,  which  is  sacred  or  holy.”  Almost  all 
nations,  likewise,  having  any  notions  of  reli- 
gion, have  appropriated  one  day  in  seven  to 
the  purposes  of  devotion,  though  they  have 
differed  with  regard  to  the  day.  Tuesday 
was  so  called  from  Tuisto,  Tiw,  or  Tuesco,  a 
Saxon  deity  particularly  worshiped  on  this 
day.  Tuisto  is  mentioned  by  Tacitus. 
Wednesday  is  a corruption  of  Woden’s  day, 


TIM 


868 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


so  called  from  the  Saxon  god  Woden,  or  Odin, 
worshiped  on  this  day.  Woden  was  the 
reputed  author  of  magic  and  the  inventor  of 
all  the  arts,  and  is  thought  to  answer  to  the 
Mercury  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans ; others 
suppose  him  to  be  the  same  as  Mars.  Thurs- 
day derived  its  name  from  Thor,  a deified 
hero  worshiped  by  the  ancient  northern  na- 
tions, especially  by  the  Scandinavians  and 
Celts.  His  authority  extended  over  the 
winds  and  seasons,  and  particularly  over 
thunder  and  lightning.  He  is  . said  to  have 
been  the  most  valiant  of  the  sons  of  Odin. 
This  day,  which  was  consecrated  to  Thor, 
still  retains  his  name  in  the  Danish,  Swedish, 
and  Low  Dutch  languages,  as  well  as  in  the 
English.  [See  Friday.]  Saturday  owes  its 
name  to  the  ancient  Saxon  idol  Seater,  or 
Saterne,  the  same  with  Saturn.  The  Jews 
still  observed  as  the  Sabbath,  in  commemo- 
ration of  the  creation,  and  their  redemption 
from  the  bondage  of  Egypt. 

The  Hours. — Da}^  began  at  sunrise  among 
most  of  the  northern  nations,  at  sunset 
among  the  Athenians  and  Jewrs,  and  among 
the  Romans  at  midnight,  as  it  does  with  us. 
It  began  to  be  divided  into  hours  from  the 
year  293  b.c.,  wiien  L.  Papirius  Cursor 
erected  a sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus 
at  Rome.  Before  the  invention  of  water- 
clocks,  158  b.c.,  the  time  was  called  at  Rome 
by  public  criers.  The  Chinese  divided  the 
day  into  twelve  parts  of  two  hours  each. 
The  Italians  reckon  the  day  from  sunset  to 
sunset,  counting  twTenty-four  hours  round, 
instead  of  twro  divisions  of  twelve  hours  each 
as  we  do.  In  England  the  measurement  of 
time  in  early  days  was  alike  uncertain  and 
difficult.  One  wray  was  by  wax  candles, 
three  inches  burning  an  hour,  and  six  can- 
dles burning  a day.  These  candles  were  in- 
vented by  Alfred,  a.d.  886,  clocks  and  hour 
glasses  not  being  then  known  in  England. 
Seamen  have  a way  of  their  own  for  reckon- 
ing time,  by  watches  and  bells.  The  wratches 
are  as  follows  : from  twelve  at  night  to  four 
in  the  morning,  from  four  to  eight  o’clock, 
and  from  eight  till  noon ; then  from  noon  to 
four,  from  four  to  six,  from  six  to  eight,  and 
from  eight  till  midnight.  The  two  short 
watches  in  tl\e  afternoon  are  called  the  dog- 
watches. At  the  first  half-hour  of  each 
watch,  the  ship’s  bell  is  struck  once,-  at  the 


second  half-hour  twice,  and  so  on ; so  that 
eight  strokes,  or  eight  hells  as  the  phrase  is, 
denote  the  end  of  the  wratch. 

In  the  year  1792,  the  French  nation,  in 
their  excessive  desire  to  change  all  the  exist- 
ing institutions,  decided  to  adopt  a new  cal- 
endar founded  on  philosophical  principles  ; 
but  as  they  wrere  unable  to  produce  any  plan 
more  accurate  and  convenient  than  that  pre- 
viously in  use,  they  w'cre  contented  to  follow 
the  old  plan  under  a new*  name,  merely 
changing  some  of  the  minor  details  and  sub- 
divisions, andcommencing  the  year  at  a differ- 
ent period.  The  first  year  of  the  era  of  the 
republic  began  on  the  22d  of  September, 
1792.  As  all  the  public  acts  of  the  French 
nation  wrere  dated  according  to  this  altered 
style  for  a period  of  more  than  tw-elve  years, 
its  record  here  may  be  useful.  Autumn  : 
Vendemiare  (vintage  month),  from  Sept.  22d 
to  Oct.  21st;  Brumaire  (fog  month),  Oct. 
22d  to  Nov.  20th  ; Frimaire  (sleet  month), 
Nov.  21st  to  Dec.  20th.  Winter:  Nivose , 
(snow  month),  Dec.  21st  to  Jan.  19th  ; Flu- 
viose  (rain  month),  Jan.  20th  to  Feb.  18th; 
Ventose  (wind  month),  Feb.  19th  to  March 
20th.  Spring : Germinal  (sprouts’  month), 
March  21st  to  April  19th;  Florlal  (flowers’ 
month),  April  20th  to  May  19th;  Prairjfl 
(pasture  month),  May  20th  to  June  18th. 
Summer:  Messidor  (harvest  month),  June 
19th  to  July  18th;  Fervidor  (hot  month), 
July  19th  to  Aug.  17th;  Fructidor  (fruit 
month),  Aug.  18th  to  Sept.  16th.  Sanscu- 
lottides,  or  feasts  dedicated  to — Les  Vertus 
(the  virtues),  Sept.  17th  ; Le  Genie  (genius), 
Sept.  18th;  Le  Travail  (labor),  Sept.  19th; 
F Opinion  (opinion),  Sept.  20th  ; Les  Recom- 
penses (rewards),  Sept.  21st.  Though  this 
era  commenced  Sept.  22d,  1792,  its  establish- 
ment wTas  not  decreed  until  the  4th  Frimaire 
of  the  year  II.  (Nov.  24th,  1793).  This  rev- 
olutionary calendar  existed  until  the  10th 
Nivose,  year  of  the  republic  XIV.,  being  the 
31st  of  December,  1805,  when  Napoleon  re- 
stored the  Gregorian  mode  of  calculation. 

TIMOLEON  was  born  in  Corinth  about  b.c. 
41 0.  His  first  exploit  was  the  deliverance  of 
Corinth  from  the  tj'ranny  of  his  elder  brother 
Timophanes,  in  which  it  was  necessary  to  put 
him  to  death.  Timoleon’s  patriotism  wras 
not  appreciated,  and  amid  execrations  for  his 
share  in  the  tragedy,  he  gloomily  withdrew 


TIM 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


869 


from  public  life.  When  twenty  years  there- 
after, the  Syracusans,  oppressed  with  the 
tyranny  of  Dionysius  the  younger,  and  of 
the  Carthaginians,  had  solicited  the  assistance 
of  the  Corinthians,  every  one  looked  upon 
Timoleon  as  a proper  deliverer  ; but  all  ap- 
plications would  have  been  disregarded,  if 
one  of  the  magistrates  had  not  thus  spoken  : 
“ Timoleon,  if  you  accept  of  the  com- 
mand of  this  expedition,  we  will  believe  that 
you  have  killed  a tyrant;  but  if  not,  we  can 
not  but  call  you  your  brother’s  murderer.” 
This  had  due  effect ; and  Timoleon  sailed  for 
Syracuse  in  ten  ships,  accompanied  by  about 
1,000  men.  The  Carthaginians  attempted  to 
oppose  him,  but  Timoleon  eluded  their  vigi- 
lance. Icetas,  who  had  the  possession  of  the 
city,  was  defeated,  and  Dionysius,  who 
despaired  of  success,  gave  himself  up  into 
the  hands  of  the  Corinthian  general.  This 
success  gained  Timoleon  adherents  in  Sicily  ; 
many  cities  which  hitherto  had  looked  upon 
him  as  an  invader,  claimed  his  protection  ; 
and  when  he  was  at  last  master  of  Syracuse, 
by  the  total  overthrow  of  Icetas,  and  of  the 
Carthaginians,  he  razed  the  citadel  which 
had  been  the  seat  of  tyranny,  and  erected  on 
the  spot  a common  hall.  When  Syracuse 
wSis  thus  delivered  from  tyranny,  Timoleon 
extended  his  benevolence  to  the  other  states 
of  Sicily,  and  all  the  petty  tyrants  were  re- 
duced and  banished  from  the  island.  A code 
of  salutary  laws  was  framed  for  the  Syracu- 
sans ; the  armies  of  Carthage,  which  had 
attempted  again  to  raise  commotions  in  Sicily, 
were  defeated,  and  peace  was  at  last  re-estab- 
lished. The  gratitude  of  the  Sicilians  was 
shown  everywhere  to  their  deliverer.  Timo- 
leon was  received  with  repeated  applause  in 
the  public  assemblies  ; and  though  a private 
man,  unconnected  with  the  government,  he 
continued  to  enjoy  his  former  influence  at 
Syracuse ; his  advice  was  consulted  on  mat- 
ters of  importance,  and  his  authority  respect- 
ed. He  ridiculed  the  accusations  of  malevo- 
lence ; and  when  some  informers  had  charged 
him  with  oppression,  he  rebuked  the  Syra- 
cusans, who  were  going  to  put  the  accusers 
to  immediate  death.  Timoleon  died  at  Syra- 
cuse, about  337  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  His  body  received  an  honorable  burial, 
in  a public  place,  called,  from  him,  Timole- 
onteum  ; but  the  tears  of  a grateful  nation 


were  more  convincing  proofs  of  the  public 
regret,  than  the  institution  of  festivals  and 
games  yearly  to  be  observed  on  the  anniver- 
sary of  his  death. 

TIPPECANOE,  Battle  of.  In  this  fierce 
engagement,  Nov.  7th,  1811,  Gen.  Harrison, 
then  governor  of  the  territory  of  Indiana, 
defeated  a large  body  of  Shawnees. 

TIPPOO  SAIB,  the  son  of  Hyder  Ali,  and 
the  last  Sultan  of  Mysore,  resisted  the  spread 
of  the  British  power  in  India  with  unavail- 
ing energy  and  bravery.  Cooped  up  at  last 
in  Seringapatam,  his  capital,  he  refused  the 
grasping  terms  his  enemies  offered.  The 
British  stormed  the  stronghold,  May  4th, 
1799,  and  Tippoo  Saib  fell  amid  heaps  of 
slain.  His  age  was  fifty. 

TITIAN.  Tiziano  Vecellio  was  born  in 
the  Venetian  territories  in  1477.  He  com- 
menced the  study  of  painting  £t  the  age  of 
ten.  He  first  appeared  as  a great  painter  in 
1514,  at  the  court  of  Alfonso  I.,  Duke  of 
Ferrara,  where  he  executed  several  eminent 
works,  and  painted  a portrait  of  Ariosto,  who 
had  commemorated  him  in  the  “ Orlando 
Furioso.”  At  Venice  he  produced  a succes- 
sion of  magnificent  pictures.  In  1530  he 
painted  a portrait  of  Charles  V.  at  Bologna, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  accompanied  the 
emperor  into  Spain.  There  are  many  of  his 
master-pieces  at  Madrid.  Charles  V.  made 
him  count  palatine  of  the  empire,  and  knight 
of  the  order  of  St.  Iago.  During  a visit  to 
Rome  Michael  Angelo  visited  him,  praised 
highly  a painting  upon  which  he  was  en- 
gaged, and  afterward  said  that  “ if  Titian 
had  been  as  much  assisted  by  art  as  he  is  by 
nature,  nothing  could  surpass  him.”  Titian 
excelled  as  a colorist  and  portrait  painter. 
He  continued  to  wield  the  pencil  till  after  he 
was  ninety,  and  died  of  the  plague  at  Venice, 
in  1576,  at  the  advanced  age  of  ninety -nine. 

TITUS,  Flavius  Vespasianus,  son  of  Ves- 
pasian and  Flavia  Domitilla,  became  known 
by  his  valor  in  the  Roman  armies,  particularly 
at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  seventy- 
ninth  year  of  the  Christian  era,  he  was  in- 
vested with  the  imperial  purple,  and  the  Ro- 
man people  had  every  reason  to  expect  in 
him  the  barbarities  of  a Tiberius  and  the 
debaucheries  of  a Nero.  When  raised  to 
the  throne,  he  thought  himself  bound  to  be 
the  father  of  his  people,  the  guardian  of  vir- 


870 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


ARCH  OF  TIT 

tue,  and  the  patron  of  liberty  ; and  Titus  is, 
perhaps,  the  only  monarch  who,  when  in- 
vested with  uncontrollable  power,  bade  adieu 
to  those  vices,  luxuries,  and  indulgences, 
which  as  a private  man  he  had  never  ceased 
to  gratify.  All  informers  were  banished  from 
his  presence,  and  even  severely  punished. 
A reform  was  made  in  the  judicial  proceed- 
ings, and  trials  were  no  longer  permitted  to 
be  postponed  for  years.  To  do  good  to  his 
subjects  was  the  ambition  of  Titus ; and  it 
was  at  the  recollection  that  he  had  done  no 
service,  or  granted  no  favor,  one  day,  that  he 
uttered  the  memorable  words,  “ My  friends, 
I have  lost  a day  ! ” Two  of  the  senators 
conspired  against  his  life,  but  the  emperor 


U S AT  ROME. 

disregarded  their  attempts.  He  made  them 
his  friends  by  kindness,  and,  like  another 
Nerva,  presented  them  with  a sword  to  de- 
stroy him.  During  his  reign,  Rome  was 
three  days  on  fire  ; the  towns  of  Campania 
were  destroyed  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius  ; 
and  the  empire  was  visited  by  a pestilence, 
which  carried  off  an  infinite  number  of  in- 
habitants. In  this  time  of  public  calamity, 
the  emperor’s  benevolence  and  philanthropy 
were  conspicuous.  The  Romans,  however, 
had  not  long  to  enjoy  the  favors  of  this  mag- 
nificent prince-.  Titus  was  taken  ill ; and  as 
he  retired  into  the  country  of  the  Sabines,  to 
his  father’s  house,  his  indisposition  was  in- 
creased by  a burning  fever,  lie  died  the 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


871 


13th  of  September,  a.d.  81,  in  the  forty-first 
year  of  his  age,  after  a reign  of  two  years, 
two  months,  and  twenty  days. 

TOULON,  a seaport  in  the  south-east  of 
France.  The  most  remarkable  event  in  its 
history  is  the  occupation  of  the  town  and 
harbor  by  the  British,  in  the  autumn  of 
1793,  the  subsequent  siege  by  the  republi- 
can troops  of  France,  and  the  precipitate 
abandonment  of  the  place  by  the  British 
troops,  on  the  19th  of  December,  1793,  after 
burning  and  carrying  off  about  half  the 
squadron  contained  in  the  port.  Bonaparte, 
then  only  a lieutenant,  commanded  part  of 
the  besieging  artillery,  and  conducted  it  with 
great  judgment. 

TOULOUSE,  a city  of  France,  formerly 
capital  of  the  province  of  Languedoc,  and  now 
of  the  department  of  Upp'er  Garonne,  contain- 
ing 85,500  inhabitants.  An  obstinate  battle 
was  fought  here  on  the  10th  of  April,  1814, 
between  the  British  under  Lord  Wellington, 
and  the  French,  under  Soult ; neither  com- 
mander having  been  apprised  of  the  abdica- 
tion of  Bonaparte.  The  British  troops  were 
successful,  but  suffered  severely ; their  loss, 
in  killed  and  wounded,  was  between  four  and 
five  thousand  men ; that  of  the  French  ex- 
ceeded 10,000. 

TOURNAMENTS.  The  first  authentic 
mention  of  a tournament  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Chronicle  of  Tours,  which  records  the  death 
of  Geoffrey  de  Friuli  in  1066  ; adding  the 
words,  qui  torneamenta  invenit , “who  in- 
vented tournaments.”  From  the  appearance 
of  these  exercises  in  Germany  about  the  same 
time,  we  may  conclude  that  this  date  is  pretty 
nearly  correct ; and  that  if  tournaments  were 
not  absolutely  invented  at  that  precise  pe- 
riod, they  were  then  first  regulated  by  dis- 
tinct laws.  In  England  they  did  not  appear 
till  several  years  later,  when  the  Norman 
manners  introduced  after  the  conquest  had 
completely  superseded  the  customs  of  the 
Saxons. 

The  ceremonies  and  the  splendor  of  the 
tournament  of  course  differed  in  different  ages 
and  different  countries  ; but  the  general  prin- 
ciple was  the  same.  It  was  a chivalrous 
game,  originally  institute^  for  practicing 
those  exercises,  and  acquiring  that  skill, 
which  were  likely  to  be  useful  in  knightly 
warfare. 


A tournament  was  usually  given  upon  the 
occasion  of  any  great  meeting,  for  either  mil- 
itary or  political  purposes.  Sometimes  it 
was  the  king  himself  who  sent  his  heralds 
through  the  land  to  announce  to  all  noblemen 
and  ladies,  that  on  a certain  day  he  would 
hold  a grand  tournament,  where  all  brave 
knights  might  try  their  prowess.  At  other 
times  a tournament  was  determined  on  by  a 
body  of  independent  knights  ; and  messen- 
gers were  often  sent  into  distant  countries  to 
invite  all  gallant  gentlemen  to  honor  the  pas- 
sage of  arms. 

The  spot  fixed  upon  for  the  lists  was  usu- 
ally in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  some 
abbey  or  castle,  where  the  shields  of  the  va- 
liious  cavaliers  who  proposed  combating, 
were  exposed  to  view  for  several  days  pre- 
vious to  the  meeting.  A herald  was  also 
placed  beneath  the  cloisters  to  answer  all 
questions  concerning  the  champions,  and  to 
receive  all  complaints  against  any  individual 
knight.  If,  upon  investigation,  the  kings  of 
arms  and  judges  of  the  field  found  that  a just 
accusation  was  laid  against  one  of  the  knights 
proposing  to  appear,  a peremptory  command 
excluded  him  from  the  lists  ; and  if  he  dared 
in  despite  thereof  to  present  himself,  he  was 
driven  forth  with  blows  and  ignominy. 

Round  about  the  field  appointed  for  the 
spectacle  were  raised  galleries,  scaffoldings, 
tents,  and  pavilions,  decorated  with  all  the 
magnificence  of  the  age.  Banners  and  scutch- 
eons, and  bandrols,  silks  and  cloth  of  gold, 
covered  the  galleries  and  floated  round  the 
field ; while  all  that  rich  garments  and  pre- 
cious stones,  beauty  and  youth,  could  do  to 
outshine  the  inanimate  part  of  the  scene,  was 
to  be  found  among  the  spectators.  Here  too 
was  seen  the  venerable  age  of  chivalry  ; all 
those  old  knights  wrhose  limbs  were  no  longer 
competent  to  bear  the  weight  of  arms,  sur- 
rounding the  field  to  view  the  prowess  of 
their  children,  and  judge  the  deeds  of  the 
day.  Heralds  and  pursuivants,  in  the  gay 
and  many-colored  garments  which  they  pe- 
culiarly affected,  fluttered  over  the  field, 
and  bands  of  warlike  music  were  stationed 
near  to  animate  the  contest  and  to  salute  the 
victors. 

The  knights,  as  they  appeared  in  the  lists, 
were  greeted  by  heralds  and  the  people  ac- 
cording to  their  renown ; but  the  approba- 


TOU 


872 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


spectators  was  | home,  was  greeted  with  loud  acclamations ; 
chivalry  of  the  ! and  valor  met  both  its  incitement  and  its 
reward,  in  the  expecting  silence  and  the 


tion  of  the  female  part  of  the 
the  great  stimulus  to  all  the 
field.  Each  knight,  as  a part  of  his  duty, 
either  felt  or  feigned  himself  in  love ; and  it 
was  upon  these  occasions  that  his  lady  might 
descend  from  the  high  state  to  which  the 
mystic  adoration  of  the  day  had  raised  her, 
and  bestow  upon  her  favored  champion  a 
glove,  a riband,  a bracelet,  a jewel,  which, 
borne  on  his  crest  through  the  hard-contested 
field,  was  the  chief  object  of  his  care,  and  the 
great  excitement  to  his  valor.  Often,  too, 
in  the  midst  of  the  combat,  if  accident  or 
misfortune  deprived  the  favored  knight  of. the 
gage  of  his  lady’s  affection,  her  admiration 
or  her  pity  won  her  to  supply  another  token, 
sent  b)'-  a page  or  squire,  to  raise  again  her 
lover’s  resolution,  and  animate  him  to  new 
exertions. 

The  old  romance  of  Perce-forest  gives  a cu- 
rious picture  of  the  effects  visible  after  a 
tournament,  by  the  eagerness  with  which  the 
fair  spectators  had  encouraged  the  knights. 
“ At  the  close  of  the  tournament,  the  ladies 
were  so  stripped  of  their  ornaments,  that  the 
greater  part  of  them  were  bareheaded.  Thus 
they  went  their  ways  with  their  hair  float- 
ing on  their  shoulders  more  glossy  than  fine 
gold,  and  with  their  robes  without  the 
sleeves ; for  they  had  given  to  the  knights  to 
decorate  themselves,  wimples  and  hoods, 
mantles  and  shifts,  sleeves  and  bodies.  When 
they  found  themselves  undressed  to  such  a 
pitch,  they  were  at  first  quite  ashamed ; but 
as  soon  as  they  saw  every  one  was  in  the 
same  state,  they  began  to  laugh  at  the  whole 
adventure,  for  they  had  all  bestowed  their 
jewels  and  their  clothes  upon  the  knights 
with  so  good  a will,  that  they  had  not  per- 
ceived that  they  uncovered  themselves.” 

This  is  perhaps  an  exaggerated  account  of 
the  enthusiasm  which  the  events  of  a tourna- 
ment excited  in  the  bosom  of  the  fair  ladies 
of  that  day : still,  no  doubt  can  be  entertain- 
ed, that  they  not  only  decorated  their  knights 
before  the  tournament  with  some  token  of 
their  approbation,  but  in  the  case  of  its  loss, 
often  sent  him  even  a part  of  their  dress  in 
the  midst  of  the  conflict.  The  other  specta- 
tors, also,  though  animated  by  less  thrilling 
interest,  took  no  small  share  in  the  feelings 
and  hopes  of  the  different  parties.  Each 
blow  of  the  lance  or  sword,  struck  well  and 


thundering  plaudits  with  each  good  cham- 
pion’s movements  were  waited  for  and  seen. 

In  the  meanwhile,  without  giving  encour- 
agement to  any  particular  knight,  the  her- 
alds strove  to  animate  all  by  various  quaint 
and  characteristic  exclamations;  such  as, 
“The  love  of  ladies!”  “Death  to  the 
horses ! ” “ Honor  to  the  brave ! ” “ Glory 

to  be  won  by  blood  and  sweat ! ” “ Praise  to 

the  sons  of  the  brave  ! ” 

It  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  enter 
into  all  the  details  of  the  tournament,  or  to 
notice  all  the  laws  by  which  it  was  governed. 
Every  care  was  taken  that  the  various  knights 
should  meet  upon  equal  terms,  and  many  a 
precaution  was  made  use  of  to  prevent  acci- 
dents, and  to  render  the  sport  both  innocent 
and  useful.  But  no  regulations  could  be 
found  sufficient  to  guard  against  the  danger- 
ous consequences  of  such  furious  amuse- 
ments ; and  Ducange  gives  a long  list  of 
princes  and  nobles  who  lost  their  lives  in 
these  fatal  exercises.  The  church  dften  in- 
terfered, though  in  vain,  to  put  them  down  ; 
and  many  monarchs  forbade  them  in  their 
dominions ; but  the  pomp  with  which  they, 
were  accompanied,  and  the  excitement  they 
afforded  to  a people  fond  of  every  martial 
stimulus,  rendered  them  far  more  permanent 
than  might  have  been  expected. 

The  weapons  in  tournaments  were,  in  al- 
most all  cases,  restrained  to  blunted  swords 
and  headless  spears,  daggers  and  battle-axes  ; 
but,  as  may  well  be  imagined,  these  were  not 
to  be  used  without  danger ; so  that  even  those 
festivals  that  passed  by  without  the  absolute 
death  of  any  of  the  champions,  left,  neverthe- 
less, many  to  drag  out  a maimed  and  miser- 
able existence,  or  to  die  after  a long  and 
weary  sickness.  And  yet  the  very  peril  of 
the  sport  gave  to  it  an  all-powerful  interest, 
which  we  can  best  conceive,  at  present,  from 
our  feelings  at  some  deep  and  thrilling  trag- 
edy. 

After  the  excitement,  and  the  expectation, 
and  the  suspense,  and  the  eagerness,  came 
the  triumph  and  the  prize ; and  the  chosen 
queen  of  the  field  bestowed  upon  the  cham- 
pion whose  feats  were  counted  best,  that 
reward,  the  value  of  which  consisted  more  in 


TOU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  873 


the  honor  than  the  thing  itself.  Sometimes 
it  was  a jewel,  sometimes  a coronet  of  flow- 
ers or  of  laurel ; but  in  all  cases  the  award 
implied  a right  to  one  kiss  from  the  lips  of 
the  lady  appointed  to  bestow  the  prize.  It 
seems  to  have  been  as  frequent  a practice  to 
assign  this  prize  on  the  field,  as  in  the  cha- 
teau or  palace  whither  the  court  retired  after 
the  sports  were  concluded  ; and  we  often  find 
that  the  female  part  of  the  spectators  were 
called  to  decide  upon  the  merits  of  the  sev- 
eral champions,  and  to  declare  the  victor 
as  well  as  confer  the  reward.  Mirth  and  fes- 
tivity ever  closed  the  day  of  the  tournament, 
and  song  and  sports  brought  in  the  night. 

Everything  that  could  interest  or  amuse  a 
barbarous  age  was  collected  on  the  spot 
where  one  of  these  meetings  was  held.  The 
minstrel,  the  juggler,  the  saltimbank,  the 
story-teller,  were  present  in  the  hall  to  soothe 
or  to  entertain  ; but  still  the  foundation  of 
tale  and  song  was  chivalry ; the  objects  of 
all  praise  were  noble  deeds  and  heroic  ac- 
tions ; and  the  very  voice  of  love  and  tender- 
ness, instead  of  seducing  to  sloth  and  effem- 
inacy, was  heard  prompting  to  activity,  to 
enterprise,  and  to  honor — to  the  defense  of 
virtue,  and  the  search  for  glory. 

. It  may  be  here  necessary  to  remark,  that 
there  were  several  sorts  of  tournaments, 
which  differed  essentially  from  each  other ; 
but  we  shall  not  pause  upon  these  any  longer 
than  merely  to  point  out  the  particular  differ- 
ences between  them.  The  joust,  wrhich  was 
certainly  a kind  of  tournament,  was  always 
confined  to  two  persons,  though  these  per- 
sons encountered  each  other  with  blunted 
arms. 

The  combat  at  outrance  "was,  in  fact,  a 
duel,  and  only  differed  from  the  trial  by  bat- 
tle in  being  voluntary,  while  the  other  was 
enforced  by  law.  This  contest  was  often  the 
event  of  private  quarrels,  but  was,  by  no 
means,  always  so ; and,  to  use  the  language 
ofDucangc,  “though  mortal,  it  took  place 
ordinarily  between  two  persons  who  most 
frequently  did  not  know  each  other,  or,  at 
least,  had  no  particular  misunderstanding, 
but  who  sought  alone  to  show  forth  then- 
courage,  generosity,  and  skill  in  arms.” 
Sometimes,  however,  the  combat  at  outrance 
was  undertaken  by  a number  of  knights  to- 


gether, and  often  much  blood  was  thus  shed, 
without  cause. 

The  pas  i Varmes , or  passage  of  arms,  dif- 
fered from  general  tournaments,  inasmuch 
as  a certain  number  of  knights  fixed  their 
shields  and  tents  in  a particular  pass,  or  spot 
of  ground,  which  they  declared  their  inten- 
tion to  defend  against  all  comers.  The  space 
before  their  tents  was  generally  listed  in,  as 
for  a tournament ; and  during  the  time  fixed 
for  the  defense  of  the  passage,  the  same  con- 
course of  spectators,  heralds,  and  minstrels 
was  assembled. 

The  round  table  was  another  distinct  sort 
of  tournament,  held  in  a circular  amphithea- 
tre, wherein  the  knights  invited  jousted 
against  each  other.  The  origin  of  this  festi- 
val, which  was  held,  we  believe,  for  the  last 
time  by  Edward  III.,  is  attributed  to  Roger 
Mortimer,  who,  on  receiving  a knighthood, 
feasted  a hundred  knights  and  a hundred 
ladies  at  a round  table.  The  mornings  were 
spent  in  chivalrous  games,  the  prize  of  which 
was  a golden  lion,  and  the  evenings  in  ban- 
quets and  festivities.  This  course  of  enter- 
tainment continued  three  days  with  the  most 
princely  splendor;  after  which  Mortimer, 
having  won  the  prize  himself,  conducted  his 
guests  to  Warwick,  and  dismissed  them. 

From  this  account,  taken  from  the  history 
of  the  Priory  of  Wigmorc,  Monestrier  deduces 
that  those  exercises  called  “round  tables” 
were  only  tournaments,  during  which  the 
lord  or  sovereign  giving  the  festival,  enter- 
tained his  guests  at  a table  which,  to  prevent 
all  ceremony  in  respect  to  precedence,  was  in 
the  form  of  a circle.  Perhaps,  however,  this 
institution  may  have  had  a different  and  an 
earlier  origin,  though  we  find  it  mentioned  in 
no  author  previous  to  the  year  1279. 

Chivalry,  which,  in  its  pristine  purity, 
knew  no  reward  but  honor,  soon — as  it  be- 
came combined  with  power — appropriated  to 
itself  various  privileges,  which,  injuring  its 
simplicity,  in  the  end  brought  about  its  fall. 
In  the  first  place,  the  knight  was,  by  the  fact 
of  his  chivalry,  the  judge  of  all  his  equals,  and 
consequently  of  all  his  inferiors.  He  was 
also,  in  most  cases,  the  executor  of  his  own 
decree,  and  it  would  indeed  have  required  a 
different  nature  from  humanity  to  secure  such 
a jurisdiction  from  frequent  perversion.  The 


TOU 


874 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


knight  also  took  precedence  of  all  persons 
who  had  not  received  chivalry,  a distinction 
well  calculated  to  do  away  with  that  humility 
which  was  one  of  knighthood’s  strictest  laws. 
Added  to  this  was  the  right  of  wearing  par- 
ticular dresses  and  colors,  gold  and  jewels, 
which  were  restrained  to  the  knightly  class 
by  very  severe  ordinances.  Scarlet  and  green 
were  particularly  reserved  for  the  order  of 
knighthood,  as  well  as  ermine,  minever,  and 
some  other  furs.  Knights  also  possessed 
what  was  called  privilege  of  clergy ; that  is  to 
say,  in  case  of  accusation,  they  could  claim 
to  be  tried  before  the  ecclesiastical  judge. 
Their  arms  were  legally  forbidden  to  all  other 
classes,  and  the  titles  of  sire,  monseigneur, 
sir,  don,  &c.,  were  applied  to  them  alone,  till 
the  distinction  was  lost  in  the  course  of  time. 
[See  Chivalry.] 

In  1559,  Henry  II.  of  France,  in  a tilt  with 
the  Comte  de  Montmorency,  when  celebrat- 
ing the  nuptials  of  his  sister  with  the  Duke 
of  Savoy,  had  his  eye  struck  out,  an  accident 
which  caused  his  death  in  a few  days ; and 
from  this  event  tournaments  were  abolished 
in  France.  One  was  held  in  Smithfield  so 
late  as  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  taste 
for  them  declined  in  England. 

TOUSSAINT  L’OUVERTURE  ; a mulatto 
of  St.  Domingo,  rose  to  the  command  of  the 
blacks  of  that  island,  formed  a constitution, 
and  adopted  the  wisest  and  most  humane 
regulations.  He  was  treacherously  betrayed 
and  imprisoned  by  the  French,  and  died  in 
France  in  1803,  aged  sixty. 

TRAFALGAR,  Battle  of,  between  the 
British  fleet  under  Lord  Nelson,  and  the  com- 
bined fleet  of  France  and  Spain,  on  the  21st 
of  October,  1805.  On  the  19th,  it  was  com- 
municated to  his  lordship  that  this  fleet  had 
put  to  sea,  and  as  he  concluded  that  their 
destination  was  the  Mediterranean,  he  imme- 
diately made  all  sail  for  the  entrance  of  the 
straits  of  Gibraltar  with  twenty-seven  ships, 
three  of  them  sixty-fours.  On  Monday,  21st, 
at  daylight,  the  enemy  was  discovered  off 
Cape  Trafalgar.  The  commander-in-chief 
immediately  made  a signal  for  the  fleet  to 
bear  up  in  two  columns,  as  they  formed  in 
order  of  sailing ; a mode  of  attack  which  he 
had  previously  directed,  to  avoid  the  incon- 
venience and  delay  in  forming  a line  of  battle 
in  the  usual  manner,  while  he  gave  out,  as  the 


signal,  “ England  expects  every  man  to  do 
his  duty.”  Never  was  expectation  more 
amply  fulfilled,  or  orders  obeyed  with  more 
perfect  regularity  and  effect.  The  enemy’s 
line  consisted  of  thirty-three  ships,  of  which 
eighteen  were  French  and  fifteen  Spanish ; 
the  French  under  Admiral  Villeneuve,  who 
was  also  commander-in-chief,  and  the  Span- 
iards under  Admiral  Gravina.  The  action 
began  at  twelve  o’clock,  by  the  leading  ships 
of  the  columns  breaking  through  the  enemy’s 
line ; the  commander-in-chief  about  the  tenth 
ship  from  the  van,  and  Admiral  Collin gwood 
about  the  twelfth  from  the  rear,  leaving  the 
van  of  the  enemy  unoccupied,  the  succeeding 
ships  breaking  through,  in  all  parts,  astern 
of  their  leaders,  and  engaging  the  enemy  at 
the  muzzles  of  their  guns.  The  conflict  was 
severe,  and  the  enemy  fought  with  great  brav- 
ery, but  the  impulse  of  British  skill  and  cour- 
age was  irresistible.  About  three  in  the 
afternoon,  many  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
ships  having  struck  their  colors,  their  line 
gave  way.  Admiral  Gravina,  with  ten  ships, 
joining  their  frigates  to  leeward,  stood  toward 
Cadiz.  The  five  headmost  ships  in  their  van 
tacked,  and  standing  to  the  southward,  to 
windward  of  the  British  line,  were  engaged, 
and  the  sternmost  of  them  taken ; the  others 
went  off,  leaving  to  the  English  nineteen 
ships  of  the  line,  of  which  two  were  first- 
rates,  with  Villeneuve,  commander-in-chief, 
and  two  other  flag  officers.  Such  a battle 
could  not  have  been  fought  without  sustain- 
ing great  loss  of  men.  The  number  of  killed, 
however,  did  not  exceed  four  hundred  and 
twenty-three,  nor  that  of  the  wounded  eleven 
hundred  and  sixtv-four.  The  gallant  Nelson 
fell  in  the  arms  of  victory.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  action,  his  lordship  received  a 
musket-ball  in  his  left  breast,  which  was  aim- 
ed at  him  from  the  top  of  the  ship  with  which 
the  Victory  was  engaged.  On  his  being  car- 
ried below,  he  complained  of  acute  pain  in 
the  breast,  and  of  privation  of  sense  and  mo- 
tion of  the  body  and  inferior  extremities : his 
respiration  became  short'  and  difficult;  his 
pulse  small,  weak,  and  irregular;  he  fre- 
quently declared  that  his  back  seemed  shot 
through ; that  he  felt  every  instant  a gush 
of  blood  within  his  breast,  and  that  he  had 
sensations  which  indicated  to  him  the  ap- 
proach of  death.  In  the  course  of  an  hour 
TRA 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


875 


his  pulse  became  indistinct,  his  extremities 
and  forehead  cold,  but  he  retained  his  wonted 
energy  of  mind,  and  exercise  of  his  faculties, 
till  the  latest  moment  of  his  existence ; and 
when  victory,  as  signal  as  decisive,  was  an- 
nounced to  him,  he  expressed  his  heart-felt 
satisfaction  at  the  glorious  event,  in  the  most 
emphatic  language.  He  delivered  his  last 
orders  with  his  usual  precision,  and  in  a few 
minutes  after  expired  without  a struggle. 

TRAJAN,  Marcus  Ulpius,  a Roman  em- 
peror, was  born  near  Seville  in  Spain,  a.d. 
53,  and  was  adopted  by  Nerva.  After  Nerva 
died,  the  accession  of  Trajan  to  the  vacant 
throne  was  confirmed  by  the  unanimous  re- 
joicings of  the  people,  and  the  free  concurrence 
of  the  armies  on  the  confines  of  Germany  and 
the  banks  of  the  Danube.  The  barbarians 
continued  quiet,  and  the  hostilities  which 
they  generally  displayed  at  the  election  of  a 
new  emperor  whose  military  abilities  they 
distrusted,  were  now  few.  Trajan,  however, 
could  not  behold  with  satisfaction  and  uncon- 
cern the  insolence  of  the  Dacians,  who  claim- 
ed from  the  Roman  people  a tribute  which 
the  cowardice  of  Domitian  had  offered.  De- 
cebalus,  their  warlike  monarch,  soon  began 
hostilities,  by  violating  the  treaty.  The  em- 
peror entered  the  enemy’s  country,  by  throw- 
ing a bridge  across  the  rapid  stream  of  the 
Danube,  and  a battle  was  fought,  in  which 
the  slaughter  was  so  great,  that  in  the  Roman 
camp  linen  was  wanted  to  dress  the  wounds 
of  the  soldiers.  Trajan  obtained  the  victory  ; 
Decebalus,  despairing  of  success,  destroyed 
himself,  and  Dacia  became  a province  of 
Rome.  An  expedition  was  now  undertaken 
into  the  east,  and  Parthia  threatened  with 
immediate  war.  Trajan  passed  through  the 
submissive  kingdom  of  Armenia,  and  by  his 
well  directed  operations  made  himself  master 
of  the  provinces  of  Assyria  and  Mesopotamia. 
He  extended  his  conquests  in  the  east,  ob- 
taining victories  over  unknown  nations ; and 
when  on  the  extremity  of  India,  he  lament- 
ed that  he  possessed  not  the  vigor  and  youth 
of  an  Alexander,  that  he  might  add  unex- 
plored provinces  and  kingdoms  to  the  Roman 
empire.  Trajan  had  no  sooner  signified  his 
intention  of  returning  to  Italy,  than  the 
conquered  barbarians  appen red  again  in  arms, 
and  the  Roman  empire  did  not  acquire  one 
single  acre  of  territory  from  the  conquests  of 


her  sovereign  beyond  the  Tigris.  The  return 
of  the  emperor  toward  Rome  was  hastened 
by  indisposition.  He  expired  in  the  begin- 
ning of  August,  a.d.  117,  after  a reign  of 
nineteen  years,  six  months,  and  fifteen  days, 
in  the  sixty -fourth  year  of  his  age. 

TRENCK,  Frederick,  Baron  von,  a Prus- 
sian officer,  born  at  Konigsberg,  in  1726,  aid- 
de-camp  of  Frederick  the  Great,  served  with 
distinction  in  the  seven  years’  war;  but,  in 
consequence  of  an  intrigue  with  the  Princess 
Amelia,  sister  of  Frederick,  was  imprisoned 
in  the  fortress  of  Glatz,  from  which  he  con- 
trived to  make  his  escape,  entering  the  Aus- 
trian service.  In  1758,  having  gone  to  Dant- 
zic  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  the  disposi- 
tion of  his  mother’s  property,  he  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Magdeburg, 
from  which  he  was  freed  in  1763  by  the  in- 
terference of  the  Princess  Amelia.  He  next 
went  to  Aix-la-Chapelle,  where  he  married 
the  daughter  of  a burgomaster  of  the  city  in 
1765.  Here  he  engaged  in  literature,  poli- 
tics, and  commerce.  On  the  failure  of  his 
wine-trade  he  returned  to  Germany,  where  he 
was  received  with  favor  and  employed  in  va- 
rious missions.  In  1787,  he  revisited  his 
native  country  and  was  favorably  received 
by  the  successor  of  Frederick  and  the  Prin- 
cess Amelia.  In  1791  he  went  to  France,  but 
falling  under  suspicion,  was  guillotined,  July 
25  th,  1794. 

TRENTON,  the  capital  of  New  Jersey,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Delaware  River,  thirty 
miles  north-cast  of  Philadelphia,  contains 
22,874  inhabitants,  Here  was  fought  a mem- 
orable battle  at  early  morn  on  the  26th  of 
December,  1776.  On  the  night  cf  the  25th, 
the  American  army,  under  the  command  of 
Washington,  crossed  the  Delaware,  during  the 
fury  of  a winter  storm,  and  suddenly  attacked 
the  Hessians  here,  defeating  them  complete- 
ly. Of  the  British,  twenty  men  were  killed, 
and  nearly  1,000  taken  prisoners ; of  the 
Americans,  only  two  were  killed,  two  frozen 
to  death,  and  five  wounded. 

TRIPOLI,  the  most  easterly  of  the  Barba- 
ry states,  is  the  least  fertile.  The  great  moun- 
tain range  which  diffuses  verdure  and  fertility 
through  the  others,  terminates,  and  the  great 
desert  presses  close  upon  the  cultivated 
territory.  The  tract  in  which  the  city  of 
Tripoli  stands  is  only  an  oasis,  and  a short 


TRI 


876 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


journey  carries  one  into  the  midst  of  the 
sandy  wastes.  Tripoli  thus  can  not  equal  the 
other  capitals  of  Barbary ; and  its  population 
does  not  exceed  20,000.  Even  this  is  sup- 
ported rather  by  commerce  and  industry, 
than  by  the  limited  productions  of  the  soil. 
It  is  a theatre  of  trade  with  the  interior  coun- 
tries of  Africa,  by  means  of  caravans  across 
the  desert.  The  rulers  of  Tripoli  have  shown 
a more  enlightened  spirit  than  has  been  dis- 
played in  the  other  states  of  Barbary.  In 
the  midst  of  the  tenantless  and  desolate 
wastes  eastward  from  the  cit}'-  of  Tripoli, 
occur  fertile  districts,  in  which  thick  groves 
of  the  olive  and  the  date  rise  about  the  villa- 
ges, luxuriant  crops  of  grain  spring  up,  and 
flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  browse  on  the  wel- 
come pasturage.  Barca,  the  ancient  Cyrena- 
ica,  across  the  ancient  Gulf  of  Syrtis,  so 
fearful  to  the  mariners  of  old,  exhibits  a 
very  improved  aspect.  It  is  traversed  by  a 
steep  ridge,  abounding  in  numerous  springs, 
which  sprinkle  the  surrounding  deserts  with 
valleys  of  brilliant  verdure. 

Throughout  this  land  are  the  traces  of 
cities  that  flourished  in  the  times  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  now  either  wholly  deserted,  or 
dwindled  into  miserable  Arab  villages ; the 
Cyrene  of  the  Greeks,  the  Berenice  of  the 
Ptolemies,  Leptis  Magna,  Teuchira,  Ptole- 
meta,  &c.  Remains  of  their  magnificence 
linger  with  the  shattered  columns  and 
rich  entablatures,  that  lie  buried  in  the 
sand  till  borne  away  by  some  Arab  utilitarian 
for  millstones  or  building  materials,  and  in 
the  dismantled  walls  and  gatewaj^s,  whose 
strength  vainly  prolongs  the  struggle  with 
time.  Of  all  these  ruins  the  best  preserved 
are  the  tombs  and  sepulchral  grottoes,  over 
whose  ornaments  and  inscriptions  shrubs  and 
weeds  thickly  cluster.  The  city  of  the  living 
has  gone  to  decay ; the  city  of  the  dead  has 
better  survived  ; only  the  cr}r  of  the  jackal 
and  the  hyena,  the  noise  of  the  owl  and  the 
bat,  disturb  its  pious  solitude  with  discord- 
ant sounds  of  life. 

After  the  conquest  of  Carthage,  Tripoli 
became  a Roman  province.  After  the  Van- 
dals, it  was  under  the  dominion  of  kings, 
natives  of  the  country,  but  afterward  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  who  came  from 
Egypt,  and  who  carried  awa)’'  a great  num- 
ber of  slaves,  both  from  the  kingdom  and 


the  capital.  The  sceptre  was  then  assumed 
by  pirates  or  adventurers,  from  whom  it  was 
wrested  by  the  Spaniards  in  1510.  The 
latter  resigned  it  to  the  knights  of  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem,  who  in  1551,  were  obliged  to 
yield  it  to  three  famous  corsairs,  Salha  Rais, 
Sinan  Dassat,  and  Dragut,  who  were  assisted 
with  troops  furnished  by  the  grand  seignior 
for  this  purpose,  and  who  fully  established 
the  authority  of  the  Turks.  Tripoli  then 
became  famous,  like  the  other  Barbary  states, 
for  its  piracies.  In  1713  Hamet  the  Great 
massacred  the  Turkish  officers  and  garrison, 
and  established  himself  as  bashaw  independ- 
ent of  the  Porte.  The  authority  continued 
hereditary  in  his  family  till  1832,  when  Tur- 
key recovered  her  power  over  the  country, 
and  it  is  now  governed  by  a bashaw  sent 
from  Constantinople.  The  Araibs  of  the  in- 
terior are  substantially  independent,  and 
frequently  war  with  the  Turkish  authority. 

The  depredations  of  the  corsairs  of  Tri- 
poli upon  our  commerce  led  in  1801  to  a war 
between  it  and  the  United  States.  In  August, 
1804,  Commodore  Preble  repeatedly  bom- 
barded the  city  of  Tripoli.  Soon  after,  the 
bashaw  offered  acceptable  terms  of  peace,  and 
a treaty  was  concluded  June  3d,  1805. 

TRIUMPH.  The  triumphal  military  pro- 
cession of  a victorious  Roman  general  was  a 
spectacle  of  great  splendor  and  interest. 
When  a general  gained  a considerable  victo- 
ry, he  demandod  a triumph  of  the  senate.  It 
was  the  highest  military  honor  which  could 
be  obtained  in  the  Roman  state,  and  was  re- 
served for  those  generals  who,  by  hard-earned 
victories  and  glorious  achievements,  had 
added  to  the  territories  of  the  commonwealth, 
or  delivered  the  state  from  threatened  dan- 
ger. The  triumphal  procession  began  from 
the  Campus  Martius,  without  the  city,  and 
passed  through  the  most  public  places  of  the 
city  to  the  capitol ; the  streets  being  strewed 
with  flowers,  and  the  altars  smoking  with 
incense.  First  went  musicians  of  various 
kinds ; the  oxen  destined  for  the  sacrifice 
next  followed,  having  their  horns  gilt,  and 
their  heads  adorned  with  garlands ; then  in 
carriages  were  brought  the  spoils  taken  from 
the  enemy,  statues,  pictures,  plate,  armor, 
&c.,  with  the  titles  of  the  vanquished  nations, 
and  their  images  or  representation.  The 
spoils  were  succeeded  by  the  captive  kings 


TRI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


877 


or  leaders,  with  their  children  and  attendants  ; 
after  the  captives  came  the  lictors,  having 
their  fasces  wreathed  with  laurel,  followed 
by  a great  company  of  musicians  and  dan- 
cers, dressed  like  satyrs,  and  wearing  golden 
crowns  ; and  next  came  a long  train  of  persons 
carrying  perfumes.  After  these  came  the  tri- 
ufnphant  general,  dressed  in  purple  embroid- 
ered with  gold,  with  a crown  of  laurel  upon 
his  head,  a branch  of  laurel  in  his  right  hand, 
and  in  his  left  an  ivory  sceptre  with  an  eagle 
on  the  top  ; the  general’s  face  was  painted 
with  vermilion,  and  a gold  ball  hung  from  his 
neck  on  his  breast.  The  chariot  in  which 
the  triumphant  general  stood  was  gilt,  adorn- 
ed with  ivory,  and  drawn  by  four  white 
horses  abreast,  or  sometimes  by  elephants. 
That  he  might  not  be  too  much  elated,  a 
slave  stood  behind  him,  who  frequently  whis- 
pered in  his  ear,  “ Remember  that  thou  art  a 
man  ! ” The  general  was  attended  by  his 
relatives,  and  a great  crowd  of  citizens  all  in 
white ; after  his  car  followed  the  consuls  and 
senators ; and  last  came  the  victorious  army 
crowned  with  laurel,  decorated  with  the  gifts 
which  they  had  received  for  their  valor,  and 
singing  the  general’s  praises,  in  which  the 
citizens  as  they  passed  along  also  joined. 

There  was  a lesser  triumph,  called  the  ova- 
tion, which  was  awarded  to  generals  whose 
victories  were  not  so  considerable.  He  who 
was  thus  rewarded  entered  the  city  with  a 
myrtle  crown  upon  his  head,  that  tree  be- 
ing consecrated  to  Venus  ; wherefore  when 
an  ovation  was  decreed  to  Marcus  Crassus, 
he  particularly  desired  it  as  a favor  of  the 
senate,  to  be  allowed  a laurel  crown  instead 
of  one  of  myrtle.  This  triumph  was  called 
ovation,  because  the  general  offered  a sheep 
when  he  came  to  the  capital ; whereas  in 
the  great  triumph  he  offered  a bull.  Pub- 
lius Posthumus  Tubertus  was  the  first  who 
was  decreed  an  ovation,  b.c.  503.  Triumphs 
were  also  distinguished  into  land  and'  sea 
triumphs,  according  as  the  victory  had  been 
gained. 

TRIUMVIRI,  were  'three  magistrates  ap- 
pointed equally  to  govern  the  Roman  state 
with  absolute  power.  The  first  triumvirate, 
b.c.  60,  was  in  the  hands  of  Julius  Caesar, 
Pompey,  and  Crassus,  who,  at  the  expiration 
of  their  office,  kindled  a civil  war.  The 
second  and  last  triumvirate,  b.c.  43,  was  un- 


der Augustus,  M.  Antony,  and  Lepidus,  and 
through  them  the  Romans  totally  lost  their 
liberty.  The  triumvirate  was  in  full  force 
at  Rome  for  the  space  of  about  twelve  years. 
There  were  also  officers  who  were  called  tri- 
umviri capitales , created  a.u.c.  .464.  They 
took  cognizance  of  murders  and  robberies, 
and  everything  in  which  slaves  were  con- 
cerned. Criminals  under  sentence  of  death 
were  intrusted  to  their  care,  and  they  had 
them  executed  according  to  the  commands 
of  the  praetors.  The  triumviri  nocturni 
watched  over  the  safety  of  Rome  in  the  night 
time,  and  in  case  of  fire,  were  ever  ready  to 
take  the  most  effectual  measures  to  extinguish 
it.  The  triumviri  agrarii  had  the  care  of 
colonies,  that  were  sent  to  settle  in  different 
parts  of  the  empire.  They  made  a fair  divis- 
ion of  the  lands  among  the  citizens,  and  exer- 
cised over  the  new  colony  all  the  power  which 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  consuls  at 
Rome.  The  triumviri  monetales  were  mas- 
ters of  the  mint,  and  had  the  care  of  the 
coin,  hence  their  office  was  generally  inti- 
mated by  the  following  letters  often  seen  on 
ancient  coins  and  medals:  iiiyik.  a.a.a.f.  f. 

i.  e.,  Triumviri  auro,  argento , cere,  fando, 
feriendo.  The  triumviri  valetudinis  were? 
chosen  wrhen  Rome  was  visited  by  a plague 
or  some  pestiferous  distemper,  and  they  took 
particular  care  of  the  temples  of  health  and 
virtue.  The  triumviri  senatus  leg  end  i 
w’ere  appointed  to  name  those  that  were 
most  worthy  to  be  made  senators  from 
among  the  plebeians.  The  triumviri  men- 
sariiy  were  chosen  in  the  second  Punic  war, 
to  take  care  of  the  coin  and  prices  of  ex- 
change. 

TROMP,  Martin  IIarpertzoon,  a great 
Dutch  naval  commander,  was  born  at  the 
Brill,  in  Holland,  in  1579.  He  rose  from  the 
lowest  station  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  In 
the  war  between  England  and  the  United 
Provinces,  Van  Tromp  fought  five  desperate 
engagements,  in  the  last  of  which,  July  29th, 
1653,  he  was  killed  by  a musket  shot.  The 
states-general  struck  medals  to  his  honor. 
He  carried  a broom  at  the  mast-head,  to  im- 
ply that  he  would  sweep  the  English  from 
the  seas. 

TROY,  a city,  the  capital  of  Troas,  in  Asia 
Minor,  or  according  to  others,  a country  of 
which  Ilium  was  the  capital.  Of  all  the 


TRO 


S78 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


PLAINS  OF  TROY. 


wars  which  have  been  carried  on  among  the 
ancients,  that  of  Troy  is  the  most  famous. 
The  Trojan  war  was  undertaken  by  the 
Greeks,  to  recover  Helen,  whom  Paris,  the 
son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  had  carried 
away  from  the  house  of  Menelaus.  The 
armament  of  the  Greeks  amounted  to  a thou- 
sand ships.  Agamemnon  was  chosen  gene- 
ral of  all  the  forces ; but  the  princes  and 
kings  of  Greece  were  admitted  among  his 
counselors,  and  by  them  all  the  operations 
of  the  war  were  directed.  The  Grecian  army 
was  opposed  by  a more  numerous  force. 
The  king  of  Troy  received  assistance 
from  the  neighboring  princes  in  Asia  Mi- 
nor, and  reckoned  among  his  most  active 
generals,  Rhesus,  king  of  Thrace,  and 
Memnon,  who  entered  the  field  with  20,000 
Assyrians  and  Ethiopians.  The  army  of 
the  Greeks  was  visited  by  a plague,  and  the 
operations  were  not  less  retarded  by  the 
quarrel  of  Agamemnon  and  Achilles.  After 
the  siege  had  been  carried  on  for  ten  years, 
some  of  the  Trojans,  among  whom  were 
AEneas  and  Antenor,  betrayed  the  city  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  Troy  was  re- 


duced to  ashes.  The  poets,  however,  main- 
tain, that  the  Greeks  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  the  place  by  artifice.  The  greatest 
part  of  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword, 
and  the  others  carried  away  by  the  conquer- 
ors. This  happened,  according  to  the  Arun- 
delian  marbles,  about  1184  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  Some  time  after,  a new  city 
was  raised,  about  thirty  stadia  from  the  ruins 
of  the  old  Troy : but  though  it  bore  the 
ancient  name,  and  received  ample  donations 
from  Alexander  the  Great,  when  he  visited 
it  in  his  Asiatic  expedition,  yet  it  continued 
to  be  small,  and  in  the  age  of  Strabo  it  was 
nearly  in  ruins. 

TRUMBULL,  Joiin,  was  born  in  Water- 
town,  Conn.,  in  1750,  and  educated  at  Yale 
College,  of  which  he  became  a tutor  in  1771. 
He  subsequently  studied  law  in  the  office  of 
John  Adams,  in  Boston,  and  became  acquain- 
ted with  the  leading  patriots  of  Massachu- 
setts. In  1775  was  published  the  first  part 
of  “McFingal,”  apolitical  satirical  poem  in 
the  style  of  Hudibras,  which  passed  through 
thirty  editions.  For  many  years  Mr.  Trum- 
bull was  a member  of  the  legislature  of  Con- 


TRU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


879 


necticut,  and  was  appointed  a judge  of  the 
superior  court  in  1801,  and  afterward  of  the 
court  of  errors.  In  1825  he  removed  to 
Detroit,  Michigan,  where  he  died  May  12th, 
1831. 

TRUMBULL,  Jonathan,  eminent  lawyer 
of  Connecticut,  patriot  of  the  revolution, 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  Con- 
necticut, and  fifteen  years  governor  of  that 
state,  died  in  1785,  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  in 
the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his  age.  Gen. 
Washington  relied  upon  him  as  one  of  his 
main  pillars  of  support.  He  was  the  origi- 
nal Brother  Jonathan. 

TRUXTON,  Thomas,  a captain  in  the 
United  States’  navy,  was  born  on  Long 
Island,  New  York,  Feb.  17th,  1755.  Being 
impressed,  he  served  a short  time  on  board 
the  President,  a British  sixty-four.  In  1775 
he  brought  some  powder  to  the  colonies,  and 
was  afterward  captured,  but  escaped.  He 
was  then  appointed  lieutenant  on  board  the 
Congress,  a private  armed  ship,  and,  sailing 
in  company  with  another  vessel  in  1776, 
took  several  valuable  prizes.  While  in  com- 
mand of  the  St.  James,  of  twenty  guns,  he 
beat  off  a British  vessel  of  thirty-two  guns. 
In  the  short  war  with  France  he  commanded 
the  frigate  Constellation,  and  captured  the 
French  frigate  L’lnsurgente  of  fifty -four 
guns.  In  1800  he  retired  from  the  service. 
He  died  May  5th,  1822,  in  his  sixty-seventh 
year. 

TUDOR,  the  House  of.  The  sovereigns 
of  this  family  who  reigned  over  Britain  and 
Ireland,  were  five  in  number  : Henry  VII., 

Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Eliza- 
beth. 

Henry  VII.,  the  son  of  Edmund  Tudor, 
Earl  of  Richmond,  and  Margaret,  a descend- 
ant of  John  of  Gaunt,  was  born  in  1455. 
He  was  grandson  of  Catherine,  queen  of 
Henry  V.,  who  married  Owen  Tudor  after 
her  royal  husband’s  death.  Young  Rich- 
mond landed  at  Milford  Haven,  Aug.  7th, 
1485,  and  having  defeated  the  usurper  Rich- 
ard III.  at  the  memorable  battle  of  Bos- 
worth,  in  the  same  year,  was  proclaimed 
king.  Jan.  18th,  1486,  he  married  Eliza- 
beth, daughter  of  Edward  IV.  By  this  mar- 
riage the  claims  of  the  royal  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster  were  united.  The  queen  died 
Feb.  11th,  1503.  Henry,  soon  after  his  mar- 


riage, went  into  the  north,  where  the  parti- 
sans of  Richard  were  strong,  and  making 
hostile  preparations,  but  they  were  quelled. 
The  conspiracy  of  1487,  headed  by  Lambert 
Simnel,  an  impostor  who  pretended  to  be  a 
Plantagenet,  was  also  put  down.  Henry  re- 
ceived, as  a compromise  for  his  claim  upon 
the  French  crown,  £186,250,  besides  twenty' 
five  thousand  crowns  yearly.  In  1492  the 
country  was  disturbed  by  an  impostor  named 
Osbeck,  or  Warbeck.  [See  Warbeck.]  The 
schemes  of  another  impostor,  named  Wilford, 
who  personated  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  afford' 
ed  Henry  a pretext  for  arresting  the  earl,  and 
signing  his  death-warrant.  Henry  died  of  a 
consumption  in  1509.  By  his  avarice  and 
rapacity,  he  is  said,  at  one  period,  to  have 
amassed  £1,800,000. 

Henry  VIII.  was  born  in  1491.  His  eldef 
brother,  Prince  Arthur,  having  died  in  1502, 
he  succeeded  his  father  in  1509,  and  wedded 
his  brother’s  widow,  Catherine  of  Arragon, 
the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
His  interview  with  Francis  I.  of  France,  at 
Ardres,  a small  town  ^'ithin  the  English 
pale,  near  Calais,  May  31st,  1520,  is  famous 
for  its  magnificence.  The  nobles  attendant 
upon  the  monarchs,  indulged  in  display  so 
rich  and  expense  so  lavish,  as  to  win  for  the 
plain  of  meeting  the  name  of  The  Field  of 
the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Many  of  Henry’s  retinue 
sank  themselves  in  great  debt,  and  were  not 
able,  by  the  penury  of  their  whole  lives,  to 
repair  the  vain  extravagance  of  these  few 
days. 

Henry  began  to  dabble  in  theology,  and 
wrote  a tract  in  behalf  of  the  church  of 
Rome  and  against  Luther,  who  had  j ust  com- 
menced the  reformation  in  Germany ; upon 
which  Pope  Leo  X.  granted  him  in  1521  the 
title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith,  which  is  still 
retained  by  the  sovereigns  of  Great  Britain. 
In  1527  Henry  having  conceived  a violent 
passion  for  the  beautiful  Anne  Boleyn,  one 
of  the  queen’s  maids  of  honor,  was  badly 
troubled  in  conscience  that  he  should  be  the 
husband  of  his  brother’s  widow,  and  he  im- 
mediately set  about  procuring  a divorce. 
But  both  the  pope  and  Cardinal  Wolsey 
were  unwilling  to  sanction  this  unjustifiable 
scheme.  Wolsey  was  therefore  forced  to  give 
place  to  Thomas  Cranmer,  and  after  being 
arrested,  died  at  Leicester  Abbey,  not  with* 


TUD 


880 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


out  suspicion  of  having  been  poisoned.  Hen- 
ry privately  married  Anne  Boleyn  (whom  he 
had  created  Marchioness  of  Pembroke), 
Nov.  14th,  1532.  He  had  previously  repudi- 
ated Catherine,  and  a formal  divorce  was  de- 
clared, May  23d,  1533.  The  unhappy  queen 
retired  to  a monastery,  and  died  Jan.  6th, 
1536.  The  royal  amour  involved  a great 
religious  revolution.  Henry  declared  him- 
self the  “head  of  the  church,”  and  since 
Clement  VII.  would  not  sanction  the  union 
with  Anne  Boleyn,  the  authority  of  the  pon- 
tiff in  England  was  abolished.  The  abbeys 
and  other  ecclesiastical  foundations  were 
despoiled,  and  their  great  wealth  seized  by 
the  crown,  or  bestowed  upon  citizens.  Yet 
the  Anglican  church,  as  at  first  established 
in  1534,  was  not  Protestant.  It  differed  from 
the  Romish  church  on  the  point  of  the  papal 
supremacy,  and  on  that  point  alone.  Henry 
burnt  as  heretics  those  who  avowed  the 
tenets  of  Luther,  while  he  hung  as  traitors 
those  who  owned  the  authority  of  the  pope. 


The  wives  of  “bluff  King  Hal”  held  as 
ticklish  hold  on  life  or  favor  as  those  of  Blue- 
beard. Conceiving  a passion  for  Jane  Sey- 
mour, maid  of  honor  to  Anne  Boleyn,  the 
latter,  accused  of  high  treason  and  adultery, 
was  beheaded  at  the  Tower,  May  19th,  1536, 
and  the  former  married  on  the  following  day. 
She  died  in  giving  birth  to  a prince,  after- 
ward Edward  VI.,  Oct.  13th,  1537.  Henry 
was  inveigled  by  the  advice  of  Cromwell, 
Earl  of  Essex,  and  by  a flattering  portrait  of 
Holbein’s  painting,  into  wedding  Anne  of 
Cleves.  Both  her  person  and  disposition  he 
hated  upon  acquaintance:  she  was  divorced 
July  10th,  1540,  six  months  from  the  time 
of  marriage ; Cromwell  was  arrested  for 
treason,  was  not  allowed  to  be  heard  in  de- 
fense, was  convicted,  and  was  beheaded  July 
28th,  1540.  The  vacancy  in  the  royal  bed 
was  soon  filled  by  Catherine  Howard,  niece 
of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  married  Aug.  8th, 
1540.  She,  too,  being  accused  of  infidelity, 
was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill,  with  the  Lady 


TUD 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


881 


Rochford,  Feb.  12th,  1542.  In  1543,  Henry 
married  his  sixth  and  last  wife,  Catherine 
Parr.  Though  his  health  was  de’clining 
apace,  yet  his  implacable  cruelties  were  not 
less  frequent.  The  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and  his 
son,  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  were  the  last  who 
felt  the  effects  of  the  tyrant’s  suspicions. 
The  latter  was  arrested,  tried,  and  con- 
demned for  high  treason,  notwithstanding 
his  eloquent  and  spirited  defense,  and  the 
sentence  was  soon  after  executed  upon  him 
on  Tower  Hill.  The  parliament  meeting  on 
the  14th  of  January,  1546,  a bill  of  attainder 
was  found  against  the  Duke  of  Norfolk. 
The  death-warrant  was  made  out,  and  imme- 
diately sent  to  the  lieutenant  of  the  tower. 
The  duke  prepared  for  death,  but  was  saved 
by  the  death  of  Henry. 

Not  men  only,  but  women,  of  the  noblest 
blood,  greatest  virtues,  and  most  innocent 
lives,  perished  beneath  the  axe.  The  execution 
of  the  venerable  Countess  of  Salisbury  was 
remarkable  for  her  resistance  to  the  execu- 
tioner. When  he  directed  her  to  lay  her 
head  on  the  block,  she  would  not ; telling 
him  that  she  knew  of  no  guilt,  and  would  not 
submit  to  die  like  a criminal.  He  chased  her 
round  and  round  the  block,  aiming  at  her 
hoary  head,  and  at  length  took  it  off,  after 
mangling  the  neck  and  shoulders  with  ghastly 
gashes.  She  was  daughter  of  “perjured, 
fleeting  Clarence,”  and  the  last  of  the  royal 
line  of  Plantagenet. 

Henry  VIII.  died  Jan.  28th,  1547,  at  the 
age  of  fifty-six,  after  a reign  of  nearly  thirty- 
eight  years. 

Edward  VI.,  the  heir  of  the  crown,  was 
a lad  of  ten  years  at  his  father’s  death,  and 
ascended  the  throne  under  the  protectorate  of 
his  maternal  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Somerset. 
The  most  important  event  during  the  reign 
of  the  boy-king,  was  the  progress  of  the 
Reformation.  The  ecclesiastical  system  of 
Henry  VIII.  was  neither  Roman  Catholic  nor 
Protestant,  and  was  assailed  with  equal  fury 
by  all  who  were  zealous  either  for  the  new 
or  for  the  old  opinions.  The  ministers  who 
held  the  royal  prerogatives  in  trust  for  the 
infant  king  could,  not  venture  to  persist 
in  so  hazardous  a policy  ; it  was  necessary 
to  make  a choice ; the  government  must 
either  submit  to  Rome,  or  must  obtain 
the  aid  of  the  Protestants.  The  govern- 

56 


ment  and  the  Protestants  had  only  one 
thing  in  common,  hatred  of  the  papal  pow- 
er. The  English  reformers  were  eager  to  go 
as  far  as  their  brethren  on  the  continent,  and 
if  left  to  themselves  would  have  carried  on 
the  work  of  reform  as  unsparingly  as  it  had 
been  in  Scotland.  But,  as  the  government 
needed  the  support  of  the  Protestants,  so  the 
Protestants  needed  the  protection  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Much  was  therefore  given  upon 
both  sides  ; a union  was  effected,  and  the 
fruit  of  that  union  was  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
took  the  chief  part  in  adjusting  the  new 
ecclesiastical  polity.  The  liturgy  was  first 
framed  in  1547-8,  and  afterward,  in  1551, 
upon  the  solicitation  of  Calvin  and  others, 
reviewed  and  altered  to  nearly  its  present 
state.  The  book  of  common  prayer  and  the 
church  service  were  established  in  1552. 
Concerning  these  beneficent  measures,  the 
king,  who  was  an  amiable  and  virtuous 
youth,  acquiesced  in  the  wishes  of  his  sage 
counselors. 

The  might  and  ambition  of  the  Protector 
Somerset  made  him  many  enemies,  and  by 
the  machinations  of  Dudley,  Earl  of  North- 
umberland, he  was  driven  from  power  and 
at  last  beheaded ; Dudley  then  swayed 
with  a power  as  absolute.  The  king  wasted 
with  consumption,  and  died  at  Greenwich 
palace,  July  6th,  1553.  His  father  had  set- 
tled the  succession,  in  case  of  no  issue  from 
Edward,  upon  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Cath- 
erine of  Arragon.  The  ambitious  Dudley 
persuaded  Edward  to  set  aside  his  father’s 
will,  and  appoint  as  his  successor  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  a grand-niece  of  Henry  VIII.,  who 
favored  the  evangelical  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation,  while  Mary  was  a bigoted  pa- 
pist. This  being  accomplished,  Northumber- 
land married  his  son,  Lord  Guilford  Dudley, 
to  the  new  heir  of  the  crown.  [See  Grey, 
Lady  Jane.] 

Mary  was  in  her  thirty-ninth  year  when 
she  ascended  the  throne.  Her  young  rivals 
expiated  a short-lived  exaltation  on  the  scaf- 
fold. Mary  was  gloomy,  tyrannical,  and 
sanguinary,  and  such  was  her  reign.  The 
persecutions  and  vexations  she  had  endured 
in  the  time  of  her  father  and  brother,  for  her 
adherence  to  the  Romish  faith,  had  soured 
her  temper  and  taught  her  to  oppress  others. 
TUD 


882 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Papacy  was  restored,  Bishops  Latimer,  Rid- 
ley, and  Cranmer  were  burned  at  the  stake, 
and  the  flames  of  martyrdom  were  lit  through- 
out the  realm.  Three  hundred  persons  suf- 
fered at  the  stake  as  heretics  in  the  short 
space  of  Mary’s  reign,  and  throngs  sought 
refuge  abroad.  In  her  blind  zeal,  the  queen 
thought  such  horrors  were  for  the  glory  of 
God  and  true  religion.  In  1554  she  wedded 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  whom  she  deeply  loved, 
and  who  in  return  neglected  and  despised 
her.  She  died  childless  soon  after  the  loss 
of  Calais,  Nov.  17th,  1558.  She  is  popularly 
known  as  Bloody  Mary. 

Elizabeth  the  daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn, 
had  been  named  third  in  succession  by  her 
father.  She  was  born  in  Greenwich  palace, 
Sept.  7th,  1533,  and  was  therefore  in  her 
twenty-fifth  year  when  the  death  of  Mary 
called  her  to  the  throne.  The  Elizabethan 
age  is  deservedly  famous.  It  was  tho  time 
of  Shakspeare,  Bacon,  Sidney,  Spenser,  and 
Raleigh  ; while  on  the  continent  these  great 
names  were  rivaled  by  those  of  Luther,  Sul- 
ly, Ariosto,  Tasso,  Cervantes,  Camoens, 
Michael  Angelo,  Titian,  and  Correggio.  In 
the  century  immediately  preceding,  printing 
had  been  invented,  the  new  world  had  been 
discovered,  and  the  reformation  effected,  and 
these  great  events  were  producing  their  re- 
sults upon  the  world, — results  that  are  yet 
unfinished  and  whose  value  can  not  be  com- 
puted. So  successful  was  the  long  reign  of 
the  virgin  queen,  and  such  a contrast  did  it 
afford  to  that  of  her  predecessor,  that  she  has 
since  been  known  as  Good  Queen  Bess.  By 
her  own  sagacity,  and  the  wisdom  of  her  coun- 
selors, the  power  of  England  was  greatly 
strengthened,  and  the  attacks  of  Philip  II. 
of  Spain  gloriously  warded.  Trade  and  nav- 
igation flourished,  and  the  manufactures  of 
England  began  to  arise. 

When  Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne  her 
course  as  to  religion  was  in  doubt.  She  duti- 
fully notified  the  pope  of  her  accession.  The 
arrogant  answer  of  the  pontiff,  threatening 
her  for  assuming  the  crown  without  his  per- 
mission, decided  her,  papal  authority  was 
thrown  off,  and  the  independent  church  of 
England  once  more  established.  Those  who 
had  been  driven  from  England  in  the  days 
of  Mary  returned.  While  in  exile  they  had 
become  accustomed  to  a simpler  worship  and 


a more  radical  churchdom  than  the  Anglican, 
and  on  their  return  many  desired  a deeper 
reform  than  Elizabeth  would  sanction.  Here 
was  the  beginning  of  the  sectaries  afterward 
called  Puritans.  Elizabeth  knew  not  tolera- 
tion, and  Catholics  and  Puritans  were  perse- 
cuted with  relentless  vigor.  Tho  struggle 
between  Papacy  and  Protestantism  involved 
the  nations  of  Europe  in  war.  At  the  head 
of  the  Catholic  party  was  the  greatest  mon- 
arch of  the  age,  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  England 
became  the  head  of  the  Protestant  interest, 
although  Elizabeth  was  persecuting  Protes- 
tants at  home.  A'  succession  of  dark  plots 
formed  by  Roman  Catholics  against  the  life 
of  the  queen  and  the  existence  of  the  English 
nation,  kept  society  in  constant  alarm.  What- 
ever might  be  the  faults  of  Elizabeth,  it  was 
plain  that,  to  speak  humanely,  the  fate  of 
the  realm  and  of  all  reformed  churches  was 
staked  on  -the  security  of  her  person  and  the 
success  of  her  administration.  To  strengthen 
her  hands  was  therefore  the  first  duty  of  a 
patriot  and  a.  Protestant ; and  that  duty  was 
well  performed.  The  Puritans,  even  in  the 
depths  of  the  prisons  to  which  she  had  sent 
them,  prayed,  and  with  no  simulated  fervor, 
that  she  might  be  kept  from  the  dagger  of 
the  assassin,  that  rebellion  might  be  put 
down  under  her  feet,  and  that  her  arms  might 
be  victorious  by  sea  and  land.  One  of  the 
most  stubborn  of'  the  stubborn  sect,  imme- 
diately after  one  of  his  hands  had  been  lop- 
ped off  by  the  executioner  for  an  offense 
into  which  he  had  been  hurried  by  his  in- 
temperate zeal,  waved  his  hat  with  the  hand 
that  was  left  him,  and  shouted,  “God  save 
the  queen  ! ” 

The  private  character  of  Elizabeth  is  far 
less  bright  and  less  noble  than  her  public 
career.  She  had  many  of  her  father’s  traits  ; 
she  was  imperious,  selfish,  and  avaricious ; 
she  was  arbitrary  and  dangerous  in  caprice. 
Tremendous  oaths  she  had  in  her  mouth  as 
often  as  a fish  woman.  Yet  she  had  strong 
desire  to  be  lovely  and  be  loved.  From  her 
courtiers  she  extorted  the  grossest  flattery. 
She  had  a singularly  homely  face,  the  sight 
of  which  in  a mirror,  when  she  began  to 
grow  old,  convulsed  her  with  rage.  Yet  the 
warriors,  statesmen,  and  scholars  that  adorned 
her  court,  called  her  a Venus,  a goddess,  a 
nymph,  when  she  had  reached  the  ugliness 


TUD 


history  and  biography. 


883 


of  sixty -five.  In  the  exasperation  of  offended 
power  and  jealous  self-will,  she  signed  the 
death-warrant  of  her  favorite,  Essex ; the 
token  that  should  have  saved  his  life  did  not 
reach  her  ; and  ever  after  she  writhed  in  re- 
morse. [See  Devereux.]  Her  treatment  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  is  a foul  stain  upon 
her  reputation.  During  the  sixteen  years 
that  she  held  the  Scotch  Queen  in  durance, 
she  distinctly  indicated  how  welcome  would 
be  the  assassination  of  the  captive.  None 
would  do  such  a deed,  and  Mary  was  at  last 
sacrificed  on  the  scaffold.  Queen  Elizabeth 
died  unmarried  at  Richmond,  March  24th, 
1603,  having  reigned  over  forty -four  years. 
She  was  the  last*  of  the  race  of  Tudor,  and 
the  throne  passed  to  the  house  of  Stuart,  in 
the  person  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  son  of 
the  unhappy  Mary. 

The  government  of  the  Tudors  was,  on 
the  whole,  more  arbitrary  than  that  of  the 
Plantagenets.  Personal  character  may  in 
some  degree  explain  the  difference,  for  cour- 
age and  force  of  will  were  common  to  all  the 
men  and  women  of  the  house  of  Tudor. 
They  exercised  their  power  during  a period 
of  a hundred  and  twenty  years,  always  with 
vigor,  often- with  violence,  sometimes  with 
cruelty.  They,  in  imitation  of  the  dynast}' 
which  had  preceded  them,  occasionally  in- 
vaded the  rights  of  individuals,  occasionally 
exacted  taxes  under  the  name  of  loans  and 
gifts,  occasionally  dispensed  with  penal  stat- 
utes, and,  though  they  never  presumed  to 
enact  any  permanent  law  by  their  own  au- 
thority, occasionally  took  upon  themselves, 
when  parliament  was  not  sitting,  to  meet 
temporary  exigencies  by  temporary  edicts. 
It  was,  however,  impossible  for  the  Tudors  to 
carry  oppression  beyond  a certain  point ; for 
they  had  no  armed  force,  and  they  were  sur- 
rounded by  an  armed  people.  The  palace 
was  guarded  by  a few  domestics,  whom  the 
array  of  a single  shire,  or  of  a single  ward 
of  London,  could  with  ease  have  overpow- 
ered. These  haughty  princes  were  therefore 
under  a restraint  stronger  than  any  which 
mere  laws  can  impose — under  a restraint 
which  did  not,  indeed,  prevent  them  from 
sometimes  treating  an  individual  in  an  arbi- 
trary and  even  in  a barbarous  manner,  but 
which  effectually  secured  the  nation  against 
general  and  long  continued  oppression. 


They  might  safely  be  tyrants  within  the  pre- 
cinct of  the  court,  but  it  was  necessary  for 
them  to  watch  with  constant  anxiety  the  tem- 
per of  the  country.  Henry  VI 11  , for  exam- 
ple, encountered  no  opposition  when  he 
wished  to  send  Buckingham  and  Surrey, 
Anne  Boleyn  and  Lady  Salisbury,  to  the 
scaffold ; but  when,  without  the  consent  of 
parliament,  he  demanded  of  his  subjects  a 
contribution  amounting  to  one-sixth  of  their 
goods,  he  soon  found  it  necessary  to  retract. 
The  cry  of  hundreds  of  thousands  was  that 
they  were  English  and  not  French,  freemen 
and  not  slaves.  In  Kent  the  royal  commis- 
sioners fled  for  their  lives.  In  Suffolk  four 
thousand  men  appeared  in  arms.  The  king’s 
lieutenants  in  that  county  vainly  exerted 
themselves  to  raise  an  army.  Those  who 
did  not  join  the  insurrection  declared  that 
they  would  not  fight  against  their  brethren 
in  such  a quarrel.  Henry,  proud  and  self- 
willed  as  he  was,  shrank,  not  without  reason, 
from  a conflict  with  the  roused  spirit  of  a 
nation.  He  had  before  his  eyes  the  fate  of 
his  predecessors  who  had  perished  at  Berkeley 
and  Pomfret.  He  not  only  canceled  his  ille- 
gal commissions,  he  not  only  granted  a gen- 
eral pardon  to  all  the  malcontents,  but  he 
publicly  and  solemnly  apologized  for  his  in- 
fraction of  the  laws.  His  conduct  on  this 
occasion  well  illustrates  the  whole  policy  of 
his  house.  The  temper  of  the  princes  of 
that  line  was  hot,  and  their  spirit  high ; but 
they  understood  the  temper  of  the  nation 
which  they  governed,  and  never  once,  like 
some  of  their  predecessors,  and  some  of  their 
successors,  carried  obstinacy  to  a fatal  point. 
The  discretion  of  the  Tudors  was  such  that 
their  power,  though  it  was  often  resisted, 
was  never  subverted.  The  reign  of  every 
one  of  them  was  disturbed  by  formidable 
discontents ; but  the  government  never  failed 
either  to  soothe  the  mutineers,  or  to  conquer 
and  punish  them.  Sometimes,  by  timely 
concessions,  it  succeeded  in  averting  civil 
hostilities ; but  in  general  it  stood  firm,  and 
called  for  help  on  the  nation,  The  nation 
obeyed  the  call,  rallied  round  the  sovereign, 
and  enabled  him  to  quell  the  disaffected 
minority.  — Macaulay , 

TUNIS,  one  of  the  Barbary  states,  consists 
chiefly  of  a large  peninsula,  stretching  into  the 
Mediterranean  in  a north-easterly  directioa 


TUN 


884 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


It  contains  about  30,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  2,500,000,  of  which  100,000 
are  said  to  be  Jews.  The  eastern  part  of 
the  country  possesses  luxuriant  fertility,  but 
the  western  part  is  less  favored  by  nature  and 
contains  a scanty  population.  Rich  in  mines 
of  silver,  lead,  and  copper,  the  Tunisian 
mountains  have  never  been  properly  ex- 
plored. The  principal  articles  of  export  are 
grain,  olive  oil  wool,  soap,  sponge,  orchilla 
seed,  gold  dust,  ivory,  and  ostrich  feathers. 
Tunis,  the  capital,  an  irregularly  built  city, 
about  ten  miles  south-west  of  the  site,  of  an- 
cient Carthage,  contains  from  130,000  to 

200,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  about  30,000 
are  Jews.  It  was  once  strongly  fortified. 
The  gates  in  its  ruined  walls  are  closed  for 
two  hours  on  every  Friday  in  the  middle  of 
the  day,  because  of  a prediction  that  the 
Christians  will  take  possession  of  the  city^  on 
that  day  of  the  week,  and  in  those  hours. 
Tunis  is  the  largest  town  in  Barbary,  and  its 
commerce  is  quite  important.  About  sixty 
miles  south  is  Kairwan,  founded  by  the  Sar- 
acens about  669,  and  long  the  capital  of  their 
dominion  in  Northern  Africa.  It  is  the  holy 
city  of  Africa,  and  strangers  are  obliged  to 
pass  through  it  in  deep  silence.  The  great 
mosque,  said  to  be  supported  by  five  hun- 
dred granite  or  marble  pillars,  is  the  most 
magnificent  and  the  most  revered  in  all  Bar- 
bary. Vestiges  of  antiquity  are  scattered 
through  this  country  : the  site  of  great  Car- 
thage is  unoccupied,  a few  miserable  huts 
stand  where  Utica  was;  and  many  another 
town  of  the  ancient  time  or  the  middle  ages 
has  passed  away,  leaving  amphitheatre,  or 
temple,  or  arch,  in  ruins  to  mark  its  site. 
The  city  which  the  Romans  erected  on  the 
site  of  ancient  Carthage,  was  in  a flourishing 
condition,  when  the  Saracens  conquered  and 
destroyed  it;  and  Tunis  arose  with  consider- 
able magnificence.  The  Normans  of  Sicily 
conquered  the  Tunisians,  but  were  forced  to 
give  way,  in  turn,  to  Abdalmamum  of  Moroc- 
co. In  1530  Charles  V.  invaded  Africa,  and 
defeated  the  Algerine  Turks,  who  under  Bar- 
barossa  had  gained  possession  of  Tunis.  In 
1574  the  Turks  seized  upon  it,  and  estab- 
lished a government  at  the  head  of  which 
was  a pacha,  subject  to  the  grand  seignior. 
The  head  of  the  government  is  now  styled 
the  bey,  and  pays  an  annual  tribute  to  the 


grand  seignior,  of  whom  he  is  otherwise  in- 
dependent. 

Like  the  other  Barbary  states,  Tunis  was 
notorious  for  its  corsairs.  In  1816  Lord 
Exmouth  threatened  it  with  the  fate  of  Al- 
giers, and  white  slavery  was  forever  abolished. 

TURENNE,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d’Auvergne, 
Viscomte  de,  a famous  general,  was  the  sec- 
ond son  of  Henri  de  la  Tour  d’ Auvergne, 
Duke  de  Bouillon,  and  was  born  at  Sedan  in 
1611.  He  first  served  under  his  uncles,  the 
Princes  Maurice  and  Henry  of  Nassau  ; and 
in  1634  was  made  major-general.  In  1644 
he  became  marechal  of  France ; and 
though  he  lost  the  battle  of  Mariendal,  in 
1645,  he  soon  after  gained  that  of  Nordlin- 
gen,  which  restored  the  Elector  of  Treves  to 
his  dominions  ; and  the  next  year  he  formed 
a junction  with  the  Swedish  army,  which 
compelled  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  to  sue  for 
peace.  But  the  same  prince  soon  afterward 
broke  the  treaty,  on  which  Turcnne  made 
himself  master  of  his  territories.  In  the 
civil  wars  of  France,  he  joined  the  discon- 
tented party ; but  was  shortly  after  brought 
over  to  the  king’s  side.  In  1654  he  com- 
pelled the  Spaniards  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Arras;  and  in  1655  he  took  Condc,  and 
gained  the  battle  of  the  Downs,  which  pro- 
duced the  subjugation  of  Flanders.  In  1667 
Turenne  renounced  the  Protestant  religion  ;* 
which  measure  is  supposed  to  have 'proceeded 
from  ambitious  rather  than  pious  motives. 
On  the  renewal  of  the  war  with  Holland,  in 
1672,  he  took  forty  towns  in  less  than  a 
month  drove  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  to 
Berlin,  and  compelled  the  imperial  army  to 
recross  the  Rhine.  In  the  midst  of  this 
career  of  victory,  he  was  killed  by  a cannon 
ball,  near  Achercn,  July  27th,  1675. 

TURGOT,  Anne  Robert  Jacques,  a min- 
ister of  finance  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI. 
of  France,  whose  rigorous  scrutiny  and  re- 
duction of  expenditure,  in  hope  to  retrieve 
the  fearful  .condition  of  the  exchequer, 
aroused  such  enmity  amid  the  corruption  of 
the  court,  that  he  was  dismissed.  lie  died 
in  1781,  aged  fifty -four. 

TURKEY.  The  Ottoman  empire  is  situated 
in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  Turkey  in  Eu- 
rope contains  about  300,000  square  miles  and 

15.500.000  inhabitants;  and  Turkey  in  Asia 

560.000  square  miles  and  16,050,000  inhab- 


TUR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


885 


itants  ; the  possessions  in  Africa,  made  up 
of  the  states  of  Egypt,  Tripoli,  and  Tunis, 
though  tributary,  are  almost  independent; 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Servia,  Molda- 
via, and  Wallachia  in  Europe.  The  Sultan 
of  Turkey  is  almost  absolute,  his  power 
being  less  checked  by  any  laws  than  by  cus- 
tom, public  opinion,  and  the  turbulence  and 
fanaticism  of  his  subjects.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  empire  are  divided  into  two  great 
classes  : the  Turks,  or  more  correctly,  Turks- 
Osmanlis,  who  are  the  ruling  race  ; and  the 
Rayas,  that  is  ‘ the  flock,’  who  are  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
countries  conquered  by  the  Turks,  and  occu- 
py the  disadvantageous  position  of  a sub- 
dued people.  With  the  exception  of  some 
pagan  tribes,  they  are  Christians  of  the 
Greek  or  Romish  faith.  In  recent  years 
their  position  has  been  much  mitigated  by 
the  sultans,  who  have  also  introduced  many 
European  improvements  and  innovations 
among  the  customs  of  the  Turks. 

The  European  countries  subject  to  the 
Turks  have  enjoyed  lofty  renown.  Here  was 
Macedon,  whose  Alexander  spread  her  power 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  known  world.  Here 
was  the  seat  of  the  Byzantine  or  Eastern 
empire,  which  shared  with  Rome  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  earth.  Asiatic  Turkey  comprises 
regions  of  even  greater  memories. 

Syria  includes  Palestine,  or  the  Holy 
Land,  a country  which,  as  being  the  theatre 
of  so  many  wonderful  and  appalling  events, 
is  still  visited  with  intense  interest,  and  holds 
a conspicuous  place  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  In  the  south-east  portion  of  Turkey 
in  Asia,  lies  the  ancient  and  famous  Mesopo- 
tamia. Assyria  was  one  of  the  earliest  and 
most  noted  monarchies  of  Asia.  The  splen- 
dor of  the  Assyrians  has  been  celebrated  by 
all  historical  writers.  To  trace  the  fortunes 
and  varied  events  of  this  kingdom  alone, 
would  require  a much  greater  space  than  we 
can  devote  to  this  general  view.  The  mighty 
kingdom  of  Babylon  gave  lustre  to  Asia  in 
its  early  days.  During  the  reign  of  Semira- 
mis  its  fame,  was  at  the  highest.  This  sove- 
reign possessed  fewer  feminine  than  mascu- 
line attributes,  and  yet  shone  no  less  con- 
spicuously in  the  court  than  the  camp.  She 
did  much  to  beautify  her  city,  and  to  extend 
the  fame  and  power  of  her  kingdom. 


hanging  gardens  of  Babylon,  in  which  trees 
of  great  size  were  supported  on  terraces  at  an 
elevation  far  above  the  earth,  constituted  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  ancient  world.  Bagdad, 
the  once  celebrated  seat  of  the  Saracenic  ca- 
liphs, to  the  splendor  of  which  Haroun 
al  Raschid  greatly  contributed,  has  lost 
most  of  its  former  magnificence.  Here,  when 
the  star  of  the  Saracenic  empire  was  at  its 
zenith,  literature  and  the  arts  flourished  un- 
der the  protection  of  the  caliphs  ; poetry  and 
romance  shed  a charm  over  every-day  exist- 
ence, and  music,  with  other  arts,  received  the 
most  assiduous  cultivation  and  encourage- 
ment. We  can  but  briefly  allude  to  other 
reigns  and  events  which  have  distinguished 
Asiatic  Turkey — the  fate  of  the  celebrated 
Queen  Zenobia,  who  was  compelled  to  grace 
the  triumph  of  the  Emperor  Aurelian,  after 
victory  had  smiled  upon  the  Roman  banners 
as  they  waved  over  the  Asiatic  plains  ; the 
siege  of  Jerusalem'  by  Titus;  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  sacred  temple,  with  all  its  magnifi- 
cence; the  wild  enthusiasm  of  the  crusa- 
ders, who  made  Jerusalem  the  rallying  point 
for  the  chivalry  of  Europe  in  the  holy  wars ; 
the  siege  and  fall  of  Troy,  of  which  now  not 
the  slightest  trace  remains.  Changed,  in- 
deed, is  the  face  of  all  that  was  formerly  glo- 
rious in  these  ancient  countries ! The  foot- 
steps of  Time  are  deep,  and  his  ravages  last- 
ing. A wretched  village,  inhabited  by  a 
handful  of  Turks,  usurps  the  spot  where 
once  rose  in  splendor,  Ephesus — that  Ephe- 
sus which  was  the  pride  of  Asia  Minor, — 
that  Ephesus  which  St.  Paul  has  celebrated 
by  his  epistle, — that  Ephesus  which  con- 
tained the  superb  temple  of  Diana,  fired  by 
Erostratus,  that  he  might  immortalize  his 
name.  “ Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians!” 
was  the  cry  of  the  proud  inhabitants.  Ages 
have  passed — and  the  idol  and  the  idolaters 
have  passed  away.  What  is  to  be  the  future 
of  the  world, # the  ruins  of  whose  by-gone 
years  are  so  great ! 

The  Turks  were  of  Asiatic  origin.  The 
foundation  of  their  empire  was  laid  by  Os- 
man, or  Ochman,  who  seized  the  countries 
which  had  been  in  the  possession  of  the 
Seleucidae  in  Asia  Minor,  about  a.d.  1300. 
He  assumed  the  title  of  sultan,  and,  pursu- 
ing his  conquests,  took  Prusa  in  Bithynia, 
which  he  made  the  seat  of*  the  Ottoman  em- 


The 
TUR 


886 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


pire  or  kingdom.  He  died  in  1328,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Orchan,  who  contin- 
ued the  conquests  of  his  father  in  the  Greek 
empire,  and  took  Nicea  or  Nicomeaia. 

Murad,  or  Amurath  T.,  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Orchan,  succeeded  also  to  his  father’s 
usurpation  of  the  country,  in  135G ; and 
passing  the  straits  of  Gallipoli,  he  took  Adri- 
anople,  which  he  made  the  seat  of ‘his  em- 
pire. lie  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Bajazet 
I.,  in  1389,  whose  brother,  attempting  to 
supplant  him,  was  strangled ; and  this  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  instance  of  that 
sanguinary  custom,  afterward  so  common,  of 
putting  to  death  princes  of  the  royal  blood. 
This  prince  is  celebrated  both  by  his  victo- 
ries and  by  the  most  distressing  misfortunes. 
He  flew  from  Asia  to  Europe,  and  returned 
to  Asia,  with  such  inconceivable  rapidity, 
that  the  Turks  have  given  him  the  surname 
of  Ilderim,  ‘lightning.’  He  provoked  the 
attacks  of  Timur  Bee,  or  Tamerlane,  who 
wished  to  accommodate  their  differences,  but 
who  accepted  the  challenge  of  Bajazet,  and 
in  the  plains  of  Prusa  proved  completely  vic- 
torious, in  one  of  the  bloodiest  battles  that 
had  ever  been  fought.  It  continued  a whole 
day,  and  thousands  on  both  sides  fell  by  the 
sword;  but,  while  displaying  the  utmost 
efforts  of  valor,  Bajazet  was  defeated  and 
made  prisoner.  The  iron  cage  that  he  had 
designed  for  Tamerlane  in  the  sure  hope  of 
victory,  became  his  own  prison,  and  against 
its  bars  he  dashed  himself  to  death. 

An  interregnum  of  twelve  years  succeeded, 
during  which  the  three  sons  of  Bajazet  gov- 
erned each  a separate  part  of  the  empire ; 
but,  at  length,  in  1413,  it  was  united  under 
Mohammed,  gifted  by  nature  with  strength, 
courage,  and  talents.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Murad,  or  Amurath  IT.,  in  1422,  who 
took  Thessalonica,  or  Salonica,  and  put  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sword ; invaded  and  sub- 
dued Servia,  destroying  all  before  him ; en- 
tered Transylvania,  ravaging  the  country, 
and  vanquishing  the  natives ; and  acted  the 
same  victorious  parts  in  Wallachia.  He 
gained  the  famous  battle  at  Varna,  in  which 
Ladislaus,  king  of  Hungary,  was  slain.  Amu- 
rath was  less  successful  against  Scanderbeg, 
Prince  of  Epirus.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Mohammed  II.,  in  1451,  the  greatest 
warrior  of  all  the  Turkish  sultans.  His 


reign  lasted  thirty  years,  and  was  a contin- 
ued series  of  battles  and  victories,  almost 
without  a single  reverse.  However,  he  had 
to  contend  with  generals  capable  of  suspend- 
ing his  progress,  and  of  checking  his  ambi- 
tion, had  their  forces  been  equal  to  their 
courage.  Among  these  were  the  celebrated 
Iluniadcs,  king  of  Hungary ; Matthias  Cor- 
vinus,  his  son ; and  above  all,  Scanderbeg, 
after  whose  death  the  Turks  made  relics  of 
his  bones,  which  they  wore  as  a preservative 
against  dangers.  On  the  29th  of  May,  1453, 
Mohammed  took  the  city  of  Constantinople. 
Thus  ended  the  Greek  empire,  and  the  seat 
of  the  Turkish  was  founded.  After  Moham- 
med had  taken  the  capital,  he  turned  his 
arms  against  what  still  remained  of  the 
Greek  empire,  in  the  isles  and  on  the  conti- 
nent. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Ba- 
jazet II.,  in  1481,  who  subdued  the  Molda- 
vians ; rendered  several  of  the  Asiatic  prin- 
ces tributary ; had  considerable  success  in 
Syria ; reduced  Croatia ; occasioned  great 
devastation  in  the  Morea ; landed  a body  of 
troops  in  the  island  of  Rhodes ; and  paved 
the  way  for  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  by  depriv- 
ing the  Mamelukes,  who  commanded  in  that 
country,  of  the  necessary  succors  which  they 
derifed  from  Circassia.  Exhausted  with  fa- 
tigue and  debauchery,  Bajazet  was,  desirous 
of  placing  the  crown  on  the  head  of  his  eld- 
est son,  Ahmed.  In  this  situation  of  affairs, 
Selim,  the  youngest,  arrived  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Constantinople,  under  the  pretense 
of  paying  a visit  to  his  father.  This  young 
prince  was  soon  surrounded  by  the  whole 
court,  who  ranged  themselves  under  his  ban- 
ners ; and  the  aged  monarch,  foreseeing  what 
would  be  the  event  of  such  a visit,  resigned 
his  crown  into  the  hands  of  Selim. 

Selim  ascended  the  throne  in  the  forty-fifth 
year  of  his  age,  in  1512,  and  caused  his 
brothers,  Ahmed  and  Korkud,  with  five  of 
his  nephews,  and  a great  many  of  the  nobil- 
ity,  to  be  put  to  death.  As  he  had  received 
the  crown  from  the  suffrages  of  the  soldiers, 
who  wished  only  for  war,  he  endeavored  to 
gratify  their  desires,  and  leading  his  army 
into  Syria  and  Egypt,  completely  defeated 
the  Mamelukes.  However,  as  he  imagined 
he  could  not  insure  the  quiet  possession  of 
Egypt,  but  by  the  total  extinction  of  that  peo- 


TUR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


887 


pie,  he  offered  rewards  to  those  w’ho  should 
discover  any  of  them,  and  denounced  the 
severest  punishment  against  such  as  con- 
cealed them.  When  he  thought  he  had 
them  all  assembled,  he  ordered  a superb 
throne  to  be  erected  for  him  upon  the  banks 
of  the  Nile,  without  the  gates  of  Cairo ; and 
these  unhappy  wretches  being  brought  into 
his  presence,  he  caused  them  all  to  be  mur- 
dered before  his  eyes,  and  their  bodies  to  be 
thrown  into  the  river.  He  also  made  con- 
quests in  Persia  and  Armenia. 

Solyman,  the.  son  of  Selim,  had  scarcely 
mounted  the  throne,  in  1520,  when  he  formed 
the  design  of  extending  his  empire  as  much 
in  Europe,  as  his  father  had  done  in  Asia. 
He  directed  his  attempts  against  the  Chris- 
tians, and  soon  took  Rhodes  from  the  knights 
of  St.  John,  who  had  possessed  the  island  for 
upward  of  two  hundred  years.  He  attacked 
Hungary,  took  Buda,  and  entered  Austria 
with  fire  and  sword.  He  laid  siege  to  Vien- 
na ; where  finding  a desperate  resistance,  he 
withdrew  with  his  troops,  but  previously 
massacred  all  his  prisoners,  men,  women, 
and  children.  He  made  John,  king  of  Hun- 
gary, tributary  to  him,  and  took  Bagdad,  the 
whole  of  Assyria,  and  Mesopotamia.  In 
short,  he  extended  his  reputation  as  a war- 
rior to  both  extremities  of  the  world. 

Selim,  the  son  of  Solyman,  made  peace 
with  Germany  and  Persia,  and  took  the  island 
of  Cyprus  from  the  Venetians,  in  1566.  In 
1572,  the  Turkish  navy,  heretofore  the  most 
formidable  in  Europe,  was  almost  annihilated 
in  the  great  battle  of  Lepanto.  Amurath 
III.,  the  eldest  son  of  Selim,  who  became 
sultan  in  1575,  to  give  employment  to  his 
untractable  soldiery,  made  war  upon  Russia, 
Poland,  Germany,  and  Venice,  and  subdued 
Georgia.  He  is  said  to  have  been  of  a quiet 
disposition,  a lover  of  justice,  and  very  zeal- 
ous in  his  religion.  He  left  behind  him 
twenty  sons,  of  whom  nineteen  were  stran- 
gled by  the  eldest,  his  successor.  Moham- 
med III.,  having  thus  secured  to  himself  the 
throne  by  the  slaughter  of  his  brothers,  in 
1506,  thought  it  necessary  also  to  takeaway 
the  life  of  all  the  late  sovereign’s  wives  and 
concubines,  by  whom  it  was  possible  that 
there  should  be  any  posthumous  progeny. 
The  insolence  of  the  Janissaries  now  greatly 
increased,  and  they  were  perpetually  revolt- 


ing and  fighting  with  the  other  soldiers. 
The  pachas  also  rebelled  in  many  provinces ; 
and  the  sultan,  through  fear,  made  peace 
with  them,  and  confirmed  them  in  their 
office.  Immersed  in  the  pleasures  of  the 
seraglio,  Mohammed  bestowed  no  other  at- 
tention on  public  affairs  than  was  absolutely 
necessary.  He  caused  his  eldest  son,  a 
prince  of  inestimable  qualities,  to.  be  put  to 
death. 

Ahmed  ascended  the  throne  when  he  was 
scarcely  fifteen  years  old,  in  1605,  and  soon 
demonstrated  that  the  sceptre  was  not  un- 
worthily intrusted  to  him.  Under  his  reign, 
began  those  fires  which  are  so  common  at 
Constantinople,  and  which  seldom  or  never 
break  out  but  when  the  people  are  discontent- 
ed. Ahmed  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Mustapha,  in  1617.  His  cruelties  rendered 
him  so  odious,  that  he  was  deposed  and  sent 
to  prison  in  the  castle  of  the  seven  towers,  and 
his  nephew,  Othman,  son  of  Ahmed,  placed 
on  the  throne,  in  1618.  Othman,  discontent- 
ed with  his  Janissaries,  meditated  revenge 
against  them ; and  as  he  could  not  drive  them 
from  Constantinople,  he  formed  the  design  of 
transferring  the  seat  of  government  into  Asia. 
But  the  Janissaries  discovering  his  intention, 
massacred  the  grand  vizier,  whom  they  sup- 
posed to  be  the  author  of  the  measure,  im- 
prisoned Othman,  who  was  soon  after  put  to 
death,  and  reinstated  Mustapha  on  the  throne. 
The  uhcle,  however,  derived  very  little  ben- 
efit from  this  event.  He  was  treated  as  an 
idiot,  led  about  upon  an  ass,  exposed  to  the 
derision  and  insults  of  the  populace,  and  then 
carried  back  to  prison,  where  he  was  stran- 
gled by  the  orders  of  his  successor. 

Amurath  IV.,  brother  to  the  unfortunate 
Othman,  by  intrepidity  and  courage  repress- 
ed the  turbulence  of  the  Janissaries.  His 
amusement  was  to  run  about  the  streets  in  the 
night,  with  a sabre  in  his  hand,  and  to  cut 
down  all  whom  he  met.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Ibrahim,  in  1639,  who  had 
languished  four  years  in  prison,  and  who,  on 
being  restored  thus  unexpectedly  to  liberty 
and  empire,  was  so  intoxicated  by  the  new 
pleasures  which  they  presented,  that  resign- 
ing the  administration  of  government  to  the 
former  ministers,  he  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  the  luxuries  of  the  harem.  The  mufti 
having  excited  a revolt  among  the  Janissa- 


TUR 


883 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


rics,  and  Ibrahim,  finding  himself  unable  to 
resist,  he  resigned  the  crown,  and  in  a few 
days  was  put  to  death. 

Mohammed  IV.,  the  eldest  son  of  Ibrahim, 
succeeded  his  father,  in  1 648.  His  reign  was 
long  and  glorious ; but  after  so  many  years 
passed  in  prosperity,  which  ought  to  have 
established  his  power,  he  was  forced  to  ab- 
dicate the  throne,  though  he  survived  his 
deposition,  and  was  not  molested  in  his  apart- 
ment, which  served  as  a prison.  The  ex- 
ploits of  this  emperor,  which,  if  detailed  at 
length,  would  fill  a volume,  are  not  so  far 
distant  from  the  present  period  as  to  be 
obscured  by  the  veil  of  time.  The  famous 
siege  of  Candia,  which  subjected  the  ancient 
Crete  to  the  dominion  of  the  crescent,  makes 
a conspicuous  figure  in  the  page  of  history. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
fathers  at  Vienna  were  accustomed  to  relate 
to  their  children  the  battles  which  they  had 
witnessed  under  the  walls  of  that  city,  when 
great  Sobieski  shattered  the  hopes  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans. Mohammed  IV.  distinguished 
himself  by  his  inclination  to  mercy,  and  sel- 
dom commanded  his  troops  in  person  ; which 
probably  caused  the  revolt  of  the  soldiers, 
who  placed  the  crown  on  the  head  of  one  of 
his  brothers.  Solyman  II.  did  not  seat  him- 
self on  the  throne  without  apprehension,  in 
1687 ; and,  while  receiving  the  usual  con- 
gratulations, seemed  every  moment  to  expect 
his  formidable  brother  with  the  executioners 
and  instruments  of  death.  Solyman  had  to 
support  a disastrous  war  against  Germany 
and  Venice,  the  misfortunes  of  which  were 
attended  with  the  most  ruinous  consequen- 
ces. But  Kiopruli  Mustapha  Pacha  being 
appointed  grand-vizier,  regenerated  the  em- 
pire, and  putting  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
main  army,  besieged  and  took  the  fortress 
of  Belgrade.  Solyman  died  of  the  dropsy, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Ahmed 
II.,  in  1691,  who  had  as  little  judgment,  and 
as  little  influence  in  the  government.  Kiop- 
ruli being  hilled  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube, 
when  on  the  point  of  obtaining  a victory,  the 
sovereign  soon  followed  his  general  to  the 
grave. 

Mustapha  II.,  son  of  Mohammed  IV.,  gave 
new  vigor  to  the  empire,  in  1695,  which  had 
languished  under  his  predecessors.  He  re- 
solved to  command  his  troops  in  person,  but 


met  with  a more  disgraceful  and  more  com- 
plete defeat  than  the  Turks  had  ever  expe- 
rienced. His  troops,  not  receiving  their  pay 
in  due  time,  took  up  arms,  deposed  Musta- 
pha, and  invited  Ahmed  his  brother  to  repair 
to  the  army.  Ahmed  III.  in  the  course  of 
five  months  put  to  death  more  than  14,000 
soldiers  who  had  taken  the  greatest  share  in 
the  rebellion ; they  were  carried  away  in 
the  night-time,  and  drowned  in  the  Bospho- 
rus. A war  broke  out  between  the  Porte 
and  Russia;  that  with  Germany  and  Venice 
was  rekindled ; and  another  was  carried  on  in 
Persia.  These  military  expeditions,  though 
not  always  unsuccessful,  reduced  the  empire 
to  a state  of  general  weakness,  which  was  felt 
particularly  in  the  capital : all  tended  to  irri- 
tate the  minds  of  men,  and  produced  a revolt 
that  dethroned  Ahmed,  after  a reign  of  twenty- 
seven  years.  On  the  deposition  of  Ahmed,  in 
1730,  and  the  elevation  of  his  nephew,  Mah- 
moud I.  or  Mohammed  V.,  a considerable  al- 
teration took  place  in  the  mode  of  carrying  on 
the  government.  From  the  time  of  Moham- 
med II.  the  whole  administration  had  been 
usually  delegated  to  the  vizier ; but  as  this 
and  the  preceding  rebellion  had  originated  in 
the  overgrown  power  and  ambition  of  these 
officers,  Mohammed  V.  took  the  authority 
into  his  own  hands,  and  determined  to  change 
his  viziers  frequently.  This  prince  w7as  un- 
fortunate in  his  battles  both  with  the  Rus- 
sians and  Kouli  Khan,  whom  he  was  obliged 
to  acknowledge  as  sophi  of  Persia. 

On  the  death  of  Mohammed,  his  brother 
Osman  came  from  confinement  to  the  throne, 
in  1754.  Osman  was  succeeded  by  Mustapha 
III.,  the  son  of  Ahmed,  in  1757.  Musta- 
pha having  attacked  the  Russians,  in  1769,  a 
bloody  war  commenced  with  the  exploits  of 
Prince  Gallitzin,  who  gained  four  separate 
and  complete  victories  over  the  Turks,  whom 
he  obliged  to  abandon  Choczin.  The  Rus- 
sians speedily  overran  Moldavia  and  Walla- 
chia,  and  gained  a great  naval  victory  off 
Chesme,  where  the  whole  of  the  Turkish 
fleet  was  destroyed.  These  and  other  im- 
portant successes  of  the  Russians  compelled 
the  Turks  to  conclude  a dishonorable  peace, 
soon  after  the  death  of  Mustapha,  and  the 
accession  of  his  brother  Abdulhamid  or 
Ahmed  IV.  The  peace  of  1774  was  the  first 
great  step  toward  the  limitation  of  the  Turk' 
TUR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  889 


lsh  empire.  On  the  death  of  Abdulhamid, 
in  1789,  Selim  III.,  son  of  Mustapha,  ascend- 
ed the  throne,  at  a time  when  the  empire 
was  engaged  in  another  unsuccessful  war 
with  Russia,  which  terminated  greatly  in 
favor  of  the  latter  power.  From  this  period, 
the  most  interesting  and  important  concerns 
relating  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  were  for 
some  time  connected  with  internal  and  civil 
broils.  Civil  war,  which  was  probably  fo- 
mented by  the  French,  when  they  invaded 
Egypt,  appeared  likely  to  become  general 
throughout  Turkey.  A revolution  was  effect- 
ed by  the  Janissaries,  who  deposed  Selim 
III.  and  raised  to  the  throne  Mustapha  IV., 
son  of  Abdulhamid,  in  1807.  Mustapha  was 
deposed  in  1808,  and  succeeded  by  his  broth- 
er, Mahmoud. 

Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey,  on 
the  pretext  of  a peace  concluded  with  Eng- 
land by  the  latter  power,  in  1809,  and  the 
Turks  and  Russians  commenced  hostilities 
against  each  other  with  no  other  apparent 
object  than  mutual  destruction.  At  length 
mutual  exhaustion  rendered  the  operations  on 
both  sides  languid ; and  Russia  finding  herself 
invaded  by  the  formidable  power  of  France,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  with  Turkey  in 
1812,  which  ceded  the  cities  and  districts  on  the 
east  of  the  Pruth  as  the  price  of  pacification. 

The  loss  of  Greece  was  a serious  blow  to 
Turkey,  and  in  1828  and  1829  another  disas- 
trous war  was  sustained  with  Russia.  Mehe- 
met  Ali,  who  as  pacha  of  Egypt  had  raised 
himself  to  independence,  also  resisted  the 
arms  of  the  sultan.  Abdul  Medjid,  son  of 
Mahmoud,  succeeded  in  1839.  He  carried 
on  the  reforms  which  had  been  commenced 
by  his  father,  to  civilize  and  enlighten  the 
policy  and  customs  of  the  Turks.  The  war 
with  Russia,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by 
Great  Britain  and  France,  we  have  noticed 
in  our  sketch  of  Russia. 

SULTANS  OP  TURKEY. 

1299.  Othman,  or  Ottoman,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Grand  Seignior. 

1326.  Orchan,  son  of  Othman. 

1360.  Amurath  I.  : stabbed  by  a soldier,  of  which 
wound  he  died. 

1389.  Bajazet  I.,  his  son;  defeated  by  Tamer- 
lane, and  died  imprisoned. 

1402.  Solyman,  son  of  Bajazet:  dethroned  by 
his  brother  and  successor. 

1410.  Musa-Chelebi : strangled. 

1413.  Mohammed  I.,  also  son  of  Bajazet. 

1421.  Amurath  II.,  succeeded  by  his  son. 


1451.  Mohammed  II.,  by  whom  Constantinople 
was  taken  in  1453. 

1481.  Bajazet  II.,  deposed  by  his  son. 

1512.  Selim  I.,  who  succeeded  him. 

1520.  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  son  of  Selim. 
1566.  Selim  II.,  son  oi  Solyman. 

1574.  Amurath  III.,  his  son. 

15tt5.  Mohammed  111.,  son  of  Amurath. 

16o3.  Ahmed,  or  Achmet,  his  son:  succeeded 
by  his  brother. 

1617.  Mustapha  I.,  succeeded  by  his  nephew. 

1618.  Osman  I.  : strangled  by  the  Janissaries, 
and  his  uncle  restored. 

1622.  Mustapha  I.  again:  again  deposed. 

•1623.  Amurath  IV.,  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1640.  Ibrahim:  strangled  by  the  Janissaries. 
1649.  Mohammed  IV.,  son  of  Ibrahim  : deposed. 
1687.  Solyman  III.,  his  brother. 

1691.  Ahmed,  or  Achmet  II.:  succeeded  by  his 
nephew. 

1695.  Mustapha  II.,  eldest  son  of  Mohammed 
IV. : deposed ; succeeded  by  his  bro- 
ther. 

1703.  Ahmed  or  Achmet  III.  : deposed. 

1730.  Mahmud,  or  Mohammed  V.,  succeeded  his 
uncle,  the  preceding  sultan. 

1754.  Osman  II.,  brother  of  Mahmud. 

1757.  Mustapha  III.,  brother  of  Osman. 

1774.  Abdul-Ahmed. 

1788.  Selim  III. : deposed  by  the  Janissaries, 
and  his  nephew  raised  to  the  throne. 

1807.  Mustapha  IV. : deposed,  and,  with  the 
late  sultan,  Selim,  murdered. 

1808.  Mahmud  II. : succeeded  by  his  son. 

1839.  Abdul-Medjid. 

1861.  Abdul  Aziz,  brother  of  Abdul  Medjid. 

TURNER,  Siiaron,  an  English  historian 
of  some  note,  and  a solicitor  by  profession.  In 
1798  he  published  a “ History  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,”  and  afterward  a “ History  of  England 
during  the  Middle  Ages.”  The  first  is  the 
most  valuable.  He  received  a pension  of 
£300  from  government,  and  with  the  habits 
evinced  by  the  following  anecdote,  must  have 
made  both  ends  meet.  The  third  volume  of 
his  “Sacred  History  of  the  World”  was 
written  upon  paper  which  did  not  cost  him  a 
farthing.  The  copy  consisted  of  torn  and 
angular  fragments  of  letters  and  notes ; of 
covers  of  periodicals, — gray,  drab,  or  green, 
— written  in  thick,  round  hand  over  a small 
print ; of  shreds  of  curling  paper,  unctuous 
with  pomatum  or  bear’s  grease;  and  of  the 
white  wrappers  in  which  his  proofs  were 
sent  from  the  printers.  The  paper,  some- 
times as  thin  as  a bank-note,  was  written  on 
both  sides,  and  was  so  sodden  with  ink,  plas- 
tered on  with  a pen  worn  to  a stump,  that 
hours  were  wasted  in  discovering  on  which 
side  of  it  certain  sentences  were  written. 
First-rate  compositors  could  hardly  gain 
TUR 


890 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


money  upon  it  sufficient  to  keep  them  alive. 
Often,  by  way  of  hint,  slips  of  stout  white 
paper  were  sent  with  the  proofs;  but  the 
good  old  gentleman  could  not  afford  to  use 
them,  and  they  never  came  back  as  copy. 
There  are  too  many  writers  who  are  as  care- 
less in  respect  of  copy,  if  not  as  niggardly, 
as  Mr.  Sharon  Turner. 

TURNER,  Josepii  Malleed  William,  one 


| of  the  greatest  of  English  painters,  was  born 
in  London,  in  1775.  After  a life  of  almost 
unrivaled  success  and  unsurpassed  industry, 
this  great  landscape  artist  died  unmarried’ 
and  under  an  assumed  name,  in  an  obscure 
lodging  at  Chelsea,  Dec.  19th,  1851,  bequeath- 
ing his  pictures  to  the  nation,  and  his  funded 
property  for  the  establishment  of  an  institu- 
tion to  benefit  decayed  artists. 


LEANING  TOWER  OF  PISA. 


TUSCANY,  a grand  duchy  of  central  Italy, 
bounded  north  by  Parma,  Modena,  and  the 
States  of  the  Church,  east  by  the  States  of 
the  Church,  and  south-west  by  the  Tuscan 
Sea,  a part  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  in- 
cludes Elba  and  a few  smaller  islands,  and  is 
divided  into  Florence,  Pisa,  and  Sienna,  con- 
taining 8,494  square  miles,  and  1,816,000 


inhabitants.  The  face  of  the  country  is 
agreeably  diversified,  and  the  well-watered 
soil  produces  wheat,  maize,  beans,  peas,  clo- 
ver, vines,  mulberries,  olives,  oranges,  lem- 
ons,  figs  and  rice.  The  minerals  are  copper, 
lead,  quicksilver,  marble,  &c.  The  Tuscan 
dialect  is  considered  the  purest  Italian. 

Florence,  the  capital,  is  one  cf  the  most 


TUS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


891 


/ beautiful  cities  of  Italy,  justly  deserving  the 
name  which  has  been  bestowed  upon  it — 
Florence  the  Fair.  It  contains  110,000  in- 
habitants. It  isinteresting  from  its  histori- 
cal associations,  and  from  the  invaluable 
monuments  of  art  which  it  contains,  and 
with  which  the  Florentine  gallery  is  founded. 
The  Pitti  palace,  the  cathedral,  the  church 
of  St.  Croce,  the  church  del  Carmine,  &c., 
can  never  be  sufficiently  admired.  The  re- 
vival of  the  arts  took  place  here,  and  thence 
the  regeneration  of  Europe  followed. 

Tuscany  anciently  belonged  to  the  empe- 
rors of  Germany,  wTho  governed  it  by  depu- 
ties till  the  year  1240,  when  the  famous  dis- 
tinctions of  the  Guelphs,  who  were  the  par- 
tisans of  the  pope,  and  the  Ghibeliines,  who 
were  in  the  emperor’s  interest,  took  place. 
The  popes  then  persuaded  the  imperial  gov- 
ernors in  Tuscany  to  put  themselves  under 
the  protection  of  the  church ; but  the  Flo- 
rentines, in  a short  time,  formed  themselves 
into  a free  commonwealth,  and  bravely  de- 
fended their  liberties  against  both  parties  by 
turns.  Faction  at  last  shook  their  freedom  ; 
and  the  family  of  Medici,  long  before  they 
were  declared  either  princes  or  dukes,  in 
fact  governed  Florence,  though  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  people  seemed  still  to 
exist.  The  Medici,  particularly  Cosmo,  who 
was  called  the  father  of  his  country,  shared 
with  the  Venetians  in  the  immense  profits 
of  the  East  India  trade,  before  the  discove- 
ries made  by  the  Portuguese.  Pope  Pius  V. 
gave  one  of  his  descendants,  Cosmo  (the 
great  patron  of  the  arts),  the  title  of  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  in  1570,  which  continued 
in  his  family  to  the  death  of  Gaston  de  Medi- 
cis,  in  1737,  without  issue.  The  great  duchy 
was  then  claimed  by  the  Emperor  Charles 
VI.  as  a fief  of  the  empire,  and  given  to  his 
son-in-law,  Francis,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  in 
lieu  of  the  duchy  of  Lorraine,  which  was 
ceded  to  France  by  treaty. 

Francis  had  married  Maria  Theresa,  and  so 
became  Emperor  of  Germany.  On  his  death 
Leopold,  his  second  son,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Tuscany.  When  the  death  of  his 
brother  Joseph  gave  him  the  imperial  sceptre, 
Tuscany  devolved  to  his  second  son,  Ferdi- 
nand. By  the  treaty  of  Luneville  (February, 
1801),  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  received 
the  title  of  the  kingdom  of  Etruria,  and  was 


transferred  to  the  hereditary  prince  of  Parma. 
In  the  subsequent  incorporations  of  Bona- 
parte, it  was  declared  an  integral  part  of  the 
French  empire ; but  on  his  downfall  in  1814, 
it  was  restored  to  the  Archduke  Ferdinand, 
and  resumed  its  proper  designation  of  grand 
duchy. 

In  1849,  a republic  was  for  a while  estab- 
lished in  Florence,  but  the  fugitive  grand- 
duke  was  restored  by  Austrian  bayonets. 
He  then  greatly  abridged  the  political  privi- 
leges of  his  subjects,  which  had  before  been 
more  liberal  'than  those  of  any  other  nation 
of  Italy. 

Much  interest  and  sympathy  were  excited 
in  Protestant  countries,  by  the  imprisonment 
at  Florence  of  the  Madiai  (husband  and  wife), 
who  had  embraced  the  English  reformed 
religion,  and  read  the  Bible  in  due  con- 
formity with  the  teaching  of  their  new 
faith.  For  this  “ crime  ” they  were  separate- 
ly incarcerated  in  loathsome  dungeons,  and 
subjected  to  all  the  rigors  of  the  Romish 
ecclesiastical  law.  A Protestant  deputation 
from  England,  headed  by  the  Earls  of  Shaftes- 
bury and  Roden,  proceeded  to  Florence  in 
October,  1852,  with  the  view  to  their  release 
from  confinement;  but  the  grand-duke  re- 
fused to  receive  it.  However,  after  some 
months’  captivity,  they  were  set  at  liberty, 
March,  1853. 

Upon  the  breaking  out  of  war  between 
Austria  and  Sardinia  in  May,  1859,  the  peo- 
ple of  Tuscany  threw  off  the  rule ‘of  the 
Grand-duke  Leopold  II. ; and  on  March  22, 
1860,  the  duchy  was  formally  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy. 

TUSSAUD,  Madame,  the  well  known  ex- 
hibitor of  wax  figures  in  London,  died  April 
10th,  1850,  in  her  ninetieth  year.  She  was 
a native  of  Berne,  but  left  Switzerland  when 
but  six  years  old  for  Paris,  where  she  be- 
came a pupil  of  her  uncle,  M.  Curtis,  “ art- 
iste to  Louis  XVI.”  by  whom  she  was  in- 
structed in  the  fine  arts,  of  which  he  was  an 
eminent  professor.  Madame  Tussaud  prided 
herself  upon  the  fact  of  having  instructed 
Madame  Elizabeth  to  draw  and  model,  and 
she  continued  to  be  employed  by  that  prin- 
cess till  October,  1789.  She  passed  unharmed 
through  the  horrors  of  the  revolution,  per- 
haps by  reason  of  her  peculiar  ability  as  a 
modeler ; for  she  was  employed  to  take  heads 


TUS 


892 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  most  of  the  revolutionary  leaders,  which 
of  course  she  could  not  have  done  had  they 
taken  hers.  In  1802  she  went  to-England, 
and  from  that  time  occupied  herself  in  gath- 
ering the  popular  exhibitions  of  wax-work 
which  is  still  known  by  her  name. 

TYLER,  Wat,  the  leader  of  an  insurrec- 
tion celebrated  in  English  history,  which 
arose  in  the  opposition  of  the  people  to  the 
poll-tax  levied  in  1378,  in  the  commencement 
of  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  Tyler  was  a 
blacksmith.  A collector’s  indecent  brutality 
to  his  daughter  to  prove  her  of  age  (fifteen)  to 
pay  the  poll,  the  indignant  father  avenged  by 
striking  him  dead  on  the  spot.  The  incensed 
populace  gathered  upon  Blackheath,  to  the 
number  of  a hundred  thousand,  June  12th, 
1381.  The  king  invited  Tyler  to  a parley  in 
Smithfield,  to  declare  the  popular  grievances. 
Tyler  ordered  his  companions  to  retire,  till 
he  should  give  them  a signal,  boldly  ventured 
to  meet  the  king  in  the  midst  of  his  retinue, 
and  began  the  conference.  He  required  that 
all  slaves  should  be  set  free ; that  all  com- 
monages should  be  open  to  the  poor  as  well 
as  the  rich  ; and  that  a general  pardon  should 
be  passed  for  the  late  outrages.  Whilst  he 
made  these  demands  he  occasionally  lifted  up 
his  sword  in  a menacing  manner,  which  so 
raised  the  indignation  of  William  Walworth, 
the  mayor  of  London,  attending  on  the  king, 
that  he  stunned  Tyler  with  a blow  of  his 
mace,  and  one  of  the  king’s  knights,  riding 
up,  dispatched  him  with  his  sword.  Richard 
soothed  the  insurgents  with  promises  of  re- 
dress, and  awed  by  their  leader’s  murder, 
they  dispersed. 

TYLER,  John,  tenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Charles  City  Co., 
Va.,  March  29,  1790.  He  was  a graduate  of 
William  and  Mary  College  in  1807,  admitted 
to  the  bar  1809,  member  of  State  Legislature 
1811-16,  and  1823-25,  member  of  Congress 
1816-21,  Governor  of  Virginia  1826-27,  and 
U.  S.  Senator  1827—1836.  He  first  supported 
Gen.  Jackson,  but  favored  the  “nullification 
scheme”  in  South  Carolina,  and  voted  alone 
against  the  “ Force  Bill.”  Elected  by  the 
Whigs  to  the  Vice  Presidency  in  1840,  on  the 
death  of  Gen.  Harrison  in  1841  he  became 
President.  His  vetoes  of  two  successive 
bank  bills,  and  his  seeking  support  and  coun- 
sel from  leading  Democrats,  lost  him  the 


confidence  of  the  Whigs.  Betraying  them, 
he  selected  a cabinet  from  the  Democratic 
party.  The  most  important  event  of  his 
administration  was  the  annexation  of  Texas. 
In  February,  1861,  he  was  President  of  the 
Peace  Congress.  Soon  after,  he  avowed  him- 
self a secessionist,  was  elected  Senator  in  the 
Confederate  Congress,  and  died  while  serv- 
ing as  such,  in  Richmond,  Jan.  18,  1862. 

TYRANTS,  an  aristocratical  council  of 
thirty,  who  usurped  and  conquered  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Athenians,  b.  c.  404.  Critias 
was  at  the  head  of  this  council,  who  con- 
demned to  death  Niceratus,  the  son  of  Nicias, 
Leon,  Theramanes,  and  Antiphon,  and  ban- 
ished Thrasybulus  and  Anytus.  After  com- 
mitting innumerable  atrocities,  they  were 
deposed  by  the  people,  and  ten  decemvirs 
elected  in  their  stead. 

TYRE,  a great  city  of  Phoenicia,  the  site 
of  which  is  now  occupied  by  an  insignificant 
village,  eighteen  miles  southwest  of  Sidon. 
This  city  was  built  in  1048  b.  c.  by  the  Sido- 
nians,  who  fled  from  the  Edomites  when  they 
conquered  Sidon,  after  having  been  expelled 
from  their  own  country  by  David.  It  was 
demolished  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  572,  after 
a siege  of  thirteen  )’ears.  The  Tyrians  re- 
moved to  an  opposite  island,  and  built  a new 
and  magnificent  city.  Having  been  under 
the  rule  of  the  Persians,  Syrians,  Romans, 
Franks,  Tartars,  and  Christians,  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Sultans  of  Egypt  in  1292,  wTith 
the  fate  of  which  it  has  since  been  connected. 

The  Tyrians  in  early  ages  colonized  the 
coasts  of  Spain,  Italy,  and  Africa.  Their 
commerce  reached  to  Britain  and  India. 
Carthage  was  the  greatest  of  the  colonies 
they  planted. 

TYROL,  an  Austrian  province  bordering 
on  Bavaria,  Illyria,  Austria,  the  Lombardo- 
Venetian  kingdom,  Switzerland,  and  Lake 
Constance,  containing  11,141  square  miles, 
and  859,000  inhabitants.  The  inhabitants 
have  an  invincible  attachment  to  their  coun- 
try, sterile  as  it  is.  They  are  hardy,  brave, 
honest,  and  cheerful.  This  country  in  1359 
was  attached  to  Austria,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  period  from  1805  to  1814,  has  re- 
mained in  her  possession. 

TYRONE,  Earl  of,  a celebrated  leader  in 
the  Irish  rebellion,  who,  in  1696  assumed  the 
title  of  King  of  Ulster,  and  entered  into  a 


TYR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


893 


TYROLESE  PEASANTS. 


correspondence  with  Spain,  whence  he  re- 
ceived a supply  of  arms  and  ammunition. 
During  the  violent  contentions  between  Ty- 
rone and  the  forces  of  the  Earl  of  Essex, 
then  deputy  of  Ireland,  every  enormity  was 
committed  by  both  parties ; but  at  length, 
in  1603,  Tyrone’s  followers  being  reduced, 
he  surrendered  himself  to  the  royal  power. 
Thus  the  rebellion  closed  ; but  the  reduction 
of  Ireland,  through  the  gloomy  tracks  of  fam- 
ine, pestilence,  and  blood,  cost  England  no 
less  a sum  than  £1,198,717. 

TYRREL,  Sir  James,  employed  by  Rich- 
ard, Duke  of  Gloucester,  to  murder  his  two 
nephews  in  the  Tower.  Tvrrel  chose  three 
associates,  who,  finding  the  young  princes  in 
bed,  in  a profound  sleep,  suffocated  them 
with  the  bolster  and  pillows,  and  showed 
their  naked  bodies  to  Tyrrel,  who  ordered 


them  to  be  buried  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs, 
under  a heap  of  stones.  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  the  bones  of  two  persons  were 
found  in  the  place  indicated,  which  corre- 
sponded, by  their  size,  to  the  ages  of  Edward 
V.  and  his  brother ; and  being  judged  the 
undoubted  remains  of  these  unhappy  prin- 
ces, they  were  deposited  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  under  a marble  tomb. 

TYRREL,  Walter,  a French  gentleman, 
who,  when  hunting  in  the  New  Forest  with 
William  Rufus,  let  fly  an  arrow,  which, 
glancing  from  a tree,  struck  the  king  in  the 
breast,  and  instantly  killed  him.  Tyrrel, 
fearful  lest  he  might  be  accused  of  murder, 
gained  the  sea-shore,  embarked  for  France, 
and  joined  the  crusade,  as  a penance  for  his 
involuntary  crime. 


TYR 


894 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


u. 


UKRAINE  (the  Frontier,)  an  extensive 
country  in  the  southern  part  of  Russia,  now 
forming  the  governments  of  Kiew,  Podolia, 
Charkovv,  and  Poltawa.  The  surface  is  level, 
extremely  fertile,  and  the  region  is  famous 
for  its  fine  breed  of  horses  and  wild  cattle.  It 
includes  part  of  the  country  of  the  Cossacks. 

ULM,  formerly  a free  imperial  city,  is  situ- 
ated at  the  confluence  of  the  Danube  with 
the  Uler  and  Blau,  and  contains  14,000  in- 
habitants. After  the  battle  of  Blenheim  (in 
1704),  it  sustained  a siege.  In  1800  it  was 
the  scene  of  military  manoeuvres,  conducted 
on  the  part  of  Moreau  with  great  skill ; and 
it  was  here  that  in  1803,  the  errors  of  Mack, 
and  the  combinations  of  Bonaparte,  led  to 
the  surrender  of  a large  Austrian  army.  In 
1810  it  was  transferred  from  Bavaria  to  Wir- 
temberg,  to  which  government  it  continues 
subject. 

UMBRELLA.  Described  in  early  diction- 
aries as  “ a portable  pent-house  to  carry  in  a 
person’s  hand  to  screen  him  from  violent 
rain  or  heat.”  Umbrellas  are  very  ancient: 
it  appears,  by  the  carvings  at  Persepolis,  that 
umbrellas  were  used  at  very  remote  periods 
by  the  Eastern  princes.  Niebuhr,  who  visit- 
ed the  southern  part  of  Arabia,  informs  us 
that  he  saw  a great  prince  of  that  country 
returning  from  a mosque,  preceded  by  some 
hundreds  of  soldiers,  and  that  he  and  each 
of  the  princes  of  his  numerous  family  caused 
a large  umbrella  to  be  carried  by  his  side. 
The  old  china  ware  in  our  pantries  and  cup- 
boards shows  the  Chinese  shaded  by  an 
umbrella.  It  is  said  that  the  first  person 
who  used  an  umbrella  in  the  streets  of  Lon- 
don was  the  benevolent  Jonas  Hanway, 
who  died  in  1786.  He  had  become  accus- 
tomed to  it  during  his  journeyings  in  the 
East. 

For  a long  while  it  was  not  usual  for  men 
to  carry  them  without  incurring  the  brand 
of  effeminacy.  At  first  a single  umbrella 
seems  to  have  been  kept  at  a coffee-house  for 
extraordinary  occasions — lent  as  a coach  or 
chair  in  a heavy  shower,  but  not  commonly 
carried  by  the  walkers.  The  Female  Taller 


advertises:  “The  young  gentleman  belong- 
ing to  the  custom-house,  who,  in  fear  of  rain, 
borrowed  the  umbrella  from  Wilks's  coffee- 
house, shall  the  next  time  be  welcome  to  the 
maid’s  pattens."  As  late  as  1778,  one  John 
Macdonald,  a footman,  who  wrote  his  own 
life,  informs  us  that  he  had  “a  fine  silk  um- 
brella, which  he  brought  from  Spain  ; but  he 
could  not  with  any  comfort  to  himself  use  it, 
the  people  calling  out  ‘Frenchman!  why 
don’t  you  get  a coach The  fact  was,  the 
hackney-coachmen  and  chairmen,  joining 
with  the  true  esprit  de  corps,  were  clamorous 
against  this  portentous  rival.  The  footman, 
in  1778,  gives  us  some  farther  information. 
“At  this  time  there  were  no  umbrellas  wore 
in  London,  except  in  noblemen’s  and  gentle- 
men’s houses,  where  there  was  a large  one 
hung  in  the  hall  to  hold  over  a lady  if  it  rain- 
ed, between  the  door  and  her  carriage.”  This 
man’s  sister  was  compelled  to  quit  his  arm 
from  the  abuse  he  drew  down  on  himself  and 
his  umbrella.  But  he  adds,  that  “ he  per- 
sisted for  three  months,,  till  they  took  no 
further  notice  of  this  novelty.  Foreigners 
began  to  use  theirs,  and  then  the  English.” 

UNION  of  the  crowns  of  England  and 
Scotland,  1603;  of  the  two  kingdoms  at- 
tempted, 1604,  but  failed;  again  ditto,  1670 ; 
carried  into  effect,  May  1st,  1707,  and  thence 
the  island  is  called  Great  Britain.  Union  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  took  place  Jan. 
1st,  1801. 

UNITED  STATES.  The  United  States 
of  America,  originally  colonies  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, declared  themselves  independent  in 
1776.  Historical  notices  of  the  different 
states  have  been  given  under  separate- heads, 
and  only  a general  view  is  requisite  in  the 
present  article. 

The  following  dates  of  the  settlement  of 
the  original  colonies,  and  of  the  admission  of 
the  latter  states,  are  given  for  reference. 
Virginia,  at  Jamestown,  1607.  New  York, 
by  the  Dutch,  1614;  taken  by  the  English, 
1664.  Massachusetts,  at  Plymouth,  1620. 
New  Hampshire,  1623.  New  Jersey,  by  the 
Dutch,  1624  ; occupied  by  the  English,  1664. 


UNI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


895 


Delaware,  by  the  Swedes,  1031.  Maryland, 
1033.  Connecticut,  1033.  Rhode  Island,  at 
Providence,  1030.  North  Carolina,  1050. 
South  Carolina,  1070.  Pennsylvania,  1082. 
Georgia,  1733. 

Vermont,  admitted  into  the  Union,  1791. 
Kentucky,  1792.  Tennessee,  1790.  Ohio, 
1803.  Louisiana,  1812.  Indiana,  1810.  Mis- 
sissippi, 1817.  Illinois,  1818.  Alabama, 
1819.  Maine,  1820.  Missouri,  1821.  Arkansas, 
1830.  Michigan,  1837.  Florida,  1845.  Texas, 
1845.  Iowa,  1840.  Wisconsin,  1848.  Cal- 
ifornia, 1850.  Minnesota,  1857.  Oregon,  1859. 
Kansas,  1801.  West  Virginia,  1803.  Nevada, 
1864.  Nebraska,  1867.  In  all,  37  states. 
Territories,  Arizona,  Colorado,  Dakota,  Dist. 
of  Columbia,  Idaho,  Montana,  New  Mexico, 
Utah,  Washington,  Wyoming. 

The  English  settlers  in  the  northern  parts 
of  America  were  influenced  by  different  mo- 
tives from  those  which,  actuated  the  Spaniards 
who  quitted  their  native  country  for  the  shores 
of  the  New  World.  The  latter  were  urged 
onward  by  a spirit  of  adventure,  by  the 
promptings  of  imagination,  and  by  cupidity. 
The  former  were  impelled  by  far  worthier 
motives.  Many  causes  operated  together  in 
the  mother  country,  to  favor  emigration 
among  the  resolute  and  hardy. 

The  people  of  England  had  been  led  to 
examine  into  the  nature  of  the  power  to 
which  they  were  subjected,  and  the  mon 
strous  doctrines  of  royal  prerogative  and 
religious  intolerance  were  denounced  by 
many  who  had  courage  to  think  and  speak 
for  themselves  upon  the  subjects.  The 
friends  of  republican  institutions  multiplied 
with  great  rapidity,  the  natural  result  of  the 
progress  of  literature  and  the  increase  of 
wealth  with  the  commons.  In  1628  the 
wealth  of  the  house  of  commons  far  exceeded 
that  of-  the  house  of  lords.  At  the  same 
time  the  reformation  which  had  been  carried 
into  effect  by  Henry  VIII.,  while  it  had 
purged  the  country  of  the  abuses  of  the  Ro- 
mish church,  had  established  a form  of  wor- 
ship which  was  regarded  by  many  as  little 
better  than  that  which  had  given  way  before 
it.  Those  who  refused  to  conform  to  the 
established  form,  contemptuously  termed 
Puritans  by  their  opponents,  anxiously 
sought  scope  for  the  exercise  of  religious 
rights,  and,  since  the  immunities  they  de- 


manded were  not  granted  them  at  home, 
determined  to  seek  refuge  from  persecution 
in  a remote  quarter  of  the  globe.  The  result 
was  the  founding  of  New  England. 

King  James  granted,  in  1606,  letters  pa- 
tent to  two  companies,  called  the  London 
and  Plymouth  companies,  by  which  posses- 
sion was  given  them  of  the  territories  lying 
between  the  thirty-fourth  and  forty -fifth  de- 
grees of  north  latitude ; the  southern  part  to 
the  London,  and  the  northern  part  to  the  Ply- 
mouth company  ; the  king  himself  having 
undertaken  to  frame  for  them  a code  of  laws. 
Three  ships  were  provided  by  the  London 
company,  on  board  of  which  were  one  hun- 
dred and  five  persons,  who  were  expected  to 
remain  at  Roanoke,  which  was  the  place  of 
their  destination.  The  command  of  this 
squadron  was  given  to  Captain  Christopher 
Newport,  who  sailed  from  London  on  the 
20th  of  December,  1606,  and  after  a tedious 
and  disastrous  passage  of  four  months,  by 
the  circuitous  route  of  the  West  Indies,  on 
the  26th  of  April,  discovered  Cape  Henry, 
the  southern  cape  of  the  Chesapeake,  a storm 
having  driven  him  in  a northerly  direction 
from  his  place  of  destination.  He  soon  after 
discovered  Cape  Charles,  and  entered  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  Charmed  with  the  appearance 
of  the  country,  the  company  determined  to 
commence  a settlement,  and  soon  explored 
the  neighborhood.  Passing  above  Old  Point 
Comfort,  a party  proceeded  up  a beautiful 
river,  called  by  the  Indians  Powhatan,  and 
by  the  colonists,  in  honor  of  the  king,  James 
River.  They  made  a settlement  on  a penin- 
sula, and  called  it  Jamestown.  This  was  the 
first  permanent  settlement  made  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  Virginia.  Shortly  after,  the  company 
received  supplies  from  England,  and  an  ac- 
cession to  their  numbers,  swelling  the  amount 
to  two  hundred.  Two  vessels  were  freighted 
for  England ; one  loaded  with  a yellow  and 
brilliant  sand,  common  m many  places  in  the 
vicinity,  but  supposed  by  the  colonists  to 
contain  a large  proportion  of  gold.  The 
other  vessel  was  loaded  with  tobacco. 

The  most  efficient  member  of  the  council 
was  Captain  John  Smith,  who  was  taken  by 
the  Indians  while  on  an  exploring  expedi- 
tion. He  was  led  to  the  place  of  execution, 
and  his  head  placed  upon  a stone,  while  Pow- 
hatan, the  Indian  chieftain,  stood  over  him 


896 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


with  uplifted  club,  regardless  of  the  earnest 
solicitations  of  his  daughter  Pocahontas, 
then  about  thirteen  years  of  age.  The  mer- 
ciful maiden  finding  her  entreaties  unavail- 
ing, fell  upon  Smith,  folded  him  in  her  arms, 
and  laid  her  face  upon  his,  determined  to 
meet  death  with  him  she  could  not  save. 
Moved  by  this  touching  devotion,  Powhatan 
relented,  and  two  days  afterward  sent  Smith 
to  Jamestown.  In  1609  the  destruction  of 
the  whole  colony  was  planned  by  the  Indians, 
but  their  plans  were  defeated  by  the  exer- 
tions of  Pocahontas,  who,  in  a dark  night, 
went  to  Jamestown,  and  put  the  president 
upon  his  guard.  Pocahontas  married  an 
English  gentleman  by  the  name  of  Rolfe, 
embraced  the  Christian  religion,  and  W'as 
baptized  by  the  name  of  Rebecca.  She  died 
four  years  after  at  Gravesend,  on  her  return 
with  her  husband  from  England. 

In  1619  one  hundred  and  fifty  young  wo- 
men, “handsome  and  uncorrupt,”  were  sent 
to  Virginia  and  sold  to  the  planters  for  one 
hundred  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
of  tobacco  each,  tobacco  being  then  valued 
at  about  three  shillings  the  pound.  At  the 
same  time  twenty  negroes  were  brought  to 
Virginia  in  a Dutch ‘vessel,  and  sold  to  the 
colonists,  whence  one  may  date  the  com- 
mencement of  the  slaveholding  system. 

In  1614  Captain  Smith  was  sent  from 
England  to  explore  North  Virginia.  He 
ranged  the  coast  from  Penobscot  to  Cape  Cod, 
making  observations  on  the  shores,  harbors, 
islands,  and  headlands ; and  made  a map  of 
the  country,  which  on  his  return  to  England, 
he  showed  to  Prince  Charles  (afterward 
Charles  I.),  who  gave  it  the  name  of  New 
England. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Robinson,  with  his  Puritan 
flock,  removed  to  Amsterdam  from  the  north 
of  England,  in  1 608,  and  soon  after  to  Ley- 
den. A variety  of  motives  led  his  congre- 
gation to  turn  their  attention  to  the  New 
World  : the  principal  were,  the  enjoyment  of 
perfect  liberty  of  conscience;  “the  preser- 
vation of  ecclesiastical  affairs  distinct  from 
those  of  the  state ; ” and  a hope  of  laying  the 
foundation  of  an  extensive  empire,  that  should 
be  purged  from  all  religious  impurities. 
Having  made  an  arrangement  with  the  Vir- 
ginia company,  they  sailed  from  Plymouth, 
England,  on  the  6th  of  September,  1620,  and 


on  the  10th  of  November,  anchored  in  Prov- 
incetown  harbor.  Perceiving  that  they  were 
so  far  north  as  to  be  without  the  territory  of 
the  Virginia  company,  some  hesitation  arose ; 
but  the  winter  was  at  hand,  and  it  was  now 
too  late  to  go  in  search  of  a settlement  with- 
in the  jurisdiction  of  that  company.  Previ- 
ous to  their  landing,  after  prayer  and  thanks- 
giving, they  formed  themselves  into  a body 
politic,  binding  themselves  by  a written  cov- 
enant to  be  governed  by  the  decisions  of  a 
majority.  This  instrument  was  subscribed 
by  forty-one  persons,  who  with  their  children 
and  domestics,  composed  a company  of  one 
hundred  and  one  persons.  Mr.  John  Carver 
was  chosen,  without  one  dissentient  voice, 
governor  for  one  year. 

Parties  were  sent  on  shore  to  make  dis- 
coveries. Some  Indians  were  seen  but  could 
not  be  overtaken.  A considerable  quantity 
of  corn  was  found  in  heaps  of  sand,  secured 
in  baskets,  which  served  (or  seed  the  ensuing 
spring,,  and  tended  to  save  the  adventurers 
from  famine.  On  the  6th  of  December,  Car- 
ver, Standish,  Winslow,  Bradford,  and  others, 
sailed  to  various  places,  to  discover  a suitable 
situation  for  a settlement.  Monday,  Dec. 
11th,  o.s.,  they  landed  at  what  was  afterward 
called  Plymouth,  and  from  the  excellence  of 
the  harbor,  and  the  favorable  appearance  of 
the  land,  they  resolved  to  commence  a settle- 
ment here. 

In  1628  the  council  for  New  England  sold 
to  several  gentlemen  in  England  a patent  for 
all  that  part  of  tlew  England,  lying  between 
three  miles  north  of  the  Merrimack,  and 
three  miles  south  of  Charles  River.  In  1629 
King  Charles  incorporated  “The  governor 
and  company  of  Massachusetts  Bay  in  New 
England.”  Their  colony  soon  became  more 
important  than  the  older  settlement  at  Ply- 
mouth, and  in  1692  the  latter  was  incorpora- 
ted with  it. 

Such  was  the  origin  of  the  early  settlements 
of  the  English  on  the  new  continent.  Dur- 
ing the  century  they  founded  colonies  from 
Maine  ■ to  Georgia,  and  wrested  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  Delaware  from  the  Dutch. 
The  colonists  had  to  contend  with  the  natu- 
ral difficulties  of  their  situation,  to  struggle 
in  an  almost  constant  warfare  with  a barba- 
rous foe,  and  to  bear  a heavy  burden  in  the 
wars  of  the  mother  country  with  France.  In 


UNI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


897 


spite  of  all  these  drawbacks  they  throve  to  a 
prosperity  which  aroused  jealousy  in  Eng- 
land, whose  uniform  policy  was  to  advance 
her  own  profit  rather  than  benefit  her  own 
offspring. 

We  now  come  to  the  commencement  of 
those  acts  which  created  that  patriotic  feel- 
ing in  the  colonies,  which  resulted  in  the 
declaration  of  their  independence. 

In  1764  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain 
passed  an  act,  the  preamble  to  which  ran  thus : 
“ Whereas  it  is  just  and  necessary  that  a rev- 
enue be  raised  in  America,  for  defraying  the 
expenses  of  defending,  protecting,  and  secur- 
ing the  same,”  &c.  The  act  then  proceeded 
to  lay  a duty  on  sugar,  indigo,  coffee,  silk, 
molasses,  calicoes,  &c.,  being  the  produce  of 
a colony  not  under  the  dominion  of  his 
majesty.  To  this  the  colonists  submitted ; 
though  not  without  complaint  and  remon- 
strance. Before  this  the  subject  of  taxing 
the  American  colonies  had  been  in  agitation. 
“ There  is  something  curious,”  says  Fox, 
“ in  discovering  that  even  at  this  early  period 
(1685)  a question  relative  to  North  American 
liberty,  and  even  to  North  American  taxa- 
tion, was  considered  as  the  test  of  principles 
friendly  or  adverse  to  arbitral  power  at 
home.  But  the  truth  is,  that,  among  the 
several  controversies  which  have  arisen, 
there  is  no  other  where  the  natural  rights  of 
man,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  authority  of 
artificial  institutions,  on  the  other,  as  applied 
respectively  by  the  whigs  and  tories  to  the 
English  constitution,  are  sfl  fairly  put  in  is- 
sue, nor  by  which  the  line  of  separation  be- 
tween the  two  parties  is  so  strongly  and  dis- 
tinctly marked.” 

When  a scheme  for  taxing  the  colonies  was 
proposed  to  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  he  replied  : 

“ I will  leave  that  for  some  of  my  successors 
who  may  have  more  courage  than  I have, 
and  be  less  a friend  to  commerce  than  I am. 
It  has  been  a maxim  with  me,  during  my 
administration,  to  encourage  the  trade  of  the 
American  colonies  in  the  utmost  latitude. 
Nay,  it  has  been  necessary  to  pass  over  some 
irregularities  in  their  trade  with  Europe  ; for, 
by  encouraging  them  to  an  extensive,  grow- 
ing foreign  commerce,  if  they  gain  £500,000, 

I am  convinced  that,  in  two  years  afterward, 
full  £250,000  of  their  gains  will  be  in  his 
majesty’s  exchequer,  by  the  labor  and  pro- 

57 


duct  of  this  kingdom.  This  is  taxing  them 
more  agreeably  to  their  constitution  and 
ours.” 

Instead  of  a repeal  of  the  act  imposing  the 
first  tax,  parliament,  the  next  year,  imposed 
a duty  on  stamps.  Resolutions  were  passed 
by  the  popular  branches  of  most  of  the 
colonial  legislatures,  against  this  duty.  Mas- 
sachusetts recommended  a colonial  congress, 
to  consult  for  the  general  welfare.  A con- 
gress from  most  of  the  colonies,  consisting 
of  twenty-eight  members,  met  at  Nc5w  York  ; 
remonstrated  against  the  act  of  parliament ; 

. petitioned  for  its  repeal ; and  made  a declara- 
tion of  the  rights  of  the  colonies  ; declaring 
that  taxation  and  representation  were  insep- 
arable, and  that  parliament  had  no  right  to 
take  their  money  without  their  consent. 
Disturbances  arose  throughout  the  country. 
Business  was  conducted  without  stamped 
paper,  and  the  validity  of  obligations  was 
established  by  the  courts.  Meanwhile  the 
colonists  entered  into  associations  to  prevent 
the  importation  of  British  goods,  till  the 
stamp  act  should  be  repealed. 

When  information  of  the  almost  universal 
opposition  of  the  Americans  to  the  stamp 
act,  reached  the  ears  of  parliament,  great  agi- 
tation arose.  Mr.  Pitt  said,  “ You  have  no 
right  to  tax  America.  I rejoice  that  America 
has  resisted.  Three  millions  of  our  fellow- 
subjects  so  lost  to  every  sense  of  virtue,  as 
tamely  to  give  up  their  liberties,  would  be 
fit  instruments  to  make  slaves  of  the  rest.” 
The  act  was  repealed,  but  the  repealing  act 
had  this  sweeping  sentence,  “that  the  parlia- 
ment had,  and  of  right  ought  to  have,  power 
to  bind  the  colonies  in  all  cases  whatsoever.” 

In  1767  Mr.  Townshend,  the  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  brought  into  parliament  a 
bill  for  imposing  a duty  to  be  collected  in  the 
colonies  on  glass,  paper,  painters’  colors  and 
tea.  The  bill  having  passed,  was,  the  next 
year,  sent  to  the  colonies.  A bill  was  also 
passed  for  establishing  at  Boston  a board  of 
commissioners,  to  manage  the  revenue  aris- 
ing from  the  duties.  An  act  was  also  passed 
to  compel  the  colonies,  to  provide  for  the 
British  troops,  and  support  them  at  their 
own  expense.  These  various  acts  of  parlia- 
ment resuscitated  the  flames  of  resentment 
and  opposition,  which  had  been  almost  ex- 
tinguished. The  most  spirited  resolutions 


UNI 


898 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


were  passed  by  the  colonies,  among  which 
the  non-importation  resolutions  were  the 
most  important. 

On  the  5th  of  March,  1770,  some  British 
soldiers,  being  insulted  and  pressed  upon  by 
a mob  in  King’s  (now  State)  street,  Boston, 
fired  upon  the  populace,  killed  three,  and 
wounded  six.  Captain  Preston,  who  com- 
manded the  party,  and  his  men,  were  tried 
and  acquitted,  with  the', exception  of  two  who 
were  brought  in  guilty  of  manslaughter.  In 
1773,  but  little  tea  having  been  imported  into 
America,  parliament  enjoyed  her  supposed 
right  without  benefit,  and  the  Americans 
denied  it  without  injury.  Affairs  therefore 
remained  in  the  same  state,  till  the  East  India 
company,  who  had  on  hand  about  seventeen 
million  pounds  of  tea,  were  allowed  by  act 
of  parliament  to  export  to  America  free  from 
the  duties  they  had  before  paid  in  England ; 
retaining  those  only  which  were  to  be  paid  in 
America.  It  was  thought  the  colonists 
would  pay  the  small  tax  of  three  pence  a 
pound,  as  even  then  tea  would  be  cheaper 
than  in  England.  But  the  principle  involved 
was  the  same  odious  one,  and  the  Americans 
were  determined  not  to  accept  the  bribe. 

The  corresponding  committees,  which  had 
been  forming  throughout  the  colonies  for  the 
last  two  years,  excited  resistance.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  the  cargoes  of  tea,  sent  to 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  were  sent  back, 
and  those  sent  to  Charleston  were  stored,  but 
not  offered  for  sale.  The  tea  ships  intended 
for  the  supply  of  Boston,  after  the  inhabi- 
tants had  tried  in  vain  to  have  them  returned, 
they  being  consigned  to  the  relations  of  Gov. 
Hutchinson,  were  entered  by  about  seventeen 
persons  in  the  disguise  of  Indians,  and  three 
hundred  and  forty-two  chests  of  tea  were 
thrown  into  the  dock,  no  other  damage  being 
done. 

In  1774  parliament,  receiving  information 
of  the  treatment  of  the  East  Indian  company 
with  respect  to  their  tea,  were  much  exas- 
perated. Though  the  opposition  was  general, 
the  province  of  Massachusetts,  and  especially 
the  town  of  Boston,  were  considered  the  fo- 
mentcrs  of  disobedience  to  their  authority. 
Boston  was  therefore  selected  as  the  mark 
against  which  to  direct  their  vengeance. 
Hence  a bill  was  passed,  by  which  the  port 


of  landing  and  discharging,  or  of  lading  and 
shipping,  wares  and  merchandize.  Another 
bill  was  also  passed,  essentially  altering  the 
charter  of  the  province,  making  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  council,  justices,  judges,  sheriffs, 
&c.,  dependent  on  the  crown,  or  its  imme- 
diate agent.  Another  act  directed  the  gover- 
nor to  send  to  another  colony  or  to  Great 
Britain  for  trial,  any  person  indicted  for  mur- 
der or  any  other  capital  offense.  When 
these  acts  arrived  in  America,  they  were  cir- 
culated with  rapidity  throughout  the  conti- 
nent. But  one  sentiment  of  indignation  and 
opposition  governed  the  people.  The  town 
of  Boston  recommended  an  universal  associ- 
ation to  stop  importations. 

The  house  of  burgesses  in  Virginia,  which 
colony  had  ever  been  forward  in  seconding 
the  spirits  and  measures  of  Massachusetts, 
ordered  that  the  day  on  which  the  Boston 
port  bill  was  to  go  into  operation  should  be 
kept  as  a day  of  fasting  and  prayer.  Pam- 
phlets, newspaper  discussions,  addresses  and 
essays,  were  multiplied  without  number, 
proving  the  wickedness  of  the  acts  of  parlia- 
ment, and  urging  an  union  of  the  colonies  for 
resistance.  Massachusetts  recommended  a 
meeting  of  delegates  from  all  the  colonies, 
the  assembly  electing  five  for  that  purpose. 
On  the  4th  of  September,  the  deputies  of 
eleven  colonics  appeared  at  Philadelphia,  or- 
ganized themselves  by  choosing  Peyton  Ran- 
dolph president,  and  Charles  Thompson  sec- 
retary, and  agreed  to  vote  by  states.  A non- 
importation and  non-consumption  agreement 
were  made ; an  address  to  the  king,*a  memo- 
rial to  the  inhabitants  of  British  America, 
and  an  address  to  the  people  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, were  also  framed.  After  a few'  w'eeks 
they  dissolved;  recommending  the  10th  of 
the  succeeding  May,  if  their  grievances 
should  remain  unredressed,  for  another  ses- 
sion of  congress. 

Oct.  5th,  General  Gage,  the  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  as  wrell  as  commandcr-in- 
chief  of  all  the  royal  forces  in  North  Amer- 
ica, issued  w'rits  for  holding  a general  assem- 
bly in  Salem.  lie  afterward  countermanded 
the  w'rits.  Ninety  members  met,  formed 
themselves  into  a provincial  congress,  ad- 
journed to  Concord,  and  chose  John  Hancock 
president.  They  afterward  adjourned  to 
Cambridge,  and  drew  up  a plan  for  placing 


©f  Boston  wTas  precluded  from  the  privilege 

UNI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


899 


the  province  in  a posture  of  defense,  by  en- 
listing men,  choosing  general  officers,  &c. 

In  January,  1775,  the  Earl  of  Chatham 
brought  forward  a conciliatory  bill  in  the 
house  of  peers,  which  was  rejected  two  to 
one.  Lord  North,  the  prime  minister,  intro- 
duced a bill  for  restraining  the  trade  of  the 
New  England  colonies.  Receiving  informa- 
tion of  the  general  opposition  in  the  southern 
colonies,  he  introduced  another  bill,  equally 
restraining  their  trade,  but  excepting  North 
Carolina,  Delaware,  and  New  York.  The 
time  had  now  come  for  testing  the  nerve  of 
the  colonists.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the 
British  troops  to  seize  the  military  stores  at 
Concord,  April  I Oth,  but  they  had  to  encoun- 
ter the  armed  opposition  of  the  militia  at 
Concord  and  Lexington.  Boston  was  now 
blockaded  by  the  colonists,  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point  were  taken.  The  battle  of 
Bunker’s  Hill  followed,  and  an  unsuccessful 
expedition  against  Canada  preceded  the 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

On  May  10th,  1775,  the  continental  con- 
gress met  at  Philadelphia,  and  on  the  15th 
of  June  unanimously  elected  George  Wash- 
ington, then  a member  from  Virginia,  com- 
mander in-chief  of  the  forces  raised,  and  to 
be  raised,  for  the  defense  of  the  colonies. 
June  7th,  1776,  Richard  Henry  Lee  of 
Virginia,  made  a motion  in  congress,  for 
declaring  the  colonies  free  and  independent. 
After  much  debate,  on  the  fourth  of  July, 
the  thirteen  colonies  were  declared  free 
and  independent,  under  the^title  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  America.  [ See  Declaration 
of  Independence.] 

Thus  opened  the  great  drama  of  our  Revo- 
lution. Its  glorious  result  was  won  by  our 
fathers  against  heavy  odds  and  through  much 
suffering.  [See  Revolution.] 

On  the  19th  of  October,  1781,  Cornwallis 
surrendered  at  Yorktown.  The  fall  of  this 
large  British  army  may  be  considered  as  the 
closing  of  the  war.  Gen.  Washington  or- 
dered divine  service  in  the  different  divisions 
and  brigades.  Congress  went  in  solemn  pro- 
cession to  the  Dutch  Lutheran  church  in 
Philadelphia,  returned  thanks  to  Almighty 
God  for  the  success  of  the  combined  armies, 
and  recommended  a day  of  general  thanks- 
giving and  prayer  throughout  the  United 
States.  Savannah  was  evacuated  in  July 


(1782)  and  Charleston  in  December.  Great 
Britain  acknowledged  our  independence  Nov. 
30th,  1782,  and  the  cessation  of  hostilities 
was  proclaimed  April  19th,  1783.  Holland 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  in  April;  Sweden  in  February, 
1783;  Denmark  in  the  same  month;  Spain 
in  March  ; Russia  in  July. 

The  debt  of  the  United  States,  at  the  close 
of  the  war,  was  about  forty  millions  of  dol- 
lars. Congress  had  power  to  make  war,  and 
to  create  debts,  but  no  power  to  carry  on  the 
war,  nor  ability  to  pay  debts,  but  by  appeals 
or  recommendations  to  thirteen  independent 
sovereignties,  whose  unanimity  alone,  seldom 
to  be  expected,  could  support  public  credit, 
or  give  efficacy  to  the  proceedings  of  congress. 
For  the  payment  of  the  public  debt,  a pro- 
posal was  made  by  congress  to  the  several 
states  to  lay  a duty  of  five  per  cent,  on  all 
goods  imported  from  foreign  countries,  till 
the  national  debt  should  be  paid.  This  plan 
failed  ; some  states  adopting  it  altogether, 
some  agreeing  to  it  in  part,  and  some  totally 
rejecting  it.  Thus,  no  efficient  funds  being 
provided,  the  evidences  of  the  public  debt 
began  to  decrease  in  value,  till  they  were  sold 
at  length  for  two  shillings  in  the  pound. 
xVnother  and  less  cumbrous  form  of  govern- 
ment was  a necessity.  A convention  accord- 
ingly met  at  Philadelphia  in  May,  1787,  .and 
framed  a constitution,  which  was  duly  rati- 
fied by  the  several  states.  [See  Constitu- 
tion.] 

The  new  federal  government  was  estab- 
lished in  1789.  Washington  was  unani- 
mously chosen  the  first  president,  and  John 
Adams  vice-president.  Mr.  Jefferson  was 
selected  for  the  department  of  state ; Alexan- 
der Hamilton  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
treasury  ; Gen.  Knox  secretary  of  war,  and 
Edmund  Randolph  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States.  John  Jay  was  made  chief 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States ; John  Rutledge,  James  Wilson,  Wil- 
liam Cushing,  Robert  Harrison  and  John 
Blair  were  named  associate  judges.  The  In- 
dian war  on  the  northwest  frontier,  and  an 
insurrection  in  the  western  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  account  of  the  tax  on  domestic 
spirits,  were  favorably  terminated.  The 
insults  and  maritime  depredations  committed 
by  the  French,  induced  America  to  take  up 


UNI 


900 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


arms  in  defense  of  her  rights,  but  a change 
of  rulers  in  France  prevented  the  effusion 
of  blood. 

The  claim  of  searching  American  vessels, 
and  impressing  from  them  British  seamen, 
and  the  British  orders  in  council  pro- 
hibiting the  exportation  of  the  United 
States,  together  with  other  outrages  com- 
mitted by  the  British,  produced  a decla- 
ration of  war  against  Great  Britain  in  June, 
1812.  The  successes  of  the  British  were 
but  few  and  trifling,  while  the  American  navy 
triumphed  in  a series  of  brilliant  exploits, 
and  the  gallant  defense  of  New  Orleans  by 
Gen.  Jackson,  crowned  the  American  arms 
with  laurels.  Peace  was  concluded  at  Ghent, 
Dec.  24th,  1814.  The  battle  of  New  Orleans 
was  fought  the  8th  of  January,  1815,  before 
the  news  of  peace  reached  the  United  States. 

The  country  continued  to  increase  in  power 
and  prosperity.  A rapid  increase  of  popu- 
lation by  emigration  followed  upon  the  con- 
clusion of  .the  war,  and  within  ten  years  six 
states  were  added  to  the  Union.  The  cession 
of  Florida  was  obtained  from  Spain  in  1 820. 
In  the  summer  of  1824  the  venerable  Lafay- 
ette came,  at  the  invitation  of  Congress,  once 
more  to  the  land  whose  freedom  he  had  so 
largely  helped  to  win.  During  his  stay  he 
visited  every  state,  and  was  everywhere 
hailed  as  the  nation’s  guest.  A new  frigate 
was  made  ready  to  bear  him  home,  and 
named  the  Brandywine,  in  memory  of  the 
battle  in  which  he  was  wounded.  He  em- 
barked at  Washington,  attended  to  the  ves- 
sel by  a large  concourse,  and  President 
Adams  bade  him  an  affectionate  farewell  in 
behalf  of  the  nation.  In  passing  Mount 
Vernon  the  veteran  landed  to  pay  his  last 
visit  to  the  tomb  of  Washington.  A pros- 
perous voyage  then  bore  him  home.  On  the 
4th  of  July,  1826,  there  occurred,  in  striking 
coincidence,  the  deaths  of  Thomas  Jefferson 
and  John  Adams,  two  of  the  most  illustrious 
champions  of  the  independence  of  which  the 
day  was  the  fiftieth  anniversary. 

In  1835  the  Seminoles,  an  Indian  tribe  in 
Florida,  commenced  hostilities  in  resistance 
to  their  removal  to  lands  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi ; Osceola,  their  most  famous  chief,  said 
he  “ wished  to  rest  in  the  land  of  his  fathers, 
and  his  children  to  sleep  by  his  side.”  The 
bloody  and  costly  war  is  even  how  hardly 


terminated.  A portion  of  the  Seminoles 
were  removed  to  the  west,  but  a remnant 
still  lurk  among  the  glades.  Through  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  the  country  became 
involved  in  war  with  Mexico  in  1847.  The 
leading  features  of  this  contest  were,  the  in- 
vasion of  the  north  of  Mexico,  and  the  defeat 
of  Santa  Anna,  by  Gen.  Taylor ; the  brilliant 
campaign  of  Gen.  Scott,  beginning  with  the 
capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  ending  with  that 
of  the  city  of  Mexico  ; the  conquest  of  New 
Mexico  by  Gen.  Kearney ; and  the  seizure 
of  California  by  Fremont.  [See  Buena  Vista, 
Cerro  Gordo,  &c.]  Peace  was  restored  by 
the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Feb.  2d, 
1848  ; by  the  terms  of  which  the  United 
States  obtained  a large  cession  of  territory, 
in  exchange  for  $15,000,000  and  the  liquida- 
tion of  all  debts  due  American  citizens  from 
the  Mexican  government.  California,  which 
was  included  in  this  cession,  speedily  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  the  world  by  the 
discovery  of  her  teeming  mines  of  gold. 

For  the  chief  facts  of  the  Rebellion,  see  the 
Chronology  at  the  close  of  this  volume. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  is  a 
pure  democracy.  Each  of  the  states  has  a 
separate  and  independent  legislature  for  the 
administration  of  its  local  affairs,  but  all  are 
ruled  in  matters  of  common  policy  by  two 
houses  of  congress,  the  senate  and  the  house 
of  representatives,  to  which  delegates  are 
sent  from  the  different  members  of  the  con- 
federacy. The  president  is  elected  by  the 
free  voice  of  the  people.  The  Americans  are 
truly  a self-governed  nation  ; and  exhibit  the 
first  example  of  a democracy  which  has  suc- 
ceeded in  combining  a vast  amount  of  free- 
dom with  good  order  and  subordination  to 
the  law. 

PRESIDENTS. 

1789.  George  Washington,  of  Mt.  Vernon,  Va. 
1797.  John  Adams,  of  Quincy,  Mass. 

1 801.  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Monticello,  Va. 

18  )9.  James  Madison,  of  Montpelier,  Va. 

1817-  James  Monroe,  of  Loudon  County,  Va. 
1825.  John  Quincy  Adams,  of  Quincy,  Mass, 
1829.  Andrew  Jackson  of  Nashville,  Tenn.^ 
1837.  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  Kinderhook,  N.  Y. 
ISfl.  William  Henry  Harrison,  of  North  Bend, 
Ohio.  Died  in  office,  April  4,  1841. 
1841.  John  Tyler,  of  Williamsburg,  Va. 

1845.  James  Knox  Polk,  of  Nashville,  Tenn. 

1849.  Zachary  Taylor,  of  Baton  Rouge,  La. 

1850.  Millard  Fillmore,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

1853.  Franklin  Pierce,  of  Concord,  N.  H. 

1857.  James  Buchanan,  of  Lancaster,  Pa. 


UNI 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


901 


1861.  Abraham  Lincoln,  of  Springfield,  111.  As- 
sassinated, April  14,  1865. 

1865.  Andrew  Johnson,  of  Greenville,  Tenn. 
1869.  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  of  Galena,  111. 

“I  appeal  to  History!”  says  Phillips. 
“ Tell  me,  thou  reverend  chronicler  of  the 
grave,  can  all  the  illusions  of  ambition  real- 
ized, can  all  the  wealth  of  a universal  com- 
merce, can  all  the  achievements  of  successful 
heroism,  or  all  the  establishments  of  this 
world’s  wisdom,  secure  to  empire  the  perma- 
nency of  its  possessions  ? Alas ! Troy 
thought  so  once  ; yet  the  land  of  Priam  lives 
only  in  song ! Thebes  thought  so  once  ; yet 
her  hundred  gates  have  crumbled,  and  her 
very  tombs  are  but  as  the  dust  they  were 
vainly  intended  to  commemorate ! So 
thought  Palmyra — where  is  she  ? So  thought 
the  countries  of  Demosthenes  and  the  Spar- 
tan ; yet  Leonidas  is  trampled  by  the  timid 
slave,  and  Athens  insulted  by  the  ser- 
vile, mindless,  and  enervate  Ottoman ! In 
his  hurried  march,  Time  has  but  looked  at 
their  imagined  immortality ; and  all  its  vani- 
ties, from  the  palace  to  the  tomb,  have,  with 
their  ruins,  erased  the  very  impression  of 
his  footsteps ! The  days  of  their  glory  are 
as  if  they  had  never  been ; and  the  island 
that  was  then  a speck,  rude  and  neglected  in 
the  barren  ocean,  now  rivals  the  ubiquity  of 
their  commerce,  the  glory  of  their  arms,  the 
fame  of  their  philosophy,  the  eloquence  of 
their  senate,  and  the  inspiration  of  their 
bards ! Who  shall  say,  then,  contemplating 
the  past,  that  England,  proud  and  potent  as 
she  appears,  may  not,  one  day,  be  what  Ath- 
ens is,  and  the  young  America  yet  soar  to  be 
what  Athens  was ! Who  shall  say,  that, 
when  the  European  column  shall  have  moul- 
dered, and  the  night  of  barbarism  obscured 
its  very  ruins,  that  mighty  continent  may 
not  emerge  from  the  horizon,  to  rule,  for  its 
time,  sovereign  of  the  ascendant ! ” 

URIM  and  THUMMIM.  Light  and  Per- 
fection. Much  dispute  has  existed  among 
the  learned  as  to  what  this  ceremony  was 
among  the  ancient  Jews ; but  no  certainty 
has  been  hitherto  arrived  at.  It  is  conjec- 
tured to  have  been  some  means  of  inducing 
an  answer  fVom  God  upon  extraordinary  oc- 
currences. The  high  priest  was  the  officiat- 
ing minister,  and  whenever  the  ceremony 
was  performed,  he  dressed  in  all  his  richest 
pontificals,  and  wore  the  most  costly  orna- 


ments. It  was  never  used  for  a private  per- 
son or  occasion,  but  only  for  the  king,  the 
president  of  the  sanhedrim,  the  general  of 
the  army,  &c.,  and  always  upon  something 
relating  to  the  common  welfare  of  the  church 
or  state. 

URUGUAY.  The  Oriental  republic  of 
th*e  Uruguay  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
east  by  Brazil ; south  by  the  Atlantic,  and 
west  by  the  Uruguay,  which  divides  it  from 
the  states  of  Corrientes  and  Entre  Rios.  It 
has  an  area  of  120,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  250,000  souls.  This  territory 
formerly  belonged  to  the  Spanish  vice-royalty 
of  the  Plata,  and  was  called  the  Banda  Ori- 
ental (Eastern  Frontier)  from  its  * geographi- 
cal position.  It  was  afterward  claimed  by 
Brazil,  but  in  1828,  after  a bloody  war  be- 
tween the  Brazilians  and  Buenos  Ayreans, 
the  two  parties  agreed  to  its  being  erected 
into  an  independent  state. 

Monte  Video,  the  capital  of  the  republic, 
is  situated  on  the  Plata,  and  is  regularly 
built,  but  the  houses  are  low  and  the  streets 
are  not  paved.  It  has  a good  harbor,  and 
formerly  enjoyed  an  extensive  commerce. 
The  prosperity  of  the  city  has  been  much  affect- 
ed by  the  wars  between  the  neighboring  states, 
and  its  population  has  much  diminished. 
It  now  contains  about  12,000  inhabitants. 

Maldonado  and  Colonia  are  small  towns 
on  the  Plata,  with  good  harbors. 

USIIANT,  Battle  of.  Between  the  Brit- 
ish and  French  fleets,  July  27th,  1778,  when, 
after  an  indecisive  action  of  three  hours,  the 
latter,  under  cover  of  the  night,  withdrew  in 
a deceptive  manner  to  the  harbor  of  Brest. 
The  brave  Admiral  Keppel  commanded  the 
English  fleet ; the  Count  d’Orvilliers  the 
French.  The  failure  of  a complete  victory 
was  by  many  attributed  to  Sir  Hugh  Palli- 
ser’s  non-compliance  with  the  admiral’s  sig- 
nals. This  gentleman,  who  was  vice-admiral 
of  the  blue,  preferred  articles  of  accusation 
against  his  commander,  who  was  in  conse- 
quence tried  by  a court-martial,  but  acquitted 
in  the  most  honorable  manner,  and  the  charge 
against  him  declared  by  the  court  to  be  “ ma- 
licious and  ill-founded.” — Lord  Howe  signal- 
ly defeated  the  French  fleet,  taking  six  ships 
of  the  line,  and  sinking  one  of  large  force, 
and  several  others,  4th  June,  1794.  While 
the  two  fleets  were  engaged  in  this  action,  a 


USII 


902 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


large  fleet  of  merchantmen,  on  the  safety  of 
which  the  French  nation  depended  for  its 
means  of  prosecuting  the  war,  got  safely  into 
Brest  harbor,  which  gave  occasion  to  the  en- 
emy to  claim  the  laurels  of  the  day,  notwith- 
standing their  loss  in  ships,  and  in  killed  and 
wounded,  which  was  very  great. 

USHER,  James,  Archbishop  of  Armagh, 
and  primate  of  Ireland,  was  born  at  Dublin, 
in  1581.  He  was  very  earnest  in  opposing 
the  Catholics,  and  some  of  the  views  he  main- 
tained subjected  him  to  the  charge  of  being 
a favorer  of  Puritanism.  In  the  political 
convulsions  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  he 
wrote  a treatise  to  assert  the  absolute  unlaw- 
fulness of  taking  up  arms  against  the  king. 
The  Irish  rebellion  in  1041  drove  Usher  to 
England,  where  after  various  shiftings  of 
residence  made  necessary  by  the  civil  war, 
he  died  at  Ryegate  in  1656.  Most  of  the 
writings  of  this  eminent  scholar  relate  to 
ecclesiastical  history  and  antiquities,  to  fur- 
nish arguments  against  the  Catholics  ; but 
the  production  for  which  he  is  chiefly  cele- 
brated is  his  great  chronological  digest  of 
universal  history  from  the  creation  down  to 
the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  in  the  reign  of 
Vespasian. 

UTRECHT,  a city  of  the  Netherlands, 
capital  of  a province  of  the  same  name,  con- 
tains 45,000  inhabitants.  The  treaty  of 
Utrecht  was  concluded  April  11th,  1713,  be- 
tween the  allies  and  the  French.  The  first 
stipulation  of  this  famous  treaty  was,  that 
Philip  of  Anjou,  being  acknowledged  king 
of  Spain,  should  renounce  all  right  to  the 
drown  of  France,  the  union  of  two  such  pow- 
erful kingdoms  being  thought  dangerous  to 
the  liberties  of  Europe.  It  was  agreed  that 
the  Duke  of  Berri,  Philip’s  brother,  and 


after  him  in  succession,  should  also  renounce 
his  right  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  in  case  he 
became  king  of  France.  It  was  stipulated 
that  the  Duke  of  Savoy  should  possess  the 
island  of  Sicily,  with  the  title  of  king,  to- 
gether with  Fencstrelles,  and  other  places  on 
the  continent,  which  increase  of  dominion 
was  in  some  measure  made  out  of  the  spoils 
of  the  French  monarchy.  The  Dutch  had 
that  barrier  granted  them,  which  they  so 
long  sought  after ; and  if  the  crown  of 
France  was  deprived  of  some  dominions  to 
enrich  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  on  the  other  hand 
the  house  of  Austria  was  taxed  to  supply 
the  wants  of  the  Hollanders,  wTbo  were  put 
in  possession  of  the  strongest  towns  in  Flan- 
ders. With  regard  to  England,  its  glory  and 
its  interests  were  secured.  The  fortifications 
of  Dunkirk,  a harbor  that  might  be  danger- 
ous to  English  trade  in  time  of  war,  were 
ordered  to  be  demolished,  and  its  port  de- 
stroyed. Spain  gave  up  all  right  to  Gibraltar 
and  the  island  of  Minorca.  France  resigned 
her  pretensions  to  Hudson’s  Bay,  Nova  Sco- 
tia, and  Newfoundland,  but  was  left  in  pos- 
session of  Cape  Breton,  and  the  liberty  of 
drying  fish  upon  the  shore.  Among  these 
articles,  glorious  to  the  English  nation,  their 
setting  free  the  French  Protestants  confined 
in  the  prisons  and  galleys  for  their  religion, 
was  not  the  least  meritorious.  For  the  em- 
peror, it  was  stipulated  that  he  should  pos- 
sess the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  duchy  of 
Milan,  and  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  The 
king  of  Prussia  was  to  have  Upper  Guelders  ; 
and  a time  was  fixed  for  the  emperor’s  acce- 
ding to  those  articles,  as  he  had  for  some 
time  obstinately  refused  to  assist  at  the  nego- 
tiation. The  security  of  the  Protestant  suc- 
cession in  England  was  also  guaranteed. 


UTR 


history  and  biography. 


903 


y. 


VALENCIENNES,  a fortified  city  of 
France,  on  the  Scheldt,  containing  23,000 
inhabitants.  In  1793  this  town  formed  one 
of  the  first  objects  of  attack  by  the  allies, 
after  the  defeat  of  Dumouriez.  The  siege 
conducted  under  the  command  of  the  Duke 
of  York,  was  long  and  obstinate,  and  part 
of  the  town  was  laid  in  ashes  before  the 
capitulation.  It  was  retaken,  with  great 
quantities  of  stores  and  specie,  by  the  French 
in  1794 ; escaped  attack  in  the  invasion  by 
the  allied  powers  in  1814  and  1815 ; and 
was  definitely  confirmed  to  Fiance  by  the 
treaties  of  these  years. 

VALENS,  Flavius,  a son  of  Gratian,  born 
in  Pannonia.  His  brother  Valentinian  took 
him  as  his  colleague  on  the  throne,  and  ap- 
pointed him  over  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
Roman  empire.  By  perseverance,  Valens 
was  enabled  to  distinguish  himself  in  his 
wars  against  the  northern  barbarians.  But 
his  lenity  to  these  savage  intruders  proved 
fatal  to  the  Roman  power ; and  by  permit- 
ting some  of  the  Goths  to  settle  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Thrace,  and  to  have  free  access  to 
every  part  of  the  country,  Valens  encouraged 
them  to  make  depredations  on  his  subjects, 
and  to  disturb  their  tranquillity.  His  eyes 
were  opened  too  late ; he  attempted  to  repel 
them,  but  he  failed  in  the  attempt.  A 
bloody  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  bar- 
barians obtained  some  advantage,  and  Va- 
lens was  hurried  away  into  a lonely  house, 
which  the  Goths  set  on  fire.  Unable  to  make 
his  escape,  he  was  burnt  alive,  in  the  fiftieth 
year  of  his  age,  after  a reign  of  thirteen 
years,  a.d.  378. 

VALENTINIAN  I.,  a son  of  Gratian, 
raised  to  the  imperial  throne  of  Rome  by  his 
merit  and  valor.  He  kept  the  western  part 
of  the  empire  for  himself,  and  appointed 
over  the  east  his  brother  Valens.  He  gave 
convincing  proof  of  his  military  valor  in  the 
victories  which  he  obtained  over  the  barba- 
rians in  the  provinces  of  Gaul,  the  deserts 
of  Africa,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine 
and  Danube.  The  insolence  of  the  Quadi 
he  punished  with  great  severity ; and  when 


these  desperate  and  indigent  barbarians  had 
deprecated  the  conqueror’s  vengeance,  Valen- 
tinian treated  them  with  contempt,  and  up- 
braided them  with  every  marl  of  resent- 
ment. While  he  spoke  with  such  warmth, 
he  broke  a blood-vessel,  and  fell  lifeless  on 
the  ground.  He  was  conveyed  into  his  pal- 
ace by  his  attendants,  and  soon  after  died, 
after  suffering  the  greatest  agonies,  from  vio- 
lent fits  and  contortions  of  his  limbs,  on  the 
17th  of  November,  a.d.  375.  He  was  then 
in  the  fifty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  and  had 
reigned  twelve  years. 

VALENTINIAN  II.  About  six  days  after 
the  death  of  Valentinian,  his  second  son, 
Valentinian  II.,  was  proclaimed  emperor, 
though  only  five  years  old.  He  was  associa- 
ted with  his  elder  brother  Gratian,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  383,  but  his  youth  seemed  to 
favor  dissension,  and  the  attempts  and  the 
usurpations  of  rebels.  He  was  robbed  of 
his  throne  by  Maximus,  four  years  after  the 
death  of  Gratian  ; and  in  this  helpless  situa- 
tion he  had  recourse  to  Theodosius,  who  was 
then  emperor  of  the  east.  He  was  success- 
ful in  his  applications ; Maximus  was  con- 
quered by  Theodosius,  and  Valentinian  en- 
tered Rome  in  triumph,  accompanied  by  his 
benefactor.  He  was  some  time  after  strangled 
by  one  of  his  officers,  a native  of  Gaul,  called 
Arbogastes,  392.  He  was  fond  of  imitating 
the  virtues  and  exemplary  life  of  his  friend 
and  patron  Theodosius,  and  if  he  had  lived 
longer,  the  Romans  might  have  enjoyed 
peace  and  security. 

VALENTINIAN  III.  was  son  of  Constan- 
tius  and  Placidia,  the  daughter  of  Theodo- 
sius the  Great,  and  therefore,  as  related  to 
the  imperial  family,  he  was  saluted  emperor 
in  his  youth,  and  publicly  acknowledged  as 
such,  at  Rome,  the  3d  of  October,,  a.  d.  423, 
about  the  sixth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  at 
first  governed  by  his  mother,  and  the  in- 
trigues of  his  generals  and  courtiers  ; and 
when  he  came  to  years  of  discretion,  he  dis- 
graced himself  by  violence,  oppression,  and 
incontinence.  He  was  murdered  in  the 
midst  of  Rome,  a.d.  454,  in  the  thirty -sixth 


VAL 


904 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


year  of  his  age,  and  thirty-first  of  his  reign, 
by  Petronius  Maximus,  to  whose  wife  he  had 
offered  violence,  who  succeeded  him. 

YALERIANUS,  Publius  Licinius,  a Ro- 
man, proclaimed  emperor  by  the  armies  in 
Rhsetia,  a.d.  253.  He  took  his  son  Gallie- 
nus  as  his  colleague  in  the  empire,  and 
showed  the  malevolence  of  his  heart  by  per- 
secuting the  Christians,  whom  he  had  for  a 
while  tolerated.  He  also  made  war  against 
the  Goths  and  Scythians ; but  in  an  expedi- 
tion which  he  undertook  against  Sapor,  king 
of  Persia,  his  arms  were  attended  with  ill 
success.  He  was  conquered  in  Mesopotamia, 
and  when  he  wished  to  have  a private  con- 
ference with  Sapor,  the  conqueror  seized  his 
person,  carried  him  in  triumph  to  his  capital, 
and  exposed  him  in  all  the  cities  of  his  em- 
pire, to  the  ridicule  and  insolence  of  his  sub- 
jects. When  the  Persian  monarch  mounted 
on  horseback,  Valerian  served  as  a footstool, 
and  the  many  other  insults  which  he  suffered, 
excited  indignation  even  among  the  courtiers 
of  Sapor.  The  monarch  at  last  ordered  him 
to  be  flayed  alive,  and  salt  to  be  thrown  over 
his  mangled  body,  so  that  he  died  in  the 
greatest  torments.  His  skin  was  tanned,  and 
painted  in  red  ; and  that  the  ignominy  of  the 
Roman  empire  might  be  lasting,  it  was  nailed 
in  one  of  the  temples  of  Persia.  Valerian 
died  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age,  a.d. 
260,  after  a reign  of  seven  years. 

VALERIUS,  Publius,  a celebrated  Roman, 
surnamed  Poplicola , from  his  popularity. 
He  was  very  active  in  assisting  Brutus  to 
expel  the  Tarquins,  and  he  was  the  first  that 
took  an  oath  to  support  the  liberty  and  inde- 
pendence of  his  country.  He  was  honored 
with  the  consulship  on  the  expulsion  of  Col- 
latinus,  and  he  triumphed  over  the  Etruri- 
ans, after  he  had  gained  the  victory  in  the 
battle  in  which  Brutus  and  the  sons  of  Tar- 
quin  had  fallen.  Valerius  died  after  he  had 
been  four  times  consul,  and  enjoyed  the  pop- 
ularity, and  received  the  thanks  and  the  grati- 
tude, which  people  redeemed  from  slavery 
and  oppression  usually  pay  to  their  deliver- 
ers. To  do  him  honor,  his  body  was  buried 
at  the  public  expense. 

VALERIUS,  Marcus,  surnamed  Corvinus , 
a tribune  of  the  soldiers  under  L.  Furius 
Camillus.  When  the  Roman  army  was 
challenged  by  one  of  the  Senones,  remarka- 


ble for  his  strength  and  stature,  Valerius  un- 
dertook to  engage  him,  and  obtained  an  easy 
victory  by  aid  of  a raven  that  attacked  the 
face  of  the  Gaul,  whence  his  surname  of 
Corvinus.  He  vanquished  the  states  that 
made  war  against  Rome,  and  was  six  times 
honored  with  the  consulship.  He  died  in  the 
hundredth  year  of  his  age. 

VALETTE,  John  Parisot,  the  forty-eighth 
grand-master,  of  the  order  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem.  During  his  reign  the  knights’ 
galleys  took  above  fifty  Turkish  ships  in  less 
than  five  years,  which  so  enraged  Solyman 
II.,  that  he  resolved  to  lay  siege  to  Malta, 
and  drive  the  knights  thence.  His  forces  set 
out  from  Constantinople  in  April,  1865,  and 
arrived  at  Navarin  the  11th  of  May.  The 
fleet  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  gal- 
leys, nine  men-of-war,  &c.  The  Knights 
fought  with  the  greatest  valor,  defying  the 
assaults  of  the  Turks,  four  months.  Forty- 
nine  Christian  galleys  arriving  then,  the 
Turkish  commander  raised  the  siege  and 
escaped  by  night.  The  Turks  lost  20,000 
men,  and  about  9,000  Christians  died  of  their 
wounds.  Valette  rebuilt  the  city,  calling  it 
by  his  own  name.  He  died  in  1568. 

VALMY,  a village  in  the  north-east  of 
France.  An  action  was  fought  here,  Sept. 
20th,  1792,  between  the  French  and  Prus- 
sians. • 

VAN  BUREN,  Martin,  eighth  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Kinder- 
hook,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  5,  1782.  He  began  the 
study  of  law  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  in 
1812  was  a prominent  Democratic  politician, 
warmly  supporting  in  the  State  Senate  the 
war  with  Great  Britain.  He  then  became 
Attorney  General  of  the  State,  and  in  1818 
set  on  foot  a new  organization  of  the  Dem- 
ocratic party,  known  for  twenty  3rears  as  the 
“Albany  Regency.”  He  was  twice  elected 
U.  S.  Senator,  in  1821  and  1827,  Governor 
in  1828,  was  Secretary  of  State  under  Presi- 
dent Jackson,  became  minister  to  Eng- 
land, was  elected  Vice  President  in  1832, 
and  President  in  1836.  During  his  adminis- 
tration occurred  the  great  financial  crisis  of 
1837,  the  Canadian  insurrection,  and  the 
anti-slavery  agitation.  The  financial  distress 
of  the  country  being  ascribed  to  his  party, 
his  re-election  was  defeated  by  Gen.  Harrison 
in  1840.  In  1848,  Gen.  Cass  having  been 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 


905 


nominated  for  President,  on  a platform  toler- 
ating the  introduction  of  slavery  into  new 
territories,  a portion  of  the  party",  under  the 
name  of  Free  Democracy,  nominated  Mr. 
Van  Buren  for  the  Presidency  on  a platform 
of  determined  opposition  to  the  extension  or 
encouragement  of  slavery.  The  Democracy 
were  defeated,  and  Gen.  Taylor,  the  Whig 
candidate,  was  elected.  Mr.  Yan  Buren  died 
at  Kinderhook,  July  24,  1862. 

VANDALS,  originally  a Gothic  nation,  who 
came  out  of  Scandinavia  with  the  other 
Goths,  and  settled  in  the  countries  now  known 
as  Mecklenberg  and  Brandenberg.  Another 
colony  settled  in  Pomerania.  In  process 
of  time  they  extended  themselves  into  Dal- 
matia, Illyricum,  and  Dacia.  They  attacked 
Greece,  whencethey  went  to  Spain  ; and  then 
under  the  famous  Geneseric,  passed  over  into 
Africa,  where  they  fixed  the  throne  of  their 
power.  This  Prince  reduced  Carthage,  Sar- 
dinia, Sicily,  and  all  the  islands  between  Italy 
and  Africa.  In  475  he  concluded  peace  with 
the  Emperor  Zeno,  whom  he  compelled  to 
renounce  all  claim  to  the  provinces  of  Africa. 
Justinian  afterward  gained  a complete  victory 
over  the  Vandals,  and  reunited  the  provinces 
of  Africa  to  the  Greek  empire. 

VANDERLYN,  John.  Aaron  Burr  was 
riding  along  in  a curricle  and  pair,  one  day, 
when  one  of  his  horses  lost  a* shoe;  and  he 
stopped  at  the  next  blacksmith’s  to  have  it 
replaced.  It  was  a lonely  country  place,  not 
far  from  Kingston,  in  Ulster  Co.,  N.  Y.  He 
strolled  about  while  the  blacksmith  was  at 
work,  and,  returning,  saw  upon  the  side  of 
a stable  near  by,  a charcoal  drawing  of  his 
own  curricle  and  horses,  wonderfully  accu- 
rate and  spirited.  Turning  round,  he  noticed 
a boy  a little  way  off,  dressed  in  coarse  home- 
spun.  “Who  did  that?”  inquired  Burr, 
pointing  to  the  picture.  “ I did  it,”  said  the 
boy.  The  astonished  traveler  entered  into 
conversation  with  the  lad ; found  him  intelli- 
gent, though  ignorant ; learned  that  he  was 
born  in  the  neighborhood,  had  had  no  in- 
struction in  drawing,  and  was  engaged  to 
work  for  the  blacksmith  six  months.  Burr 
wrote  a few  words  on  a piece  of  paper,  and 
said,  as  he  wrote.  “My  boy,  you  are  too 
smart  a fellow  to  stay  here  all  your  life.  If 
ever  you  should  want  to  change  your  em- 
ployment and  see  the  world,  just  put  a clean  | 


shirt  into  your  pocket,  go  to  New  York,  and 
go  straight  to  that  address,”  handing  the  boy 
the  paper.  Several  months  passed  away,  and 
the  circumstance  had  nearly  faded  from  the 
busy  senator’s  recollection.  As  he  was  sit- 
ting at  breakfast  one  morning,  a servant  put 
into  his  hand  a small  paper  parcel,  saying  it 
was  brought  by  a boy  who  was  waiting  out- 
side. Burr  opened  the  parcel,  and  found  a 
Coarse  country -made  clean  shirt.  Supposing 
it  to  be  a mistake,  he  ordered  the  boy  to  be 
shown  in.  Who  should  enter  but  the  genius 
of  the  roadside,  who  placed  in  Burr’s  hand 
the  identical  piece  of  paper  he  had  given 
him.  The  lad  was  warmly  welcomed.  Burr 
took  him  into  his  family,  educated  him,  and 
procured  him  instruction  in  the  art  which 
nature  had  indicated  should  be  the  occupa- 
tion of*  his  lifetime.  Afterward,  Burr  as- 
sisted him  to  go  to  Europe,  where  he  spent  five 
years  in  the  study  of  painting,  and  became  a 
famous  artist — Vanderlyn. 

Vanderlyn  painted  the  well  known  ‘Land- 
ing of  Columbus’  fora  panel  in  the  rotunda 
for  the  capitol  at  Washington.  He  died  at 
Kingston  in  1852. 

VANDERVELDE,  William,  the  Elder, 
born  at  Leyden,  in  1610,  was  an  eminent  ma- 
rine painter.  His  son,  William  the  Younger, 
born  at  Amsterdam,  in  1633,  was  still  more 
famous.  Walpole  calls  him  “the  greatest 
man  that  has  appeared  in  this  branch  of 
painting  ; the  palm  is  not  less  disputed  with 
Raphael  for  history,  than  with  Vandervelde 
for  sea-pieces.”  Both  the  Vanderveldes  wTere 
established  in  England  in  the  service  of 
Charles  IT.  in  1675.  They  were  each  granted 
a pension  of  £100  a year  by  the  king;  the 
father  “ for  taking  and  making  draughts  of 
sea-fights,”  and  the  son  “ for  putting  the  said 
draughts  into  colors.”  The  elder  Vander- 
velde, at  least,  well  earned  his  annual  hundred 
sterling.  At  the  great  naval  fight  between  the 
Duke  of  York  and  the  Dutch  admiral  Opdam, 
he  sailed  between  the  hostile  fleets  in  a light 
skiff,  to  mark  their  positions  and  observe 
their  operations ; and  in  this  manner,  it  is 
said,  he  was  also  a spectator  of  the  memora- 
ble three  days’  engagement  between  Monk 
and  De  Ruyter.  These  painters  dwelt  at 
Greenwich,  where  the  father  died  in  1693  ; 
the  son  died  in  London  in  1707. 

VAN  DIEMEN’S  LAND.  This  island  iu 


906 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  Indian  Ocean  was  discovered  by  Tasman 
in  1633,  and  named  after  the  governor  of 
Batavia.  It  was  visited  by  Furneaux  in 
1773  ; by  Captain  Cook  in  1777 ; and  was 
deemed  the  south  extremity  of  New  Hol- 
land (now  Australia)  until  1799.  A British 
settlement  was  established  on  the  south-east 
part,  within  the  mouth  of  the  Derwent,  and 
named  Hobart  Town,  which  is  the  seat  of 
government,  1804.  This  island  was  made  a 
convict  colony  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  some- 
times called  Tasmania.  The  area  is  about 
22,630  square  miles. 

VANDYCK,  Antony,  was  born  at  Ant- 
werp, March  22d,  1599.  His  father,  a glass 
painter,  of  Bois-le-Duc,  was  his  first  instruc- 
tor in  art,  and  he  was  also  much  indebted  to 
his  mother,  who  was  an  elegant  landscape 
artist,  and  very  skillful  in  embroidery.  But 
his  great  master  was  Rubens,  with  whom  he 
lived  about  four  years.  By  his  advice  Van- 
dyck  visited  Italy,  where  he  remained  some 
five  years.  After  his  return  to  Antwerp, 
his  picture  of  the  Crucifixion  for  the  church 
of  St.  Michael  at  Ghent,  established  his 
celebrity  as  one  of  the  first  masters  of  the 
age,  and  in  portraiture  he  acquired  an  unri- 
valed reputation.  In  1632  Charles  I.  sent 
him  an  express  invitation  to  come  to  Eng- 
land. There  he  settled  down.  He  was 
knighted  ; a pension  of  £200  a year  for  life 
was  bestowed  upon  him,  with  the  title  of  paint- 
er to  his  majesty  ; and  his  successful  career 
as  a portrait  painter  enabled  him  to  live  in 
great  style.  He  had  a country-house  at 
Eltham  in  Kent,  where  he  spent  a portion 
of  the  summer;  he  kept  great  state  when  in 
town ; “ he  always  went  magnificently 
dressed,  had  a numerous  and  gallant  equip- 
age, and  kept  so  good  a table  in  his  apart- 
ment, that  few  princes  were  more  visited  or 
better  served.”  Yandyck  died  in  London, 
Dec.  2d,  1641,  and  was  buried  in  the  old 
church  of  St.  Paul,  near  the  tomb  of  John 
of  Gaunt.  He  left  a daughter,  his  only 
child,  by  his  wife  Mary  Ruthven,  grand- 
daughter of  the  unfortunate  Lord  Ruthven, 
Earl  of  Gowrie.  Notwithstanding  his  ex- 
pensive style  of  living,  he  left  property  to 
the  value  of  £20,000.  His  portraits  of  women 
are  especially  superior. 

YANE,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  statesman, 
was  born  in  Kent,  in  1589.  In  1639  he  was 


made  treasurer  of  the  household,  and  soon 
after,  principal  secretary  of  state;  but,  on 
joining  in  the  prosecution  of  the  Earl  of  Straf- 
ford, he  was  removed  from  all  his  places. 
He  died  in  1654. 

VANE,  Sir  Henry,  eldest  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1612.  His  religious 
principles  led  him  to  emigrate  to  New  Eng- 
land. He  became  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1635,  but  soon  returned  to  England. 
In  1640  he  was  elected  into  parliament,  where 
he  was  the  principal  mover  of  the  solemn 
league  and  covenant,  and  also  of  the  self-de- 
nying ordinance ; but  he  took  no  part  in  the 
king’s  trial,  and  he  resisted  Cromwell  to  such 
a degree,  that  the  general  sent  him  to  Caris- 
brooke  Castle.  On  the  death  of  Oliver,  he 
labored  to  institute  a perfect  commonwealth, 
but  the  Stuarts  being  restored,  he  was  brought 
to  trial  for  treason,  and  condemned  to  be 
beheaded,  which  was  put  in  execution  on 
Tower  Hill,  June  14th,  1662. 

Vx\RRO,  Marcus  Teiientius,  a Roman 
statesman  and  author  of  great  learning.  He 
was  eighty  years  old  when  he  wrote  his  “ Dc 
Re  Rustica.”  He  died  b.c.  27,  aged  eighty- 
nine. 

YARUS,  Quintilius,  a Roman  pro-consul, 
descended  from  an  illustrious  family.  He 
was  appointed  governor  of  Syria,  and  after- 
ward made  commander  of  the  armies  in  Ger- 
many. He  was  surprised  by  the  Germans, 
under  Hermann,  and  his  army  was  cut  to 
pieces.  When  he  saw  that  every  thing  was 
lost,  he  killed  himself,  a.d.  10,  and  his  exam- 
ple was  followed  by  some  of  his  officers. 

VATTEL,  Emmerich,  native  of  Switzer- 
land, author  of  valuable  writings  on  jurispru- 
dence and  international  law,  died  in  1767, 
aged  fifty-three. 

VAUBAN,  Sebastian  Lepreste  de,  a 
famous  military  engineer  and  tactician  of 
France,  was  born  in  Burgundy  in  1632.  He 
took  part  in  the  wars  of  Louis  XI Y.,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  marshal.  He  constructed 
or  improved  an  immense  number  of  for- 
tresses, directed  as  many  as  fifty-three  sieges, 
and  was  present  at  one  hundred  and  forty 
battles.  He  died  in  1707. 

YEGA,  Lopez  de  la,  was  born  at  Madrid 
in  1562.  He  was  very  eminent  as  a poet,  and 
wrote  an  almost  innumerable  number  of 
dramas.  He  died  in  1635 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


907 


VELAZQUEZ,  Don  Diego,  a painter  very 
eminent  in  history,  portrait,  and  landscape, 
was  born  at  Seville  in  the  Spring  of  1599, 
and  died  at  Madrid,  Aug.  7th,  1660.  He  is 
the  most  eminent  of  Spanish  painters. 

VENDEE,  a department  in  the  west  of 
France.  It  is  memorable  in  the  history  of 
the  French  revolution,  for  the  resistance  made 
to  the  republican  army  in  1793,  1794,  and 
1795,  which  was  attended  for  a time  with 
great  success,  though  commenced  without 
any  concert  with  the  other  royalists  of 
France,  arid  carried  on  for  a season  with 
very  limited  support  from  England.  La  Ven- 
dee was  also  the  scene  of  some  sharp  fighting 
in  1815. 

VENEZUELA,  a republic  in  South  Amer- 
ica, contains  416,600  square  miles,  and 
1,356,000  inhabitants.  It  is  a plain  stretch- 
ing from  the  Andes  westward  to  and  beyond 
the  Orinoco.  The  forests  beyond  the  Ori- 
noco are  in  an  unsubdued  and  savage  state, 
peopled  by  the  Caribs  and  other  wandering 
and  warlike  tribes.  A second  division  con- 
sists of  the  Llanos,  boundless  grassy  plains, 
where  the  eye,  in  the  compass  of  a wide 
horizon,  often  does  not  descry  an  eminence 
six  feet  in  height.  Like  the  pampas  of  La 
Plata,  they  are  covered  with  luxuriant  pas- 
tures, on  which  thousands  of  cattle  and 
horses  are  fed.  The  export  of  hides  forms  a 
principal  branch  of  the  commerce  of  Vene- 
zuela. Culture  and  civilization  are  confined 
to  the  territory  adjoining  the  coast. 

Venezuela,  under  the  Spanish  rule,  was 
known  as  the  captaincy  general  of  Carac- 
cas.  When  independence  of  the  mother- 
country  was  achieved,  it  became  part  of  the 
republic  of  Colombia ; since  whose  dissolu- 
tion in  1830,  it  has  been  an  independent 
republic.  The  civil  wars  and  convulsions 
have  retarded  its  progress  and  prosperity. 
Caraccas  is  the  capital.  By  the  awful  earth- 
quake of  1812,  and  the  political  convulsions, 
the  number  of  inhabitants  of  the  city  of 
Caraccas  was  greatly  reduced.  It  has  since 
increased,  and  is  now  about  50,000,  the 
former  population. 

VENICE,  the  capital  formerly  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Venice,  stands  upon  a cluster  of  little 
isles,  about  eighty  in  numher,  and  intersected 
by  canals,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic.  These 
canals  serve  the  purpose  of  streets  in  other 


towns,  and  the  long,  black  gondolas  con- 
stantly plying  along  them  answer  for  car- 
riages. The  public  buildings  of  Venice  are 
numerous,  and  splendid  though  decayed: 
there  are  the  great  cathedral  of  San  Marco, 
(the  patron  saint  of  Venice),  the  vast  palace 
of  the  doges,  many  fine  churches,  and  the 
marble  mansions  of  a nobility  that  once  had 
wealth.  The  city  is  divided  into  two  parts 
by  a canal  broader  than  the  rest,  called  the 
grand  canal,  over  which  there  is  only  one 
bridge,  the  Rialto.  The  great  arsenal,  long 
the  main  instrument  of  the  power  of  the 
republic,  once  employed  16,000  workmen; 
it  is  now  the  dockyard  of  the  Austrian  navy. 
The  number  of  inhabitants  is  100,000,  exclu- 
sive of  the  garrison.  All  the  ancient  spirit 
and  prosperity  of  the  place  are  gone. 

In  the  year  452  the  people  of  Aquileia, 
Iladua,  and  other  Italian  cities,  to  escape  from 
the  fury  of  the  savage  followers  of  Attila, 
fled  to  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Brenta. 
There  they  founded  two  cities,  Rivoalto  and 
Malamocco,  which  in  697  were  incorporated 
under  one  magistrate,  entitled  a doge,  or 
duke.  The  first  doge  was  Paolo  Luca  Ana- 
festo.  Pepin,  as  king  of  Italy,  granted  to 
the  rising  town  territory  along  the  Adige, 
and  Rivoalto  (Rialto),  united  with  neighbor- 
ing islands  (now  also  built  upon)  took  the 
name  of  Venetiae  from  the  province  Venetia 
(territory  of  the  ancient  Veneti),  of  which 
these  islands  formed  a dependency.  The  se- 
cure position  of  the  city'',  its  facilities  for  trade, 
and  the  commercial  enterprise  of  its  inhabit- 
ants, had  in  the  eleventh  century  already  rais- 
ed it  to  great  prosperity.  Its  fleets  were  pow- 
erful, and  its  flag  respected  in  all  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean.  In  the  twelfth  century  Ven- 
ice bore  an  illustrious  part  in  the  crusades. 
In  the  dispute  between  Frederick  Barbarossa 
and  Pope  Alexander  III.,  she  took  the  side 
of  the  holy  see,  and  was  thus  involved  in 
war  with  the  emperor.  In  a naval  engage- 
ment off  the  Istrian  coast  in  1177,  the  impe- 
rial fleet,  though  superior  in  numbers,  was 
badly  defeated,  and  Otho,  the  emperor’s  son, 
fell  a captive  to  the  Venetians.  Alexander 
was  then  at  Venice,  a refugee.  When  Ziani, 
the  victorious  doge,  returned,  the  pope  has- 
tened in  person  to  receive  his  deliverer.  As 
soon  as  the  doge  touched  the  land,  the  holy 
father  gave  him  a golden  ring.  “ Take,”  he 


VEN 


908 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


said,  “this  ring;  and  with  it  take,  on  my 
authority,  the  sea  as  your  subject.  Every 
year,  on  the  return  of  this  happy  day,  you 
and  your  successors  shall  make  known  to  all 
posterity  that  the  right  of  conquest  has  sub- 
jugated the  Adriatic  to  Venice,  as  a spouse 
to  her  lord.”  Such  was  the  origin  of  the 
ceremony  of  wedding  the  Adriatic,  and  for 
more  than  six  hundred  years  every  return 
of  the  feast  of  Ascension  witnessed  these  fig- 
urative nuptials. 

Genoa  grew  to  be  the  commercial  rival  of 
Venice,  and  a bitter  jealousy  existed  between 
the  two  republics.  They  came  to  blows  in 
1258,  and  after  that  their  wars  were  frequent 
and  their  battles  sanguinary.  In  1293  a 
Venetian  fleet  was  defeated  by  an  inferior 
Genoese  armament,  and  among  7,000  cap- 
tives made  was  Andrea  Dondolo,  its  admiral. 
The  conquerors  loaded  him  with  chains,  and 
exposed  him  conspicuously  to  the  rude  gaze 
of  their  fleet,  as  a signal  token  of  victory. 

In  an  agony  of  despair,  the  unfortunate  Ve- 
netian dashed  out  his  brains  against  the  side 
of  the  galley.  In  the  next  century  the  tide 
of  triumph  turned  against  Genoa.  Off  the 
Sardinian  coast  in  1353,  the  Venetians  gained 
a great  victory  over  her  fleet,  which,  follow- 
ing close  upon  previous  reverses,  caused  the 
utmost  consternation  among  the  Genoese, 
and  in  their  despair  they  offered  the  sove- 
reignty of  their  dominions  to  Viscount,  Arch- 
bishop of  Milan,  in  return  for  aid  against 
their  foe.  The  end  of  the  century  saw  Ven- 
ice compelled  to  purchase  peace : nevertheless 
Genoa,  though  her  power  was  apparently 
increased,  rapidly  verged  to  decline ; while 
Venice  retrieved  her  losses,  extended  her 
commerce,  and  maintained  her  independent 
sovereignt}'-  unshaken. 

In  1355,  Marino  Faliero,  fifty-seventh  doge, 
plotted  a seizure  of  absolute  power,  through 
a massacre  of  the  entire  aristocracy.  The 
attempt  failed  from  the  compunction  of  one 
of  the  conspirators,  who  shrank  from  the 
murder  of  a benefactor.  He  was  anxious  to 
save  the  life  of  Nicolo  Lioni,  a noble  in  whose 
family  he  had  been  reared ; and  through  a 
mysterious  warning  to  Lioni  on  the  eve  of 
the  rising,  its  impending  danger  became 
known.  The  ringleaders  were  at  once  ar- 
rested. The  lesser  of  them  perished  on  the 
rack  and  the  gibbet ; Faliero  was  beheaded.  I 

VEN 


The  wealth,  grandeur,  and  power  of  Venice 
continued  to  increase.  She  was  embroiled  in 
frequent  hostilities  with  the  Turks,  with  the 
Genoese,  the  Florentines,  the  Milanese,  and 
sometimes  indeed  all  Italy, — -with  varied  suc- 
cess and  reverse.  In  1489  the  rich  island 
of  Cyprus  was  annexed  to  the  republic, 
which  was  now  at  the  meridian  of  power  and 
prosperity.  By  her  growing  continental  ac- 
quisitions she  became  more  and  more  in- 
volved in  the  labyrinth  of  European  politics. 
Jealous  of  her  strength  and  opulence,  almost 
all  the  states  of  Christendom,  suspending 
their  quarrels  against  each  other,  united  for 
her  destruction.  The  famous  league  of  Cam- 
bray,  Dec.  10th,  1508,  was  entered  into  by 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  the  Emperor  Maximil- 
ian, Pope  Julius  II.,  and  Ferdinand  of  Arra- 
gon,  as  an  old  chronicler  says,  “to  ruin  the 
signory  of  Venice,  which  in  great  pomp  and 
with  little  regard  to  God  lived  gloriously  and 
gorgeously,  making  small  account  of  the  other 
princes  of  Christendom.”  By  the  battle  of 
Agnadello,  in  which  the  French  were  victo- 
rious, the  republic  lost  all  her  continental 
territories  ; but  her  fleet,  her  wealth,  the 
courage  and -firmness  of  her  citizens,  and  the 
dissension  that  soon  broke  out  among  the 
allies,  raised  her  out  of  calamity  and  pro- 
longed the  term  of  her  greatness. 

In  1569,  during  the  dogeship  of  Pietro 
Loredano,  Selim,  the  second  Turkish  sultan 
of  that  name,  cast  his  covetous  eye  upon  the 
fair  isle  of  Cyprus,  and  at  the  terrible  cost 
of  more  than  fifty  thousand  men,  it  was  won. 
The  Venetian  army  had  capitulated  on  hon- 
orable terms  : nevertheless  Bragadino,  their 
commander,  after  having  his  ears,  nose,  and 
lips  cut  off,  was  flayed  alive,  by  order  of  Mus- 
tapha,  the  Turkish  general ; and  several  hun- 
dred of  his  companions  were  massacred. 
The  success  of  the  Ottoman  arms  alarmed 
Christendom,  and  a league  was  formed  by 
Spain  and  the  pope  with  Venice.  The  splen- 
did victory  of  Lepanto,  in  1571,  filled  the 
Turks  v,Tith  consternation;  jet,  after  all,  “the 
battell  loste  was  unto  Selyn.us  as  if  a man 
should  shave  his  bearde,  which  would  ere 
long  grow  again  ; but  the  losse  of  Cyprus 
was  unto  the  Venetians  as  the  losse  of  an 
arme,  which  once  cut  offc  could  never  be 
again e recovered.” 

Venice  had  enjoyed  only  a brief  respite 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


900 


from  the  horrors  of  war,  when  she  was 
scourged  by  the  plague,  in  1575,  which  swept 
off  thousands  of  her  people ; among  them  the 
illustrious  Titian.  Then  came  a breathing 
spell  of  quiet.  Much  attention  was  given  to 
the  embellishment  of  the  capital ; the  single 
marble  arch  of  the  far-famed  Rialto  was 
thrown  between  the  two  great  halves  of  the 
city  ; the  prisons  were  made  the  strongest 
in  Europe.  The  commencement  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century  was  marked  by  a contest 
with  Pope  Paul  V.  Throughout  her  history 
Venice  maintained  with  unbending  firmness 
stout  barriers  against  the  despotism  of  the 
Vatican  Paul’s  bull  of  interdict  had  no 
terrors  for  the  Venetian  senate  ; their  coun- 
try’s exclusion  from  a jubilee  which  he  pro- 
claimed, troubled  them  as  little.  When  the 
pope  threatened  to  use  temporal  instead  of 
spiritual  weapons,  they  coolly  made  ready  to 
receive  his  armies.  In  order  to  animate  the 
populace,  the  doge,  upon  appointing  an  ad- 
miral of  the  fleet,  proceeded  to  the  arsenal ; 
from  which  establishment  soldiers  lined  the 
way  on  either  side  to  the  mint.  One  million 
five  hundred  thousand  ducats  were  spread 
upon  a table  before  the  prince  ; around  that 
table  and  the  arcades  of  the  portico  was 
stretched  a chain  of  solid  gold  one  hundred 
feet  in  length  ; and  from  the  vast  and  glitter- 
ing heap  before  him  Donato  distributed  their 
pay  to  the  mariners.  The  quarrel  never 
came  to  war,  for  the  pope  drew  in  his  horns, 
and  St.  Mark  triumphed  over  St.  Peter. 

A conspiracy  formed  by  the  emissaries  of 
Spain,  in  1618,  brought  Venice  to  the  brink 
of  destruction  ; but  the  senate  obtaining  in- 
formation in  season,  had  most  of  the  accom- 
plices drowned  in  the  canals.  In  a few  years 
the  republic  was  embroiled  in  another  war 
with  the  Porte,  an  arduous  struggle  that 
lasted  more  than  a quarter-century,  1641- 
1669.  The  Turkish  attack  was  directed 
against  Candia,  the  last  remnant  of  the  share 
of  Venice  in  the  partition  of  the  Eastern  em- 
pire. For  twenty  years  the  siege  of  the  city  of 
Candia  was  continued,  and  the  grand  vizier, 
and  many  of  his  officers,  instead  of  dwelling 
in  tents,  erected  substantial  houses.  The  city 
was  surrounded  in  September,  1669,  and 
peace  was  made.  During  this  long  war,  the 
Venetians  won  many  brilliant  naval  victories. 

The  prolonged  and  mighty  contest  had 


exhausted  the  resources  of  the  republic,  and 
with  the  loss  of  Candia  her  decline  began, — 
not,  however,  wholly  on  account  of  the  war. 
Her  greatness  had  its  rise  in  the  commercial 
spirit  of  her  people,  and  their  enterprise  in 
navigation  and  ship-building.  The  products 
of  the  east  were  transported  by  Venetian 
keels  from  the  Levant  to  the  island  city,  and 
thence  distributed  over  Europe.  The  cru- 
sades threw  great  sums  into  Venetian  coffers 
in  pay  for  the  transport  of  troops,  and  helped 
to  render  her  mistress  of  the  Morea,  the 
iEgean  Islands,  and  other  parts  of  the  Greek 
empire.  But  after  Vasco  di  Gama  had  found 
the  way  to  India  by  sea,  the  commerce  of 
Venice  gradually  diminished,  and  with  it  her 
political  eminence  slowly  dwindled  away. 

Hostilities  in  Turkey  were  renewed  in 
1683,  and  a brief  season  of  glory  rested  on 
the  arms  of  the  decaying  republic.  The 
Morea  was  wrested  from  the  infidel,  and  the 
peace  of  1699  left  it  in  Venice’s  possession. 
But  she  could  not  maintain  it,  and  the  treaty 
of  Passarowitz  in  1718  gave  it  back.  Thence- 
forth she  is  a cipher  in  the  history  of  Eu- 
rope. Twice  more  only  did  she  appear  in 
arms:  in  1765  and  in  1774  she  chastised  the 
pirates  of  Tripoli  and  Tunis  with  a spirit 
worthy  of  her  better  days.  She  became 
famous  as  a haunt  of  unlicensed  pleasure, 
and  seemed  to  seek  in  excess  a compensation 
for  the  surrender  of  ambition.  Her  year 
was  so  filled  with  political  or  religious  festi- 
vals as  to  be  one  continued  holiday.  The 
carnival  seldom  attracted  less  than  fifty  thou- 
sand strangers  to  mingle  in  unrestrained 
indulgence  and  sin  among  the  gay  masks  of 
Venice.  The  fever  of  gambling  raged  un- 
checked, and  the  trade  of  the  courtesan  was 
protected  by  the  government.  The  city 
seemed  abandoned  to  iniquity.  Then  came 
the  French  revolution,  and  the  invasion  of 
Italy  by  Bonaparte.  The  Venetians,  in  order 
to  check  the  progress  of  the  republican  forces, 
put  Peschiera  into  the  hands  of  the  imperi- 
alists, in  1796  : but  Bonaparte  quickly  be- 
coming master  of  Italy,  they  endeavored  to 
conciliate  the  favor  of  France,  by  warning 
out  of  their  territories  the  Comte  de  Lille 
(afterward  Louis  XVIII.),  the  unfortunate 
brother  of  -the  late  king,  whom  they  treated 
with  indignity  and  insult. 

Let  us  go  back  a little.  On  the  accession 


VEN 


910 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


of  Henry  of  Navarre  to  the  crown  of  France, 
Venice  was  among  the  first  powers  that  recog- 
nized his  title ; and  the  great  benefit  which 
the  king  derived  from  this  early  acknowledg- 
ment by  a state  so  renowned  for  political 
sagacity  was  repaid  by  him  with  lasting 
friendship.  He  knighted  the  ambassadors 
of  the  republic,  and  presented  the  treasury 
of  St.  Mark’s  with  a suit  of  armor,  and  the 
sword  that  he  wore  on  the  field  of  Ivry. 
The  signory,  in  return,  entered  his  name  in 
the  Golden  Book,  in  which  the  names  of  the 
Venetian  nobles  were  enrolled;  and  in- 
structed their  ambassadors  to  burn,  in  the 
king’s  presence,  certain  obligations  for  con- 
siderable sums  which  he  had  borrowed  dur- 
ing his  necessities.  Henry  gaily  assured  the 
envoy  that  he  had  never  before  warmed  him- 
self at  so  agreeable  a fire.  When,  now,  the 
Comte  de  Lille  was  ordered  to  depart  from 
the  dominions  of  the  degenerate  republic,  he 
responded,  with  more  spirit  than  he  often 
evinced,  “I  will  quit  your  territories  ; but  I 
first  demand  your  Golden  Book,  that  I may 
erase  from  it  the  name  of  my  family;  and 
next  the  armor  which  my  ancestor  Henry  IV. 
presented  as  a token  of  amity  to  your  repub- 
lic.” The  signory  replied,  that  they  would 
erase  the  names  themselves,  and  would  return 
the  armor  when  the  debts  contracted  by 
Henry  IV.  had  been  discharged. 

Bonaparte  had  already  resolved  upon  the 
destruction  of  the  Venetian  government. 
What  was  pusillanimons  Venice  to  resist 
him!  On  the  12th  of  May,  1797,  the  capital 
was  surrendered  to  him,  and  the  most  ancient 
government  in  the  world,  which  had  just 
completed  the  eleventh  century  of  i:s  sway, 
ceased  its  existence.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo 
Formio,  the-next  October,  Venice,  with  most 
of  her  dependencies,  was  given  to  Austria. 
The  peace  of  Presburg,  1805,  ceded  her  to 
the  kingdom  of  Italy.  In  1814  she  was  re- 
stored to  Austria. 

In  1860,  Austria,  sorely  defeated  by  Prus- 
sia and  Italy  in  alliance,  had  to  surrender 
Venetia.  After  70  years  of  tyranny,  the 
Austrian  soldier  was  driven  out,  Venice  was 
liberated,  and  the  fond  hope  of  Italian  na- 
tionality at  length  realized.  The  entrance  of 
the  King  of  Italy  into  this  “City  of  the  Sea,” 
was  celebrated  by  every  expression  of  grati- 
tude and  delight. 


In  its  ancient  days  Venice  was  governed 
by  an  elected  council  which  shared  the  legis- 
lative power  with  the  doge.  The  council 
afterward  obtained  a great  preponderance  of 
power,  and  its  members  even  appointed  their 
successors,  so  that  the  government  became  a 
close  oligarchy.  In  course  of  time  a senate 
was  instituted  to  settle  questions  of  peace 
and  war.  The  senators,  as  well  as  the  coun- 
selors of  the  doge,  were  appointed  by  the 
great  council.  The  doge  and  his  council  con- 
stituted the  signory.  The  discontents  and 
frequent  revolts  of  the  fourteenth  century 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  black-robed 
Council  of  Ten,  which  by  degrees  sapped  the 
foundations  of  republican  government.  Its 
members  were  chosen  by  the  grand  counciL 
Its  rule  was  darkly  marked  with  espionage, 
assassination,  and  terror.  It  much  resembled 
the  inquisition.  It  inquired,  sentenced,  and 
punished,  according  to  what  it  called  reason 
of  state.  The  public  eye  never  penetrated 
the  mystery  of  its  proceedings ; the  accused 
was  sometimes  not  heard, — never  confronted 
with  witnesses  ; the  condemnation  was  secret 
as  the  inquiry, — the  punishment  like  both. 
Though  instituted  only  for  the  cognizance  of 
state  crimes,  and  dependent  for  existence  on 
the  will  of  the  grand  council,  it  gradually 
attributed  to  itself  the  control  of  all  branches 
of  the  government.  A more  formidable, 
remarkable,  and  execrable  magistracy  is  not 
known.  It  fell  with  the  republic  it  helped 
to  ruin. 

VERA  CRUZ,  the  chief  port  and  commer- 
cial town  of  Mexico  on  the  gulf,  has  a popu- 
lation of  about  11,000.  The  castle  of  San 
Juan  de  Ulloa,  a fortress  of  great  strength, 
erected  at  a cost  of  $40,000,000,  defends  the 
entrance  to  the  harbor.  In  February,  1847, 
an  American  land  and  naval  force  was  con- 
centrated in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  army 
commanded  by  Gen.  Scott,  and  the  squadron 
by  Commodore  Conner,  who  was  afterward 
relieved  by  Commodore  Perry.  On  the  9th 
of  March  the  troops  were  debarked  at  Vera 
Cruz,  and  on  the  following  day  a rapid  fire 
of  shot  and  shell  was  opened  from  the  town 
and  castle  on  the  position  occupied  by  the 
American  army.  The  landing  of  the  mortars 
and  guns  for  our  batteries  was  delayed  for 
several  days,  so  that  the  bombardment  did 
not  begin  till  the  23d.  Gen.  Scott  summoned 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


911 


the  town  to  surrender,  a demand  that  was 
refused  by  Morales,  the  Mexican  governor. 
A continuous  fire  from  the  American  bat- 
teries was  maintained  with  terrible  effect 
until  the  26th  of  March,  and  articles  of 
capitulation  were  signed  on  the  following  day. 
The  surrender  of  the  city  took  place  on  the 
morning  of  the  29th,  when  the  Mexican 
soldiers  marched  to  a plain,  a mile  out  of 
the  town,  where  the  Americans  were  drawn 
up  to  receive  them.  There  they  laid  down 
their  arms,  and  then  departed  for  the  in- 
terior. 

VERE,  Sir  Francis,  an  English  general, 
was  the  grandson  of  John  Vere,  Earl  of  Ox- 
ford, and  was  born  in  155L  He  served  first 
in  the  Netherlands,  under  the  Earl  of  Lei- 
cester, and  next  under  Lord  Willoughby, 
who,  for  his  conduct  in  the  defense  of  Ber- 
gen-op-Zoo:n,  conferred  on  him  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  After  this  he  threw  supplies 
into  the  town  of  Berg,  on  the  Rhine,  in  which 
hazardous  service  he  received  many  wounds. 
In  1591  he  took  a fort  near  Zutphen  b}7-  strat- 
agem, and  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  the 
capture  of  Deventer.  In  1596  he  wras  re- 
called from  the  Netherlands,  and  employed 
in  the  expedition  against  Cadiz,  with  the  title 
of  lord  marshal.  The  last  great  action  of 
this  gallant  commander  was  the  defense  of 
Ostend  for  the  Dutch,  where  he  succeeded  in 


repelling,  with  a small  garrison  of  twelve 
hundred  men,  an  army  of  ten  thousand  Span- 
ish troops  commanded  by  Albert,  Archduke 
of  Austria,  who  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege 
in  March,  1602,  after  lying  ten  months  before 
the  place.  Sir  Francis  died  Aug.  28th,  1608, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

VERE,  Sir  Horace,  Baron  of  Tilbury, 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Kirby  Hall  in  Essex,  in  1565.  He  served 
with  his  brother  in  the  Netherlands,  and  had 
a considerable  share  in  the  victory  near  Nieu- 
port ; as  he  afterward  had  in  the  defense  of 
Ostend.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.,  he  com- 
manded the  forces  sent  to  the  assistance  of 
the  elector  palatine : on  which  occasion  he 
effected  a memorable  retreat  from  Spinola, 
the  Spanish  general.  He  was  the  first  per- 
son raised  to  the  peerage  by  Charles  I.  He 
died  in  1635. 

VERGENNES,  Charles  Gravier,  Comte 
de,  an  eminent  French  statesman,  was  born 
at  Dijon  in  1717.  On  the  accession  of  Louis 
XYI.  to  the  throne  he  was  made  secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs.  In  this  situation 
he  distinguished  himself  by  what  he,  no 
doubt,  considered  a master-stroke  of  policy, 
that  of  separating  England  and  her  colonies ; 
but  in  this  he  only  accelerated  a more  fatal 
blow  to  his  own  country.  He  died  at  Ver- 
sailles, Feb.  13  th,  1787. 


VERMONT  has  an  area  of  10,212  square 
miles,  and  in  1870  had  330,551  inhabitants. 
The  most  striking  feature  of  the  state  is  the 
mountainous  range  called  the  Green  Moun- 
tains, which  traverses  it  from  north  to  south. 


The  Green  Mountains  are  from  ten  to  fifteen 
miles  broad,  much  intersected  with  valleys, 
and  they  derive  their  name  from  their  per- 
petual verdure,  their  sides  being  covered 
with  evergreen  shrubs  and  trees,  and  their 


VER 


912 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


summits  with  green  moss  and  winter  grass. 
There  are  many  fine  farms  among  the  moun- 
tains, arid  much  of  the  land  upon  them  is  fit 
for  grazing.  The  highest  summit  is  Mans- 
field Mountain,  in  Lamoille  county,  4,279 
feet.  Vermont  is  an  agricultural  state.  Be- 
tween the  mountains  and  Lake  Champlain 
is  much  good  arable  land,  and  fertile  tracts 
skirt  the  Connecticut ; but  generally  the  soil 
is  better  fitted  for  pasturage.  Many  excellent 
horses  are  raised  for  the  markets  of  other 
states,  and  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  in 
large  numbers.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  abun- 
dance along  the  western  base  of  the  Green 
Mountains.  Large  quantities  of  copperas 
are  made  from  the  sulphuret  of  iron.  Hand- 
some marble  is  quarried,  beside  soapstone, 
granite,  &c. 

Fort  Dummer  was  built  by  Massachusetts 
on  Connecticut  River  in  1724,  and  when  in 
1731  a fort  was  built  at  Crown  Point  by  the 
French  from  Canada,  they  also  settled  on  the 
opposite  shore  of  Lake  Champlain,  within 
the  present  limits  of  Vermont.  In  1741  a 
boundary  line  was  run  between  Massachu- 
setts and  New  Hampshire,  and  in  1749  Ben- 
ning  Wentworth,  governor  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, concluding  that  the  boundary  of  that 
colony  extended  as  far  west  as  that  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, that  is,  to  within  twenty  miles  of 
the  Hudson,  made  a grant  of  a township  of 
land,  six  miles  square,  which  from  his  own 
first  name  was  called  Bennington.  Other 
grants  were  subsequently  made,  and  several 
towns  planted  on  the  west  side  of  Connecti- 
cut River.  But  New  York  also  claimed  the 
jurisdiction,  and  in  the  year  1764  the  king 
annexed  the  territory  west  of  the  Connecti- 
cut River  to  that  province ; the  government 
of  which  declared  the  New  Hampshire  grants 
null  and  void,  and  demanded  that  the  settlers 
should  take  out  new  deeds,  and  pay  for  their 
lands  a second  time.  This  was  refused,  and 
the  next  year  several  of  the  officers  in  at- 
tempting to  execute  the  judgments  of  the 
courts  of  New  York,  were  resisted  and 
wounded.  At  the  head  of  this  opposition 
were  Ethan  Allen  and  Seth  Warner,  men  of 
coolness  and  resolution. 

In  1774  the  government  of  New  York 
passed  a law  demanding  the  surrender  of  all 
offenders  under  severe  penalties,  and  offering 
a bounty  of  £50  per  head  on  the  apprehen- 


sion of  eight  of  the  most  obnoxious  settlers. 
While  preparing  for  civil  war,  the  revolution 
commenced,  the  importance  of  which  absorbed 
all  minor  considerations.  In  1777,  the  dec- 
laration of  independence  having  left  the  set- 
tlers in  a critical  situation,  a convention  of 
representatives  from  the  towns  on  both  sides 
of  the  mountains,  was  held  at  Westminster, 
and  the  district  was  declared  a free  and  inde- 
pendent state.  It  received  its  name  from  the 
French  words  Verd  mont  (green  mountain), 
which  name  had  been  conferred  by  Ethan 
Allen  on  the  mountains,  and  was  afterward 
transferred  to  the  state.  In  1790  the  dispute 
between  New  York  and  Vermont  was  ad- 
justed, the  latter  giving  20,000  dollars  for  the 
quitclaim  of  the  former ; the  claims  of  New 
Hampshire  were  also  adjusted  ; and  the  next 
year  Vermont  was  admitted  into  the  Union. 

The  present  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1793.  An  amendment  establishing  a senate 
was  adopted  in  1836,  and  the  legislative 
power  is  now  vested  in  the  general  assembly, 
elected  by  the  people  annually  ; the  executive 
in  a governor,  chosen  at  the  same  time.  The 
right  of  suffrage  belongs  to  every  male  adult 
who  has  resided  in  the  state  one  year,  and  is 
of  quiet  and  peaceable  behavior.  The  su- 
preme court  is  composed  of  six  judges, 
and  holds  a stated  session  in  each  county  an- 
nually. 

Montpelier,  the  capital  of  the  state,  lies  in 
a pleasant  valley  between  the  eastern  and 
western  chains  of  the  mountains,  at  the 
junction  of  the  north  and  south  branches  of 
the  Onion  or  Winooski  River;  population  in 
1870,  3,023.  Burlington,  the  largest  town 
and  the  chief  commercial  place  on  Lake 
Champlain,  is  handsomely  situated  on  a gen- 
tly rising  slope  that  overlooks  the  lake,  and 
has  an  excellent  harbor  ; population  in  1870, 
14,387. 

VERNON,  Edward,  an  English  admiral, 
was  born  in  Westminster,  of  a Staffordshire 
family,  Nov.  12th,  1684.  Ilis  father  was 
secretary  of  state  to  King  William,  and  re- 
luctantly suffered  him  to  enter  into  the  sea 
service  under  Admiral  Hopson.  In  1704  he 
was  with  Sir  George  Rooke,  at  the  battle  of 
Malaga.  After  a variety  of  service  under 
different  commanders,  he  was  made  vice- 
admiral  of  the  blue  in  1739,  and  sent  with  a 
squadron  to  Spanish  America,  where  lie  took 


VER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


913 


Porto  Bello,  and  destroyed  the  fortifications  ; 
but  in  1741  he  proved  unsuccessful  in  an  at- 
tack upon  Carthagena,  from  disagreement 
with  Gen.  Wentworth,  commander  of  the 
land  forces.  On  his  return  home,  he  was 
employed  in  guarding  the  coasts  of  Kent  and 
Sussex  during  the  rebellion  of  1745 ; but 
soon  after  he  was  superseded,  and  even  struck 
off  the  list  of  admirals  for  acting  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  ministry.  He  died  Oct.  29th, 
1757. 

Admiral  Vernon’s  nickname  at  sea  was 
Old  Grog,  from  a rough  grogram  cloak  he 
wore,  and  his  favorite  beverage  of  rum  and 
water  took  the  name  from  him. 

VERONESE.  Paolo  Cagliari,  commonly 
known,  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  as  Paul 
Veronese,  was  born  at  Verona  in  1528.  He 
established  himself  in  Venice,  where  he  ulti- 
mately became  the  rival  of  Titian,  Tinto- 
retto, and  other  great  masters  of  the  Vene- 
tian school  in  painting ; and  there  he  died, 
April  20th,  1588.  His  pictures  are  noted  for 
their  rich  coloring  and  freedom  of  execution, 
though  often  careless  in  drawing  and  capri- 
cious in  costume.  Some  of  them  have  splen- 
did architectural  backgrounds. 

VERRES,  Caius  Licinius,  a Roman  who 
governed  the  province  of  Sicily  as  praetor. 
The  oppression  and  rapine  of  which  he  was 
guilty,  while  in  office,  so  offended  the  Sicil- 
ians, that  they  brought  an  accusation  against 
him  before  the  Roman  senate.  Cicero  under- 
took the  cause  of  the  Sicilians.  Verres  was 
defended  by  Hortensius,  but  as  he  despaired 
of  the  success  of  his  defense,  he  left  Rome 
without  waiting  for  his  sentence,  and  lived  in 
great  affluence  in  one  of  the  provinces.  He 
was  at  last  killed  by  the  soldiers  of  Antony 
the  triumvir,  about  twenty-six  years  after 
his  voluntary  exile  from  the  capital. 

VERSAILLES.  In  the  reign  of  Louis 

XIII.  Versailles  was  only  a small  village,  in 
a forest  thirty  miles  in  circuit ; and  here  this 
prince  built  a hunting-seat  in  1630.  Louis 

XIV.  in  1687  enlarged  .it  into  a magnificent 
palace,  which  was  finished  in  1708,  and  was 
the  usual  residence  of  the  court  of  France 
till  1789,  when  Louis  XVI.  and  his  family 
were  removed  from  it  to  Paris.  It  was  after- 
ward the  residence  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  is 
still  a royal  palace. 

The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between 

58 


Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  by 
which  the  latter  power  was  admitted  to  be  a 
sovereign  and  independent  state,  was  signed 
at  Paris.  On  the  same  day  the  definitive 
treaty  was  signed  at  Versailles  between 
Grqat  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  Sept.  3d, 
1783.  In  pursuance  of  the  treaty  of  Ver- 
sailles, Pondicherry  and  Carical,  with  the 
former  possessions  in  Bengal,  were  restored 
to  France.  Trincomalee  at  the  same  time 
was  restored  to  the  Dutch. 

In  the  park  of  Versailles  are  the  two  royal 
seats,  the  Grand  Trianon  and  the  Petit  Tria- 
non ; the  former  was  built  by  Louis  XIV., 
the  latter  by  Louis  XV. 

VESPASIANUS,  Titus  Flavius,  a Roman 
emperor,  descended  from  an  obscure  family 
at  Reate.  He  was  honored  with  the  consul- 
ship, not  so  much  by  the  influence  of  the 
imperial  courtiers,  as  by  his  own  private  merit 
and  his  public  services.  He  accompanied 
Nero  into  Greece,  but  he  offended  the  prince 
by  falling  asleep  while  he  repeated  one  of 
his  poetical  compositions.  This  momentary 
resentment  of  the  emperor  did  not  prevent 
Vespasian  from  being  sent  to  carry  on  a war 
against  the  Jews.  His  operations  were 
crowned  with  success  ; many  of  the  cities 
of  Palestine  surrendered,  and  Vespasian  be- 
gan the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  This  was,  how- 
ever, achieved  by  his  son  Titus.  After  the 
death  of  Otho,  a.d.  69,  he  was  induced  by 
his  army  to  become  emperor ; and  he  easily 
overcame  Vitellius.  The  choice  of  the  army 
was  approved  by  every  province  of  the  em- 
pire ; but  Vespasian  did  not  betray  any 
signs  of  pride  at  so  sudden  and  so  unexpected 
an  exaltation,  and  he  behaved,  when  invested 
with  the  imperial  purple,  with  the  dignity 
and  greatness  which  became  a successor  of 
Augustus.  In  the  beginning  of  his  reign, 
Vespasian  attempted  to  reform  the  manners 
of  the  Romans.  He  took  away  an  appoint- 
ment which  he  had  a few  days  before  granted 
to  a young  nobleman,  when  the  fellow  ap- 
proached him  to  return  him  thanks,  all 
smelling  of  perfumes  and  covered  with  oint- 
ment ; adding,  “ I had  rather  you  had  smelt 
of  garlic.”  After  he  had  reigned  with  great 
popularity  for  ten  years,  Vespasian  died  of  a 
complaint  in  his  bowels,  a.d.  79,  in  the  sev- 
entieth year  of  his  age,  to  the  great  grief  of 
all  the  empire.  He  was  the  first  of  the  Ro- 


VES 


914: 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


man  emperors  who  was  succeeded  by  his  own  i The  Coliseum  was  commenced  by  Vespa- 
son  on  the  throne.  Vespasian  has  been  ad-  sian  in  the  last  year  of  his  life,  and  completed 
mired  for  his  great  virtues.  | in  the  reign  of  his  son  Titus. 


VESUVIUS. 


VESUVIUS,  Mount,  threw  out  such  a 
quantity  of  flame  and  smoke,  that  the  air 
was  darkened,  and  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum  were  overwhelmed  by  the 
burning  lava,  a.d.  79.  More  than  250,000 
persons  perished  by  the  destruction  of  those 
cities  ; the  sun’s  light  was  totally  obscured 
for  two  days  throughout  Naples  ; great  quan- 
tities of  ashes  and  sulphureous  smoke  were 
carried  not  only  to  Rome,  but  also  beyond 
the  Mediterranean  into  Africa ; birds  were 
suffocated  in  the  air  and  fell  dead  upon  the 
ground,  and  the  fishes  perished  in  the  neigh- 
boring waters,  which  were  made  hot  and 
infected  by  it.  This  eruption  proved  fatal 
to  Pliny,  the  naturalist.  Herculaneum  was 
discovered  in  1787,  and  many  curious  arti- 
cles have  been  dug  from  the  ruins  since  that 
time  ; but  everything  combustible  had  the 
marks  of  having  been  burned  by  fire.  Nu- 
merous eruptions  have  occurred,  causing  great 
devastation  and  loss  of  life.  In  1631  the 
town  of  Torre  del  Greco,  with  four  thousand 
persons,  and  a great  part  of  the  surrounding 
country,  were  destroyed.  One  of  the  most 
dreadful  eruptions  ever  known  took  place 
suddenly,  Nov.  24th,  1759.  The  violent 
burst  in  1767  was  the  thirty -fourth  from  the 
time  of  Titus,  when  Pompeii  was  buried. 


One  in  1794  was  most  destructive  : the  lava 
flowed  over  five  thousand  acres  of  rich  vine- 
yards and  cultivated  lands.  .There  have  been 
several  eruptions  since:  one  in  May,  1855, 
caused  great  destruction  of  property,  and 
another  in  Nov.  1867,  issuing  volumes  of 
smoke  and  flame  from  several  new  craters. 

VIENNA  (Wien),  the  capital  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire,  stands  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Danube,  at  its  confluence  with  the  little  river 
Wien,  which  flows  through  the  city.  The 
population,  exclusive  of  the  military,  num- 
bers above  410,000.  Vienna  consists  of  the 
interior  or  old' city,  which  is  walled,  and  the 
suburbs.  Its  palaces,  churches,  charitable 
establishments,  literary  institutions,  fine 
promenades  and  parks,  and  the  gaycty  of  the 
society,  make  this  one  of  the  most  noted  of 
European  capitals.  St.  Stephen’s  cathedral, 
a majestic  gothic  structure  of  freestone, 
built  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient  Ger- 
man architecture.  In  the  highest  of  its  four 
towers  (above  450  feet),  hangs  the  great  bell, 
weighing  357  cwt.,  cast  in  1711  out  of  180 
pieces  of  Turkish  cannon,  which  had  been 
used  in  the  siege  of  Vienna.  The  crypt  be- 
neath the  church  consists  of  thirty  large 
vaults,  in  which  since  the  time  of  Ferdinand 


VIE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


915 


HI.  the  bowels  of  all  the  deceased  members 
of  the  imperial  family  are  deposited  in  cop- 
per or  silver  urns  ; their  hearts  being  depos- 
ited in  the  Augustinian  church,  and  their 
bodies  in  the  church  of  the  Capuchins. 
The  Burg,  the  imperial  palace,  is  an 
old  and  irregular  edifice.  It  contains 
the  imperial  jewel  office,  one  of  the  richest 
collections  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  a fine  cab- 
inet of  works  of  art,  a very  extensive  col- 
lection of  natural  history,  and  the  cabinet  of 
medals,  which  far  surpasses  all  other  numis- 
matic collections.  The  imperial  library  is 
rich  in  oriental  manuscripts  and  valuable  en- 
gravings. The  palace  of  the  Archduke 
Charles  also  has  an  extensive  library  and 
collection  of  engravings  and  drawings.  The 
university  of  Vienna,  founded  in  1365,  is 
famous  as  the  first  medical  school  in  Germa- 
ny, and  is  attended  by  over  two  thousand 
students. 

Vienna  is  the  centre  of  the  commerce  and 
manufactures  of  Austria.  Steam  vessels  ply 
along  the  Danube,  and  to  Constantinople, 
Trebizond,  Smyrna,  &c.  Railways  connect 
the  city  with  all  the  important  towns  of  the 
empire,  and  the  electric  telegraph  gives  it 
instant  communication  with  all  the  chief 
cities  in  Europe.  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  silk,  velvet,  shawls,  gold  and  sil- 
ver lace,  cottons,  woolens,  ribands,  carpets, 
leather,  porcelain,  jewelry,  mathematical  and 
musical  instruments,  cannon  and  fire-arms, 
gold  and  silver  plate,  watches,  fine  cutlery, 
carriages,  gloves,  lace,  straw  hats,  paper,  &c. 
The  printing  of  large  and  accurate  maps,  and 
of  books  in  various  dialects  of  human  speech, 
is  much  encouraged  by  the  government. 
The  imperial  printing-office  is  the  most  com- 
plete in  the  world. 

One  of  the  favorite  promenades  of  the 
Viennese  is  on  the  ramparts  of  the  old  town, 
and  the  broad  glacis  or  esplanade  between 
them  and  the  suburbs.  Here  is  commanded 
a fine  view  of  the  picturesque  environs, — the 
beautiful  islands  of  the  Danube,  the  Noric 
Alps,  the  lofty  Kahlcnberg  mountain,  thick 
forests,  rich  vineyards,  ruined  castles,  an- 
tique churches,  modern  palaces,  and  hand- 
some country  seats.  Another  thronged  re- 
sort is  the  Prater,  an  immense  park  opened 
to  the  public  by  Joseph  II.  in  1766.  It  is  a 
league  and  a half  in  length,  and  is  traversed 


by  six  noble  avenues  of  chestnut-trees,  run- 
ning in  different  directions,  the  principal  one 
being  15,000  feet  long.  These  are  divided 
into  three  parts,  one  for  horsemen,  one  for 
pedestrians,  and  the  broad  road  between 
them  for  carriages.  Beyond  the  avenues  are 
fine  meadows,  with  groups  of  stately  trees 
and  large  herds  of  deer.  The  Prater  is 
crowded  with  company  every  Sunday  in  the 
spring:  its  grand  day  is  Easter  Monday, 
when  there  may  be  20,000  pedestrians,  and 
an  uninterrupted  line  of  carriages  six  miles 
in  length.  Along  the  walks  are  many  coffee- 
houses. The  most  characteristic  part  of  the 
Prater,  however,  is  the  Wurstel  Prater,  so 
called  from  the  puppet-shows  ( Wurstel-spiele ) 
there  exhibited.  It  is  covered  with  innume- 
rable booths,  swings,  roundabouts,  jugglers, 
and  all  sorts  of  diversions  for  the  lower 
classes.  The  whole  is  like  a great  encamp- 
ment of  sutlers’  shops ; long  rows  of  tables 
and  benches  are  constantly  supplied  with 
guests. 

Vienna,  called  by  the  Romans  Vindobona , 
was  long  the  head-quarters  of  a Roman  le- 
gion, and  the  capital  of  Pannonia.  It  was 
overrun  by  the  Goths  and  Huns.  Charle- 
magne annexed  it  to  his  dominions  in  791. 
Vienna  was  made  an  imperial  city  in  1136, 
and  was  walled  and  enlarged  with  the  ransom 
paid  for  Richard  I.  of  England,  £40,000,  in 
1194.  The  most  remarkable  events  in  its 
annals  are  the  sieges  it  has  sustained.  In 
484  it  was  taken  by  Mathias,  King  of  Hun- 
gary, who  resided  in  it  till  his  death,  when 
it  was  restored  to  Austria.  Besieged  by  the 
Turks  under  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  with 
an  army  of  300,000  men  ; but  he  was  forced 
to  raise  the  siege  with  the  loss  of  70,000  of 
his  best  troops,  1529.  Again  besieged  in 
1683,  when  the  siege  was  raised  by  John 
Sobieski,  King  of  Poland,  who  totally  de- 
feated the  Turkish  army  of  over  100,000 
which  had  cannonaded  the  city  from  July 
24th  to  the  beginning  of  November.  Vienna 
was  taken  by  the  French,  under  Murat,  Nov. 
14th,  1805  ; and  evacuated  Jan.  12th  follow- 
ing. They  again  captured  it,  May  13th, 
1809  ; but  restored  it  once  more  on  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  between  the  two  countries. 
Oct.  14th  same  year.  Conference  of  the  min- 
isters of  the  allies  and  France,  Sept.  28th, 
1814.  Congress  of  sovereigns,  Oct.  2d,  1814 


916 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


In  the  Hungarian  war  of  1848-9,  in  an  in- 
surrection here,  Count  Latour,  minister  of 
war,  was  assassinated;  Vienna  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  insurgents,  and  the  emperor 
fled,  Oct.  6th,  1848.  The  imperialists  under 
Prince  Windischgratz,  amounting  to  75,000 
men,  commenced,  Oct.  28th  following,  an  at- 
tack on  the  city,  which  continued  until  Nov. 
1st,  when  they  recovered  possession  of  it, 
totally  defeating  the  Hungarian  army. 

Vienna  has  been  an  important  spot  in  di- 
plomacy. Here  was  signed,  April  30th, 
1725,  the  celebrated  treaty  between  the  Empe- 
ror of  Germany  and  the  King  of  Spain,  by 
which  they  confirmed  to  each  other  such 
parts  of  the  Spanish  dominions  as  they  were 
respectively  possgssed  of,  and  by  a private 
treaty  the  emperor  engaged  to  employ  a 
force  to  procure  the  restoration  of  Gibraltar 
to  Spain,  and  to  use  means  for  placing  the 
Pretender  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain. 
Spain  guaranteed  the  pragmatic  sanction. 
This  was  followed,  March  16th,  1731,  by  a 
treaty  of  alliance  at  Vienna  between  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI.,  George  II.  of  England, 
and  the  States  of  Holland,  by  which  the 
pragmatic  sanction  was  guaranteed,  and  the 
disputes  as  to  the  Spanish  succession  termi- 
nated. Spain  acceded  to  this  treaty -on  the 
22 d of  July. 

Here  was  made  a definitive  treaty  of  peace 
between  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  of  Ger- 
many and  Louis  XV.  of  France,  by  which 
the  latter  power  agreed  to  guarantee  the 
pragmatic  sanction,  and  Lorraine  was  ceded 
to  France,  Nov.  18th,  1738. 

One  of  the  most  noted  treaties  of  Vienna 
is  that  between  Napoleon  and  the  Emperor 
Francis,  Oct.  14th,  1809  ; to  which  the  latter 
was  brought  by  the  decisive  battle  of  Wag- 
ram.  Austria  ccc(ed  a great  portion  of  her 
territory ; agreed  to  a contribution  to  indem- 
nify France  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and 
acknowledged  Joseph  Bonaparte  king  of 
Spain.  To  Bavaria  she  gave  up  Saltz- 
burg,  and  a tract  of  country  along  the 
banks  of  the  Danube,  from  Passau  to 
Lintz.  To  Saxony  she  yielded  the  whole  of 
western  Gallicia.  To  Russia  so  much  of  the 
eastern  part  of  that  province  as  contained  a 
population  of  40,000  souls.  To  France  she 
ceded  Fiume  and  Trieste,  with  the  whole  of 
the  country  south  of  the  Saave,  to  where 


that  river  enters  Bosnia.  She  also  gave  up 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Tyrol,  on  condition  of 
their  receiving  from  Bonaparte  a full  and 
free  pardon  ; and  engaged  to  adhere  to  the 
prohibitory  system  adopted  toward  England 
by  France  and  Russia. 

The  treaty  of  Vienna  between  Great  Brit- 
ain, Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  confirming 
the  principles  on  which  they  had  acted  by 
the  treaty  of  Chaumont,  March  1st,  1814; 
signed  March  23d,  1815.  The  treaty  of  Vien- 
na between  the  King  of  the  Low  Countries 
on  the  one  part,  and  Great  Britain,  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Prussia,  on  the  other,  agreeing 
to  the  enlargement  of  the  Dutch  territories, 
and  vesting  the  sovereignty  in  the  house  of 
Orange,  May  31st,  1815.  The  treaty  of 
Vienna : Denmark  cedes  Swedish  Pomera- 
nia and  Rugen  to  Prussia,  in  exchange  for 
Lauenburg,  June  4th,  1815.  The  federa- 
tive constitution  of  Germany  signed  at  Vien- 
na, June  8th,  1815. 

After  the  Russians  had  passed  the  Pruth, 
in  July,  1853,  a conference  of  the  four  great 
powers,  England,  France,  Austria,  and  Prus- 
sia, was  held  at  Vienna,  July  24th,  when  a 
note  was.  agreed  on  and  transmitted  for  ac- 
ceptance to  St.  Petersburg  and  Constantino- 
ple, July  31st.  This  note  was  accepted  by 
the  czar,  Aug.  10th,  but  the  sultan  required 
modifications  which  were  rejected  by  Russia, 
Sept.  7th.  On  Dec.  5th,  the  four  powers 
transmitted  a collective  note  to  the  Porte, 
deploring  the  war  and  requesting  to  know 
on  what  terms  the  sultan  would  treat  for 
peace.  The  sultan  replied  in  a note,  dated 
Dec.  31st,  containing  four  points : 1.  The 
promptest  possible  evacuation  of  the  princi- 
palities ; 2.  Revision  of  the  treaties ; 3. 
Maintenance  of  religious  privileges  to  the 
communities  of  all  confessions  ; 4.  A defini- 
tive settlement  of  the  convention  respecting 
the  holy  places.  These  points  were  approved 
by  the  four  powers,  Jan.  15th,  1854,  and  the 
conferences  closed  on  Jan.  16th  following. 
On  April  9th,  1854,  a treaty  was  signed  at 
Vienna  by  the  representatives  of  England, 
France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  Turkey,  evacuation  of  the  princi- 
palities, &c.  A new  conference  was  proposed 
in  January,  1855,  which  met  in  March,  con- 
sisting of  plenipotentiaries  from  Great  Brit- 
ain (Lord  John  Russel),  France  (M.  Drouin 


VIE 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


917 


de  l’Huys),  Austria  (Count  Buol),  Turkey 
(Arif  Effendi),  and  Russia  (Count  Gortscha- 
koff).  Two  points,  the  protectorate  of  the 
principalities,  and  the  free  navigation  of  the 
Danube,  were  agreed  to  ; but  the  proposals 
of  the  powers  as  to  the  reduction  of  the 
Russian  power  in  the  Black  Sea  were  rejected 
by  the  czar,  and  the  conference  was  again 
closed  June  5th,  1855.  The  English  and 
French  envoys’  assent  to  the  Austrian  propo- 
sitions was  not  approved  of  by  their  respec- 
tive governments,  and  they  both  resigned 
their  official  positions. 

YILLARS,  Louis  Hector,  Duke  of,  a 
French  general,  was  born  at  Moulins,  in 
1653.  After  a variety  of  services,  he  gained 
the  battle  of  Friedlingen  in  1762  ; for  which 
he  was  made  marshal  of  France.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  took  the  fortress  of  Kehl, 
and  put  an  end  to  the  insurrection  in  the 
Cevennes,  for  which  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Villars.  In  1707  he  forced  the  lines  at  Stol- 
hotfen  ; but  in  1709  he  lost  the  battle  of 
Malplaquet,  and  was  wounded.  In  1712  he 
acquired  glory  by  forcing  the  Austrian  in- 
trenchments  at  Denain  on  the  Scheldt,  which 
exploit  was  succeeded  by  the  capture  of 
Marchiennes,  Douay,  Bouchain,  Landau,  and 
Friburg.  The  peace  of  Rastadt  followed ; 
after  which  Villars  was  made  president  of 
the  council  of  war,  and  minister  of  state. 
In  1733  he  commanded  in  Italy,  with  the 
title  of  marshal-general  of  the  French  camps 
and  armies.  He  died  at  Turin,  June  17th, 
1734. 

VILLIERS,  George,  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, was  the  son  of  Sir  George  Villiers,  of 
Brookesby  in  Leicestershire,  and  was  born 
there  in  1592.  He  attracted  the  notice  of 
James  I.  at  the  performance  of  the  play  of 
“Ignoramus,”  in  1615  ; soon  after  which  he 
was  successively  appointed  cup-bearer  to  the 
king,  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber,  and 
knight  of  the  garter.  He  also  rose  to  the 
rank  of  marquis,  and  became  lord  admiral 
of  England,  warden  of  the  cinque  ports,  and 
master  of  the  horse.  But  in  1623  he  lost  the 
royal  favor,  in  a great  degree,  by  persuading 
Prince  Charles  to  visit  the  Court  of  Spain, 
for  the  purpose  of  paying  his  addresses  in 
person  to  the  infanta.  Though  Buckingham 
was  created  a duke  in  his  absence,  it  was 
supposed  that  if  the  king  had  lived,  his  fall 


would  have  been  as  rapid  as  his  rise.  The 
accession  of  Charles  in  1625  increased  the 
power  of  the  favorite,  but  it  also  multiplied 
his  enemies  and  injured  his  master.  The 
nation  hated  Buckingham,  and  two  parlia- 
ments were  dissolved  for  impeaching  him. 
At  this  period  the  duke  involved  the  king- 
dom in  a disgraceful  war  with  France,  and 
went  himself  on  an  expedition  to  the  Isle  of 
Rhe,  where  he  lost  the  flower  of  his  army. 
He  then  returned  to  repair  his  fleet,  and  was 
about  to  sail  for  Rochelle,  when  he  was  assas- 
sinated, at  Portsmouth,  by  Felton,  a fanatical 
lieutenant,  Aug.  23d,  1628.  He  had  abused 
his  power  shamelessly,  and  displayed  great 
ambition,  avarice,  and  caprice.  When  he 
visited  the  court  of  Louis  XIII.,  to  finish  the 
negotiations  for  the  marriage  of  Charles  and 
Henrietta  Maria,  pearls  were  sewed  so  loosely 
upon  his  velvet  mantle  that  at  every  step  he 
scattered  them  for  the  profit  of  the  surround- 
ing courtiers. 

VILLIERS,  George,  the  second  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  was  the  son  of  the  preceding, 
and  was  born  in  1627.  After  studying  at 
Cambridge,  he  went  abroad,  and  on  his  re- 
turn entered  into  the  royal  army,  for  which 
he  was  deprived  of  his  estate  by  the  parlia- 
ment, but  recovered  a great  part  of  it  in 
1657,  by  marrying  the  daughter  of  Lord 
Fairfax.  At  the  restoration  he  was  made  one 
of  the  lords  of  the  bed-chamber,  lord-lieu- 
tenant of  Yorkshire,  and  master  of  the  horse. 
Of  these  honors,  however,  he  was  deprived 
in  1666,  for  being  concerned  in  a plot  to 
effect  a change  of  government.  Notwith- 
standing this,  he  recovered  the  royal  favor, 
and  retained  it  awhile.  In  the  course  of  his. 
vagrant  amours  he  was  attracted  for  a mo- 
ment by  the  Countess  of  Shrewsbury. 
She  was  easily  won.  Her  lord  challenged 
the  gallant,  and  fell.  Some  said  that  the 
abandoned  woman  witnessed  the  combat 
in  man’s  attire,  and  others  that  she  clasped 
her  victorious  lover  to  her  bosom  while  he 
was  yet  dripping  with  the  blood  of  her  hus- 
band. Another  of  Buckingham’s  outrages 
was  the  hiring  of  Blood  to  seize  the  Duke  of 
Ormond  in  his  coach.  In  1676  the  duke, 
with  the  Earls  of  Shaftesbury  and  Salisbury, 
and  Lord  Wharton,  were  sent  to  the  Tower, 
by  order  of  the  house  of  peers,  for  contempt. 
On  a petition  to  the  king,  however,  they  were 


VIL 


918 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


all  released.  This  profligate  nobleman  died 
at  an  obscure  house  at  Kirkby  Moorside,  of 
a fever,  April  16th,  1688.  His  wit  and  tal- 
ents were  brilliant,  and  he  did  something  to 
improve  the  literary  taste  of  his  age. 

VIMEIRA,  a village  of  Portuguese  Estre- 
madura,  three  miles  from  Torres  Yedras,  and 
twenty-eight  miles  north-west  of  Lisbon.  It 
is  remarkable  for  a battle  between  the  Brit- 
ish, under  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  and  the 
French,  under  Marshal  Junot,  21st  August, 
1808.  The  French  commenced  the  attack  on 
various  points  with  their  usual  impetuosity, 
and  met  a resistance  to  which  they  had  long 
been  unaccustomed.  The  flower  of  their 
troops  made  a charge  against  the  British  cen- 
tre and  left,  who  received  them  with  a tre- 
mendous volley,  then  charged  with  the  bay- 
onet, and  in  one  moment  their  front  rank  fell 
like  grass  before  the  mower’s  scythe.  They 
gave  way,  and  abandoned  six  pieces  of  can- 
non in  their  flight.  Having  failed  in  their 
other  attacks,  they  commenced  a retreat,  af- 
ter sustaining  a loss  of  1,800  men,  and  thir- 
teen pieces  of  cannon.  In  this  decisive  vic- 
tory not  more  than  half  the  British  army 
was  engaged.  Their  loss  was  720. 

VINCI,  Leonardo  da,  was  born  in  the 
valley  of  the  Arno  near  Florence,  in  1452. 
He  was  placed  early  with  Andrea  Verroc- 
chio, a Florentine  painter  and  sculptor,  who 
finding  after  a short  time  that  he  was  sur- 
passed by  his  pupil  in  painting,  gave  up  that 
art  in  despair  and  confined  himself  thence- 
forth to  sculpture,  wherein  he  found  reward 
of  great  success  and  eminence.  Leonardo 
seems  to  have  been  an  almost  universal  genius. 
Besides  his  devotion  to  painting,  he  excelled 
in  seulpture,  architecture,  engineering,  and 
mechanics  generally ; botany,  anatomy, 
mathematics,  and  astronomy,  he  was  well 
versed  in ; he  was  a poet  also,  and  an  admi- 
rable extempore  performer  on  the  lyre.  The 
letter  in  which  he  offered  his  services  to 
Lodovico  il  Moro,  Duke  of  Milan,  about  1483, 
contained  this  proud  passage : “ I will  also 
undertake  any  work  in  sculpture,  in  marble, 
in  bronze,  or  in  terra-cotta : likewise  in  paint- 
ing, I can  do  what  can  be  done,  as  well  as 
any  man,  be  he  whom  he  may.”  The  duke 
took  Leonardo  into  his  service,  and  the  cele- 
brated painting  of  “ The  Last  Supper,”  exe- 
cuted in  oil  on  the  wall  in  the  refectory  of 


the  Dominican  convent  of  the  Madonna  delle 
Grazie,  about  1495,  was  considered  the  great- 
est work  that  had  been  executed  in  the  art 
up  to  that  time,  and  more  than  redeemed  the 
bold  pledge  we  have  quoted.  This  was  his 
last  great  work  at  Milan,  which  he  left  in 
1499  when  Duke  Lodovico  fled  before  Charles 
XII.  of  France.  Leonardo  afterward  dwelt  at 
Florence  and  a short  time  at  Rome.  In  his 
old  age  he  entered  the  service  of  Francis  I. 
of  France,  and  died  at  Cloux,  near  Amboise 
in  that  kingdom,  May  2d,  1519. 

VIRGIL.  Publius  Virgjlius  Maro  was 
born  at  Andes,  a small  village  near  Mantua, 
Oct.  15th,  b.c.  70.  He  was  no  less  remarka- 
ble for  his  varied  learning  than  for  the  poeti- 
cal genius  displayed  in  the  “iEneid,”  the 
“ Bucolics,”  and  the  “ Georgies.”  His  appli- 
cation to  study  at  Rome  enfeebled  his  health, 
and  he  retired  to  his  little  paternal  farm. 
Augustus,  after  the  triumph  of  his  arms 
over  Antony,  rewarded  some  of  his  veterans 
with  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Mantua.  Virgil 
was  thereby  driven  from  his  peaceful  seclu- 
sion and  robbed  of  his  inheritance.  It  was 
restored,  through  the  intercession  of  potent 
friends,  and  soon  after  the  poet  was  introduced 
to  the  emperor  and  the  munificent  Maecenas, 
whose  friendship  and  patronage  he  thereafter 
enjoyed.  In  the  year  19  b.c.  he  visited 
Greece,  intending  to  make  a tour  of  that 
country,  and  to  revise  and  perfect  his 
“ iEneid.”  Rapidly  declining  health  drove 
him  back,  and  he  died  soon  after  landing  at 
Brundusium,  on  the  22d  of  September,  19 
b.c.  In  compliance  with  his  wish  his  body 
was  borne  to  Naples,  and  buried  two  miles 
out  of  the  city.  Since  the  “iEneid”  had  not 
received  the  finishing  revision  he  intended, 
he  ordered,  in  his  last  illness,  that  it  should 
be  burned  ; but  it  was  saved  and  published, 
by  his  friends  Yarius  and  Tucca. 

VIRGINIA  has  an  area  of  61,352  square 
miles.  In  1870  the  population  was  1,225,163, 
consisting  of  712,089  whites,  and  512,841 
colored.  The  great  ridge  of  the  Alleghanies 
divides  the  state  into  two  sections.  In  her 
natural  resources,  in  her  genial  and  salubri- 
ous climate,  her  fine  rivers,  and  her  scenery, 
Virginia  is  favored  with  advantages  surpassed 
by  no  state  in  the  Union.  The  principal  riv- 
ers are  the  Potomac,  Shenandoah,  Rappahan- 
nock, York,  James,  Appomattox,  Elizabeth, 


VIR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


919 


Kanawha,  Ohio,  Sandy,  and  Monongahela. 
Iron,  limestone,  lead,  coal,  and  salt  are  chief 
among  the  rich  mineral  wealth.  Maize, 
wheat,  and  tobacco  are  the  great  agricultural 
products.  Cotton  is  cultivated  in  the  south  ; 
and  hemp  and  wool  are  prominent  staples  in 
the  western  portion. 

Virginia  was  the  first  settled  of  all  the 
English  colonies  in  North  America. 

Of  the  earlier  occurrences  in  her  history 
we  have  taken  notice  in  the  article  on  the 
United  States.  Charles  II.  in  exile  was 
highly  gratified  with  a formal  act  of  the  Vir- 
ginia assembly,  declaring  that  they  were  born 
under  monarchy,  and  would  never  degene- 
rate from  the  condition  of  their  birth,  by 
being  subject  to  any  other  government.  The 
colonists  invited  him  to  come  over  and  reign 
in  Virginia.  He  was  on  the  point  of  sailing, 
when  he  was  restored  to  the  thrones  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland.  He  caused  the  arms  of 
Virginia  to  be  quartered  with  those  of  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  and  Ireland,  as  an  indepen- 
dent member  of  the  realm.  Hence  she  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  Old  Dominion. 
Though  Charles  gave  the  fullest  assurance 
that  their  form  of  government  should  never 
be  changed ; none  of  the  colonies  suffered 
more  than  Virginia  from  the  despotism  of.  a 
royal  government.  In  violation  of  char- 
tered rights,  the  colony  was  divided  into 
parts,  and  conveyed  away  by  proprietary 
grants ; not  grants  of  uncultivated  wood- 
lands, but  of  plantations  that  had  long  been 
cultivated  according  to  the  encouragement 
and  laws  of  kings  and  charters. 


The  colony  suffered,  too,  from  the  mise- 
ries of  civil  war,  in  1676,  during  Bacon’s  re- 
bellion ; Jamestown  was  burned,  and  the  ad- 
jacent districts  laid  waste.  She  shared 
largely  in  the  calamities  of  the  French  wars, 
and  was  among  the  foremost  in  taking  a de- 
cided stand  in  the  dispute  with  the  mother 
country.  Some  of  the  most  important  inci- 
dents of  the  great  drama  of  the  Revolution 
took  place  within  her  borders. 

Richmond,  on  the  James  River,  is  the  cap- 
ital; population  51,038  in  1870.  The  state 
house  is  a copy  of  the  Mai  son  Carree  of 
Nismes,  and  contains  a statue  of  Washington 
by  Houdon.  Norfolk  (population  19,229)  is 
the  chief  port,  and  the  second  town  in  size. 
Its  harbor  is  deep  and  capacious,  and  easy  of 
access.  At  Gosport,  near  Norfolk,  is  one  of 
the  finest  of  the  national  navy-yards.  Peters- 
burg on  the  Appomattox,  Wheeling  on  the 
Ohio,  Lynchburg  and  Winchester,  are  thriv- 
ing towns. 

In  Westmoreland  county,  on  the  Poto- 
mac, is  the  spot  where  Washington  was 
born;  the  house  stood  on  Bridge’s  Creek, 
about  half  a mile  from  the  river,  on  a plan- 
tation called  Wakefield.  A simple  stone, 
with  the  inscription,  “ Here,  on  the  11th  of 
February  [o.s.],  1732,  George  Washington 
was  born,”  designates  the  consecrated  spot. 
Farther  up  the  Potomac,  eight  miles  from 
Alexandria,  is  Mount  Vernon,  where  he  died, 
and  where  his  ashes  lie. 

Virginia  was  the  key-stone  of  the  rebellion, 
the  headquarters  of  its  civil  government,  the 
key  of  its  whole  military  position,  the  center 


920 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


and  field  of  its  leading  military  movements,  the 
scene  of  its  earliest  triumphs,  and  of  its  final 
and  shattering  defeat  by  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac.  The  mountains  and  rivers  of  the 
Estate  make  its  eastern  part,  when  attacked 
from  the  north,  one  of  the  strongest  countries 
for  defence  in  the  world ; and  the  two  sides 
of  the  Blue  Ridge  form  a “whip-row”  on 
either  side  of  which  the  rebels  could  maneu- 
vre  at  pleasure.  With  these  advantages  the 
rebels  were  able  to  maintain  themselves  here 
as  in  a citadel  against  the  successive  com- 
manders of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  until 
the  tremendous  will  and  adamantine  perse- 
verence  of  Grant  assaulted  their  main  army, 
pushed  it  struggling  back  to  the  lines  of 
Richmond,  held  it  within  them  for  three- 
quarters  of  a year,  and  at  last  dashed  it  to 
pieces.  The  state  underwent  a most  severe 
discipline  during  the  war,  from  the  four 
years’  constant  ravages  of  great  armies. 
Virginia  seceded  April  25,  1861.  May  22, 
1861,  the  central  rebel  government  estab- 
lished itself  there.  In  April,  1865,  that  gov- 
ernment ran  away  and  disappeared. 

One  result  of  the  secession  movement  was 
the  formation  from  the  western  or  mountain- 
ous part  of  Virginia,  of  a new  state,  called 
West  Virginia,  and  which  was  admitted  to 
the  Union,  June  20,  1863. 

VIRGINIA  was  the  daughter  of  the  cen- 
turion L.  Virginius.  Appius  Claudius,  the 
decemvir,  became  enamored  of  her,  and 
attempted  to  abduct  her.  She  was  claimed 
by  one  of  his  favorites  as  the  daughter  of  a 
slave,  and' Appius,  in  the  capacity  and  with 
the  authority  of  judge,  had  pronounced  the 
sentence,  and  delivered  her  into  the  hands 
of  his  friend,  when  Virginius,  informed  of. 
his  violent  proceedings,  arrived  from  the 
camp.  The  father  demanded  to  see  his  daugh- 
ter, and  when  this  request  was  granted,  he 
snatched  a knife  and  plunged  it  into  Vir- 
ginia’s breast,  exclaiming,  “ This  is  all,  my 
daughter,  I can  give  thee  to  preserve  thee 
from  the  lust  of  a tyrant.”  No  sooner  was 
the  blow  given  than  Virginius  ran  to  the 
camp  with  the  bloody  knife  in  his  hand.  The 
soldiers  were  astonished  and  incensed,  not 
against  the  murderer,  but  the  tyrant,  and 
they  immediately  marched  to  Rome.  Appius 
was  seized,  but  he  destro}’ed  himself  in 
prison,  and  prevented  the  execution  of  the 


law.  Spurius  Oppius,  another  of  the  decem- 
virs, who  had  not  opposed  the  tyrant’s  views, 
killed  himself  also;  and  Marcus  Claudius, 
the  favorite  of  Appius,  was  put  to  death,  and 
the  decern  viral  power  abolished,  449  b.c. 

VITELLIUS,  Aulus,  a Roman  raised  by 
his  vices  to  the  throne.  He  was  descended 
from  one  of  the  most  illustrious  families  of 
Rome,  and  as  such  he  gained  an  easy  admis- 
sion to  the  palace  of  the  emperors.  He 
passed  through  all  the  offices  of  the  state, 
and  gained  over  the  soldiery  by  donations 
and  liberal  promises.  lie  was  at  the  head 
of  the  Roman  legions  in  Germany  when  Otho 
was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  the  exaltation 
of  his  rival  was  no  sooner  heard  in  the  camp, 
than  he  was  likewise  invested  with  the 
purple  by  his  soldiers.  He  accepted  with 
pleasure  the  dangerous  office,  and  instantly 
marched  against  Otho.  Three  battles  were 
fought,  and  in  all  Vitellius  was  conquered. 
A fourth,  however,  in  the  plains  between 
Mantua  and  Cremona,  left  him  master  of  the 
field,  and  of  the  Roman  empire.  He  feasted 
his  eyes  in  viewing  the  bodies  of  the  slain 
and  the  ground  covered  with  blood,  and 
regardless ’of  the  insalubrity  of  the  air,  pro- 
ceeding from  so  many  carcases,  he  told  his 
attendants  that  the  smell  of  a dead  enemy 
was  always  sweet.  His  first  care  was  not 
like  that  of  a wise  conqueror,  to  alleviate  the 
distresses  of  the  conquered,  or  patronize  the 
friends  of  the  dead,  but  it  was  to  insult  their 
misfortunes,  and  to  intoxicate  himself  with 
the  companions  of  his  debauchery  on  the 
field  of  battle.  Each  successive  day  exhib- 
ited a scene  of  greater  extravagance,  which, 
though  it  delighted  his  favorites,  soon  raised 
the  indignation  of  the  people.  Vespasian 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army,  and 
his  minister  Primus  was  sent  to  destroy  the 
imperial  glutton.  Vitellius  concealed  him- 
self under  the  bed  of  the  porter  of  his  palace, 
but  this  obscure  retreat  betrayed  him ; he 
was  dragged  naked  through  the  streets,  his 
hands  were  tied  behind  his  back,  and  a 
drawn  sword  was  placed  under  his  chin  to 
make  him  lift  his  head.  After  suffering  the 
greatest  insults  from  the  populace,  he  was  at 
last  carried  to  the  place  of  execution,  and 
put  to  death  with  repeated  blows.  His  head 
was  cut  off  and  fixed  to  a pole,  and  his  mu- 
tilated body  dragged  with  a hook  and  thrown 


VIT 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


921 


into  the  Tiber,  a.d.  69,  after  a reign  of  one 
year,  except  twelve  days. 

VITTORIA,  Battle  of,  in  Spain,  was 
fought  on  the  21st  of  June,  1813,  between 
the  army  of  Lord  Wellington,  and  that  of 
the  French  general  Jourdan,  in  which  the 
latter  was  defeated.  On  the  19th,  the  French 
rear-guard  was  driven  back  toward  Vittoria  ; 
and  on  the  21st  a long  and  fearful  battle  took 
place,  in  which  the  French  forces,  commanded 
by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  having  Marshal  Jour- 
dan as  his  major-general,  were  so  completely 
defeated,  that  they  were  under  the  necessity 
of  abandoning  all  their  artillery,  ammunition, 
baggage,  and  cattle.  One  hundred  and  fifty- 
one  pieces  of  cannon  and  four  hundred  and 
fifteen  ammunition  wagons  were  taken  on 
the  field ; and  among  the  trophies  was  the 
baton  of  Marshal  Jourdan.  The  loss  of  the 
allied  British,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  was 
about  700  killed  and  4,000  wounded,  but  that 
of  the  French  was  considerably  greater. 
Wellington’s  fierce  pursuit  threw  the  French 
into  irretrievable  confusion,  and  on  the  25th 
Jourdan’s  only  remaining  cannon  was  cap- 
tured. In  this  great  engagement,  the  con- 
tending armies  were  nearly  equal,  numbering 
from  70,000  to  75,000  men  each. 

YOLNEY,  Constantine  Chassebceuf, 
Comte  de,  a celebrated  French  deistical  wri- 
ter, was  born  in  Anjou  in  1757,  and  inherited 
a property  adequate  to  gratify  his  love  for 
traveling  and  miscellaneous  studies.  He  was 
a Girondist  during  the  revolution.  He  was 
created  a peer  after  the  restoration,  and  died 
in  1820. 

VOLTA,  Alexander,  born  at  Como,  in  the 
duchy  of  Milan,  Feb.  14th,  1745,  died  there 
March  5th,  1827.  For  thirty  years  he  was 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Pavia.  He  was  especially  distin- 
guished for  his  discoveries  in  electricity,  and 
in  1800  opened  a new  era  in  its  importance 
by  the  invention  of  the  great  battery  known 
by  his  name. 

VOLTAIRE  was  the  name  capriciously 
assumed  by  Francois  Marie  Arouet.  He 
was  born  near  Paris  in  1694.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  boyhood  by  his  aptness 
for  learning,  his  malignant  wit,  and  his  in- 
clination to  scoff  at  religion.  His  godfather, 
a fashionable  and  literary  abbe,  introduced 
him  at  an  early  age  into  courtly  circles,  where 

V 


he  speedily  learned  the  hollowness  of  every- 
thing around  him,  and  gratified  his  taste  for 
artful  compliment  and  biting  repartee.  His 
notoriety  caused  him  to  be  accused  (wrong- 
fully for  once)  of  writing  indecent  satirical 
lines  on  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  he 
passed  a year  in  the  Bastile.  There  he  wrote 
his  tragedy  of  “ GEdipe”  and  sketched  his 
epic,  “ L’Henriade."  The  latter,  stolen  in 
manuscript,  as  he  alleged,  was  printed  with 
satirical  verses  which  he  said  were  interpo- 
lations. The  publication,  thu»  called  surrep- 
titious, made  him  famous;  and  the  same 
farce  was  repeated  so  oittn  in  his  literary 
career,  as  plainly  to  appear  the  device  of  the 
author. 

A man  of  quality,  affronting  the  young 
poet  in  society,  was  silenced  by  an  apt  retort; 
he  took  revenge  by  making  his  servants  give 
the  upstart  a beating;  Voltaire  learned  to 
fence,  challenged  his  insulter,  and  was  an- 
swered by  an  imprisonment  of  six  months. 
On  his  release  he  was  banished  from  the 
kingdom.  He  dwelt  in  England  from  1726 
to  .1729.  By  the  English  profits  of  an  edi- 
tion of  the  Ilenriade  he  laid  the  foundation 
of  a fortune,  which  he  afterward  largely  in- 
creased by  lottery  tickets,  speculations,  and 
usury. 

In  1750  Voltaire,  on  the  invitation  of 
Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  went  to  Berlin  to 
dwell.  He  remained  there  for  three  years, 
during  which  he  enlivened  the  royal  circle 
by  his  wit,  corrected  the  bad  French  of  the 
royal  philosopher  and  poet,  and  learned,  not 
only  that  courts  are  wearisome  places,  but 
that  Frederick  of  Prussia  and  Frangois 
Arouet  were  too  like  each  other  to  be  really 
friends. 

In  1758  he  purchased  two  small  estates  not 
far  from  Geneva,  and  at  his  chateau  of  Fer- 
ney,  on  one  of  these,  he  passed  the  last 
twenty-two  years  of  his  life,  sedulously  pur- 
suing his  literary  labors.  He  was  a liberal 
landlord  and  a charitable  neighbor.  He  died 
during  a visit  to  Paris  in  1778. 

The  genius  of  Voltaire  was  of  wide  variety  ; 
he  contributed  to  almost  all  departments  of 
literature.  He  was  a malignant  enemy  of 
Christianity,  and  sneered  at  all  that  is  true 
and  holy. 

VORTIGERN,  the  chief  of  Britain,  upon 
the  Romans  quitting  that  island,  about  447. 


922 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


The  Britons  being  threatened  with  an  inva- 
sion from  the  Scots  and  Piets,  they  addressed 
him  from  all  parts  for  relief,  and  at  iast/made 
him  summon  a general  council  of  the  nation, 
to  provide  against  their  approaching  ruin. 
Vortigern,  in  the  name  of  all  the  Britons, 
sent  ambassadors  to  the  Saxons,  who,  hav- 
ing first  consulted  their  gods,  readily  com- 
plied with  his  desire.  All  things  being  fairly 
agreed  on,  and  the  isle  of  Thanet  in  Kent 
bestowed  upon  them,  for  their  encourage- 
ment, they  landed  in  the  island  in  450,  under 
the  command  of  Hcngist  and  Horsa,  who 
shortly  after  encountered  the  Piets,  then 
advanced  as  far  as  Stamford  in  Lincolnshire, 
and  put  them  to  flight.  Thus  the  Britons, 
under  Vortigern,  defeated  the  Piets,  by  the 
help  of  the  Saxons. . The  latter  soon  quarreled 
with  the  Britons,  and  wars  ensued,  which 
ended  in  the  total  overthrow  and  ruin  of  the 
natives.  Vortigern  retired  into  Wales,  and 


built  a strong  castle  in  Radnorshire.  His 
son  V ortiiner  reigned  in  his  stead,  who  bore 
a strong  hand  against  the  Saxons ; but  he 
dying  before  his  father,  Vortigern  resumed 
the  government.  He  had  two  wives;  one 
of  them  Rowena,  daughter  of  Hengist.  On 
being  restored  to  the  crown,  he  was  disposed 
to  conclude  a new  treaty  with  his  father-in 
law  ; and  both  parties  met  without  weapons. 
But  Hengist’s  design  being  to  murder,  he 
ordered  his  men  to  be  secretly  armed,  and 
gave  them  the  watchword  for  execution ; so 
that  a quarrel  being  designedly  raised,  his 
men,  upon  the  signal,  stabbed  each  his  next 
man ; and  no  less  than  three  hundred  per- 
ished by  this  treachery.  They  spared  the 
life  of  Vortigern,  but  they  kept  him  in  cus- 
tody till  he  granted  Hengist,  for  his  ransom, 
those  provinces  which  were  afterward  called 
Essex,  Sussex,  and  Middlesex. 


W. 


WAGRAM,  Battle  op,  fought  by  the  Aus- 
trians and  French,  July  5th,  1809  ; the  latter 
were  victorious,  and  the  former  severely  over- 
thrown. The  slaughter  on  both  sides  was 
dreadful ; 20,000  Austrians  were  taken  by 
the  French,  and  the  defeated  army  retired  to 
Moravia.  This  battle  led  to  an  armistice, 
signed  on  the  12th ; and  on  Oct.  24th,  to  a 
treaty  of  peace,  by  which  Austria  ceded  all 
her  sea-coast  to  France,  and  the  kingdoms 
of  Saxony  and  Bavaria  were  enlarged  at  her 
expense.  The  emperor  was  obliged  also  to 
yield  a part  of  his  plunder  of  Poland  in  Gal- 
licia  to  Russia.  The  emperor  also  acknowl- 
edged Joseph  Bonaparte  as  king  of  Spain. 

WAKEFIELD,  Priscilla,  author  of  many 
popular  and  useful  works  for  children  and 
young  persons,  and  one  of  the  earliest  pro- 
moters of  those  provident  institutions  called 
savings  banks.  She  died  in  London,  Sept. 
12th,  1832,  in  her  eighty-second  year.  She 
was  of  Quaker  parentage  and  her  maiden 
name  was  Trewman. 

WALCIIEREN,  an  island  of  the  Nether- 
lands. With  a view  to  occasion  a diversion 
on  behalf  of  the  Austrians,  and  also  to 


attempt  the  capture  or  destruction  of  the 
French  vessels  lying  in  the  Scheldt,  a British 
army  of  fifty  thousand  men  was  landed  in 
July,  1809,  on  the  island  of  Walcheren  ; but  a 
considerable  time  having  elapsed  prior  to  the 
reduction  of  Flushing,  the  French  collected 
a numerous  force,  raised  several  formidable 
batteries,  and  conveyed  their  ships  up  the 
river,  beyond  Fort  Lillo.  That  part  of  the 
country  also,  where  the  English  might  have 
landed,  was  completely  inundated.  Walche- 
ren, the  only  fruit  of  this  expensive  and 
unfortunate  expedition,  was  to  have  been 
retained  by  the  conquerors,  for  the  purpose 
of  shutting  up  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt,  and 
of  facilitating  the  introduction  of  British 
manufactures  into  Holland.  This  design, 
however,  was  rendered  abortive  by  the  un- 
healthiness of  the  climate  and  the  inefficiency 
of  Lord  Chatham  (son  of  the  great  earl),  the 
commanding  general ; and  after  great  num- 
bers of  the  troops  had  fallen  a sacrifice,  the 
British  army  evacuated  the  island  on  the  23d 
of  December,  having  previously  destroyed 
the  fortifications,  arsenal,  docks,  and  basin. 
Some  old  ships  filled  with  stores  were  also 


WAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


923 


sunk  at  the  entrance  of  the  Scheldt,  to  pre- 
clude an  escape  of  the  French  fleet  from  the 
place  of  its  retreat. 

WALDENSES.  Pierre  Yaldo,  after  ac- 
quiring a large  fortune  in  commerce  at  Lyons 
in  the  twelfth  century,  devoted  himself  to  the 
spiritual  instruction  of  his  poorer  brethren. 
The  only  version  of  the  Bible  then  in  use 
was  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  Yaldo  rendered 
the  gospels  into  French,  the  first  appearance 
of  the  Scriptures  in  any  modern  tongue. 
The  teachings  of  Valdo  were  soon  denounced 
by  the  priesthood  as  heretical.  He  and  his 
flock  took  refuge  in  the  mountains  of  Dau- 
phiny  and  Piedmont,  and  thbnce  sprang  those 
communities  which  grew  in  peace,  and  flour- 
ished in  rustic  simplicity,  “ pure  as  a flower 
amid  Alpine  snows.”  From  these  mountain 
valleys  flowed  rivulets  of  truth  that  finally 
swelled  into  the  flood  of  the  Reformation. 
Yaldo  wandered  through  Europe,  teaching 
the  purer  doctrine,  and  died  in  I^phemia. 

A persecution  of  the  Waldenses  in  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  led  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition.  Pope 
Innocent  III.  had  commissioned  some  monks 
to  preach  against  the  heresies  of  the  Wal- 
denses in  Narbonne  and  Provence ; but  the 
Romish  bishops  were  at  first  jealous  of  this 
mission,  armed  as  it  was  with  great  power, 
and  the  feudal  chiefs  refused  to  obey  the 
orders  of  the  legates,  a.d.  1203-4.  One  of 
the  monks,  the  first  inquisitor,  Peter  Chateau- 
neuf,  having  been  assassinated,  the  aspiring 
pontiff  called  on  all  the  neighboring  powers 
to  march  into  the  heretical  district.  All  ob- 
stinate heretics  were  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  Simon  de  Montfort,  commander  of  this 
crusade,  and  the  whole  race  of  the  Walden- 
ses and  Albigenses  were  ordered  to  he  pur- 
sued with  fire  and  sword.  Neither  sex,  age, 
nor  condition  was  spared  ; the  country  be- 
came a wilderness,  and  the  towns  heaps  of 
smoking  ruins.  Such  was  the  era  of  the 
inquisition.  Dominic  de  Guzman  was  con- 
stituted first  inquisitor-general,  1208. 

WALES,  a principality  in  the  west  of 
Great  Britain  from  130  to  180  miles  long, 
and  from  50  to  80  broad,  with  an  area  of 
7,398  square  miles,  and  1,000,000  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  very  rugged  and  mountainous. 
Wales  is  now  an  integral  part  of  England 
for  purposes  of  government.  Its  four  bish- 


oprics, Bangor,  St.  Asaph,  Llandaff,  and  St. 
David,  are  included  in  the  ecclesiastical  prov- 
ince of  Canterbury.  The  principality  is 
divided  into  North  and  South  Wales;  the 
former  comprised  in  the  counties  of  Angle- 
sey,  Caernarvonshire,  Denbighshire,  Flint- 
shire, Merionethshire,  and  Montgomeryshire; 
the  latter,  those  of  Brecknockshire,  Cardi- 
ganshire, Caermarthenshire,  Glamorganshire, 
Pembrokeshire,  and  Radnorshire.  The  mines 
and  quarries  of  Wales  are  very  valuable. 
Over  a large  portion  the  W elsh  language  is 
still  spoken,  though  the  use  of  the  English 
is  steadily  increasing.  The  early  history  of 
Wales  is  uncertain,  on  account  of  the  num- 
ber of  petty  princes  who  governed  it.  It 
was  formerly  inhabited  by  three  different 
tribes  of  the  Britons ; the  Silures,  the  Di- 
metae,  and  the  Ordovices.  These  people  do 
not  appear  ever  to  have  been  entirely  sub- 
dued by  the  Romans ; though  part  of  their 
country,  as  appears  from  the  ruins  of  castles, 
was  bridled  by  garrisons.  The  ancient 
Britons  retreated  into  the  west  of  the  island 
before  the  Saxons,  Angles,  &c.  Though  the 
Saxons  conquered  the  counties  of  Monmouth 
and  Hereford,  yet  they  never  penetrated 
farther,  and  the  Welsh  remained  an  inde- 
pendent people  governed  by  their  own 
princes  and  their  own  laws.  About  the  year 
870,  Roderic,  king  of  Wales,  divided  his 
dominions  among  his  three  sons ; and  the 
names  of  these  divisions  were,  Ceredigion 
and  Dyved,  or  South  Wales;  Povesia,  or 
Powis-land,  comprising  parts  of  Montgomery- 
shire, Shropshire,  and  Radnorshire,  and  Gwy- 
redd,  or  North  Wales.  This  division  gave 
a mortal  blow  to  the  independency  of  Wales, 
though  in  the  tenth  century  it  was  reunited. 
About  the  year  1112,  Henry.  I.  of  England 
planted  a colony  of  Flemings  on  the  frontiers 
of  Wales,  and  gave  various  noblemen  estates 
and  pow’er  in  the  marches,  to  serve  as  a bar- 
rier to  England,  none  of  the  Welsh  princes 
being  powerful  enough  to  extirpate  them. 
They  made,  however,  many  vigorous  and 
brave  attempts  against  the  Norman  kings  of 
England,  to  maintain  their  liberties.  In  1237 
the  crown  of  England  was  supplied  with  a 
handle  for  the  future  conquest  of  Wales ; the 
old  and  infirm  prince  Llewellyn,  having  put 
himself  under  subjection  and  homage  to 
Henry  III.  But  no  capitulation  could  satisfy 


924 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


the  ambition  of  Edward  L,  who  resolved  to 
annex  Wales  to  the  crown  of  England;  and 
Prince  Llewellyn,  disdaining  the  subjection 
to  which  old  Llewellyn  (his  grandsire)  had 
submitted,  was  opposed  by  the  army  of  Ed- 
ward, which  penetrated  as  far  as  Flint,  and 
taking  possession  of  the  isle  of  Anglesey, 
drove  the  Welsh  to  the  mountains  of  Snow- 
don, and  obliged  them  to  submit  to  pay  a 
tribute.  The  Welsh,  however,  made  several 
efforts  under  young  Llewellyn  ; but  at  last, 
in  1285,  he  was  killed  in  battle.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  David,  the  last  in- 
dependent prince  of  Wales,  who,  falling  into 
Edward’s  hands  through  treachery,  was  by 
him  barbarously  and  unjustly  hanged ; and 
Edward,  from  that  time,  pretended  that 
Wales  was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  England. 
It  was  about  this  time,  probably,  that  Ed- 
ward perpetrated  the  inhuman  massacre  of 
the  W elsh  bards.  Perceiving  that  his  cruelty 
was  not  sufficient  to  complete  his  conquest, 
he  sent  his  queen  to  be  delivered  in  Caernar- 
von Castle,  that  the  Welsh,  having  a prince 
born  among  themselves,  might  the  more 
readily  recognize  his  authority.  This  prince, 
by  the  death  of  an  elder  brother,  eame  to 
the  throne  as  Edward  II.,  and  from  him  the 
title  of  Prince  of  Wales  has  always  since 
descended  to  the  eldest  sons  of  the  English 
kings. 

WALKER,  John,  a well  known  English 
lexicographer,  died  in  1807,  aged  seventy- 
five. 

WALLACE,  Sir  William,  a distinguished 
hero  in  Scottish  history,  who  defended  the 
independence  of  his  country  against  the  un- 
principled invasion  of  Edward  I.  of  England, 
was  the  son  of  a small  landholder,  who  pos- 
sessed the  estate  of  Elderslie,  near  Paisley. 
It  is  probable  that  he  had  not  greatly  ex- 
ceeded the  age  of  opening  manhood,  at  the 
time  when  his  country  was  subdued  by  the 
English.  Many  of  his  first  deeds  of  heroism, 
although  imperfectly  commemorated  in  the 
rude  and  often  doubtful  tale  of  Blind  Harry, 
the  minstrel,  have  unluckily  been  preserved 
by  no  records  upon  the  evidence  of  which  they 
might  be  received  into  the  pages  of  authentic 
history.  Within  less  than  a year  after  the 
conquest  of  Edward,  when  the  whole  country 
seemed  to  have  acquiesced  in  this  fate,  he 
undertook  the  desperate  enterprise  of  break- 


ing her  fetters,  and  by  the  success  of  his 
enterprises,  made  himself  known  so  advan- 
tageously to  his  countrymen,  that  he  was 
joined  by  many  who  were  desirous  to  par- 
take of  his  renown;  amongst  the  rest,  by 
Sir  William  Douglas  and  some  others  of  con- 
siderable rank.  In  May,  1297,  he  led  his  fol- 
lowers to  attack  Ormesby,  the  English  justi- 
ciary, who  was  holding  his  court  at  Scone. 
Ormesby,  with  difficulty,  made  his  escape 
into  England,  and  the  other  officers  followed 
his  example.  From  the  north-east,  Wallace 
passed  into  the  west,  where  his  glory,  and 
hatred  of  the  English,  procured  him  many 
adherents,  amongst  others,  Robert  Bruce, 
the  grandson  of  him  who  had  been  competi- 
tor with  Baliol  for  the  crown.  King  Edward 
was  then  abroad,  carrying  on  war  in  Guienne : 
but  Warrene,  who  had  been  left  governor  of 
Scotland,  collecting  an  army  of  forty  thou- 
sand men,  and  determined  to  re-establish  his 
authority,  Sfent  them  forward  under  the  com- 
mand of  Sir  Henry  Picrcy  and  Sir  Robert 
Clifford.  When  the  English  army  came  up, 
many  of  the  adherents  of  Wallace  made  sub- 
mission ; but  he  himself,  with  his  chosen  fol- 
lowers, retired  into  the  north.  Finding  his 
forces  increasing,  he  laid  siege  to  Dundee, 
which  he  relinquished  on  hearing  of  the 
approach  of  the  English  army  to  the  Forth, 
and  hastened  to  oppose  their  passage,  which 
they  attempted  at  the  bridge  of  Stirling. 
The  English,  under  Cressingham,  first  crossed 
the  river,  when  Wallace  attacked  them,  and 
put  them  to  the  sword  or  drove  them  into 
the  stream.  Those  on  the  other  side,  burn- 
ing their  tents  and  leaving  their  baggage, 
fled  to  Berwick.  Wallace  having  gained  this 
victory,  hastened  back  to  Dundee,  which 
now  surrendered  at  his  approach.  He  was 
then  chosen  regent  by  his  followers,  and  all 
Scotland  was  cleared  of  the  English.  King 
Edward,  returning  from  France,  led  a power- 
ful army  into  Scotland.  Both  armies  en- 
gaged at  Falkirk,  July  22d,  1298,  and  the 
English  gained  the  victory,  from  their  supe- 
riority of  numbers  and  military  skill,  and 
the  dissensions  of  their  opponents.  Wallace 
seeing  all  hope  lost,  rallied  the  broken  rem- 
nants of  his  forces  and  retreated  beyond  the 
Forth.  .All  Scotland  submitted  to  Edward ; 
but  the  dauntless  spirit  of  Wallace  never 
would  surrender  his  country’s  independence. 


WAL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


925 


Whether  he  went  abroad  for  a short  time  to 
France,  or  wandered  in  the  fastnesses  of  the 
Highlands,  can  not  be  certainly  known  ; but 
in  1304  he  was  in  Scotland,  and  Edward 
could  never  believe  he  had  secure  possession 
till  Wallace  was  in  his  power.  This  was 
•effected  by  the  treachery  of  Sir  John  Mon- 
teith ; and"  Wallace  was  conducted  to  London, 
arraigned,  and  tried  as  a traitoi*,  and  con- 
demned as  guilty  of  high  treason  against  Ed- 
ward, although  he  had  never  acknowledged 
him  as  his  king,  nor  owed  him  allegiance. 
Wallace,  still  undaunted,  during  and  after  his 
trial,  asserted  the  rights  of  his  country,  and 
bore  his  fate,  which  was  inflicted  with  every 
circumstance  of  ignominy  and  cruelty,  with 
the  magnanimity  with  which  he  had  lived.  He 
was  executed  Aug.  23d,  1305.  His  head  was 
placed  on  London  bridge,  and  his  mangled 
limbs  were  distributed  over  the  kingdom.  It 
was  reserved  for  Robert  Bruce  to  accomplish 
what  Wallace  had  so  nobly  atter#pted. 

WALLENSTEIN,  Albert,  Duke  of  Fried- 
land,  born  in  1583,  was  the  most  renowned 
imperial  general  in  the  thirty  years’  war. 
He  was  of  a noble  family,  and  greatly  in- 
creased his  wealth  and  power  by  marriage. 
He  was  assassinated  Feb.  25th,  1634,  his 
murderers  rewarded  by  the  emperor,  and  his 
vast  possessions  confiscated,  upon  the  ground 
that  he  was  intriguing  to  make  himself  king- 
of  Bohemia. 

WALLER,  Edmund,  an  English  poet 
famous  in  his  day,  was  born  in  Hertford- 
shire in  1605,  and  in  his  infancy  inherited 
an  estate  of  £3,000  a year.  His  mother, 
though  a sister  of  John  Hampden,  was  an 
ardent  royalist,  and  used  to  lecture  Crom- 
well for  his  share  in  the  death  of  Charles  I. 
Her  son  was  royalist  or  roundhead,  as  best 
served  the  time.  He  entered  parliament, 
and  wrote  his  first  poem,  when  he  was 
eighteen.  At  twenty-five  he  married  a rich 
London  heiress,  who  died  the  same  year,  and 
the  widower  at  once  became  a suitor  of  Lady 
Dorothea  Sidney,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Leicester.  To  this  proud  and  peerless 
fair  one  Waller  dedicated  the  better  portion 
of  his  poetry,  and  the  groves  of  Penshurst 
echoed  to  the  praises  of  his  Sacharissa.  Lady 
Dorothea,  however,  wedded  the  Earl  of  Sun- 
derland. Long  afterward,  when  she  was  far 
advanced  in  years,  the  lady  and  her  former 


wooer  met.  She  asked  when  again  he  would 
write  such  verses  upon  her.  “ When  you 
are  as  young,  madam,  and  as  handsome  as 
you  were  then,”  said  ungallant  Waller.  The 
incident  gives  a key  to  his  character : he 
was  easy,  witty,  and  accomplished,  but  cold 
and  selfish  ; destitute  alike  of  high  principle 
and  deep  feeling.  In  parliament  Waller  dis- 
tinguished himself  on  the  popular  side  at 
first,  and  shortly  afterward  was  detected  in 
intrigues  with  the  cavaliers.  He  was  sen- 
tenced to  one  year’s  imprisonment  and  a fine 
of  £10,000.  Others  implicated  lost  their  lives, 
and  he  escaped  only  through  abject  submis- 
sion and  cowardly  betrayal  of  the  secrets  of 
his  friends.  At  the  end  of  his  imprisonment 
he  went  abroad,  and  resided  in  France  with 
much  splendor  and  hospitality.  He  returned 
during  the  protectorate,  and  commemorated 
the  death  of  Cromwell  in  one  of  his  most 
vigorous  and  impressive  poems.  The  restora- 
tion soon  came,  and  Waller  was  ready  with 
a congratulatory  address  to  Charles  II.  It 
was  considered  inferior  to  the  panegyric  on 
Cromwell,  and  the  kihg,  who  admitted  the 
poet  as  one  of  his  intimates,  told  him  of  the 
disparity.  “Poets,  sire,”  replied  the  witty, 
self-possessed  Waller,  “succeed  better  in 
fiction  than  in  truth.”  Waller  sat  in  par- 
liament through  Charles’s  reign.  At  the 
accession  of  James,  the  venerable  poet,  then 
eighty  years  of  age,  was  chosen  for  a borough 
in  Cornwall.  His  wariness  and  sagacity  pre- 
dicted the  end  of  James’s  mad  career.  He 
purchased  a little  estate  at  Coleshill,  his 
native  place,  saying,  “ he  would  be  glad  to 
die  like  the  stag,  where  he  was  roused.”  The 
wish  was  not  fulfilled : he  died  at  his  resi- 
dence near  Beaconsfield,  Oct.  21st,  1687. 
He  continued  to  write  his  smooth,  elegant, 
and  courtly  verse  down  to  the  close  of  life. 

WALPOLE,  Horace,  third  son  of  the 
great  statesman,  was  born  in  1717.  The 
sinecures  conferred  upon  him  by  his  father 
enabled  him  to  indulge  his  natural  indolence, 
and  he  passed  a lounging  life,  dabbling  in 
literature  and  art,  and  gathering  antiquarian 
nicknacks,  works  of  art,  rare  books,  and  curi- 
ous all-sorts,  in  his  “little  plaything  house” 
of  Strawberry  Hill  at  Twickenham.  He  was 
a shrewd  and  witty  observer,  and  his  “ Let- 
ters” and  “ Memoirs”  furnish  sparkling  and 
sarcastic  pictures  of  the  men  and  times  of 


WAL 


926 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


his  day.  In  1791  the  death  of  his  nephew 
gave  him  the  earldom  of  Orford.  He  died 
in  1797. 

W ALPOLE,  Sir  Robert,  afterward  Earl  of 
Orford,  an  eminent  Whig  statesman,  was 
born  in  1 076.  In  1700  he  married  the  daugh- 
ter ol  Sir  John  Shorter,  and  soon  after  be- 
came member  for  Castle  Rising ; but  in 
1702  he  was  chosen  for  King’s  Lynn,  which 
he  represented  in  several  parliaments.  In 
1708  he  was  made  secretary  at  war,  and  the 
year  following  treasurer  of  the  navy.  He 
was  one  of  the  managers  of  the  trial  of 
Sacheverel ; but  on  the  change  of  ministry, 
was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  expelled 
the  house,  for  breach  of  trust  and  corrup- 
tion. The  borough  of  Lynn,  however,  re- 
elected him,  and  he  took  an  active  part 
against  ministers  during  the  remainder  of 
Queen  Anne’s  reign.  Early  in  that  of  George 
I.  he  became  prime  minister,  but  some 
difference  arising  between  him  and  his  col- 
leagues, he  resigned,  and  joined  the  opposi- 
tion. In  1720  he  accepted  the  paymaster- 
ship  of  the  forces,  and  not  long  after  was 
appointed  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer.  In  1723  he  was 
sworn  sole  secretary  of  state.  In  1725  he 
received  the  order  of  the  Bath,  and  the  year 
following  that  of  the  Garter.  He  continued 
in  power,  though  assailed  by  powerful  ene- 
mies, till  1742,  when  he  resigned,  and  was 
created  Earl  of  Orford.  He  died  in  1745. 
His  brother,  Horatio  Walpole,  Lord  Wal- 
pole, was  born  in  1G78.  He  filled  several 
offices  under  government,  and  in  1756  was 
created  a peer,  but  died  the  year  following. 

WALSINGHAM,  Sir  Francis,  an  English 
statesman  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  was  born 
in  1536,  at  Chislehurst,  in  Kent.  In  1573 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of 
state,  and  knighted.  In  1583  he  went  on  an 
embassy  to  James,  king  of  Scotland,  and 
three  years  afterward  sat  as  one  of  the  com- 
missioners on  the  trial  of  that  monarch’s 
unfortunate  mother.  Sir  Francis  was  next 
made  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  ; 
and  he  was  also  honored  with  the  order  of 
the  Garter.  But  with  all  these  distinctions 
and  services  he  died  poor,  April  6th,  1590, 
and  was  buried  in  St.  Paul’s. 

WALTON,  George,  a signer  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  was  born  in  Fred- 


erick county,  Virginia,  about  the  year  1740. 
He  was  bred  a carpenter,  but  studied  law 
and  commenced  practice  in  Georgia.  Ho 
was  sent  to  congress  in  1776  and  returned 
in  1778.  He  took  a prominent  part  in  the 
affairs  of  the  revolution,  was  wounded  in 
the  defense  of  Savannah,  and  made  prisoner 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  British.  He  was 
chosen  governor  of  Georgia  in  1779,  was 
again  sent  to  congress  in  1780,  was  afterward 
chief  justice,  and  United  States  senator  in 
1795  and  1796.  He  died  at  Augusta,  Feb. 
2d,  1804. 

WALTON,  Izaak,  the  quaint  author  of 
“ The  Complete  Angler,  or  Contemplative 
Man’s  Recreation,”  was  a linen-draper  in 
London  till  the  gains  of  his  .industry  permit- 
ted him  to  leave  the  town  and  dwell  among 
the  green  fields  and  babbling  brooks  he 
loved  so  well.  Fie  wrote  a life  of  Dr.  Donne 
and  other  biographies,  all  marked  by  a sim- 
ple, touchirfg,  and  impressive  style.  He  died 
at  Winchester  in  1683,  in  his  ninetieth 
year. 

WANDERING  JEW.  How  this  most 
popular  legend  took  its  origin,  whether  from 
an  incident  mentioned  in  some  one  of  the 
many  gospels  unaccepted  by  the  church, 
whether  brought  from  the  orient  by  the  cru- 
saders, or  invented  in  the  dark  ages,  is  not 
known.  So  far  back  as  the  year  1000,  such 
a lasting  vagabond  was  said  to  be  talked  of; 
but  since  1228  the  tradition  is  known  with 
certainty  to  have  been  prevalent ; and  thus 
an  ancient  writer  tells  it.  “ The  Jews  drag- 
ged Jesus  from  the  judgment  hall,  and  when 
he  fell  upon  the  threshold,  Cartaphilus,  or 
Calaphilus,  who  was  the  porter  of  Pontius 
Pilate,  insolently  pushed  him,  striking  him 
on  the  back  with  his  fist,  and  saying  to  him 
with  a mocking  laugh,  ‘ Go  faster,  Jesus,  go 
faster ; why  dost  thou  linger  ? ’ Then  Jesus 
looked  on  him  with  a frown,  and  said,  ‘ I go, 
but  thou  shalt  tarry  until  I come.’  And, 
indeed,  according  to  the  Lord’s  word,  Carta- 
philus yet  awaits  the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ. 
He  was  about  thirty  years  of  age  at  the 
period  of  the  Passion  ; and  ever  since,  when- 
ever he  attains  the  age  of  a hundred  years, 
he  is  seized  with  a strange  infirmity,  which 
seems  incurable,  and  ends  in  a trance ; after 
which  he  becomes  as  young  again  as  at  the 
moment  of  the  Passion.  After  the  death  of 


WAN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


927 


the  Saviour,  Cartaphilus  became  a Christian, 
was  baptized  by  the  apostle  Avanius,  and 
took  the  name  of  Joseph.  At  the  present 
day  this  Joseph  generally  resides  in  the  one 
or  other  Armenia,  and  in  various  lands  of  the 
east.  He  is  a man  of  holy  conversation  and 
great  piety,  speaking  little,  and  never  smil- 
ing. He  perfectly  remembers  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  Christ.” 

WAltBECK,  Perkin,  made  his  appearance 
in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and 
assumed  the  character  of  Richard,  Duke  of 
York,  the  younger  son  of  Edward  1^.,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  murdered  in  the  Tower, 
together  with  his  brother,  by  ord£r  of  Rich- 
ard III.  His  cause  was  espoused  by  many 
persons  of  rank  ; Margaret,  Duchess  of  Bur- 
gundy, owned  him  her  nephew  ; and  upon 
landing  in  Cornwall,  he  was  joined  by  thou- 
sands of  adherents.  He  was  captured  by 
Henry  VII.,  confined  in  the  Tower  awhile, 
and  eventually  hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered, 
1499.  Henry  published  an  alleged  confes- 
sion of  the  prisoner,  purporting  that  he  was 
the  son  of  a converted  Jew  of  Tournay ; but 
many  have  thought  him  an  illegitimate  son 
of  Edward  IV. 

WARBURTON,  William,  a distinguished 
bishop  of  the  English  church,  was  born  at 
Newark  in  1098.  He  abandoned  the  law  for 
the  church,  and  rose  from  obscurity  to  be 
Bishop  of  Gloucester  in  1759.  His  great 
learning  and  originality  were  equaled  by  his 
arrogance  and  indomitable  self-will.  He 
wasted  his  powers  in  sustaining  paradoxes 
and  in  ruthless  tilts  with  his  contemporaries 
in  letters.  His  latter  years  were  spent  in  a 
melancholy  state  of  mental  weakness,  caused 
by  grief  for  the  loss  of  a son,  and  he  died  in 
1779. 

WARD,  Artemas,  commander  at  Cam- 
bridge when  Washington  arrived.  He  was 
the  first  of  the  four  major-generals  Congress 
commissioned  under  Washington,  and  com- 
manded the  right  wing  during  the  siege  of 
Boston  in  1776,  soon  after  which  he  resigned. 
In  1786  he  was  speaker  of  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives of  Massachusetts,  and  was  after- 
ward elected  to  congress.  He  died  at  Shrews- 
bury, Mass.,  Oct.  28th,  1800,  aged  seventy- 
three. 

WARREN,  Josepii,  was  born  at  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  in  1740,  and  graduated  at  Harvard 


University  in  1759.  Having  studied  medi- 
cine he  commenced  the  practice  of  it  in 
Boston  with  great  success.  He  was  one  of 
the  earliest  and  most  earnest  patriots  in  Bos- 
ton. Four  days  before  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill  the  provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts 
gave  him  a major-general’s,  commission,  but 
in  that  contest  he  fought  as  a volunteer.  On 
the  retreat  from  the  redoubt,  he  was  shot  in 
the  trenches,  and  expired,  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
five.  His  death  was  a severe  loss  to  the 
cause  he  so  ardently  had  at  heart. 

WARSAW,  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  contained,  in  1851,  164,115  inhabit- 
ants. In  the  war  with  the  Swedes,  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Warsaw 
was  occupied  by  these  invaders,  who  made  it 
the  depot  of  their  spoils.  When  Charles 
XII.  advanced,  at  a subsequent  period,  to 
Warsaw,  it  surrendered  to  him  without  oppo- 
sition. It  was  defended  by  Kosciusko  against 
the  Prussians,  in  1794,  who  were  obliged  to 
raise  the  siege.  Warsaw  at  length  submit- 
ted to  Suwarrow  and  the  Russians.  On  the 
final  partition  of  Poland,  in  1795,  this  part 
of  the  country  fell  to  the  share  of  Prussia, 
and  Warsaw  had  no  other  rank  than  that  of 
a capital  of  a province,  until  the  end  of  1806, 
when  the  overthrow  of  the  power  of  Prus- 
sia led  to  the  formation,  by  Bonaparte,  of  the 
independent  state  called  the  duchy  of  War- 
saw. It  wras  overrun  by  the  Russians  in 
1813,  and  Warsaw  became  the  residence  of 
a Russian  viceroy.  The  Polish  revolution 
commenced  here,  Nov.  29th,  1830. 

WARWICK,  Richard  Neville,  Earl  of, 
known  by  the  appellation  of  the  Icing-maker , 
was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  generals  of 
his  age.  He  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Yorkists,  and  gave  battle  to  the  Lancastrians 
at  St.  Albans,  in  which  he  was  defeated,  in 
1461.  He  afterward  harangued  the  citizens 
of  London,  assembled  in  St.  John’s  Fields, 
setting  forth  the  title  of  Edward,  the  eldest 
son  of  the  Duke  of  York,  and  inveighing 
against  the  tyranny  and  usurpation  of  the 
house  of  Lancaster.  After  the  decisive  bat- 
tle of  Towton,  and  Edward  IV.  was  safely 
fixed  on  the  throne,  Warwick  advised  him  to 
marry,  and  with  his  consent  went  over  to 
France,  to  procure  Bona  of  Savoy  as  queen. 
But  while  the  earl  was  hastening  the  nego- 


WAR 


928 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tiation  in  France,  the  king  married  Elizabeth 
Woodville.  Having  thus  given  Warwick 
real  cause  of  offense,  he  widened  the  breach, 
by  driving  him  from  the  council.  Warwick, 
whose  prudence  was  equal  to  his  bravery, 
soon  made  use  of  both  to  assist  his  revenge ; 
and  formed  such  a combination  against  Ed- 
ward, that  he  was,  in  turn,  obliged  to  fly  the 
kingdom,  and  Henry  VI.  was  released  from 
prison,  to  be  placed  again  upon  a dangerous 
throne.  A parliament  was  called,  which  con- 
firmed Henry’s  title,  with  great  solemnity, 
and  Warwick  was  himself  received  among 


the  people  under  the  title  of  the  king-maker. 
Edward,  however,  did  not  long  remain 
abroad ; and,  having  made  a descent  at  Ra- 
venspur,  in  Yorkshire,  he  proceeded  wdth  an 
increasing  army  toward  London.  Nothing 
remained  to  Warwick,  but  to  cut  short  a 
state  of  anxious  suspense,  by  hazarding  a 
battle.  Edward’s  fortune  prevailed.  They 
met  at  Barnet,  April  14th,  1471,  and  the  Lan- 
castrians were  defeated,  while  Warwick  him- 
self, leading  a chosen  body  of  troops  into 
the  thickest  of  the  fight,  fell  in  the  midst  of 
his  enemies,  covered  with  wounds. 


MOUNT  VERNON. 


WASHINGTON,  George,  the  third  son  of 
Augustine  Washington,  was  born  Feb.  22d, 
(11th,  o.s.),  1732,  on  the  banks  of  the  Po- 
tomac, in  the  county  of  Westmoreland, 
Virginia.  His  father  died  when  ho  was  but 
eleven  years  old,,  and  the  care  of  his  edu- 
cation devolved  upon  his  mother.  That  a 
mother  should  love  such  a son  as  George 
proved  himself  to  be,  and  that  a son  should 


love  such  a mother  as  Mrs.  Washington  cer- 
tainly was,  is  not  at  all  surprising.  From 
his  earliest  days  she  exerted  her  whole  influ- 
ence to  imbue  him  with  a love  of  “ whatever 
was  lovely  and  of  good  report,”  and  her  ex- 
ertions were  not  in  vain.  How  well  he  repaid 
her  for  her  care,  may  be  seen  in  the  following 
incident.  When  about  fourteen  years  of  age 
he  became  strongly  inclined  to  go  to  sea, 


WAS^ 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


929 


with  a view  of  enlisting  in  the  service  of  the 
mother  country,  at  that  * time  engaged  in  a 
war  with  France  and  Spain.  He  was  resolved 
to  go.  Preparation  had  been  made.  A mid- 
shipman’s berth  had  been  procured  for  him 
on  board  a British  man-of-war,  then  lying  in 
sight  of  Mount  Vernon;  and  even  his  trunk 
was  on  board.  "When  the  time  arrived  that 
he  was  to  go,  he  passed  into  the  sitting-room 
of  his  mother,  to  take  leave  of  her.  She 
was  sitting  in  tears.  He  approached  her, 
and  putting  his  arms  about  her  neck,  affec- 
tionately kissed  her.  He  was  about  to  bid 
her  farewell ; but  he  hesitated.  Her  affection 
and  affliction  unmanned  him.  He  was  }roung 
and  ambitious ; and  at  that  early  day  the 
spirit  of  patriotism,  which  so  nobly  charac- 
terized him  in  after  life,  in  respect  to  his 
country,  was  stirring  within  him.  Yet  the 
feelings  of  his  heart  were  stronger  than  any 
other  ties  ; and  here,  nobly  sacrificing  his 
pride  and  ambition,  he  relinquished  his  pur- 
pose, and  stayed  to  comfort  her  who  gave 
him  birth. 

His  brother  Lawrence,  having  married  a 
connection  of  Lord  Fairfax,  his  lordship  gave 
George  Washington,  in  his  sixteenth  year, 
the  appointment  of  surveyor,  to  examine  and 
survey  his  broad  lands  beyond  the  Blue 
Ridge.  In  1751  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
adjutant-generals  of  Virginia,  with  the  rank 
of  major.  Soon  afterward  he  was  sent  by 
the  governor  of  Virginia  to  carry  a letter  to 
the  French  commander  on  the  Ohio,  forbid- 
ding his  encroachment  on  the  lands  belonging 
to  Virginia.  The  journey  was  about  four 
hundred  miles,  half  of  which  lay  through  a 
trackless  wilderness,  inhabited  by  Indians. 
He  left  Williamsburg  on  the  31st  of  October, 
and  delivered  his  letter  on  the  12th  of  De- 
cember. Having  received  an  answer,  he  set 
out  immediately  on  his  dangerous  and  toil- 
some return.  The  following  is  his  own  ac- 
count of  it : — 

“As  I was  uneasy  to  get  back,  to  make  a 
report  of  my  proceedings  to  his  honor  the 
governor,  I determined  to  prosecute  my  jour- 
ney the  nearest  way,  through  the  woods,  and 
on  foot.  I took  my  necessary  papers,  pulled 
olf  my  clothes,  and  tied  myself  up  in  a watch- 
coat.  Then,  with  a gun  in  my  hand,  and 
pack  on  my  back,  in  which  were  my  papers 
and  provisions,  I set  out  with  Mr.  Gist,  fitted 

59 


in  the  same  manner.  We  fell  in  with  a 
party  of  Indians,  who  had  lain  in  wait  for  us. 
One  of  them  fired  not  fifteen  steps  off,  but 
fortunately  missed ; we  walked  on  the  remain- 
ing part  of  the  night,  without  making  any 
stop,  that  we  might  get  the  start  so  far  as  to 
be  out  of  the  reach  of  their  pursuit  the  next 
day,  as  we  were  well  assured  that  they  would 
follow  our  track  as  soon  as  it  was  light.  The 
next  day  we  continued  traveling  until  quite 
dark  and  got  to  the  river.  We  expected  to 
have  found  the  river  frozen,  but  it  was  not 
more  than  fifty  yards  from  each  shore.  The 
ice,  I suppose,  had  been  broken  up,  for  it  was 
driving  in  vast  quantities.  There  was  no 
way  of  getting  over  but  on  a raft,  which  we 
set  about  making  with  one  poor  hatchet,  and 
finished  just  after  sun-setting:  this  was  one 
day’s  work.  We  got  it  launched,  then  went 
on  board  of  it,  and  set  off ; but  before  we 
were  half-way  over,  we  were  jammed  in  the 
ice,  in  such  a manner  that  we  expected  every 
moment  our  raft  to  sink  and  ourselves  to 
perish.  I put  out  my  setting-pole  to  en- 
deavor to  stop  the  raft,  that  the  ice  might 
pass  by,  when  the  rapidity  of  the  stream 
threw  it  with  so  much  violence  against  the 
pole,  that  it  jerked  me  out  into  ten  feet 
water.”  At  length,  on  the  16th  of  January, 
he  arrived  at  Williamsburg,  and  delivered 
the  important  letter  to  the  governor. 

Having  been  appointed  colonel  of  a regi- 
ment raised  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  colo- 
nists against  the  encroachments  of  the  French, 
Washington  distinguished  himself  greatly  by 
his  defense  of  Fort  Necessity,  although  he 
was  finally  forced  to  capitulate.  Having 
resigned  his  commission,  he  retired  in  1754 
to  Mount  Vernon,  on  the  Potomac,  a country- 
seat  which  had  been  bequeathed  him  by  his 
brother.  In  1755  he  accepted  the  invitation 
of  Gen.  Braddock  to  enter  his  family  as  a 
volunteer  aid-de-camp,  and  accompanied  him 
in  the  memorable  and  unfortunate  expedi- 
tion to  the  Ohio,  the  result  of  which  would 
probably  have  been  very  different  from  what 
it  was,  had  Braddock  followed  the  prudent 
advice  of  his  aid.  When  the  troops  fell  into 
the  Indian  ambuscade,  the  officers  were  sin- 
gled out  by  their  savage  foes  and  deliberately 
shot,  Washington  being  the  only  aid  that  was 
unwounded,  and  on  him  devolved  the  whole 
i duty  of  carrying  the  orders  of  the  com- 
WAS 


930 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


mander-in-chief.  Though  he  had  two  horses 
killed  under  him,  and  four  balls  through  his 
coat,  he  escaped  unhurt,  while  every  other 
officer  on  horseback  was  either  killed  or 
wounded.  Dr.  Craik,  the  physician  wTho 
attended  him  in  his  last  sickness,  was  present 
at  this  battle,  and  says,  “ I expected  every 
moment  to  see  him  fall.  Nothing  but  the 
superintending  care  of  Providence  could  have 
saved  him  from  the  fate  of  all  around  him.” 
After  an  action  of  three  hours,  the  troops 
gave  way  in  all  directions,  and  Col.  Washing- 
ton and  two  others  brought  off  the  mortally 
wounded  Braddock.  Washington  attempted 
to  rally  the  retreating  troops ; but,  as  he  said 
himself,  it  was  like  attempting  to  stop  the 
wild  bears  of  the  mountains.  The  conduct 
of  the  regular  troops  was  most  cowardly. 
The  enemy  were  few  in  numbers,  and  had 
no  expectation  of  victory.  The  preservation 
of  AY  ashington  during  this  battle  was  almost 
miraculous.  He  was  exposed  more  than  any 
other  officer,  and  was  particularly  the  object 
of  savage  attacks  on  account  of  his  superior 
bravery.  After  the  defeat,  a famous  Indian 
warrior  wTho  acted  a distinguished  part  in 
that  bloody  tragedy,  was  heard  to  say  that 
Washington  was  never  born  to  be  killed  by  a 
bullet;  “For,”  said  he,  “I  had  seventeen 
fair  shots  at  him  with  my  rifle,  and  yet  I 
could  not  bring  him  to  the  ground.” 

Washington  continued  employed  in  public 
affairs  till  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from 
the  Ohio,  and  the  cessation  of  hostilities  on 
the  part  of  the  Indians.  While  journeying  to 
AYilliamsburg  in  1758,  to  transact  business 
with  the  council,  he  met  his  future  wife. 
Irving  thus  tells  the  story  of  the  courtship. 
“In  crossing  a ferry  of  the  Pamunkey,  a 
branch  of  York  River,  he  fell  in  company  with 
a Mr.  Chamberlayne,  who  lived  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  who,  in  the  spirit  of  Virginian 
hospitality,  claimed  him  as  a guest.  It  was 
'with  difficulty  AYashington  could  be  pre- 
vailed on  to  halt  for  dinner,  so  impatient  wTas 
he  to  arrive  at  Williamsburg,  and  accom- 
plish his  mission.  Among  the  guests  at  Mr. 
Chamberlayne’s  was  a young  and  blooming 
wddowr,  Mrs.  Martha  Custis,  daughter  of  Mr. 
John  Dandridge,  both  patrician  names  in  the 
province.  Her  husband,  John  Parke  Custis, 
had  been  dead  three  years,  leaving  her  w ith 
two  young  children  and  a large  fortune. 

W 


She  is  represented  as  being  rather  below  the 
middle  size,  but  extremely  wrell  shaped,  with 
an  agreeable  countenance,  dark  hazel  e}Tes 
and  hair,  and  those  frank,  engaging  manners, 
so  captivating  in  Southern  women.  AYe  are 
not  informed  whether  AA^ashington  had  met 
with  her  before ; probably  not  during  her 
widowhood,  as  during  that  time  he  had  been 
almost  continually  on  the  frontier.  AYe  have 
showm  that,  with  all  his  gravity  and  reserve, 
he  was  quickly  susceptible  to  female  charms, 
and  they  may  have  had  a greater  effect  upon 
him  when  thus  casually  encountered,  in  fleet- 
ing moments  snatched  from  the  cares  and 
perplexities  and  rude  scenes  of  frontier  war- 
fare. At  any  rate,  his  heart  appears  to  have 
been  taken  by  surprise.  The  dinner,  which, 
in  those  days,  W’as  an  earlier  meal  than  at 
present,  seemed  all  too  short.  The  afternoon 
passed  aw^ay  like  a dream.  Bishop  (the  mil- 
itary servant)  was  punctual  to  the  orders  he 
had  received  on  halting ; the  horses  pawed 
at  the  door  ; but  for  once  AYashington  loitered 
in  the  path  of  d\ity.  The  horses  w^ere  coun- 
termanded, and  it  was  not  until  the  next 
morning  that  he  was  again  in  the  saddle, 
spurring  for  AYilliamsburg.  Happily,  the 
AYhite  House,  the  residence  of  Mrs.  Custis, 
w7as  in  New  Kent  County,  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  that  city,  so  that  he  had  opportu- 
nities of  visiting  her  in  the  intervals  of  busi- 
ness.” They  were  married  on  the  Gth  of 
January,  1759. 

He  continued  to  be  an  active  member  of 
the  general  assembly,  and  on  the  approach 
of  hostilities  with  Great  Britain,  was  chosen 
to  the  first  congress.  On  the  14th  of  June, 
1775,  he  was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of 
the  armies  of  the  united  colonies.  He  re- 
paired immediately  to  the  head-quarters  of 
the  American  army  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
and  having  forced  the  British  to  evacuate 
Boston,  led  his  army  to  New  York,  where  he 
was  doomed  to  witness  the  defeat  of  the 
Americans  on  Long  Island,  on  the  27th  of 
August,  but  his  retreat  of  the  army  was  con- 
ducted in  a masterly  manner.  After  the  bat- 
tle of  AYhite  Plains,  the  prospects  of  the 
Americans  appeared  hopeless,  but  the  suc- 
cesses of  Trenton  and  Princeton  inspired  the 
army  writh  fresh  courage.  By  these,  Phila- 
delphia wTas  saved,  and  New  Jersey  regained. 
On  the  25tli  of  August,  1777  the  British  for- 
AS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


931 


ces  under  Ilowe,  widely  had  sailed  for  New 
York,  disembarked  at  the  ferry  of  Elk  Paver, 
and  on  the  10th  of  September,  the  battle  of 
Brandywine  was  fought  and  the  Americans 
defeated. 

Major  Ferguson,  who  commanded  a British 
rifle  corps  a day  or  two  previous  to  this  bat- 
tle, was  the  hero  of  a very  singular  adven- 
ture which  he  thus  describes  in  a letter  to  a 
friend.  “ We  had  not  lain  long,  when  a rebel 
officer,  remarkable  by  a hussar  dress,  pressed 
toward  our  army,  within  a hundred  yards  of 
my  right  flank,  not  perceiving  us.  He  was 
followed  by  another,  dressed  in  dark  green 
and  blue,  mounted  on  a bay  horse,  with  a 
remarkably  high  cocked  hat.  I ordered 
three  good  shots  to  stand  near,  and  fire  at 
them ; but  the  idea  disgusting  me,  I recalled 
the  order.  The  hussar,  in  returning,  made 
a circuit,  but  he  passed  within  a hundred 
yards  of  us  ; upon  which  I advanced  from  the 
woods  toward  him.  Upon  my  calling,  he 
stopped ; but,  after  looking  at  me,  again  pro- 
ceeded. I again  drew  his  attention,  and  made 
signs  to  him  to  stop,  leveling  my  piece  at 
him ; but  he  slowly  cantered  away.  By 
quick  firing,  I could  have  lodged  half  a doz- 
en balls  in  or  about  him,  before  he  was  out 
of  my  reach.  I had  only  to  determine  ; but 
it  was  not  pleasant  to  fire  at  the  back  of  an 
unoffending  individual,  who  was  very  coolly 
acquitting  himself  of  his  duty  ; so  I let  it 
alone.  The  next  day,  the  surgeon  told  me 
that  the  wounded  rebel  officers  informed  him 
that  Gen.  Washington  was  all  the  morning 
with  the  light  troops,  and  onty  attended  by 
a French  officer  in  the  hussar  dress,  he  him- 
self dressed  and  mounted  as  I have  before 
described.  I am  not  sorry  I did  not  know 
who  it  was  at  the  time.” 

The  battle  of  Brandywine  opened  the  way 
to  Philadelphia  for  the  British,  who  entered 
it  on  the  26th  of  September.  After  the  un- 
satisfactory engagement  at  Germantown,  the 
American  troops  were  quartered  for  the  win- 
ter at  Valley  Forge,  where  their  sufferings 
were  extreme.  One  day  a Quaker  by  the 
name  of  Potts  had  occasion  to  go  to  a cer- 
tain place,  which  led  him  through  a large 
grove  at  no  great  distance  from  head-quar- 
ters. As  he  was  proceeding  along,  he  thought 
he  heard  a noise.  He  stopped  and  listened. 
He  did  hear  the  sound  of  a human  voice  at 


some  distance,  but  quite  indistinctly.  As  it 
was  in  the  direct  course  he  was  pursuing,  he 
went  on,  but  with  some  caution.  At  length 
he  came  within  sight  of  a man  whose  back 
was  turned  toward  him,  on  his  knees,  in  the 
attitude  of  prayer.  Potts  now  stopped,  and 
soon  saw  Washington  himself,  the  command- 
er of  the  American  armies,  returning  from 
bending  before  the  God  of  hosts  above. 
Potts  himself  was  a pious  man,  and  no  sooner 
had  he  reached  home,  than  in  the  fullness  of 
his  faith,  he  broke  forth  to  his  wife  Sarah : 
“All’s  well!  all’s  well!  Yes, — George 

Washington  is  sure  to  beat  the  British — 
sure!” — “What’s  the  matter  with  thee, 
Isaac  ? ” replied  the  startled  Sarah.  “ Thee 
seems  to  be  much  moved  about  something.” — 
“Well,  what  if  I am  moved?  Who  would 
not  be  moved  at  such  a sight  as  I have  seen 
to-day?” — “And  what  hast  thou  seen, 
Isaac  ? ” — “ Seen  ! I’ve  seen  a man  at  prayer ! 
— in  the  woods  ! — George  Washington  him- 
self! And  now  I say, — just  what  I have  said, 
— ‘All’s  well ! George  Washington  is  sure 
to  beat  the  British ! — sure ! ’ ” 

In  June,  1778,  the  British  evacuated  Phil- 
adelphia, and  retreated  upon  New  York 
closely  followed  by  Washington,  who  at- 
tacked them  at  Monmouth  on  the  24th,  and 
fought  them  with  advantage,  although  with- 
out gaining  a decided  vidxny.  Washington 
was  personally  engaged  in  forming  the  line 
of  the  main  body  near  the  court  house,  and 
was  speaking  with  Col.  Hartley  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania line,  when  a cannon-ball  struck  just 
at  his  horse’s  feet,  throwing  the  dirt  in  his 
face  and  over  his  clothes.  The  general  con- 
tinued giving  orders  without  noticing  the 
derangement  of  his  toilette.  “Never,”  says 
Lafayette,  “ was  Gen.  Washington  greater  in 
war  than  in  this  conflict : his  presence  stopped 
the  retreat,  his  dispositions  fixed  the  victory. 
His  fine  appearance  on  horseback,  his  calm 
courage,  roused  by  the  animation  produced 
by  the  vexation  of  the  morning,  gave  him 
the  air  best  calculated  to  excite  enthusiasm.” 
In  1781  Washington,  in  conjunction  with 
Count  Rochambeau,  planned  an  expedition 
against  New  York,  which  was  abandoned 
with  a view  of  directing  their  operations  to 
the  south.  Demonstrations,  however,  were 
made  against  the  city,  and  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
was  not  aware  of  the  change  in  their  inten- 


932 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


tions.  The  siege  of  Yorktown  commenced  on 
the  28th  of  September,  and  Lord  Cornwallis 
was  compelled  to  surrender  after  much 
hard  fighting,  on  the  19th.  This  was  the 
last  action  of  the  war.  In  the  trying  times 
thus  crowned  by 'victor}',  not  only  did  Wash- 
ington display  the  qualities  of  a great  and 
prudent  commander,  in  opposition  with  the 
British  armies  : he  had  also  to  contend  with 
turbulence  and  factions  in  the  American 
ranks  and  councils.  The  intrigues  and 
jealousies  of  aspiring  men  often  embarrassed 
his  operations,  and  sometimes  impugned  his 
capacity  for  the  post  he  held.  But  he  rose 
above  them. 

If  we  are  called  upon  to  admire  the  con- 
duct and  successes  of  Washington  in  action, 
our  admiration  is  no  less  due  to  his  behavior 
in  those  intervals  of  repose  when  the  Ameri- 
can forces  had  time  to  reflect  upon  their 
wants,  and  brood  over  their  supposed  griev- 
ances. He  quelled  mutiny,  but  he  pitied  the 
sufferings  that  produced  it;  and  while  he 
was  resolved  to  enforce  subordination,  he  was 
no  less  determined  to  administer  all  the  com- 
fort which  it  was  in  his  power  to  bestow. 

On  the  25th  of  November,  1783,  Wash- 
ington made  his  public  entry  into  the  city  of 
New  York.  On  the  4th  of  December,  the 
principal  officers  of  the  army  assembled  at 
Fraunces’  tavern  in  that  city,  to  take  a final 
leave  of  their  beloved  commander-in-chief. 
Soon  after  his  excellency  entered  the  room. 
His  emotions  overcame  his  usual  self-com- 
mand. Filling  a glass,  and  turning  to  them, 
he  said  : “ With  a heart  full  of  love  and 

gratitude,  I now  take  leave  of  you.  I most 
devoutly  wish  that  your  latter  days  may  be 
as  prosperous  and  happy  as  your  former  ones 
have  been  glorious  and  honorable.”  Having 
drank,  he  added,  “ I can  not  come  to  each 
of  you  to  take  my  leave,  but  shall  be  obliged 
to  you  if  each  of  you  will  come  and  take  me 
by  the  hand.”  General  Knox,  being  nearest, 
turned  to  him.  Incapable  of  utterance, 
Washington  in  tears  grasped  his  hand,  em- 
braced and  kissed  him.  In  the  same  affec- 
tionate manner,  he  took  leave  of  each  suc- 
ceeding officer.  Leaving  the  room,  he  passed 
through  the  corps  of  light-infantry,'  and 
walked  to  Whitehall  ferry,  where  a barge 
waited  to  convey  him  to  Pauliis’  Hook.  The 
whole  company  followed  in  mute  and  solemn 


procession,  with  dejeeted  countenances,  testi- 
fying  feelings  of  melancholy  which  no  pen 
can  describe.  Having  entered  the  barge,  he 
turned  to  the  company,  and  waving  his  hat, 
he  bade  them  a silent  adieu.  They  paid  him 
the  same  affectionate  compliment,  watched 
the  barge  till  out  of  sight,  and  then  returned 
in  the  same  solemn  manner,  to  the  place 
where  they  had  assembled. 

On  the  23d  of  December,  1783,  Washing- 
ton resigned  his  commission  to  Congress, 
then  sitting  at  Annapolis.  On  this  interest- 
ing and  solemn  occasion  he  appeared  in  the 
hall  of  Congress.  As  he  rose  to  speak,  every 
eye  was  fixed  upon  him.  He  began  by  ex- 
pressing his  humble  joy  at  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  wishes  and  exertions,  in  the  in- 
dependence of  his  country.  Next,  he  recom- 
mended to  Congress  and  to  the  country  the 
companions  of  nis  toils  and  trials,  and  con- 
cluded as  follows:  “I  consider  it  an  indis- 
pensable duty  to  close  this  last  solemn  act  of 
my  official  life,  by  commending  the  interests 
of  our  dearest  country  to  the  protection  of 
Almighty  God,  and  those  who  have  the  su- 
perintendence of  them  to  his  holy  keeping. 
Having  now  finished  the  work  assigned  me, 
I retire  from  the  great  theatre  of  action, 
and,  bidding  an  affectionate  farewell  to 
this  august  body,  under  whose  orders  I have 
long  acted,  I here  offer  my  commission,  arjd 
take  my  leave  of  all  the  employments  of  pub- 
lic life.” 

Upon  accepting  his  commission,  Congress, 
through  their  president,  expressed  in  glowing 
language  to  Washington  their  high  sense  of 
his  wisdom  and  energy,  in  conducting  the 
war  to  so  happy  a termination,  and  invoked 
the  choicest  blessings  on  his  future  life.  Pres- 
ident Milfiin  concluded  as  follows:  “We 

join  you  in  commending  the  interests  of  our 
dearest  country  to  Almighty  God,  beseeching 
him  to  dispose  the  hearts  and  minds  of  its 
citizens  to  improve  the  opportunity  afforded 
them  of  becoming  a happy  and  respectable 
nation.  And  as  for  you,  we  address  to  him 
our  earnest  prajrers,  that  the  life  so  beloved 
may  be  fostered  with  all  his  care  ; that  your 
days  may  be  as  happy  as  they  have  been 
illustrious  ; and  that  he  will  finally  give  you 
that  reward  which  the  world  can  not  give.” 

A profound  stillness  pervaded  the  assem- 
bly. The  grandeur  of  the  scene,  the  recol- 


WAS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


933 


Washington’s  tomb. 


lection  of  the  past,  the  felicity  of  the  pres- 
ent, the  hopes  of  the  future,  crowded  fast 
upon  all,  while  they  united  in  invoking  bless- 
ings upon  the  man  who,  under  God,  had 
achieved  so  much,  and  who  now,  in  the  char- 
acter of  a mere  citizen,  was  hastening  to  a 
long  desired  repose,  at  his  seat  at  Mount 
Vernon  in  Virginia.  Congress  voted  the  vic- 
torious general  an  equestrian  statue,  and  the 
legislature  of  Virginia  decreed  to  him  “a 
statue  of  the  finest  marble  and  best  work- 
manship.” 

But  Washington  was  not  permitted  to  re- 
main in  his  dignified  retirement ; for  the  na- 
tion, aware  of  the  importance  of  securing  his 


wisdom  and  influence,  chose  him  the  first 
president,  under  the  new  constitution  of 
1789.  His  feelings  on  this  occasion  are  ex- 
pressed in  a letter  to  a friend,  of  which  the 
following  is  an  extract : “ I am  unwilling 

in  the  evening  of  a life  almost  consumed  in 
public  cares,  to  quit  a peaceful  abode  for  an 
ocean  of  difficulties,  without  the  competency 
of  political  skill,  abilities,  and  inclination, 
which  are  necessary  to  manage  the  helm.  I 
am  sensible  that  I am  embarking  on  a haz- 
ardous voyage,  but  what  returns  will  be 
made  Heaven  alone  can  foretell.  Integrity 
and  firmness  are  all  I can  promise;  these, 
be  the  voyage  long  or  short,  shall  never  for- 


WAS 


934 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


sake  me,  although  I may  be  deserted  by  all 
men,  for  of  all  consolations  which  are  to  be 
derived  from  these,  under  any  circumstan- 
ces, the  world  can  not  deprive  me.” 

In  the  first  presidency,  the  door  of  the 
president’s  house  gathered  but  little  just  on 
its  hinges,  while  often  was  its  latch  lifted  by 
the  “broken  soldier.”  Scarce  a day  passed 
that  some  veteran  of  the  heroic  time  did  not 
present  himself  at  head-quarters.  The  most 
battered  of  these  types  of  the  days  of  priva- 
tion and  trial  were  “kindtybid  to  stay,” 
were  offered  refreshment,  and  a glass  of 
something  to  the  old  general’s  health,  and 
then  dismissed  with  lighter  hearts  and  heav- 
ier pouches. 

Throughout  the  eight  years  of  his  presi- 
dential career,  Washington  did  nothing  to 
forfeit  the  esteem  of  his  fellow-citizens,  who 
acknowledged  him  “first  in  peace,  first  in 
war,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  country- 
men.” An  Englishman  in  Philadelphia, 
speaking  of  the  presidency  of  Washington, 
was  expressing  a desire  to  see  him.  While 
this  conversation  passed,  “ There  he  goes,” 
cried  the  American,  pointing  to  a tall,  erect, 
dignified  personage,  passing  on  the  other 
side  of  the  street.  “ That  General  Washing- 
ton ! ” exclaimed  the  Englishman;  “where 
is  his  guard  ? ” “ Here  /”  replied  the  Amer- 
ican, striking  on  his  breast  with  emphasis. 

On  Friday,  the  13th  of  December,  1799, 
exposure  to  wet  produced  an  inflammatory 
disorder  of  the  throat,  which  terminated  fa- 
tally on  the  night  of  Saturda}r.  The  deep 
and  wide-spread  grief  occasioned  by  this 
melancholy  event,  assembled  a great  con- 
course of  people  for  the  purpose  of  paying 
the  last  tribute  of  respect  to  the  first  of 
Americans.  On  Wednesday,  the  18th  of 
December,  attended  by  military  honors  and 
the  ceremonies  of  religion,  his  body  was  de- 
posited in  the  family  vault  at  Mount  Yernon. 

So  short  was  his  illness,  that,  at  the  scat 
of  government,  the  intelligence  of  his  death 
preceded  that  of  his  indisposition.  It  was 
first  communicated  by  a passenger  in  the 
stage  to  an  acquaintance  whom  he  met  in  the 
street,  and  the  report  quickly  reached  the 
house  of  representatives,  which  was  then  in 
session.  A solemn  silence  prevailed  for  sev- 
eral minutes ; Judge  Marshall,  then  a mem- 
ber of  the  liouso,  stated  in  his  place  the  mel- 


ancholy information  which  had  been  received. 
This  information,  he  said,  was  not  certain, 
but  there  was  too  much  reason  to  believe  it 
true.  “ After  receiving  intelligence,”  he 
added,  “ of  a national  calamity  so  heavy  and 
afflicting,  the  house  of  representatives  can  be 
but  ill  fitted  for  public  business.”  He  there, 
fore  moved  an  adjournment,  and  the  house 
adjourned. 

The  expression  of  Washington’s  counte- 
nance was  serious,  but  very  pleasing ; his 
eyes  were  a mild  blue ; and  the  flush  of 
health  gave  a glow  to  his  cheeks.  His  step 
was  always  firm ; but  after  the  toils  of  the 
long  war,  his  body  was  a little  bent  as  he 
walked,  and  his  once  smooth  forehead  and 
cheeks  were  marked  with  care-worn  furrows. 
General  AYashington,  in  the  prime  of  life, 
stood  six  feet  two  inches,  and  measured  pre- 
cisely six  feet  when  attired  for  the  grave. 
To  a majestic  height  was  added  correspond- 
ing breadth  and  firmness  ; and  his  whole  per- 
son was  so  cast  in  nature’s  finest  mould,  as 
to  resemble  the  classic  remains  of  ancient 
statuary,  where  all  the  parts  contribute  to 
the  purity  and  perfection  of  the  whole. 
Bred  in  the  vigorous  school  of  the  frontier 
warfare,  “ the  earth  his  bed,  his  canopy  the 
heavens,”  he  excelled  the  hunter  and  the 
woodsman  in  their  athletic  habits,  and  in 
those  trials  of  manhood  which  distinguished 
the  hardy  days  of  his  early  life ; he  was  amaz- 
ingly swift  of  foot,  and  could  climb  the  moun- 
tain steep,  and  “not  a sob  his  toil  confess.” 

Bancroft  thus  sketches  the  character  of 
AArashington  : “ Courage  was  so  natural  to 
him,  that  it  was  hardly  spoken  of  to  his 
praise ; no  one  ever  at  any  moment  of  his 
life  discovered  in  him  the  least  shrinking  in 
danger ; and  he  had  a hardihood  of  daring 
which  escaped  notice,  because  it  was  so  en- 
veloped by  superior  calmness  and  wisdom. 
He  was  as  cheerful  as  he  was  spirited,  frank 
and  communicative  in  the  society  of  friends, 
fond  of  the  fox-chase  and  the  dance,  often 
sportive  in  his  letters,  and  liked  a hearty 
laugh.  This  joyousness  of  disposition  re- 
mained to  the  last,  though  the  vastness  of 
his  responsibilities  was  soon  to  take  from 
him  the  right  of  displaying  the  impulsive 
qualities  of  his  nature,  and  the  weight  which 
he  was  to  bear  up  was  to  overlay  and  repress 
his  gaycty  and  openness. 


AY  AS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


935 


“ His  hand  was  liberal ; giving  quietly  and 
without  observation,  as  though  he  was 
ashamed  of  nothing  but  being  discovered  in 
doing  good.  He  was  kindly  and  compassion- 
ate, and  of  lively  sensibility  to  the  sorrows 
of  others  ; so  that  if  his  country  had  only 
needed  a victim  for  its  relief,  he  would  have 
willingly  offered  himself  as  a sacrifice.  But 
while  he  was  prodigal  of  himself,  he  was 
considerate  for  others  ; ever  parsimonious  of 
the  blood  of  his  countrymen.  He  was  pru- 
dent in  the  management  of  his  private 
affairs,  purchased  rich  lands  from  the  Mo- 
hawk valley  to  the  flats  of  the  Kanawha,  and 
improved  his  fortune  by  the  correctness  of 
his  judgment ; but,  as  a public  man,  he  knew 
no  other  aim  than  the  good  of  his  country, 
and,  in  the  hour  of  his  country’s  poverty, 
he  refused  personal  emolument  for  his 
service. 

“ His  faculties  were  so  well  balanced  and 
combined  that  his  constitution,  free  from 
excess,  was  tempered  evenly  with  all  the 
elements  of  activity,  and  his  mind  resembled 
a well-ordered  commonwealth  ; his  passions, 
which  had  the  intensest  vigor,  owned  alle- 
giance to  reason ; and,  with  all  the  fiery 
quickness  of  his  spirit,  his  impetuous  and 
massive  will  was  held  in  check  by  consum- 
mate judgment.  He  had  in  his  composition 
a calm  which  gave  him,  in  moments  of  high- 
est excitement,  the  power  of  self-control,  and 
enabled  him  to  excel  in  patience  even  when 
he  had  most  cause  for  disgust.  Washington 
was  offered  a command  when  there  was  little 
to  bring  out  the  unorganized  resources  of  the 
continent  but  his  own  influence,  and  au- 
thority was  connected  with  the  people  by  the 
most  frail,  most  attenuated,  scarcely  discern- 
ible threads ; yet,  vehement  as  was  his 
nature,  impassioned  as  was  his  courage,  he 
so  restrained  his  ardor  that  he  never  failed 
continuously  to  exert  the  attracting  power 
of  that  influence,  and  never  exerted  it  so 
sharply  as  to  break  its  force. 

“ In  secrecy,  he  was  unsurpassed  ; but  his 
secrecy  had  the  character  of  prudent  reserve, 
not  of  cunning  or  concealment.  His  under- 
standing was  lucid  and  his  judgment  accu- 
rate, so  that  his  conduct  never  betrayed  hurry 
or  confusion.  No  detail  was  too  minute  for 
his  personal  inquiry  and  continued  supervi- 
sion ; and,  at  the  same  time,  he  comprehended 


events  in  their  widest  aspects  and  relations. 
He  never  seemed  above  tne  object  which  en- 
gaged his  attention,  and  he  was  always  equal 
without  an  effort,  to  the  solution  of  the  high 
est  questions,  even  when  there  existed  no 
precedents  to  guide  his  decision.  In  this 
way,  he  never  drew  to  himself  admiration 
for  the  possession  of  any  one  quality  in 
excess,  never  made  in  council  any  one  sug- 
gestion that  was  sublime  but  impracticable, 
never  in  action  took  to  himself  the  praise  or 
the  blame  of  undertakings  astonishing  in 
conception,  but  beyond  his  means  of  execu- 
tion. It  was  the  most  wonderful  accom- 
plishment of  this  man,  that  placed  upon  the 
largest  theatre  of  events,  at  the  head  of  the 
greatest  revolution  in  human  affairs,  he  never 
failed  to  observe  all  that  was  possible,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  bound  his  aspirations  by 
that  which  was  possible. 

“A  slight  tinge  in  his  character  percepti- 
ble only  to  the  close  observer,  revealed  the 
region  from  which  he  sprung,  and  he  might 
be  described  as  the  best  specimen  of  manhood 
as  developed  in  the  south  ; but  his  qualities 
were  so  faultlessly  proportioned,  that  his 
whole  country  rather  claimed  him  as  its 
choicest  representative,  the  most  complete 
expression  of  all  its  attainments  and  aspira- 
tions. He  studied  his  country  and  conformed 
to  it.  His  countrymen  felt  that  he  was  the 
best  type  of  America,  and  rejoiced  in  it,  and 
were  proud  of  it.  They  lived  in  his  life,  and 
made  his  success  and  his  praise  their  own. 

“ Profoundly  impressed  with  confidence  in 
God’s  Providence,  and  exemplary  in  his 
respect  for  the  forms  of  public  worship,  no 
philosopher  of  the  eighteenth  century  was 
more  firm  in  the  support  of  freedom  of  reli- 
gious opinion ; none  more  tolerant  or  more 
remote  from  bigotry ; but  belief  in  God,  and 
trust  in  his  overruling  power,  formed  the 
essence  of  his  character.  Divine  wisdom  not 
only  illumines  the  spirit, — it  inspires  the  will. 

“Washington  was  a man  of  action,  and 
not  of  theory  or  words ; his  creed  appears  in 
his  life,  not  in  his  professions,  which  burst 
from  him  very  rarely,  and  only  at  those  great 
moments  of  crisis  in  the  fortunes  of  his 
country  when  earth  and  heaven  seemed 
actually  to  meet,  and  his  emotions  became 
too  intense  for  suppression  ; but  his  wh(?le 
being  was  one  continued  act  of  faith  in  the 


WAS 


936 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


eternal,  intelligent,  moral  order  of  the  uni- 
verse. Integrity  was  so  completely  the  law  of 
his  nature,  that  a planet  would  sooner  have 
shot  from  its  sphere  than  he  have  departed 
from  his  uprightness,  which  was  so  constant 
that  it  often  seemed  to  be  almost  impersonal. 

“ They  say  of  Giotto,  that  he  introduced 
goodness  into  the  art  of  painting : Washing- 
ton carried  it  with  him  into  the  camp  and 
the  cabinet,  and  established  a new  criterion 
of  human  greatness.  The  purity  of  ins  will 
confirmed  his  fortitude  ; and  as  he  never  fal- 
tered in  his  faith  in  virtue,  he  stood  fast  by 
that  which  he  knew  to  be  just,  free  from  illu- 
sions, never  dejected  by  the  apprehension 
of  the  difficulties  and  perils  that  went  before 
him,  and  drawing  the  promise  of  success 
from  the  justice  of  his  cause.  Hence  he  was 
persevering,  leaving  nothing  unfinished;  free 
from  all  taint  of  obstinacy  in  his  firmness, 
seeking  and  gladly  receiving  advice,  but  im- 
movable in  his  devotedness  to  right. 

“Of  a ‘ retiring  modesty  and  habitual 
reserve,’  his  ambition  was  not  more  than  the 
consciousness  of  his  power,  and  was  subor- 
dinate to  his  sense  of  duty  ; he  took  the  fore- 
most place,  for  he  knew,  from  inborn  mag- 
nanimity, that  it  belonged  to  him  and  he 
dared  not  withhold  the  service  equired  of 
him ; so  that,  with  all  his  humility,  he  was 
by  necessity  the  first,  though  never  fcr  him- 
self or  for  private  ends.  He  loved  fame,  the 
approval  of  coming  generations,  the  good 
opinion  of  his  fellow-men  of  his  own  time, 
and  he  desired  to  made  his  conduct  coincide 
with  their  wishes ; but  not  fear  of  censure, 
not  the  prospect  of  applause,  could  tempt 
him  to  swerve  from  rectitude  ; and  the  praise 
which  he  coveted  was  the  sympathy  of  that 
moral  sentiment  which  exists  in  every  human 
breast,  and  goes  forth  only  to  the  welcome 
of  virtue. 

“ There  have  been  soldiers  who  have 
achieved  mightier  victories  in  the  field,  and 
made  conquests  more  nearly  -corresponding 
to  the  boundlessness  of  selfish  ambition ; 
statesmen  who  have  been  connected  with 
more  startling  upheavals  of  society ; but  it 
is  the  greatness  of  Washington,  that  in  public 
trusts  he  used  power  solely  for  the  public 
good ; that  he  was  the  life,  and  moderator, 
and  stajq  of  the  most  momentous  revolution 
in  human  affairs,  its  moving  impulse  and  its 

W 


restraining  power.  Combining  the  centri- 
petal and  the  centrifugal  forces  in  their  ut- 
most strength  and  in  perfect  relations,  with 
creative  grandeur  of  instinct  he  held  ruin  in 
check,  and  renewed  and  perfected  the  insti- 
tutions of  his  country.  Finding  the  colonies 
disconnected  and  dependent,  he  left  them 
such  a united  and  well-ordered  common- 
wealth as  no  visionary  had  believed  to  be 
possible.  So  that  it  has  been  truly  said,  ‘ he 
was  as  fortunate  as  great  and  good.’  ” 

WASHINGTON,  William  Augustine,  a 
distinguished  cavalry  officer  in  the  American 
revolution,  was  born,  in  Virginia.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  particularly  at  Guilford, 
and  Eutaw,  where,  however,  he  was  made 
prisoner,  and  detained  until  the  close  of  the 
war.  During  the  presidency  of  Adams, 
General  Washington  attached  his  relative  to 
his  staff  writh  the  .rank  of  brigadier -general. 
He  died  March  6th,  1810.  He  had  married 
a South  Carolinian  lady  to  whom  he  became 
attached  during  his  captivity,  and  settled  in 
Charleston. 

WATERLOO,  Battle  of,  called  by  French 
writers  the  battle  of  Mont  St.  Jean.  Water- 
loo, the  village  near  which  it  was  fought,  is 
in  theBelgic  province  of  South  Brabant,  on  the 
road  from  Charleroi  to  Brussels,  ten  miles  from 
the  latter  city,  at  the  entrance  of  the  forest  of 
Soignies.  The  European  confederates  having 
outlawed  Napoleon  by  a declaration  at  Vi- 
enna, assembled  their  forces  to  invade  France 
by  the  east  and  north.  A Prussian  army  of 
130,000  w7as  collected  at  Namur,  under  Blu- 
cher,  and  an  English,  Hanoverian,  Dutch, 
and  Flemish  army  of  100,000,  under  Wel- 
lington, in  advance  of  Brussels.  To  oppose 
these  Napoleon  had  a force  of  120,000. 
It  was  his  design  to  attack  and  defeat  them 
separately,  before  they  could  combine.  He 
took  possession  of  Charleroi  early  in  the 
morning  of  the  15th  of  June,  1815.  Ney 
w’as  dispatched  with  40,000  men  to  gain 
the  important  position  of  Quatrc-bras,  which 
would  have  cut  off  Wellington  from  Blucher. 
It  was  Napoleon’s  intention  to  leave  a small 
force  behind  the  intrenchments  there,  to 
beat  back  the  Russians,  while  he  destroyed 
the  army  of  Wellington.  The  news  of  the 
emperor’s  advance  reached  Wellington  that 
night  amid  the  gayeties  of  a ball  given  by 
the  Duchess  of  Richmond  at  Brussels.  lie 
\T 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


937 


was  aware  of  the  importance  of  Quatrebras, 
and  before  morning  his  troops  had  possession 
of  it.  All  the  fierce  assaults  of  Ney  the 
next  day  could  not  gain  it. 

Blucher  had  left  Namur  with  80,000  men 
to  join  Wellington.  Napoleon  met  him  at 
Ligny  on  the  16th  with  60,000.  A despe- 
rate conflict  lasted  all  day,  and  at  sunset  the 
French  were  everywhere  victorious.  Blucher 
retreated  during  the  night  toward  Wavre. 
Wellington,  hearing  of  this,  fell  back  from 
Quatre-bras,  halted  at  Waterloo,  and  anx- 
iously awaited  the  arrival  of  Blucher.  Na- 
poleon, after  dispatching  Grouchy  to  pursue 
the  Prussians,  joined  with  Ney  and  followed 
AVellington,  reaching  Waterloo  at  nightfall 
on  the  17th.  Wellington’s  army  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  72,000  to  90,000;  Napo- 
leon’s at  from  65,000  to  75,000.  Blucher,  at 
Wavre,  a few  hours’  march  away,  had  72,000. 
Wellington  was  admirably  posted:  the  cha- 
teau of  Hougomont  protected  his  right, 
acclivities  of  ground  his  left  and  centre,  and 
the  great  forest  of  Soignies  his  rear. 

The  battle  commenced  an  hour  before  noon 
o»  the  18th,  with  a bloody  attack  upon  the 
chateau  of  Hougomont,  and  extended  to 
other  portions  of  the  field.  The  carnage  was 
awful.  In  the  afternoon,  when  the  English 
line  was  giving  way  and  flying  in  dismay 
toward  Brussels,  Bulow,  with  the  Prussian 
van-guard,  came  upon  the  scene.  Ten  thou- 
sand French  beat  back  this  fresh  force  of 
thirty  thousand,  while  the  emperor  continued 
with  lessened  numbers  his  terrible  attack 
upon  the  English,  hoping  every  moment  for 
the  appearance  of  Grouchy.  That  general 
heard  the  booming  of  the  guns  in  battle,  yet 
unaccountably  refused  to  stir.  Wellington 
was  no  less  anxious  for  the  arrival  of  Blu- 
cher. As  he  saw  his  lines  falter,  he  cried, 
“Would  to  Heaven  that  Blucher  or  night 
would  come.”  Blucher  came,  and  the  odds 
of  numbers  were  three  to  one  against  the 
exhausted  French.  As  a last  hope  Napoleon 
ordered  a charge  Of  the  imperial  guard  ; he 
wished  to  lead  the  attack  in  person,  but  the 
entreaties  of  his  officers  led  him  to  give  place 
to  Ney.  All  the  valor  of  this  renowned  and 
intrepid  body  could  not  avail,  and  it  was 
annihilated  before  the  overwhelming  strength 
of  the  foe.  The  French  fled  in  panic,  leav- 
ing their  cannon  and  baggage,  and  the  Prus- 


sians followed  in  hot  pursuit.  Cambronne, 
with  a little  remnant  of  the  guard,  alone 
covered  the  flight.  When  summoned  to 
yield,  he  answered,  “ The  Guard  dies,  but 
never  surrenders.”  And  so  the  Guard  died 
upon  the  field  of  Waterloo. 

WATT,  James,  was  born  at  Greenock, 
Scotland,  Jan.  19th,  1736.  While  yet  a boy 
he  got  a hint  of  his  great  invention  as  he  sat 
by  the  fireside  and  watched  the  tea-kettle. 
The  improvements  which  he  made  in  the 
steam-engine  have  immortalized  him.  He 
died  near  Birmingham,  Aug.  25th,  1819. 

WATTS,  Isaac,  D.D.,  was  born  at  South- 
ampton, July  17th,  1674.  His  parents  were 
remarkable  for  piety.  He  was  educated 
among  dissenters,  and  in  1698  was  chosen 
minister  by  a congregation  at  Stoke  Newing- 
ton, and  afterward  by  one  in  Mark  Lane, 
London.  Ill  health  drove  him  from  his  post* 
and  in  1712  he  was  received  into  the  house 
of  a benevolent  gentleman  of  his  neighbor- 
hood, Sir  Thomas  Abney,  of  Abney  Park, 
where  he  spent  all  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
There  he  composed  those  devotional  hymns 
for  which  his  name  is  revered  by  all  lovers 
of  Christianity.  His  treatises  on  “Logic” 
and  on  the  “Improvement  of  the  Mind”  ar? 
cogent  in  argument  and  felicitous  in  illustra- 
tion. He  died  Nov.  25th,  1748. 

WAYNE,  Anthony,  a general  in  the 
American  Revolution,  born  in  Chester  county, 
Penn.,  Jan.  1st,  1745.  He  was  educated  at 
a Philadelphia  academj^.  Having  served  his 
country  in  a civil  capacity,  he  raised  a com- 
pany of  volunteers  in  1775,  and  was  elected 
colonel.  In  the  retreat  from  Canada  he 
behaved  with  great  prudence,  and  Feb.  12th, 
1777,  was  made  brigadier-general  by  the  con- 
tinental congress.  Fie  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battles  of  Brandywine,  Germantown, 
and  Monmouth,  but  his  most  brilliant  service 
was  performed  in  carrying  Stony  Point  by 
assault.  He  was  in  continual  service  through- 
out the  war,  and  in  1792  was  appointed  by 
Washington  to  succeed  St.  Clair  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  employed  against  the 
Indians  on  the  western  frontier.  Aug.  20th, 
1794,  he  gained  a victory  near  Miami  on  the 
lakes,  and  successfully  ended  the  war  by 
treaty  the  next  year.  While  returning  home 
from  the  west,  he  was  seized  with  the  gout, 
and  died  in  a hut  at  Presque  Isle,  on  the 


WAY 


938 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


shore  of  Lake  Erie,  in  December,  1796.  His 
reckless  daring  gained  him  the  name  of  Mad 
Antony. 

WEBER,  Carl  von,  a great  German  com- 
poser, the  author  of  “Der  Freischutz,” 
“Oberon,”  &c.,  was  born  at  Eutin  in  Hol- 
stein, in  December,  1786.  “Oberon”  was 
composed  for  the  English  stage,  and  was 


brought  out  at  Covent  Garden,  conducted  by 
Weber  himself,  April  12th,  1826.  Symptoms 
of  pulmonary  disease  soon  showed  them- 
selves ; the  health  of  the  talented  composer 
sank  rapidly ; and  his  illustrious  career 
closed  on  the  5th  of  June,  1826,  when  he 
was  found  lifeless  in  his  bed. 


WEBSTER,  Daniel,  was  the  second  son 
of  Ebenezer  Webster,  of  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  a 
captain  in  the  Revolutionary  army,  and  after- 
ward, though  not  bred  to  the  law,  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  court  of  common  pleas.  He 
was  born  in  that  part  of  Salisbury  now  called 
Boscawen,  the  18th  of  September,  1782.  He 
received  his  academical  education  at  Exeter 
and  Hanover,  graduating  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege in  1801,  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  He  had 
scantily  replenished  his  slender  exchequer  by 
teaching  school  during  his  vacations.  After 
one  year’s  experience  as  a pedagogue  at 
Fryeburg,  Me.,  he  returned  home  and  com- 
menced the  study  of  law.  In  1804  he 
betook  himself  to  Boston,  continued  his 


studies  with  Christopher  Gore,  a leading 
counselor,  afterward  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  in  the  following  year  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  He  returned  to  Salisbury  and 
began  practice.  His  father  strongly  urged 
him  to  take  the  clerkship  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas,  which  was  tendered  for  his 
acceptance.  The  position  was  tempting  then, 
but  he  fortunately  persisted  in  refusing  it. 
After  his  father’s  decease  in  1807,  he  removed 
to  Portsmouth,  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Dexter,  Story,  Mason,  and  others, 
afterward  eminent  at  the  bar  and  in  public 
life.  His  abilities  soon  won  him  a prominent 
position  in  his  profession  and  public  esteem ; 
so  that  in  1812  he  was  chosen  representative 


WEB 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


939 


in  congress.  He  took  his  seat  at  the  extra 
session  in  May,  1813,  and  on  the  10th  of 
June  delivered  his  first  speech,  on  the  subject 
of  the  orders  in  council,  manifesting  clearly 
the  extraordinary  powers  of  mind  which 
were  so  fully  developed  in  after  life. 

He  was  re-elected  to  congress  for  the  next 
term.  In  1817  he  removed  to  Boston,  where 
for  several  }rears  he  devoted  himself  assidu- 
ously to  the  practice  of  his  profession,  in 
which  he  had  acquired  a high  standing.  He 
was  a member  of  the  convention  which 
revised  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts  in 
1821,  and  the  next  year  was  elected  to  con- 
gress from  the  Boston  district.  His  famous 
speech  on  Greek  independence  was  delivered 
in  1823.  lie  was  re-elected  in  1824  and  182G, 
and  in  1825  delivered  the  address  on  laying 
the  corner-stone  of  the  Bunker  Hill  monu- 
ment. In  1827  he  was  chosen  to  Ihe  United 
States  senate,  by  the  legislature  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  in  that  year  uttered  his  eulog}r 
on  Adams  and  Jefferson.  In  the  senate  he 
at  once  ranked  among  the  master  minds. 
His  memorable  speeches  in  reply  to  Hayne, 
in  1830,  established  undeniably  his  claim  to 
the  highest  position  among  American  states- 
men. 

Mr.  Webster  continued  in  the  senate  till 
1841.  At  the  presidential  election  in  1836, 
he  received  the  electoral  vote  of  Massachu- 
setts. Upon  the  accession  of  General  Harri- 
son to  the  executive  chair  in  1841,  Webster 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state.  The  sud- 
den death  of  Gen.  Harrison,  and  the  course 
pursued  by  his  successor,  Mr.  Tyler,  soon 
caused  a disruption  of  the  cabinet,  and  all 
the  members  but  Webster  resigned.  He  re- 
mained in  office,  and  negotiated  the  Ashbur- 
ton treaty  in  1842,  which  settled  the  vexed 
question  of  the  north-eastern  boundary,  and 
ended  a protracted  dispute  which  had  threat- 
ened war  with  Great  Britain.  This  accom- 
plished, he  retired  from  the  cabinet.  In  1845 
he  was  again  chosen  to  the  senate,  in  which 
he  remained  till  in  1850  he  was  called  by 
Mr.  Fillmore  again  to  the  head  of  the  cabinet. 
In  this  office  he  died,  at  his  residence  in 
Marshfield,  the  24th  of  October,  1852. 

Such  is  a meagre  outline  of  the  public  life 
of  one  of  the  most  eminent  statesmen  of 
America.  As  a man  he  was  warmly  esteemed 
and  loved  by  his  intimates.  His  heart  was 


as  deep  and  strong  as  was  his  intellect.  He 
was  country-bred,  and  he  never  lost  his  love 
for  nature.  He  loved  out-door  and  manly 
sports, — boating,  fishing,  fowling.  He  loved 
New  Hampshire’s  mountain  scenery.  He 
had  started  small  and  poor,  had  risen  great 
and  high,  and  honorably  had  fought  his  way 
alone.  He  was  a farmer,  and  took  a country- 
man’s delight  in  country  things, — in  loads 
of  hay,  in  trees,  in  noble  Indian  corn,  in 
monstrous  swine.  He  had  a patriarch’s  love 
of  sheep,  and  choice  breeds  thereof  he  had. 
He  took  delight  in  cows — short-horned  Dur- 
hams,  Herefordshires,  Ayrshires,  Alderneys. 
He  tilled  paternal  acres  with  his  own  oxen. 
He  loved  to  give  the  kine  fodder.  It  was 
pleasant  to  hear  his  talk  of  oxen.  And  but 
three  days  before  he  left  the  earth,  too  ill  to 
visit  them,  his  oxen,  lowing,  came  to  see 
their  sick  lord,  and  as  he  stood  in  his  door, 
his  great  cattle  were  driven  up,  that  he  might 
smell  their  healthy  breath,  and  look  his  last 
on  those  broad,  generous  faces  that  were 
never  false  to  him.  He  was  a friendly  man : 
all  along  the  shore  there  were  plain  men  that 
loved  him — whom  he  also  loved ; a good 
neighbor,  a good  townsman — 

“ Lofty  and  sour  to  those  that  loved  him  r.ot, 
But  to  those  men  that  sought  him,  sweet  as 
summer.” 

WEBSTER,  Noah,  the  great  American  lex- 
icographer, was  born  at  West  Hartford,  Conn., 
Oct.  16th,  1758.  He  was  bred  to  the  bar, 
and  practiced  his  profession  with  success, 
but  a great  share  of  his  life  was  devoted  to 
the  compilation  of  his  dictionary  and  other 
literary  avocations.  He  died  at  New  Haven, 
May  28th,  1843. 

WELLINGTON.  Arthur  Wellesley  was 
born  at  Dangan  Castle,  county  of  Meath,  Ire- 
land, May  1st,  1769.  His  father  was  Lord 
Mornington,  an  Irish  peer  of  Norman  descent. 
He  was  placed  at  Eton  school,  and  received 
a military  education  at  the  military  school  of 
Angers  in  France.  His  first  active  service 
was  seen  in  1793,  when  his  regiment  (the 
thirty-third)  was  ordered  against  the  French 
in  Flanders.  Young  Wellesley  acquitted 
himself  well  in  the  disastrous  campaign,  and 
gained  the  rank  of  major.  In  1799  his  regi- 
ment was  ordered  to  India,  of  which  empire, 
his  elder  brother,  the  Marquis  of  Wellesley, 
was  then  governor-general.  The  services  he 


WEL 


940 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


rendered  in  the  campaigns  against  Tippoo 
Saib  and  the  Mahrattas,  won  him  the  rank 
of  general.  His  career  in  India  culminated 
with  his  splendid  victory  at  Assay e.  He  had 
stormed  the  strong  fortress  of  Achmednaghur, 
and  came  up  with  the  Mahratta  army,  posted 
at  the  village  of  Assaye.  While  Gen.  Wel- 
lesley’s force  was  but  a handful  of  4,500 
men,  of  whom  only  1,700  were  Europeans, 
the  Mahrattas  were  30,000  strong.  His  ar- 
my, moreover,  was  divided,  a half  of  it  march- 
ing by  another  road,  separated  from  his  own. 
by  a ridge  of  hills.  He,  nevertheless,  at 
once  threw  himself  upon  the  outnumbering 
foe  without  awaiting  the  arrival  of  the  re- 
serve. Such  boldness  the  event  proved  true 
wisdom,  and  his  heroism  won  a brilliant  tri- 
umph, which  materially  broke  the  power  of 
the  Mahrattas,  and  aided  in  compelling  them 
to  make  peace.  He  was  made  a knight  of  the 
order  of  the  Bath,  and  returned  to  England 
in  1805,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley. 

Soon  after,  he  was  appointed  secretary  for 
Ireland,  stipulating  that  ministerial  service 
should  not  interfere  with  his  professional  du- 
ties. The  same  year  (1807)  he  commanded 
a division  in  the  Copenhagen  expedition  un- 
der Lord  Cathcart.  He  was  not  engaged  in 
the  siege,  but  headed  a corps  detailed  to  dis- 
perse a Danish  force  that  had  collected  in  the 
rear  of  the  British  army  on  the  island  of 
Zealand.  He  returned  to  England,  after  the 
fall  of  Copenhagen,  and  in  1808  was  ordered 
to  Portugal.  The  next  year  he  received  the 
chief  command  of  the  army  there.  His  suc- 
cess in  the  Peninsula  is  historical.  The  des- 
perate battle  of  Talavera,  the  passage  of  the 
Douro,  the  impregnable  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  the  terrible  contests  of  Fuentes 
d’Onore  and  Albuera,  the  storming  of  Ciudad 
Rodrigo  and  Badajoz,  the  severe  fight  of  Sal- 
amanca, the  decisive  victory  of  Yittoria,  the 
siege  of  St.  Sebastian,  the  capture  of  Pam- 
peluna — these  are  the  prominent  features  of 
the  Peninsular  campaigns.  Seven  of  Napo- 
leon’s marshals  were  foiled  or  defeated  there 
by  Wellington — Junot,  Soult,  Ney,  Massena, 
Mortier,  Marmont,  and  Jourdan.  The  last 
of  this  great  series  of  encounters  was  fought 
between  Wellington  and  Soult,  at  Toulouse, 
April  10th,  1814,  and  was  won  by  the  for- 
mer. 

When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  Wel- 

W1 


lington  was  appointed  to  command  the  army 
of  British,  Hanoverians,  and  Belgians,  gath- 
ered in  the  Netherlands  to  help  annihilate 
the  French  emperor.  The  two  great  gene- 
rals met  on  the  bloody  field  of  Waterloo,  and 
Napoleon  was  defeated.  Wellington  com- 
manded the  army  of  observation  which  held 
the  frontier  fortresses  of  France  for  the  next 
three  j'ears.  The  victories  he  had  gained 
were  rewarded  by  England  with  munificent 
donations,  and  an  enumeration  of  the  titles 
and  honors  bestowed  upon  him  at  home  and 
abroad  would  fill  pages.  He  was  not  so  suc- 
cessful as  a statesman.  He  was  prime-minister 
from  1828  to  1880.  He  was  again  made 
commander-in-chief,  and  discharged  the  du- 
des of  that  position  regularly  till  his  death, 
which  took  place  at  Walmer  Castle,  Sept. 
14th,  1852.  The  nation  gave  him  a public 
funeral,  and  he  was  interred  by  the  side  of 
Nelson,  beneath  the  great  dome  of  St.  Paul’s. 

The  Duke  of  Wellington  was  very  simple 
and  abstemious  in  his  habits ; noted  for  his 
punctuality,  and  rigid  observance  of  duty. 
The  ascendency  he  obtained  was  attested  by 
the  frequent  familiar  mention  of  him  as  The 
Duke,  par  excellence. 

WESLEY,  Charles,  was  born  at  Epworth 
in  April,  1708.  He  was  an  important  coad- 
jutor of  his  brother  John  in  founding  Meth- 
odism. He  wrote  many  devotional  hymns 
of  great  beauty.  He  died  in  1788. 

WESLEY,  John,  came  of  a clerical  stock. 
The  great-grandfather,  John  Wesley,  was  a 
reverend  and  very  learned  clergyman  in  the 
church  of  England,  who  suffered  severely 
for  nonconformity  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
II. : his  wife  was  a niece  of  Thomas  Fuller, 
the  church  historian.  Samuel  Wesley,  the 
father,  was  also  a clergyman  of  the  Anglican 
church.  John  was  born  at  Epworth,  Lin- 
colnshire, J une  1 7 th,  1 7 03.  U nder  the  teach- 
ings  of  his  mother  hi’s  heart  was  early  imbued 
with  piety.  At  Christ  Church  college,  with 
his  brother  Charles  and  a few  other  students, 
he  entered  upon  a strict  system  of  pious 
study  and  discipline,  which  won  them  the 
nickname  of  Methodists.  John  Wesley  was 
well  fitted,  by  nature  and  scholastic  attain- 
ments, to  found  a new  sect.  Macaulay  says 
his  genius  for  government  was  not  inferior  to 
that  of  Richelieu.  After  officiating  a short  time 
as  curate  to  his  father,  the  young  enthusiast, 
ES 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


941 


accompanied  by  Charles,  set  off  on  a mission 
to  Georgia,  where  he  remained  about  two 
years.  Shortly  after  his  return  in  1738,  he 
commenced  field-preaching,  traveling  through- 
out Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  establish- 
ing Methodist  congregations.  Thousands 
flocked  to  his  standard.  For  a time  he  was 
associated  with  Whitefield,  but  they  differed 
upon  the  doctrine  of  election,  which  Wesley 
rejected,  and  so  they  separated. 

Wesley  continued  writing,  preaching,  and 
journeying,  till  he  was  eighty-eight  years  of 
age ; his  apostolic  earnestness  and  venerable 
appearance  procured  for  him  everywhere  pro- 
found respect.  He  had  preached  about  forty 
thousand  sermons  and  traveled  three  hundred 
thousand  miles.  His  useful  and  laborious 
career  ended  -on  the  2d  of  March,  1791. 
His  body  lay  in  a kind  of  state  in  his  chapel 
at  London  the  day  previous  to  interment, 
dressed  in  his  clerical  habit,  with  gown,  cas- 
sock, and  band ; the  old  clerical  cap  on  his 
head,  a Bible  in  one  hand,  and  a white  hand- 
kerchief in  the  other.  The  funeral  service 
was  read  by  one  of  his  old  preachers.  When 
he  came  to  that  part  of  the  service,  “Foras- 
much as  it  hath  pleased  God  to  take  unto 
himself  the  soul  of  our  dear  brother ,”  his 
voice  changed,  and  he  substituted  the  word 
father;  and  the  feeling  with  which  he  did 
this  was  such,  that  the  congregation,  who 
were  shedding  silent  tears,  burst  at  once  into 
loud  weeping. 

WEST,  Sir  Benjamin,  a v.ery  eminent 
painter,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1738,  of 
Quaker  parentage;  went  to  Rome  in  1760, 
thence  to  England  in  1763,  where  he  became 
successor  to  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Academy  ; he  died  in  1820. 
From  1767  to  1802  his  services  were  almost 
constantly  engrossed  by  George  III.  In  the 
latter  year,  the  king’s  illness  lost  Sir  Benja- 
*min  the  patronage  of  the  court,  and  he  then 
commenced  his  series  of  great  religious  pic- 
tures. In  his  historical  paintings  he  sensi- 
bly abandoned  the  absurdity  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  costume,  and  dressed  liis  heroes 
in  the  garb  of  their  day. 

WEST  POINT,  a village  of  New  York,  and 
military  post,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hud- 
son, fifty-three  miles  above  New  York.  It 
was  the  scene  of  the  treachery  of  Arnold. 

During  the  war  of  the  Revolution  it  was  a 


fortress  of  great  importance,  as  it  commanded 
the  river,  and  prevented  communication  be- 
tween Canada  and  the  city  of  New  York. 
The  rocky  promontory  juts  into  the  stream, 
impelling  the  current  toward  the  opposite 
bank,  and  reducing  the  channel  to  less  than 
half  a mile  in  breadth.  This  natural  forma- 
tion was  eminently  favorable  to  the  object  of 
the  fortifications  erected  here.  The  cliff  rises 
from  the  river  in  terraces ; upon  the  third  of 
which,  188  feet  above  the  water,  and  spread- 
ing out  into  a broad  plateau,  old  Fort  Clinton 
was  erected.  Upon  eminences  still  higher 
in  the  rear,  redoubts  were  erected  covering 
this  fort ; one  of  which  was  Fort  Putnam,  at 
the  height  of  598  feet  above  the  river,  the 
ruins  of  which  are  still  seen.  On  Constitu- 
tion Island,  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
works  were  also  constructed;  and  a heavy 
chain,  supported  by  buoys,  was  stretched 
across  the  angle  made  by  the  river,  forming 
an  effectual  bar  to  the  passage  of  the  enemy’s 
ships. 

The  works  were  erected  in  1778  under  the 
superintendence  of  Kosciusko,  assisted  by 
French  engineers.  They,  were  completed 
within  a year,  and  West  Point  was  considered 
the.  strongest  fortress  in  the  country.  After 
the  Revolution  they  fell  into  decay.  In  1802 
the  United  States  established  the  military 
academy  here. 

WEST  INDIES,  the  great  Archipelago 
which  lies  between  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica. The  richness  of  their  products,  the 
splendor  of  their  tropical  vegetation,  the 
beauty  of  their  scenery,  their  history,  and 
the  singular  forms  of  society  existing  among 
them,  render  these  islands  peculiarly  inter- 
esting. Nature  is  not  so  partial  as  she  seems. 
For  the  wealth  of  soil  and  clime  wherewith 
she  endowed  these  islands,  they  have  paid 
heavy  taxes  in  sweeping  hurricanes,  deso- 
lating earthquakes,  and  terrible  volcanic  fires. 
They  were  the  portal  through  which  the 
Spaniards  entered  upon  the  riches  of  the 
New  World.  By  the  cruelty  of  the  Spanish, 
the  natives  were  almost  utterly  exterminated. 
For  about  a century  and  a half  they  remained 
in  the  possession  of  Spain,  though  neglected 
for  the  more  splendid  regions  of  Mexico  and 
Peru.  During  the  seventeenth  century  the 
smaller  isles  became  the  haunt  of  desperate 
outlaws  and  pirates,  the  buccaneers,  who 


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942 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


waged  with  success  a predatory  warfare 
along  the  Spanish  main  ; and  at  the  same 
time  England  and  France,  not  without  con- 
currence with  these  adventurers,  sought  to 
obtain  possession  in  the  archipelago.  Before 
the  end  of  the  century,  the  English  were 
masters  of  Jamaica,  the  French  held  half  of 
St.  Domingo,  and  the  two  nations  had  divided 
between  them  nearly  the  wrhole  of  the  Wind- 
ward Islands.  Other  European  nations  gained 
a foothold  also,  and  the  buccaneers  being  put 
down,  the  isles,  w7ith  the  exception  of  those 
held  by  decayed  Spain,  rose  in  cultivation 
and  importance.  Slavery  has  been  gradually 
done  awray  by  the  various  powers,  till  it  only 
remains  on  those  held  by  the  Spanish. 

Various  names  are  given  by  seamen  of 
different  nations  to  different  portions  of  the 
archipelago.  The  Windward  Islands  are 
Martinique  and  those  south  of  it ; those  be- 
tween Martinique  and  Porto  Rico  are  called 
the  Leeward  Islands : these  two  groups,  with 
the  islets  along  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  con- 
stitute the  Lesser  Antilles.  The  most  north- 
erly of  the  Leeward  Islands  are  also  known 
as  the  Virgin  Isles.  Porto  Rico,  St.  Domin- 
go, Jamaica,  and  Cuba  are  called  the  Greater 
Antilles  ; while  outside  of  these  are  the  great 
banks  on  which  rest  the  Lucayas,  or  Baha- 
mas. 

Hayti,  or  San  Domingo,  is  divided  into  the 
independent  republics  of  Ilayti  and  Domin- 
ica. Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  belong  to  Spain. 
Guadaloupe,  Martinique,  and  the  north  side 
of  St.  Martin’s  arc  held  by  the  French.  The 
Dutch  have  the  south  side  of  St.  Martin’s 
and  Curacoa;  the  Danes,  Santa  Cruz,  St. 
Thomas,  and  St.  John’s ; the  Swedes,  St.  Bar- 
tholomew’s. The  remainder,  Jamaica,  Trin- 
idad, Barbadoes,  Antigua,  &c.,  are  under 
British  rule. 

WESTERN  EMPIRE.  The  Roman  em- 
pire was  divided  by  Valentinian  and  Valens, 
of  whom  the  former  had  the  western  portion, 
or  Rome,  properly  so  called,  a.d.  3G4.  Odo- 
accr,  a chief  of  the  Ilcruli,  entered  Italy,  de- 
feated Orestes,  took  Rome  and  Ravenna, 
deposed  Augustulus,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  king  of  Italy,  Aug.  23d,  which  ended  the 
Western  empire,  507  years  after  the  battle 
of  Actium,  a.d.  47G.  [See  Eastern  Empire.] 
emperors. 

364.  Valentinian,  son  of  Gratian,  takes  the  West- 


ern Empire,  and  his  brother  Valens,  the 
Eastern  Empire. 

367.  Gratian,  a youth,  son  of  Valentinian,  made 
a colleague  in  the  government,  by  his 
father. 

375.  Valentinian  II.,  another  son,  also  very 
young,  is,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  asso- 
ciated with  his  brother  in  the  empire. 
Gratian  is  assassinated  by  his  general, 
Andragathius,  in  383:  Valentinian  mur- 
dered by  one  of  his  officers,  Arbogastes, 
in  392. 

392.  Eugenius,  a usurper,  assumes  the  imperial 
dignity  : he  and  Arbogastes  are  defeated 
bv  Theodosius  the  Great,  who  becomes 
sole  emperor.  Andragathius  throws  him- 
self into  the  sea,  and  Arbogastes  dies  by 
his  own  hand. 

395.  Ilonorius,  son  of  Theodosius,  reigns,  on  his 
father’s  death,  in  the  West,  and  his  brother, 
Arcadius,  in  the  East.  Ilonorius  dies  in 
423. 

[Usurpation  of  John,  the  Notary,  who  is 
defeated  and  slain,  near  Ravenna.] 

425.  Valentinian  III.,  son  of  the  Empress  Pla- 
cidia,  daughter  of  Theodosius  the  Great: 
murdered  at  the  instance  of  his  successor. 

455.  Maximus:  he  marries  Eudoxia,  widow  of 

Valentinian,  who,  to  avenge  the  death  of 
her  first  husband  and  the  guilt  of  her 
second,  invites  the  African  Vandals  into 
Italy,  and  Rome  is  sacked.  Maximus 
stoned  to  death. 

456.  Marcus  Mascilius  Avitus : forced  to  resign, 

and  dies  in  his  flight  toward  the  Alps. 

457.  Julius  Valerius  Mcjorianus : murdered  at 

the  instance  of  his  minister,  Ricimer,  who 
raises 

461.  Libius  Severus  to  the  throne,  but  holds  the 
supreme  power.  Severus  is  poisoned  by 
Ricimer. 

465.  [Interregnum.  Ricimer  retains  the  author- 
ity, without  assuming  the  title,  of  empe- 
ror.] 

467.  Anthemius,  chosen  by  the  joint  suffrages 
of  the  senate  and  army : murdered  by 
Ricimer,  who  dies  soon  after. 

472.  Flavius  Anicius  Olvbrius : slain  by  the 

Goths  soon  after  his  accession. 

473.  Glycerius  : forced  to  abdicate  by  his  succes- 

sor. 

474.  Julius  Nepos : deposed  by  his  general, 

Orestes,  and  retires  to  Salonan 

475.  Romulus  Augustulus,  son  of  Orestes.  Ores- 

tes is  slain,  and  the  emperor  deposed  by 

476.  Odoacer,  king  of  the  Ilcruli,  who  takes 

Rome,  assumes  the  style  of  king  of  Italy, 
and  completes  the  fall  of  the  Western 
Empire. 

WESTPHALIA.  This  duchy  belonged, 
in  former  times,  to  the  dukes  of  Saxony. 
On  the  secularization  of  1802,  it  was  made 
over  to  Hesse  Darmstadt;  and  in  1814,  wras 
ceded  for  an  equivalent  to  Prussia.  The 
kingdom  of  Westphalia,  one  of  the  tempo- 
rary kingdoms  of  Bonaparte,  composed  of 


WES 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


943 


conquests  from  Prussia,  Hesse  Casscl,  Hano- 
ver, and  the  smaller  states  to  the  west  of  the 
Elbe,  was  created  Dec.  1st,  1807,  and  Jerome 
Bonaparte  appointed  king.  Hanover  was 
annexed  March  1st,  1810.  This  kingdom 
was  overturned  in  1813. 

WESTPHALIA,  Peace  of.  Signed  at 
Munster  and  at  Osnaburg,  between  France, 
the  emperor,  and  Sweden  ; Spain  continuing 
the  war  against  France.  By  this  peace  the 
principle  of  a balance  of  power  in  Europe 
was  first  recognized  ; Alsace  given  to  France, 
and  part  of  Pomerania  and  some  other  dis- 
tricts to  Sweden ; the  elector  palatine  restored 
to  the  Lower  Palatinate  ; the  civil  and  polit- 
ical rights  of  the  German  states  established ; 
and  the  independence  of  the  Swiss  confede- 
ration recognized  by  Germany,  Oct.  24th, 
1648. 

WEST  VIRGINIA  was  formerly  a portion 
of  the  state  of  Virginia,  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  in  1863,  and  contains  20,000  square 
miles.  The  population  of  the  state  according 
tJ  the  last  census,  is  442,013.  The  eastern 
part  of  the  state  is  very  mountainous,  while 
the  western  is  level,  sloping  towards  the  Ohio 
and  Big  Sandy  rivers.  The  products  are 
chiefly  corn  and  wheat ; the  minerals  are  coal, 
iron,  and  salt. 

The  governor  is  elected  for  two  years,  and 
must  reside  at  the  seat  of  government.  The 
senate  is  composed  of  eighteen  and  the  house 
of  delegates  of  forty-seven  members  ; the  for- 
mer hold  office  for  two  years,  the  latter  for 
one.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  granted  to 
male  citizens  twenty-one  years  cf  age.  The 
judicial  power  of  the  state  is  vested  in  a su- 
preme court  of  appeals,  circuit  court,  and 
such  inferior  tribunals  as  the  legislature  may 
establish.  The  circuit  judges  hold  office  six 
years.  There  are  three  judges  of  the  supreme 
court  of  appeals  who  hold  office  for  twelve 
years,  one  being  elected  every  four  years. 
The  state  has  a large  school  fund,  and  a su- 
perintendent of  public  schools.  The  capital 
of  the  state  is  Charleston,  situated  on  the 
Great  Kanawha  river.  It  contains  3,162  in- 
habitants. The  principal  towns  of  the  state 
are  Wheeling,  numbering  19,280;  Parkers- 
burg 6,641,  and  Harper’s  Ferry  with  13,000 
inhabitants. 

WHIPPLE,  William,  a signer  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  was  born  at  Ivit- 

W 


tery,  Me.,  in  1730.  In  1759,  he  commenced 
business  at  Portsmouth,  N.  II.  He  was  an 
active  republican,  and  in  1776  was  elected  to 
Congress.  He  was  brigadier  of  the  state 
militia  in  1777,  fought  in  the  battle  of  Still- 
water and  Saratoga,  and  assisted  in  escorting 
Burgoyne’s  captive  army  toward  Boston.  He 
was  appointed  judge  in  1782,  and  died  in 
November,  1785. 

WHITE,  Henry  Ivirke,  born  in  Notting- 
ham, Aug.  2 1st,  1785,  died  Oct.  19th,  1806. 
His  parents  were  in  humble  life.  In  early 
childhood  he  gave  promise  of  genius  as  a 
rhymer  and  student.  At  the  age  of  four- 
teen, he  was  placed  at  a stocking  loom,  but 
his  soaring  spirit  could  not  be  happy 
there  ; to  all  kinds  of  trade  he  had  an  ex- 
treme aversion.  His  temper  and  tone  of 
mind  at  this  period,  are  displayed  in  an  ad- 
dress to  Contemplation.  Aoout  a year  after 
his,  he  entered  upon  the  study  of  the  law. 
He  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  Latin 
during  his  leisure  hours,  in  which  language 
he  received  only  some  trifling  instruction  ; 
yet  in  ten  months  he  enabled  himself  to  read 
Horace  with  facility,  and  had  made  some  pro- 
gress in  Greek,  studying  at  the  same  time 
the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  langua- 
ges, in  all  which  he  became  a tolerable  pro- 
ficient. Chemistry,  astronomy,  and  electri- 
city were  among  his  studies ; lie  paid  some 
attention  to  drawing  and  music,  and  had  a 
turn  for  mechanics.  His  friends  procured 
him  a sizarsliip  at  Cambridge.  Severe  study 
soon  wore  out  his  feeble  constitution,  and  he 
died  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  leaving  behind 
him  as  proofs  of  his  genius,  many  remarka- 
ble papers  on  science,  history,  theology,  and 
language. 

WHITE  PLAINS,  Battle  of.  After  the 
defeat  on  Long  Island,  Washington  was  com- 
pelled to  abandon  the  city  of  New  York  to 
Sir  William  Howe.  Various  skirmishes  oc- 
curred between  the  British  and  the  gradually 
retreating  Americans.  On  the  28th  of  Octo- 
ber, 1776,  Howe  attacked  the  American  camp 
at  White  Plains.  In  the  short  but  severe 
action  the  advantage  belonged  to  the  British, 
who  gained  an  eminence  overlooking  Wash- 
ington’s position.  Night  came  on,  and  the 
armies  lay  within  long  cannon-shot  of  each 
other,  anticipating  a more  deadly  conflict  on 
the  morrow  ; before  which  time  Washington 
HI 


944 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


so  strengthened  his  defenses  in  appearance 
that  Ilowe  dared  not  attack  till  Lord  Percy 
should  come  up  with  six  battalions  more. 
Percy  arrived  on  the  thirtieth,  but  a severe 
tempest  delayed  the  operations  of  the  Brit- 
ish, and  in  the  night  of  the  31st,  Washington 
decamped  to  a height  five  miles  otf,  where 
he  had  thrown  up  stronger  works  than  the 
redoubts  of  sods  and  cornstalks  that  had  so 
deceived  Howe  at  White  Plains ; and  thus  his 
feeble  and  shattered  army  was  saved. 

WHITEFIELD,  George,  founder  of  the 
sect  of  Calvinistic  Methodists,  born  at  Glou- 
cester, England,  1714,  and  died  at  Ncwbury- 
port,  Mass.,  1770,  where  he  lies  interred.  His 
eloquence  in  the  pulpit  was  very  remarkable. 
He  was  in  early  life  associated  with  John 
Wesley,  but  in  after  life  they  were  separated 
by  difference  of  opinion.  He  visited  Amer- 
ica seven  times,  traveling  and  preaching 
through  nearly  all  the  colonies,  and  he  jour- 
neyed also  through  England,  Scotland,  and 
Wales.  When  his  strength  began  to  fail,  he 
put  himself  on  what  he  termed  “short  allow- 
ance,” preaching  once  only  every  week-day, 
and  three  times  on  the  Sabbath ! 

WHITFIELD,  James,  Catholic  Archbishop 
of  Baltimore,  was  born  at  Liverpool  in  Eng- 
land on  the  3d  of  November,  1770,  and  died 
at  Baltimore  on  the  19th  of  October,  1834. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  was  bereaved  of 
his  father  and  became  the  protector  of  his 
mother.  To  assuage  her  grief,  and  to  restore 
her  sinking  health,  he  accompanied  her  to 
Italy.  On  his  return  from  that  country, 
where  he  had  been  for  some  time  engaged  in 
mercantile  pursuits,  he  found  himself  in 
France  at  the  time  when  Napoleon  had  de- 
creed that  every  Englishman  in  France  was 
a prisoner.  He  spent  the  greatest  part  of  his 
exile  in  L}rons,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  Dr.  Marechal,  who  was  then  professor 
of  theology  in  the  seminary  in  that  city. 
The  piety  of  his  youth  inclined  his  mind  to 
the  sacerdotal  state,  and  he  commenced  the 
study  of  divinity  under  the  direction  of  his 
learned  and  pious  friend.  He  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  solid  judgment  and 
persevering  industry.  In  the  year  1809  he 
was  ordained  priest  in  the  city  of  Lyons. 
After  the  death  of  his  mother,  he  returned  to 
England,  and  was  employed  in  the  discharge 
of  parochial  duties  in  the  town  of  Crosby. 


When  Dr.  Marechal  was  elevated  to  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  Baltimore,  he  wrote  to  Mr. 
AVhitfield,  earnestly  soliciting  him  to  give 
his  assistance  to  the  flock  which  Providence 
had  placed  under  his  charge.  He  complied 
with  the  request,  and  landed  on  our  shores 
on  the  8th  of  September,  1817.  In  1825  he 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  from 
the  court  of  Rome.  At  the  death  of  Arch- 
bishop Marechal,  his  name  was  on  the  list 
which  was  first  sent  to  Rome  to  receive  the 
sanction  of  his  holiness,  and  he  was  soon 
after  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  in 
the  cathedral  of  that  city. 

WICKLIFFE,  or  Wycliffe,  John,  a learned 
ecclesiastic  and  professor  of  theology  at  Ba- 
liol  College,  Oxford,  the  “morning  star  of 
the  Reformation,”  was  born  at  a village  of  the 
same  name,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1324.  He  was 
nominated  one  of  the  king’s  commissioners, 
to  require  of  the  pope  that  he  would  not  in- 
terfere in  ecclesiastical  benefices.  This  treaty 
was  carried  on  at  Bruges ; but  nothing  was 
concluded,  upon  which  the  parliament  passed 
an  act  against  the  papal  usurpations.  This 
encouraged  Wickliffe  to  go  on  in  exposing 
the  corruptions  of  the  church,  and  the  tyr- 
anny of  the  pope,  who,  in  1377,  denounced 
the  reformer  as  an  heretic,  and  required  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  Bishop 
of  London  to  proceed  in  judgment  upon 
him.  Wickliffe,  however,  was  supported  by 
the  Duke  of  Lancaster  (John  of  Gaunt)  and 
Earl  Percy,  who  appeared  with  him  at  St. 
Paul’s,  Feb.  19th,  1378.  High  words  ensued 
on  that  occasion  between  the  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don and  the  temporal  lords  ; in  consequence 
of  which,  the  populace  took  the  bishop’s 
part,  and  plundered  the  duke’s  house  in  the 
Savoy.  Wickliffe,  being  thus  countenanced 
at  court,  undertook  a translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures from  the  Vulgate  into  English,  which 
work  he  accomplished,  and  thereby  increased 
the  number  of  his  enemies.  In  1381  Wick- 
liffe ventured  to  attack  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation,  in  a piece  entitled  “De  Blas- 
phemia,”  which  being  condemned  at  Oxford, 
he  went  thither  and  made  a declaration  of 
his  faith,  and  professed  his  resolution  to 
defend  it  with  his  blood.  The  marriage  of 
Richard  II.  with  Anne  of  Luxemburg,  proved 
very  advantageous  to  Wickliffe ; for  she  was 
a most  exemplary  princess,  and  a great  friend 


WIC 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


945 


to  scriptural  knowledge.  By  her  means  the 
writings  of  the  English  reformer  were  sent 
to  Germany,  where  they  afterward  produced 
an  abundant  harvest.  Wickliffe  received  a 
citation  from  the  pope  to  appear  at  Rome ; 
but  he  answered,  that  “ Christ  had  taught 
him  to  obey  God  rather  than  man.”  He 
died  of  the  palsy,  at  the  rectory  of  Lutter- 
worth, in  1384.  The  council  of  Constance  de- 
nounced him  as  a heretic,  and  decreed  that  his 
remains  should  no  longer  desecrate  consecra- 
ted ground.  His  bones  were  exhumed  and 
burnt  in  1428,  therefore,  and  the  ashes  thrown 
into  the  neighboring  brook.  Fuller,  the 
church  historian,  quaintly  says : “ Thus  this 
brook  has  conveyed  his  ashes  into  Avon,  Avon 
into  Severn,  Severn  into  the  narrow  seas,  they 
into  the  main  ooean,  and  thus  the  ashes  of 
Wickliffe  are  the  emblem  of  his  doctrine, 
which  is  now  dispersed  all  the  world  over.” 

WILBERFORCE,  William,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  philanthropists  of  modern 
times,  one  whose  able,  zealous,  long  con- 
tinued, and  ultimately  successful  exertions 
in  favor  of  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade, 
have  given  him  a high  rank  among  the  bene- 
factors of  the  human  race,  was  born  Aug. 
24th,  1759,  at  Hull.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
John’s  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  formed 
an  intimacy  with  William  Pitt ; was  elected 
a member  of  parliament  for  Hull  in  1780; 
for  the  county  of  York  in  1784  ; and  in  1787, 
be  brought  forth  a motion  for  the  abolition 
of  the  slave  trade,  and  the  question,  after  a 
long  and  laborious  struggle,  was  finally  car- 
ried during  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Fox,  June 
10th,  1806.  In  1797  Mr.  Wilberforce  pub- 
lished his  celebrated  “Practical  View  of 
Christianity,”  a work  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  most  European  languages,  and  of 
which  numerous  editions  have  been  printed 
in  Great  Britain  and  America.  He  died  in 
London,  July  28th,  1833.  His  remains  were 
consigned  to  the  sanctuary  of  the  illustrious 
dead  in  Westminster  Abbey ; and  his  “ fune- 
ral train  included  the  great  and  the  good  of 
all  parties.” 

WILKES,  John,  was  born  in  Clerkenwell, 
London,  where  his  father  was  a distiller^  in 
1727.  He  obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  of  the 
Buckinghamshire  militia,  and  a seat  in  par- 
liament for  Aylesbury.  He  conducted  the 
North  Briton,  and  for  its  violent  attacks 

60  w 


upon  the  Earl  of  Bute’s  administration,  he 
was  expelled  from  the  House  of  Commons  ; 
and  convicted  in  the  court  of  king’s  bench. 
Previous  to  this,  however,  he  had  gained  a 
verdict  in  the  common  pleas  against  the  sec- 
retary of  state,  for  an  illegal  seizure  of  his 
papers  by  a general  warrant.  In  the  mean 
time,  Wilkes  incurred  another  prosecution 
for  printing  an  obscene  poem,  called  an 
“ Essay  on  Woman ; ” and  for  not  appearing 
to  receive  judgment,  was  outlawed.  He 
went  to  France,  where  he  resided  till  1768, 
when  he  was  elected  for  Middlesex ; but  was 
prevented  from  taking  his  seat,  and  com- 
mitted to  the  King’s  Bench  prison,  which 
occasioned  dreadful  riots  in  St.  George’s 
Fields.  Wilkes  was  again  expelled  the  House 
of  Commons ; but  was  rechosen,  and  the 
election  as  repeatedly  declared  void.  His 
popularity  was  now  at  its  height,  and  a large 
subscription  was  made  for  the  payment  of 
his  debts.  In  1770  he  was  chosen  an  aider- 
man  of  London,  and  in  1774  lord  mayor. 
The  same  year  he  was  returned  again  for 
Middlesex,  when  he  was  permitted  to  take 
his  seat  without  farther  opposition.  In  1779, 
after  three  unsuccessful  attempts,  he  was 
elected  chamberlain  of  London.  He  died 
Dec.  26th,  1797.  In  private  character  Wilkes 
was  very  profligate. 

WILLIAM  I.,  King  of  England,  was  born 
in  1027,  and  though  illegitimate,  succeeded 
his  father  as  Duke  of  Normandy.  In  1051 
he  paid  a visit  to  his  kinsman  Edward  the 
Confessor,  in  England.  In  1066  he  made  a 
claim  to  the  crown  of  England,  invaded  Eng- 
land, landed  at  Pevensey  in  Sussex,  and  de- 
feated the  English  troops  at  Hastings,  Oct. 
14th,  when  Harold  was  slain.  William  was 
crowned  at  Westminster,  Dec.  25th,  1066. 
In  1072  he  repelled  the  attack  of  Malcolm, 
King  of  Scotland,  in  Northumberland.  In 
1086  he  invaded  France.  He  soon  after  fell 
from  his  horse,  and  contracted  a rupture: 
he  died  at  Hermentrude,  near  Rouen,  in  Nor- 
mandy, 1087.  He  was  buried  at  Caen,  and 
was  succeeded  in  Normandy  by  his  eldest 
son,  Robert,  and  in  England  by  his  second 
son,  William  Rufus. 

WILLIAM  (Rufus)  TI.  was  born  in  1057, 
and  crowned  at  Westminster,  Sept.  27th, 
1087.  William  was  killed  by  accident,  while 
hunting  in  the  Now  Forest,  in  1100. 


946 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


WILLIAM  III.,  Prince  of  Orange,  was  the 
son  of  William  II.,  Stadtholder  of  Holland, 
and  of  Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  Eng- 
land. He  was  born  Nov.  14th,  1650.  He 
wedded  his  cousin  Mary,  daughter  of  James 
II.  His  landing  at  Torbay,  Nov.  4th,  1688, 
marks  the  epoch  of  the  English  revolution. 
He  was  crowned  with  his  consort  Mary,  Feb. 
16th,  1689;  William,  being  a Presbyterian, 
began  his  reign  by  repealing  those  laws  that 
enjoined  uniformity  of  worship ; and  though 
he  could  not  entirely  succeed,  a toleration  was 
granted  to  such  dissenters  as  should  take 
the  oaths  of  allegiance,  and  hold  no  private 
conventicles.  In  the  mean  time,  James, 
whose  authority  was  still  acknowledged  in 
Ireland,  embarked  at  Brest  for  that  country, 
and  arrived  at  Kinsale.  He  soon  made  a 
public  entry  into  Dublin,  and  was  well 
received.  After  the  unsuccessful  siege  of 
Londonderry,  his  army  encountered  the 
royal  forces,  commanded  by  William  in  per- 
son, on  the  banks  of  the  Boyne,  in  1690, 
when  the  latter  gained  a splendid  victor}7. 
After  a series  of  disasters,  James  died  Sept. 
16th,  1700.  William,  in  the  mean  time,  be- 
came fatigued  with  opposing  the  laws  which 
parliament  were  every  day  laying  around 
his  authority,  and  thus  gave  up  the  contest. 
He  admitted  every  restraint  upon  the  prerog- 
ative in  England,  upon  condition  of  being 
properly  supplied  with  the  means  of  hum- 
bling the  power  of  France.  For  the  prose- 
cution of  the  war  with  France,  the  nation 
mortgaged  the  taxes,  and  involved  themselves 
in  what  is  now  called  the  national  debt. 
The  war  with  France  continued  during  the 
greatest  part  of  William’s  reign,  but  was  at 
length  intermitted  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick, 
in  1697.  William  was  thrown  from  his 
horse,  Feb.  21st,  1702,  when  his  collar-bone 
was  fractured ; and  this  hastened  his  disso- 
lution. He  died  in  the  following  month,  of 
an  asthma  and  fever. 

WILLIAM  IV.,  King  of  England.  [See 
Hanover,  House  of.] 

WILLIAMS,  Otiio  Holland,  a brigadier- 
general  in  the  American  army,  born  in  Prince 
George’s  County,  Maryland,  in  1748,  and 
died  in  July,  1794.  He  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battles  of  Guilford,  Ilobkirk’s 
Hill,  and  the  Eutaw. 

WILLIAMS,  Roger,  was  born  in  Wales 


in  1598,  and  having  completed  his  collegiate 
education  at  Oxford,  took  orders  in  the  estab- 
lished church,  but  soon  became  a non-con- 
formist, in  consequence  of  which  he  was 
obliged  to  come  to  America  in  1631.  His 
religious  principles  also  drew  down  upon 
him  the  indignation  of  the  authorities  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  and  he  was  banished. 
He  settled  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
where  he  founded  a community  in  which  in- 
tolerance was  unknown.  He  died  in  April, 
1683. 

WILLIAMS,  William,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at 
Lebanon,  Conn.,  April  8th,  1731,  and  was 
educated  at  Harvard  College.  He  prepared 
for  the  ministry,  but  preferring  a military 
life,  engaged  in  the  frontier  wars  in  New 
York  in  1755.  He  was  chosen  to  the  conti- 
nental congress  from  Connecticut  in  1776, 
was  an  active  member,  and  retired  from 
public  life  in  1804.  His  death  occurred  Aug. 
2d,  1811. 

WILSON,  Alexander,  a distinguished 
naturalist;  author  of  the  “American  Orni- 
thology he  died  in  1813,  aged  about  forty. 
He  was  born  at  Paisley,  Scotland,  1766. 

WILSON,  James,  a signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  born  in  Scotland  about 
1742,  and  educated  at  Edinburgh,  came  to 
America  in  1766.  He  was  at  first  tutor  in 
the  college  at  Philadelphia,  studied  law,  and 
practiced  in  that  city.  He  was  a member 
of  congress,  1775-78,  1782-1783,-  and  1785- 
1787.  He  was  also  member  of  the  conven- 
tion that  framed  the  federal  constitution,  and 
chairman  of  the  committee  which  reported 
it.  Upon  the  organization  of  the  judiciar}’ 
in  1789,  Mr.  Wilson  was  appointed  one  of 
the  justices  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States.  He  died  August  28th,  1798. 

WILSON,  John,  was  a native  of  Paisley, 
where  he  was  born  on  the  19th  of  May,  1785. 
In  youth  he  was  given  to  adventurous  excur- 
sions among  the  mountains  and  glens  of  his 
native  land,  and  he  early  came  to  a great  skill 
in  all  athletic  sports, — in  leaping,  wrestling, 
curling,  boxing,  running,  and  swimming.  His 
passionate  love  for  these,  and  all  rural  sports 
and  bodily  exercise,  lasted  through  his  life. 
He  was  an  excellent  scholar,  withal,  and  after 
a sound  preliminary  course  at  the  university 
of  Glasgow,  he  became  a gentleman  com- 


WIL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


947 


moner  of  Magdalen,  Oxford.  Then  he  pur- 
chased the  beautiful  little  demesne  of  Elle- 
ray,  on  the  shores  of  Windermere,  and  went 
there  to  reside.  He  married — built  a house 
and  a yacht — enjoyed  the  magnificent  scenery 
of  the  lakes — wrote  poetry — and  tasted  the 
happy  days  that  belong  to  a man  with  youth, 
robust  health,  fortune,  and  an  exhaustless 
imagination.  Reverses  came,  and  after  en- 
tering the  Scottish  bar,  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  at  Edinburgh. 
He  was  the  leading  contributor  to  Black- 
wood's Magazine,  in  whose  pages  he  poured 
forth  a flood  of  fancy,  humor,  learning,  and 
eloquence,  like  the  rush  of  mighty  waters. 
At  last,  after  a companionship  of  thirty  years, 
his  gentle  wife  died,  and  he  was  almost  over- 
powered. The  first  time  he  met  his  class  in 
the  university,  after  this  event,  he  apologized 
in  a broken  voice  for  not  having  examined 
the  essays  before  him : “I  could  not  see  to 
read  them  in  the  darkness  of  the  shadow  of 
the  valley  of  death.”  The  tears  rolled  down 
his  cheeks  ; he  said  no  more,  but  waved  his 
hand  to  the  class,  who  had  risen  to  their  feet, 
and  hurried  from  the  room.  In  1S51  he  was 
smitten  with  paralysis  of  the  lower  limbs. 
He  died  April  3d  1854. 

The  physique  of  Wilson  was  striking.  He 
was  stout,  tall,  athletic,  with  broad  shoul- 
ders and  chest,  and  prodigiously  muscular 
limbs.  His  face  was  magnificent ; his  hair, 
which  he  wore  long  and  flowing,  fell  round 
his  massive  features  like  a lion’s  mane,  to 
which,  indeed,  it  was  often  compared,  being 
much  of  the  same  hue.  His  lips  were  always 
working,  while  his  gray  flashing  eyes  had  a 
weird  sort  of  look  which  was  highly  charac- 
teristic. The  splendor  of  his  varied  genius 
was  rivaled  by  his  warmth  of  heart  for  all 
that  was  generous  and  good  and  sacred.  He 
was  loved  by  all  men  who  came  within  the 
charm  of  his  presence. 

WINDER,  William  H.,  an  eminent  law- 
yer of  Maryland,  brigadier-general  in  the 
army  of  the  United  States  during  the  second 
war  with  Great  Britain,  died  in  1824. 

WINTIIROP,  John,  first  governor  of  Ii£as- 
sachusetts,  immigrated  with  the  first  colo- 
nists, and  died  in  1649,  aged  sixty-two. 

WINTIIROP,  John,  son  of  the  preceding, 
governor  of  the  colony  of  Connecticut,  died 
in  1676,  aged  forty-three.  He  was  a man  of 


great  learning  and  talents,  and  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  founders. 

WINTIIROP,  Fitz  John,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  distinguished  like  his  father,  for 
learning  and  piety ; governor  of  Connecti- 
cut; died  in  1707. 

WIRT,  William,  was  born  at  Bladens- 
burg,  Md.,  on  the  8th  of  November,  1772, 
and  was  the  youngest  of  six  children.  In 
1795  he  married  the  eldest  daughter  of  Dr. 
George  Gilmer,  a distinguished  physician, 
and  took  up  his  residence  at  Pen  Park,  the 
seat  of  his  father-in-law,  near  Charlottesville, 
where  he  was  introduced  to  the  acquaintance 
of  Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe,  and  other 
persons  of  celebrity.  He  contracted  habits 
of  great  dissipation,  from  which  he  is  said  to 
have  been  recovered  by  a sermon  which  he 
heard  from  a blind  preacher,  James  Waddell, 
whom  he  has  celebrated  in  his  “ British  Spy.” 
In  1799  his  wife  died.  He  was,  in  1802, 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  eastern  district 
of  Virginia,  and  then  took  up  his  residence 
at  Williamsburg ; and  in  the  same  year  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Colonel  Gamble  of 
Richmond.  He  soon  after  resigned  his  chan- 
cellorship, and  at  the  close  of  the  year  1803, 
removed  to  Norfolk,  and  entered  upon  the 
assiduous  practice  of  his  profession.  Just 
before  he  removed  to  Norfolk,  he  -wrote  the 
letters  published  in  the  Richmond  Argus , 
under  the  title  of  “The  British  Spy,”  which 
were  afterward  collected  into  a small  volume, 
and  have  passed  through  many  editions.  In 
1806  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Richmond, 
and,  in  the  following  year,  he  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  trial  of  Col.  Burr. 
In  1812  he  wrote  the  greater  part  of  a series 
of  essays,  which  were  originally  published 
in  the  Richmond  Enquirer  under  the  title 
of  “The  Old  Bachelor.”  The  “Life  of  Pat- 
rick Henry,”  his  largest  literary  production, 
was  first  published  in  1817. 

In  1816  he  was  appointed  by  Mr.  Madison 
the  United  States’  attorney  for  the  district 
of  Virginia;  and  in  1817,  by  Mr.  Monroe, 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  a post 
which  he  occupied  with  distinguished  repu- 
tation till  1829,  through  the  entire  adminis- 
trations of  Monroe  and  Adams.  In  1830  he 
took  up  his  residence  at  Baltimore,  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  As  a public  and  pro- 


948 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


fessional  man,  Mr.  Wirt  ranked  among  the 
first  of  his  time.  He  died  at  Washington, 
Feb.  18th,  1835,  aged  sixty-two. 

WIRTEMBERG,  a mountainous  kingdom 
in  the  western  part  of  Germany,  containing 
1,800,000  inhabitants,  on  a mountainous 
area  of  7,500  square  miles.  In  the  wars  of 
the  French  revolution,  Wirtemberg  was  re- 
peatedly traversed  by  the  hostile  armies  ; its 
territory  was,  in  1796,  the  ground  chosen 
for  conflicts  in  the  advance,  as  well  as  in  the 
celebrated  retreat,  of  Moreau.  In  1799  it 
was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  French 


under  Jourdan;  in  1800  of  their  renewed 
success  under  Moreau.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  states  of  Germany,  and  most 
populous  for  its  extent.  The  dukes  were 
Protestants  until  1772,  when  the  reign- 
ing prince  became  a Roman  Catholic.  The 
Elector  of  Wirtemberg  assumed  the  title  of 
king,  Dec.  12th,  1805,  and  was  proclaimed 
Jan.  1st,  1806.  His  majesty,  as  an  ally  of 
France,  lost  the  flower  of  his  army  in  Russia, 
in  1812.  The  kingdom  obtained  a free  con- 
stitution in  1819  from  William  I. 


WISCONSIN,  whose  area  extends  over 
53,924  square  miles,  contained  in  1870, 
1,054,670  inh  ibitants.  The  northern  part  hav- 
ing never  been  fully  explored,  excepting  by 
traders  and  trappers,  is  consequently  but 
little  known.  It  is,  however,  represented  as 
a rugged  and  mountainous  wilderness,  though 
frequently  presenting  large  tracts  of  extra- 
ordinary fertility,  and  watered  by  numerous 
broad  and  rapid  streams.  The  surface,  in 
the  southern  part,  consists  mostly  of  prairie 
land,  well  timbered  along  the  river  sides  ; 
in  the  central  part  of  the  state,  the  face  of 
the  county  is  more  diversified.  The  rough 
and  hilly  tracts  at  the  north  produce  the 
white  pine  in  great  abundance.  The  entire 
region  is  bountifully  supplied  with  navigable 
streams,  by  which  it  is  penetrated  in  all 
directions.  The  soil  is  generally  of  an  ex- 
cellent quality,  and  varies  from  one  to  ten 
feet  in  depth.  It  is  especially  productive  on 

W 


the  margins  of  the  Mississippi  and  Wiscon- 
sin Rivers,  where  also  are  found  extensive 
forests  of  ponderous  timber : and  the  land 
throughout  the  state,  so  far  as  it  has  been 
surveyed,  proves  to  be  admirably  adapted  to 
agricultural  purposes,  particularly  to  the 
growth  of  corn  and  wheat.  Indeed,  every 
species  of  vegetable  suited  to  the  climate  can 
be  cultivated  wdth  perfect  success ; and  mul- 
titudes of  cattle  may  find  ample  pasturage 
upon  the  rich  and  almost  boundless  prairies. 
The  lead,  copper,  and  iron  ores  of  Wisconsin 
are  of  great  importance ; the  lead  mines  the 
richest  in  the  world.  Its  position  on  the 
lakes  and  on  the  Mississippi,  gives  it  excel- 
lent facilities  for  inland  trade,  and  its  pros- 
perity, population,  and  power  are  advancing 
at  a rapid  pace. 

Wisconsin  was  organized  as  a distinct  ter- 
ritory in  1836.  Iowa  and  Minnesota  have 
since  been  cut  from  within  the  bounds  then 
IS 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


949 


set  to  it.  It  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in 
1848. 

Madison,  the  capital,  pop.  9,176,  occupies  a 
site  between  two  small  lakes.  When  Wiscon- 
sin was  organized  as  a territory,  this  was 
selected  as  the  seat  of  government ; the  con- 
tractor for  erecting  the  necessary  buildings 
was,  with  his  party,  eleven  days  in  cutting 
his  way  through  the  wilderness  from  Mil- 
waukee. The  city  of  Milwaukee,  on  Lake 
Michigan  has  had  a very  rapid  growth.  It 
was  laid  out  in  1835,  had  a population  of 
1,742  in  1840  and  in  1870,  71,440.  It  is  the 
chief  town  in  the  state,  has  an  extensive 
commerce,  .and  busy  manufactories,  and  is 
the  natural  outlet  of  one  of  the  finest  grain 
regions  in  the  country.  The  cream-colored 
brick  of  which  the  town  is  so  largely  built, 
give  it  a peculiarly  bright  and  handsome 
look.  Beloit,  Janesville,  Kenosha,  and  Ra- 
cine are  important  towns,  with  that  pecul- 
iarity of  Western  cities,  that  their  growth 
will  not  stop  long  enough  to  be  chronicled. 

WITHERSPOON,  John,  a signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  at 
Yester,  near  Edinburgh,  Feb.  5th,  1722,  and 
was  a descendant  of  John  Knox.  He  came 
to  America  in  1708,  to  take  charge  .of  the 
college  at  Princeton,  N.  J.  ; became  very 
popular  as  a Christian  divine  and  patriot  ; 
and  in  1776  was  elected  a member  of  Con- 
gress, at  which  post  he  continued  till  1783. 
He  afterward  resumed  his  duties  at  Prince- 
ton, and  died  Nov.  15th,  1794. 

WOLCOTT,  Oliver,  a signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  was  born  Dec.  1st, 
1726,  at  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  and  studied  medicine,  but  never 
practiced  it ; became  a successful  lawyer. 
During  the  French  war  he  served  as  captain. 
He  was  delegate  to  the  congresses  of  1776, 
1778,  1780,  and  1784.  He  was  an  active 
patriot  and  an  ardent  friend  of  the  proposi- 
tion for  independence.  He  served  at  the 
head  of  a volunteer  corps  in  the  army  which 
forced  Burgoyne  to  surrender.  After  serv- 
ing ten  years  as  lieutenant-governor,  he  was 
chosen  governor  of  Connecticut.  He  died 
Dec.  1st,  1797. 

WOLCOTT,  Oliver,  son  of  the  preceding, 
succeeded  Hamilton  as  secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury during  Washington’s  administration. 
After  residing  some  years  in  New  York,  he 


returned  to  Connecticut  and  in  1817  was 
chosen  governor,  which  office  he  held  ten 
years.  He  died  in  1833,  aged  seventy-four. 

WOLFE,  James,  was  the  son  of  Lieuten- 
ant-general Edward  Wolfe,  born  at  Wester- 
ham,  in  Kent,  in  1726.  He  entered  early 
into  the  army,  and  before  he  was  twenty, 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Laf- 
feldt.  At  that  of  Minden  he  gained  addi- 
tional laurels,  as  he  afterward  did  in  leading 
the  expedition  that  besieged  Louisburg, 
whence  he  had  but  just  returned,  when  he 
was  appointed  to  command  the  hazardous 
expedition  against  Quebec.  As  soon  as  the 
St.  Lawrence  was  clear  of  ice  in  1759,  he  was 
to  ascend  the  river  in  a fleet  of  ships  of  war, 
with  8,000  men,  and  lay  siege  to  the  city. 

Wolfe  came  up  the  St.  Lawrence  in  June; 
his  troops  disembarked  on  the  fertile  Isle  of 
Orleans,  below  Quebec.  The  strong  citadel 
they  were  to  attack  was  commanded  by  the 
Marquis  of  Montcalm,  a brave  and  vigilant 
officer.  Anxious  for  a decisive  action,  Wolfe 
changed  his  position  to  the  lower  side  of  the 
Montmorency.  That  tumultuous  stream  ran 
between  him  and  the  French  camp ; at  both 
the  fords  Montcalm  had  thrown  up  breast- 
works and  posted  troops.  An  attack  upon 
the  French  position  met  a severe  check. 
Wolfe’s  nature  was  extremely  sensitive,  and 
the  acute  mortification  threw  him  into  a fever 
which  kept  him  from  the  field.  On  his  bed 
he  changed  his  plan  of  operations,  and  re- 
solved upon  an  attempt  above  the  town, 
though  the  shore  was  an  almost  inaccessible 
cliff.  The  camp  at  Montmorency  was  accord- 
ingly broken  up,  the  troops  transported  to 
Point  Levi,  and  suitable  measures  taken  to 
deceive  the  French  as  to  the  object  of  the 
movement. 

The.  eventful  night  of  the  12th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1759,  was  clear  and  calm,  with  no  light 
but  that  of  the  stars.  Within  two  hours  be- 
fore daybreak,  thirty  boats,  crowded  with 
sixteen  hundred  soldiers,  cast  off  from  the 
vessels,  and  floated  downward,  in  perfect  or- 
der, with  the  current  of  the  ebb  tide.  To 
the  boundless  joy  of  the  army,  Wolfe’s  mal- 
ady had  abated,  and  he  was  able  to  command 
in  person.  His  ruined  health,  the  gloomy 
prospects  of  the  siege,  and  the  disaster  at 
Montmorency,  had  oppressed  him  with  the 
deepest  melancholy,  but  never  impaired  for 


WOL 


950 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


a moment  the  promptness  of  his  decisions  or 
the  impetuous  energy  of  his  action.  He  sat 
in  the  stern  of  one  of  the  boats,  pale  and 
weak,  but  borne  up  to  a calm  height  of  reso- 
lution. Every  order  had  been  given,  every 
arrangement  made,  and  it  only  remained  to 
face  the  issue.  The  ebbing  tide  sufficed  to 
bear  the  boats  along,  and  nothing  broke  the 
silence  of  the  night  but  the  gurgling  of  the 
river,  and  the  low  voice  of  Wolfe,  as  he  re- 
peated to  the  officers  about  him  the  stanzas 
of  Gray’s  “ Elegy  in  a Country  Churchyard,” 
which  had  recently  appeared,  and  which  he 
had  just  received  from  England.  Perhaps, 
as  he  uttered  those  strangely  appropriate 
words, — 

“ The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave,” 
the  shadows  of  his  own  approaching  fate 
stole  with  mournful  prophecy  across  his  mind. 
“ Gentlemen,”  he  said,  as  he  closed  the  reci- 
tal, “I  would  rather  have  written  those  lines 
than  take  Quebec  to-morrow.” 

They  reached  the  selected  landing-place  in 
safety — an  indentation  in  the  shore  about  a 
league  from  the  city,  and  now  bearing  the 
name  of  Wolfe’s  Cove.  Here  a narrow  path 
led  up  the  face  of  the  heights,  and  a French 
guard  was  posted  at  the  top  to  defend  the 
pass.  By  the  force  of  the  currents,  the  fore- 
most boats,  including  that  which  carried 
Wolfe  himself,  were  borne  a little  below  the 
spot.  The  general  was  one  of  the  first  on 
shore.  He  looked  up  at  the  rugged  heights 
that  towered  above  him  in  the  gloom.  “ You 
can  try  it,”  he  coolly  observed  to  an  officer 
near  him  ; “but  I don’t  think  you’ll  get  up.” 

At  the  point  where  the  Highlanders  landed, 
one  of  their  captains,  Donald  Macdonald,  was 
climbing  in  advance  of  his  men,  when  he  was 
challenged  by  a sentinel.  He  replied  in 
French,  by  declaring  that  he  had  been  sent 
to  relieve  the  guard,  and  ordering  the  soldier 
to  withdraw.  Before  the  latter  was  unde- 
ceived, a crowd  of  Highlanders  were  close  at 
hand,  while  the  steps  below  were  thronged 
with  eager  climbers,  dragging  themselves  up 
by  trees,  roots,  and  bushes.  The  guard 
turned  out,  and  made  a brief  though  brave 
resistance.  In  a moment  they  were  cut  to 
pieces,  dispersed,  or  made  prisoners ; while 
men  after  men  came  swarming  up  the  height, 
and  quickly  formed  upon  the  plains  above. 
Meanwhile  the  vessels  had  dropped  down- 


ward with  the  current,  and  anchored  opposite 
the  landing-place.  The  remaining  troops 
were  disembarked,  and  with  the  dawn  of 
day  the  whole  were  brought  in  safety  to  the 
shore. 

The  sun  rose,  and  from  the  ramparts  of 
Quebec  the  astonished  people  saw  the  plains 
of  Abraham  glittering  with  arms,  and  the 
dark  red  lines  of  the  English  forming  in  array 
of  battle.  Montcalm  hastened  to  repel  the 
unexpected  attack.  At  nine  o’clock  the  ad- 
verse armies  stood  motionless,  each  gazing 
on  the  other.  The  clouds  hung  low,  and  at 
intervals,  warm,  light  showers  descended, 
sprinkling  both  alike.  The  coppice  and  corn- 
fields in  front  of  the  British  troops  were 
filled  with  French  sharp-shooters,  who  kept 
up  a distant  spattering  fire.  Here  and  there 
a soldier  fell  in  the  ranks,  and  the  gap  was 
filled  in  silence. 

At  a little  before  ten,  the  British  could  see 
that  Montcalm  was  preparing  to  advance,  and 
in  a few  moments  all  his  troops  appeared  in 
rapid  motion.  They  came  on  in  three  divi- 
sions, shouting  after  the  manner  of  their 
nation,  and  firing  heavily  as  soon  as  they 
came  within  range.  In  the  British  ranks, 
not  a trigger  was  pulled,  not  a soldier  stirred ; 
and  their  ominous  composure  seemed  to 
damp  the  spirits  of  the  assailants.  It  was 
not  till  the  French  were  within  forty  yards 
that  the  fatal  word  was  given.  At  once, 
from  end  to  end  of  the  British  line,  the  mus- 
kets rose  to  the  level,  as  if  with  the  sway  of 
some  great  machine,  and  the  whole  blazed 
forth  at  once  in  one  crashing  explosion. 
Like  a ship  at  full  career  arrested  with  sud- 
den ruin  on  a sunken  rock,  the  columns  of 
Montcalm  staggered,  shivered,  and  broke  be- 
fore that  wasting  storm  of  lead.  The  smoke, 
rolling  along  the  field,  for  a moment  shut 
out  the  view  ; but  when  the  white  wreaths 
were*scattered  on  the  wind,  a wretched  spec- 
tacle was  disclosed — men  and  officers  tumbled 
in  heaps,  columns  resolved  into  a mob,  order 
and  obedience  gone ; and  when  the  British 
muskets  were  leveled  for  a second  volley,  the 
masses  were  seen  to  cower  and  shrink  with 
uncontrollable  panic. 

For  a few  minutes,  the  French  regulars 
stood  their  ground,  returning  a sharp  and  not 
ineffectual  fire.  But  now,  echoing  cheer  on 
cheer,  redoubling  volley  on  volley,  trampling 


WOL 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


958 


feet.  It  covers  eleven  acres  of  ground,  and 
is  constructed  of  such  huge  blocks  of  stone, 
that  a more  marvelous  achievement  of  human 
labor  has  not  been  found  on  the  earth.  These 
vast  piles  were  erected  for  sepulchral  and  re- 
ligious purposes.  2.  The  tomb  built  for  Mau- 
solus,  king  of  Caria,  by  Artemisia,  his  queen. 
He  was  the  own  brother  of  Artemisia,  and 
famous  for  his  personal  beauty.  So  fond  was 
she,  that  at  his  death  she  drank  in  her  liquor 
the  ashes  of  his  incremated  body,  and  erected 
to  his  memory  a monument  of  great  grandeur 
and  magnificence.  This  monument  she  called 
Mausoleum,  a name  since  given  to  tombs  of 
unusual  splendor.  She  summoned  all  the 
poets  and  bards  of  the  time,  and  offered  a 
reward  to  him  who  composed  the  best  elegiac 
panegyric  upon  her  husband.  Theopompus 
won  the  prize,  357  b.c.  3.  The  temple  of 
Diana  at  Ephesus.  This  superb  edifice  was 
built  at  the  common  charge  of  all  the  Asiatic 
states.  Pliny  says  that  two  hundred  and 
twenty  years  were  employed  in  its  comple- 
tion. Its  riches  were  immense.  It  was  four 
hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  long,  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  feet  broad,  and  was  sup- 
ported by  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
columns  of  Parian  marble  (sixty  feet  high 
and  each  weighing  a hundred  and  fifty  tons), 
furnished  by  as  many  kings.  On  the  night 
of  Alexanders  nativity,  356  b.c.,  it  was  fired 
by  an  obscure  rascal  named  Eratostratus,  who 
confessed  that  his  sole  motive  was  a desire  to 
transmit  his  name  to  future  ages.  The  temple 
was  rebuilt,  and  again  burnt  by  the  Goths  in 
their  naval  invasion,  a.d.  256.  4.  The  walls 
and  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon.  Where 
now  is  desolate  ruin,  once  stood  the  most 
magnificent  city  in  the  ancient  world,  Babylon 
the  Great.  The  hanging  gardens  are  described 
as  having  been  of  a square  form,  and  in  ter- 
races one  above  another  until  they  rose  as 
high  as  the  walls  of  the  city,  the  ascent  be- 
ing from  terrace  to  terrace  by  steps.  The 
whole  pile  was  sustained  by  vast  arches  raised 
on  other  arches ; and  on  the  top  were  flat 
stones  closely  cemented  together  with  plaster 
of  bitumen,  and  that  covered  with  sheets  of 
lead,  upon  which  lay  the  mould  of  the  gar- 
den, where  there  were  large  trees,  shrubs, 
and  flowers,  with  various  sorts  of  vegetables. 
There  were  five  of  these  gardens,  each  con- 
taining about  four  acres.  5.  The  Colossus 


at  Rhodes.  This  was  a brazen  statue  of 
Apollo,  seventy  cubits  high,  erected  in  honor 
of  the  sun,  and  built  in  twelve  years  by 
Chares  of  Lindus,  a pupil  of  Lysippus,  290 
b.c.  The  figure  stood  on  two  moles,  some  say 
straddling  the  entrance  to  the  harbor,  so  that 
a vessel  in  full  sail  could  enter  beneath.  A 
winding  staircase  ran  to  the  top,  from  which 
could  be  seen  the  shores  of  Syria  and  sails 
on  the  coast  of  Egypt.  An  earthquake  laid 
the  Colossus  low,  224  b.c.  ; an  oracle  forbade 
its  restoration ; and  it  was  finally  destroyed 
by  the  Saracens,  a.d.  672.  6.  The  statue  of 

Jupiter  at  Olympia  in  Elis,  sculptured  in 
ivory  and  gold  by  Phidias,  the  most  eminent 
statuary  among  the  ancients,  433  b.c.  The 
Elians  accused  the  artist  of  ‘ cabbaging’  the 
costly  materials  they  furnished  him,  and 
threw  him  into  prison,  where  he  died.  Time 
proved  the  accusation  false,  and  in  expiation 
the  charge  of  the  great  image  was  given  as 
an  heir-loom  to  the  descendants  of  Phidias. 
Six  hundred  years  afterward  his  posterity 
still  had  the  care  of  it.  The  Olympian  Jupi- 
ter adorned  Elis  for  about  eight  centuries  ; 
it  was  then  removed  to  Constantinople,  by 
the  Emperor  Theodosius,  and  was  either  lost 
at  sea,  or  destroyed  in  the  fire  of  the  Lau- 
deion,  a.d.  476.  7.  The  Pharos  or  watch- 

tower  at  Alexandria,  erected  by  order  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  about  2S0  b.c.  It 
was  built  of  white  marble,  and  could  be  seen 
at  the  distance  of  a hundred  miles.  Fires 
j were  constantly  kept  on  the  top,  to  direct 
sailors  in  the  bay.  The  building  of  this 
tower  cost  800  talents,  which  are  equivalent 
to  above  $825,000,  if  Attic,  or  if  Alexan- 
drian, double  that  sum.  There  was  this  in- 
scription upon  it:  “King  Ptolemy  to  the 
gods,  the  saviors,  for  the  benefit  of  sailors  ; ” 
but  Sostratus,  the  architect,  wishing  to  claim 
all  the  glory,  engraved  his  own  name  upon 
the  stones,  and  afterward  filled  the  hollow 
with  mortar,  and  wrote  the  above  inscrip- 
tion. When  the  mortar  had  decayed  by 
time,  Ptolemy’s  name  disappeared,  and  the 
following  inscription  then  became  visible : 
“ Sostratus  the  Cnidian,  son  of  Dexiphanes, 
to  the  gods,  the  saviors,  for  the  benefit  of 
sailors.” 

WOODWORTH,  Samuel,  the  author  of 
“The  Old  Oaken  Bucket,”  died  at  New  York 
in  1842,  aged  fifty-seven.  He  was  a printer, 


WOO 


954 


COTTAGE  CYOLOPEDIA  OF 


and  served  his  apprenticeship  at  Boston,  in 
the  office  of  Major  Russell,  the  publisher  of 
the  Centinel.  The  beautiful  and  popular  bal- 
lad for  which  he  is  best  known,  is  said  to 
have  had  its  origin  under  the  following  cir- 
cumstances. He  was  employed  in  an  office 
on  the  corner  of  Chestnut  and  Chambers 
streets  in  New  York.  One  day,  with  a knot 
of  brother  typos,  he  dropped  in  at  an  estab- 
lishment kept  by  Mallory,  on  Franklin  street, 
for  the  purpose  of  taking  “ some  brandy  and 
water,”  which  Mallory  was  famous  for  keep- 
ing. The  liquor  was  excellent,  and  Wood- 
worth  seemed  inspired  by  it ; for,  after  tak- 
ing a draught,  he  set  his  glass  upon  the  ta- 
ble, and  smacking  his  lips,  declared  that  Mal- 
lory’s eau  de  vie  was  superior  to  anything  he 
ever  tasted.  “No,”  said  a comrade,  “you 
are  quite  mistaken ; there  was  one  thing 
which,  in  both  our  estimations,  far  surpassed 
this,  in  the  way  of  drinking.”  “ What  was 
that  ? ” asked  Woodworth  dubiously.  “ The 
draught  of  pure,  fresh  spring-water  that  we 
used  to  drink  from  the  old  oaken  bucket  that 
hung  in  the  well,  after  our  return  from  the 
labors  of  the  field  on  a sultry  day  in  sum- 
mer.” The  tear-drop  glistened  for  a moment 
in  Woodworth’s  eye.  “True!  true!”  he 
replied,  and  soon  after  quitted  the  place. 
He  returned  to  the  office,  grasped  the  pen, 
and  in  half  an  hour  “The  Old  Oaken  Bucket,” 
one  of  the  most  delightful  compositions  in 
our  language,  was  ready,  in  manuscript,  to 
be  embalmed  in  the  memories  of  succeeding 
generations. 

How  dear  to  this  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  child- 
hood, 

When  fond  recollection  presents  them  to  view ! 
The  orchard,  the  meadow,  the  deep-tangled  wild 
wood, 

And  every  loved  spot  which  my  infancy  knew; 
The  wide-spreading  pond,  and  the  mill  that  stood 
by  it, 

The  bridge  and  the  rock  where  the  cataract  fell, 
The  cot  of  my  father,  the  dairy-house  nigh  it, 

And  e'en  the  rude  bucket  that  hung  in  the  well! 
The  old  oaken  bucket,  the  iron-bound  bucket, 

The  moss-covered  bucket  that  hung  in  the  well. 

That  moss-covered  vessel  I hailed  as  a treasure; 

For  often  at  noon,  when  returned  from  the  field, 

1 found  it  a source  of  an  exquisite  pleasure, 

The  purest  and  sweetest  that  nature  can  yield, 
flow  ardent  I seized  it,  with  hands  that  were  glow- 
ing, 

And  quick  to  the  white  pebbled  bottom  it  fell, 
Then  soon  with  the  emblem  of  Truth  overflowing, 
And  dripping  with  coolness,  it  rose  from  the  well; 
The  old  oaken  bucket,  the  iron-bound  bucket, 

The  moss-covered  bucket  arose  from  the  well. 


How  sweet  from  the  green  mossy  brim  to  reeeive  it, 
As  poised  on  the  curb  it  inclined  to  my  lips! 

Not  a full  blushing  goblet  could  tempt  me  to  leave  it, 
Though  filled  with  the  nectar  the  fabled  god  sips. 
And  now  far  removed  from  the  loved  situation, 

The  tear  of  regret  will  intrusively  swell, 

As  fancy  reverts  to  my  father’s  plantation, 

And  sighs  for  the  bucket  that  hung  in  the  well, 
The  old  oaken  bucket,  the  iren-bound  bucket, 

The  moss-covered  bucket  which  hangs  in  the 
well. 

WOOSTER,  David,  was  born  in  Strat- 
ford, Conn.,  March  2d,  1711,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Yale.  He  served  as  a captain  at  the 
taking  of  Louisburg,  and  in  the  next  French 
war  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  At  the 
opening  of  the  Revolution  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-general,  and  served  with  distinction 
in  Canada.  He  was  mortally  wounded  in 
repelling  the  foray  of  the  British  upon  Fair- 
field,  Conn.,  in  1777. 

WORCESTER,  the  chief  town  of  Worces- 
tershire, England.  It  suffered  much  during 
the  wars  between  the  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster  ; but  the  most  remarkable  event 
here  was  the  famous  battle  between  the  Eng- 
lish army  under  Cromwell,  and  the  Scotch 
in  the  cause  of  Charles  II.,  Sept.  3d,  1651 ; 
when  the  royalists  had  2,000  killed  and  8,000 
taken  prisoners,  most  of  whom  were  sold  as 
slaves  to  the  American  colonics. 

WORDSWORTH,  William,  the  greatest 
philosophical  poet  of  England  in  the  present 
century,  was  born  at  Cockermouth  in  Cum- 
berland, April  7th,  1770,  and  educated  at  the 
university  at  Cambridge.  His  parents  de- 
signed him  for  the  church,  but  poetry  and 
new  prospects  turned  him  into  another  path. 
The  worship  of  the  muses  was  almost  his 
only  business  through  life.  Coleridge  and 
he  became  acquainted  in  1796,  and  soon 
ripened  into  warm  friends,  and  in  1798  the 
two  poets,  accompanied  by  Miss  W ordsworth, 
made  a tour  in  Germany.  In  1808  he  mar- 
ried Miss  Mary  Hutchinson,  his  cousin,  and 
settled  down  among  his  beloved  lakes,  first 
at  Grasmere,  and  afterward  at  Rydal  Mount. 
Various  handsome  bequests  were  bestowed 
upon  him,  and  influential  friends  soon  pro- 
cured for  him  the  easy  and  lucrative  situa- 
tion of  stamp  distributor  for  the  counties  of 
Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  a post  that 
left  the  greater  part  of  his  time  at  his  own 
disposal,  and  which  he  held  till  1842,  when  he 
resigned  it  in  favor  of  his  son,  receiving  from 
government  a pension  of  £300  'per  annum. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY.  955 


Wordsworth  appeared  as  a poet  in  his 
twenty-third  year,  1793,  issuing  two  small 
volumes,  “An  Evening  Walk”  and  “De- 
scriptive Sketches  in  Verse.”  The  Walk  is 
among  the  mountains  of  Westmoreland  ; the 
Sketches  refer  to  a pedestrian  tour  made  in 
Switzerland.  The  latter  was  read  by  Cole- 
ridge (then  a stranger)  with  delight,  and  he 
has  said,  “Seldom,  if  ever,  was  the  emer- 
gence of  an  original  poetic  genius  above  the 
literary  horizon  more  evidently  announced.” 
Wordsworth’s  next  publication  was  a volume 
of  “Lyrical  Ballads,”  a few  of  which  were 
from  Coleridge’s  pen.  The  “Lyrical  Bal- 
lads” were  designed  by  Wordsworth  to  try 
how  far  a simpler  kind  of  poetry  than  that 
in  vogue  would  be  relished.  The  experiment 
was  a failure,  and  years  elapsed  before  he 
again  appeared  in  print.  Having  settled 
down  by  his  native  lakes,  Southey’s  subse- 
quent retirement  to  the  same  beautiful  region, 
and  Coleridge’s  visits  to  his  brother  poets, 
originated  the  name  of  the  Lake  School  of 
Poetry, — “ the  school  of  whining  and  hypo- 
chondriacal poets  that  haunt  the  lakes,” — 
by  which  the  opponents  of  their  principles 
and  the  admirers  of  the  Edinburgh  Review 
distinguished  these  three  great  poets. 

In  1807  two  more  volumes  of  the  “Lyri- 
cal Ballads”  were  put  forth,  proving  more 
popular  than  the  first.  In  1814  appeared 
“ The  Excursion,”  a philosophical  poem  in 
blank  verse,  being  a portion  of  the  “Recluse,” 
the  balance  of  which  the  poet  left  behind 
him  unpublished.  The  critics  were  hard 
upon  it.  “This  will  never  do,”  was  the 
memorable  opening  of  the  article  upon  it  in 
the  Edinburgh  Review.  Yet  the  poem  found 
its  admirers  among  men  who  thought  for 
themselves.  A critic  has  characterized  it  as 
“the  noblest  production  of  the  author,  con- 
taining passages  of  sentiment,  description, 
and  pure  eloquence,  not  excelled  by  any  liv- 
ing poet;  while  its  spirit  of  enlightened 
humanity  and  Christian  benevolence ex- 

tending over  all  ranks  of  sentient  and  ani- 
mated being — imparts  to  the  poem  a peculiarly 
sacred  and  elevated  character.”  While  the 
critics  were  yet  discussing  the  merits  of  “ The 
Excursion,”  Wordsworth  published  “Peter 
Bell,”  which  had  been  written  years  before. 
This  brought  down  upon  his  head  a still 
heavier  shower  of  ridicule  from  his  deriders, 


and  even  his  fast  admirers  were  somewhat 
startled  at  first,  and  could  not  praise  it. 

The  subsequent  works  of  the  poet  are 
numerous:  “The  White  Doe  of  Rylstone,” 
“ Sonnets  on  the  River  Duddon,”  “ The 
Waggoner;”  his  last  publication  of  import- 
ance being  “Yarrow  Revisited,  and  other 
Poems,”  in  1835.  On  Southey’s  death,  he 
was  appointed  poet-laureate,  in  1843  ; an  ap- 
propriate appointment,  if  such  an  office  was 
to  be  retained  at  all ; for  the  laurel  dignified 
by  the  brows  of  Ben  Jonson,  Davenant, 
Dry  den,  Thomas  Warton,  and  Southey,  had 
been  sullied  and  degraded^  by  appearing  on 
the  unworthy  heads  of  Tate,  Whitehead,  and 
Pye.  Once  only  did  Wordsworth  have  occa- 
sion to  sing  in  his  new  office,  and  in  what 
he  wrote  there  was  great  obscurity  and  little 
poetry.  The  last  years  of  his  life,  in  his 
poetical  retirement,  were  passed  in  even  an 
added  quietness  to  that  he  had  so  much 
loved.  He  died  at  Rydal  Mount,  the  23d  of 
April,  1850,  in  the  eighty-first  year  of  his 
age.  Those  who  are  curious  in  the  accidents 
of  birth  and  death,  observable  in  the  bio- 
graphies of  celebrated  men,  have  thought  it 
noteworthy  that  the  day  of  Wordsworth’s 
death  was  the  anniversary  of  Shakspeare’s 
birth. 

If  Wordsworth  was  unfortunate — as  he 
certainly  was — in  not  finding  any  recognition 
of  his  merits  till  his  hair  was  gray,  he  was 
luckier  than  other  poets  similarly  situated 
have  been,  in  living  to  a good  old  age,  and  in 
the  full  enjoyment  of  the  amplest  fame  which 
his  youthful  dreams  had  ever  pictured.  His 
admirers  have  carried  their  idolatry  too  far ; 
but  there  can.  be  no  doubt  of  the  high  posi- 
tion which  he  must  always  hold  among  Brit- 
ish poets.  His  style  is  simple,  unaffected, 
and  vigorous ; his  blank  verse  manly  and 
idiomatic ; his  sentiments  both  noble  and 
pathetic ; and  his  images  poetic  and  appro- 
priate. His  sonnets  are  among  the  finest  in 
the  language;  Milton’s  are  scarcely  finer. 
“In  imaginative  power,”  says  his  enthusias- 
tic friend  Coleridge,  “ he  stands  nearest  of 
all  modern  writers  to  Shakspeare  and  Milton, 
and  yet  in  a mind  perfectly  unborrowed  and 
his  own.  To  employ  his  own  words,  which 
are  at  once  an  instance  and  an  illustration, 
he  does  indeed,  to  all  thoughts  and  to  all 


objects, — 

WOR 


956 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


‘Add  the  gleam, 

The  light  that  never  was  on  sea  or  land, 

The  consecration  and  the  poet’s  dream.’  ” 

“The  Prelude,  or  Growth  of  a Poet’s  Mind, 
an  Autobiographical  Poem,”  was  published 
after  his  death,  having  lain  in  his  desk  for 
forty-five  years. 

W OHMS,  an  ancient  city  in  Hesse  Darm- 
stadt. Here  was  held  the  celebrated  impe- 
rial diet  before  which  Martin  Luther  was 
summoned,  April  4th,  1521,  and  by  which 
he  was  proscribed.  Luther  was  met  by  two 
thousand  persons  on  foot  and  on  horseback, 
a league  from  Worms.  Such  was  his  con- 
viction of  the  justice  of  his  cause,  that  when 
Spalatin  sent  a messenger  to  warn  him  of  his 
danger,  he  answered,  “ If  there  were  as 
many  devils  in  Worms  as  there  are  tiles  upon 
the  roofs  of  its  houses,  I would  go  on.”  Before 
the  emperor,  the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  six 
electors,  twenty-four  dukes,  seven  margraves, 
thirty  bishops  and  prelates,  and  many 
princes,  counts,  lords,  and  ambassadors,  Lu- 
ther appeared,  April  17th,  in  the  imperial 
diet,  acknowledged  all  his  writings  and  opin- 
ions, and  left  Worms,  in  fact,  a conqueror. 
But  Frederick  the  Wise  advised  him  to 
seclude  himself  to  save  his  life,  which  he  did 
for  about  ten  months,  and  his  triumph  was 
afterward  complete. 

WORTH,  William,  was  born  at  New 
York,  N.  Y.,  in  1794.  In  the  war  of  1812 
he  volunteered  as  a private.  Bravery  soon 
won  him  promotion  from  the  ranks.  At 
Chippewa  and  Lundy’s  Lane,  and  at  Monte- 
rey, Cerro  Gordo,  Molino  del  Re}",  &c.,  in 
Mexico,  his  gallantry  shone.  He  died  in 
Texas,  1849,  holding  the  rank  of  major- 
general  by  brevet. 

WOTTON,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  states- 
man, was  born  at  Boughton  Hall,  in  Kent,  in 
1568.  He  became  secretary  to  the  Earl  of 
Essex,  on  whose  fall  he  went  abroad,  and 
while  at  Florence  was  honored  with  the  con- 
fidence of  the  grand-duke ; who  sent  him  on 
a secret  mission  to  James  VI.  of  Scotland, 
which  gained  him  the  favor  of  that  mnoarch. 
He  died  in  1639. 

WOTTON,  Nicholas,  a statesman,  was 
uncle  to  the  preceding,  and  born  in  Kent, 
about  1497.  During  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  he  was  employed  on  different  embas- 
sies ; and  in  that  of  Edward  he  was  made 


secretary  of  state.  In  1551  he  went  bn  a 
mission  to  the  emperor  of  Germany ; after 
which  he  became  resident  at  the  court  of 
France.  He  died  in  London,  in  1566  ; and 
was  buried  at  Canterbury. 

WREN,  Sir  Christopher,  was  born  in 
Wiltshire,  in  1632.  The  great  fire  in  Lon- 
don opened  a wide  field  for  his  architectural 
labors,  and  the  city  abounds  with  masterly 
churches  of  his  construction.  He  died  in 

1723,  and  lies  buried  in  the  crypt  of  St. 
Paul’s,  his  most  stupendous  work,  with  the 
concise  epitaph,  /Si  monumentum  requiris , 
circumspice.  (“  Do  you  seek  his  monument  ? 
look  around”).  He  was  a man  of  learn- 
ing, and  before  devoting  himself  to  archi- 
tecture, held  a professorship  of  astronomy  at 
Oxford. 

WURMSER,  Dagobert  Sigismund,  Count, 
an  Austrian  general,  was  born  in  Alsace  in 

1724.  In  his  youth  he  served  in  the  French 
army,  and  next  in  that  of  the  emperor, 
where  he  rose  to  the  highest  honors.  In 
the  revolutionary  war  he  drove  the  republi- 
cans out  of  Alsace ; but  at  last  was  obliged 
to  retreat  before  superior  numbers.  In  1794, 
however,  he  took  Manheim ; and  in  1796 
defeated  the  French  in  Italy.  At  last  being 
obliged  to  throw  himself  into  Mantua,  he 
was  forced  to  capitulate.  He  died  in  Hun- 
gary in  1797. 

WURTZCHEN,  Battle  of.  One  of  the 
most  bloody  and  fiercely  contested  battles  of 
the  campaign  of  1813  ; fought  between  the 
allied  Russian  and  Prussian  armies,  and  the 
French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon  in 
person,  May  21st,  1813.  The  carnage  was 
dreadful  on  both  sides,  but  in  the  end  the 
allies  retreated  from  the  field.  The  defeat 
of  the  allies  here,  and  in  the  equally  momen- 
tous battle  of  Bautzen,  which  immediately 
preceded,  obliged  them  to  recross  the  Oder. 

WYATT,  Sir  Thomas,  an  English  states- 
man, was  born  at  Allington  Castle,  in  Kent, 
in  1503.  His  father,  Sir  Henry  Wyatt,  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  III.,  where  he  is  said  to  have  been 
preserved  by  a cat  that  fed  him  daily,  for 
which  reason  all  the  portraits  of  him  are 
painted  with  that  animal  in  his  arms  or  by 
his.  side.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.  he 
was  knighted ; and  in  the  next  reign  made 
master  of  the  jewel  office.  He  died  in  1533. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


957 


Thomas  became  a great  favorite  with  Henry 
VIII.,  and  by  one  of  his  jests  hastened  on 
the  Reformation.  The  king  having  com- 
plained of  the  delay  of  the  court  of  Rome  in 
granting  his  divorce,  Sir  Thomas  exclaimed, 
“ Lord ! that  a man  can  not  repent  him  of 
his  sin  without  the  pope’s  leave!”  This 
witticism  hastened  the  king’s  resolution,  and 
he  soon  afterward  acted  upon  it  as  a maxim 
of  sound  reason.  Wyatt,  however,  fell  into 
some  trouble  afterward  by  his  freedom  of 
speech,  and  was  twice  tried  for  sedition, 
but'  acquitted.  He  died  at  Sherbourne, 
in  Dorsetshire,  in  1541.  Sir  Thomas  was  a 
poet  as  well,  dealing  in  amatory  elegies. and 
odes. 

His  son,  of  the  same  name,  was  a zealous 
Protestant,  and  was  beheaded  by  crier  of 
Queen  Mary  in  1554,  for  his  share  in  a rebel- 
lion aroused  by  her  marriage  with  Philip  of 
Spain. 

WYNDHAM,  Sir  William,  a statesman, 
was  born  at  Orchard  Wyndham,  in  Somer- 
setshire, in  1687.  In  1710  he  was  made 
secretary  at  war;  and  in  1713,  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer.  On  the  accession  of 
George  I.  he  was  dismissed  from  office ; and 
when  the  rebellion  broke  out  in  Scotland,  he 
was  sent  to  the  Tower,  but  never  brought  to 
trial.  He  continued  to  act  in  opposition  till 
his  death,  which  happened  at  Welles,  in 
1740;  when  he  was  succeeded  in  his  title 
and  estate  by  his  eldest  son,  Sir  Charles 
Wyndham,  who  became  Earl  of  Egremont, 
and  died  in  1763. 

WYOMING.  The  delightful  valley  of 
Wyoming  in  Pennsylvania  has  been  conse- 
crated both  by  the  blood  of  martyrs  and  by 
the  deathless  muse  of  Campbell.  Its  first 
settlers  were  chiefly  from  Cor  necticut,  which 
claimed  the  country  by  virtue  of  her  ancient 
charter,  and  there  was  a severe  struggle  be- 


tween them  and  the  Pennsylvanians  for  its 
possession.  In  June,  1778,  when  many  of 
the  yeomen  of  Wyoming  were  absent  in  the 
army,  an  incursion  into  the  valley  was  made 
b}*  a force  of  Tories  and  Indians,  commanded 
by  Col.  John  Butler,  a notorious  partisan. 
The  marauding  parties  spread  desolation 
throughout  the  valley ; farm-houses  were 
fired;  husbandmen  were  murdered  in  the 
fields.  Some  360  of  the  settlers,  rudely 
armed,  headed  by  Col.  Zebulon  Butler,  at- 
tempted to  drive  out  the  invaders,  July  3d. 
The  contest  wras  suddenly  ended  by  a panic 
among  the  patriot  militia;  the  savages 
dropped  their  rifles,  rushed  on  with  toma- 
hawks and  scalping-knives,  and  a terrible 
massacre  ensued,  from  which  only  a few  of 
the  men  of  Wjmming  escaped.  The  desola- 
tion of  the  valley  was  now  completed  : fields 
were  laid  waste,  houses  burnt,  and  their  in- 
habitants murdered.  Many  women  and 
children  perished  in  fleeing  through  the  wil- 
derness. In  retaliation  for  the  atrocities  at 
Wyoming,  Gen.  Sullivan  invaded  the  country 
of  the  Senecas  the  next  year. 

WYTHE,  George,  a signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born  in  Elizabeth 
county,  Va.,  1726.  He  was  wealthy,  and 
until  thirty  years  of  age  lived  a life  of  great 
dissipation*;  but  at  that  age  he  applied  him- 
self assiduously  to  the  study  of  the  law,  and 
an  avenue  of  distinction  opened  before  him. 
He  was  a member  of  the  colonial  legislature 
of  Virginia,  and  in  1775  was  elected  a mem- 
ber of  congress.  His  labors  in  the  cause  of 
independence  were  strenuous  and  unceasing ; 
and  for  them  be  suffered  much  loss  of  prop- 
erty during  the  war.  He  was  a member  of 
the  convention  that  formed  the  federal  con- 
stitution, and  died  June  8th,  1806,  having 
been  chancellor  of  Virginia  more  than  twenty- 
five  years. 


WYT 


958 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


X. 


XANTIPPUS,  a Lacedaemonian  general 
who  assisted  the  Carthaginians  in  the  first 
Punic  war.  He  defeated  the  Romans,  256 
b.c.,  and  took  the  celebrated  Rcgulus  prisoner. 
Such  signal  services  deserved  to  be  rewarded, 
but  the  Carthaginians  looked  with  envious 
jealousy  upon  Xantippus  as  a stranger,  and 
he  retired  to  Corinth  after  he  had  saved  them 
from  destruction.  Some  authors  suppose 
that  the  Carthaginians  ordered  him  to  be 
assassinated,  and  his  body  to  be  thrown  into 
the  sea  as  he  was  returning  home ; while 
others  say  that  they  had  prepared  a leaky 
ship  to  convey  him  to  Corinth,  which  he 
artfully  avoided. 

XENOPHON,  an  Athenian,  son  of  Gryl- 
lus,  celebrated  as  a general,  a historian,  and 
a philosopher.  He  was  invited  by  Proxenus, 
one  of  his  intimate  friends,  to  accompany 
Cyrus  the  younger  in  an  expedition  against 
his  brother  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia ; but 
he  refused  to  comply  without  previously  con- 
sulting his  venerable  master,  and  inquiring 
into  the  propriety  of  such  a measure.  Soc- 
rates strongly  opposed  it,  and  observed  that 
it  might  raise  the  resentment  of  fiis  country- 
men, as  Sparta  had  made  an  alliance  with 
the  Persian  monarch ; and  before  he  pro- 
ceeded further,  advised  him  to  consult  the 
oracle  at  Delphi.  Xenophon  was  ambitious 
of  glory,  and  eager  to  engage  in  a distant 
expedition.  He  merely  asked  the  oracle  to 
what  gods  he  should  sacrifice  to  insure  suc- 
cess, and  hastened  with  precipitation  to  Sar- 
dis, where  he  was  introduced  to  the  young 
prince,  and  treated  with  great  attention.  In 
the  army  of  C}rrus,  Xenophon  showed  that 
he  was  a true  disciple  of  Socrates,  and  that 
he  had  been  educated  in  the  warlike  city  of 
Athens.  After  the  decisive  battle  in  the 
plains  of  Cunaxa,  401  b.c.,  and  the  fall  of 
young  Cyrus,  the  prudence  and  vigor  of  his 
mind  were  called  into  action.  The  ten  thou- 
sand Greeks  who  had  followed  the  standard 
of  an  ambitious  prince,  were  now  at  a dis- 
tance of  above  six  hundred  leagues  from 
their  native  home,  in  a country  surrounded 
on  every  side  by  a victorious  enemy,  without 
money,  without  provisions,  and  without  a 


leader.  Xenophon  was  selected  to  superin- 
tend the  retreat,  and  though  he  was  often 
opposed  by  malevolence  and  envy,  yet  his 
persuasive  eloquence  and  his  activity  con- 
vinced the  Greeks  that  no  general  could  ex- 
tricate them  from  every  difficulty  better  than 
the  disciple  of  Socrates.  He  rose  superior 
to  danger,  and  though  under  continual  alarms 
from  the  sudden  attacks  of  the  Persians, 
he  was  enabled  to  cross  rapid  rivers,  pene- 
trate through  vast  deserts,  gain  the  tops  of 
mountains,  till  he  could  rest  secure  for 
a while,  and  refresh  his  tired  companions. 
This  celebrated  retreat  was,  at  last,  happily 
effected  ; the  Greeks  returned  home  after  a 
march  of  two  hundred  and  fifteen  days,  and 
an  absence  of  fifteen  months.  Xenophon 
was  no  sooner  returned  from  Cunaxa,  than 
he  sought  new  honors,  in  following  the  for- 
tune of  Agesilaus  in  Asia,  lie  enjoyed  his 
confidence,  he  fought  under  his  standard,  and 
conquered  with  him  in  the  Asiatic  provinces, 
as  well  as  at  the  battle  of  Coronaea.  His 
fame,  however,  did  not  escape  the  asper- 
sions of  jealousy  ; he  was  publicly  banished 
from  Athens  for  accompanying  Cyrus  against 
his  brother,  and  being  now  without  a home, 
he  retired  to  Scillus,  a small  town  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Olympia.  He  died  at  Cor- 
inth in  the  nineteenth  year  of  his  age,  359 
years,  before  the  Christian  era. 

XERXES  succeeded  his  father  Darius  on 
the  tnrone  of  Persia,  for  though  but  the 
second  son  of  the  monarch,  he  was  preferred 
to  his  elder  brother  Artabazanes.  Xerxes 
continued  the  warlike  preparations  of  his 
father,  and  added  the  revolted  kingdom  of 
Egypt  to  his  extensive  possessions.  He  after- 
ward invaded  Europe,  and  entered  Greece 
with  an  army  of  millions,  the  most  numer- 
ous which  had  ever  been  collected  together 
in  one  expedition  ; but  badly  armed  and  dis- 
ciplined, and  encumbered  with  a useless  at- 
tendance of  servants,  women,  and  eunuchs. 
It  was  stopped  at  Thermopylae,  by  the  valor 
of  three  hundred  Spartans,  and  their  allies, 
under  Leonidas.  Xerxes,  astonished  that 
such  a handful  of  men  should  dare  to  oppose 
his  progress,  ordered  some  of  his  soldiers  to 


XER 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


959 


bring  them  alive  into  his  presence ; but  for 
three  successive  days  the  most  valiant  of  the 
Persian  troops  were  repeatedly  defeated  in 
attempting  to  execute  the  monarch’s  injunc- 
tions, and  the  courage  of  the  Spartans  might 
perhaps  have  triumphed  longer,  if  a Trach- 
inian  had  not  led  a detachment  to  the  top 
of  the  mountain,  who  suddenly  fell  upon  the 
devoted  Leonidas.  The  king,  himself,  nearly 
perished  on  this  occasion,  and  it  has  been 
reported,  that  in  the  night  the  desperate 
Spartans  sought,  for  a while,  the  royal  tent, 
which  they  found  deserted,  and  wandered 
through  the  Persian  army,  slaughtering  thou- 
sands before  them.  The  battle  of  Ther- 
mopylae was  the  beginning  of  the  disgrace 
of  Xerxes ; the  more  he  advanced,  it  was  to 
experience  new  disappointments ; his  fleet 
was  defeated  at  Artemisium  and  Salamis ; and 
though  he  burnt  the  deserted  city  of  Athens, 
and  trusted  to  the  artful  insinuations  of  The- 
mistoeles,  yet  he  found  his  myriads  unable 
to  conquer  a nation  that  was  superior  to  him 
in  the  knowledge  of  war  and  maritime  affairs. 
Mortified  with  the  ill  success  of  his  expedi- 
tion, and  apprehensive  of  imminent  danger 
in  an  enemy’s  country,  Xerxes  hastened  to 
Persia,  and  in  thirty  days  marched  over  all 
that  territory  which  before  he  had  passed 
with  much  pomp  and  parade  in  the  space  of 
six  months.  Mardonius,  the  best  of  his  gene- 
rals, was  left  behind  with  an  army  of  300,000 
men,  and  the  rest  that  had  survived  the 
ravages  of  war,  of  famine,  and  pestilence, 
followed  their  timid  monarch  into  Thrace 
where  his  steps  were  marked  by  the  numer- 
ous birds  of  prey  that  hovered  round  him, 
and  fed  upon  the  dead  carcases  of  the  Per- 
sians. When  he  reached  the  Hellespont, 
Xerxes  found  the  bridge  of  boats  which  he 
had  erected  there,  totally  destroyed  by  the 
storms,  and  he  crossed  the  straits  in  a small 
fishing  vessel.  Restored  to  his  kingdom  and 
safety,  he  forgot  his  dangers,  his  losses,  and 


his  defeats,  and  gave  himself  up  to  riot  and 
debauchery.  His  indolence  and  luxurious 
voluptuousness  offended  his  subjects,  and 
Artabanus,  the  captain  of  his  guards,  con- 
spired against  him,  and  murdered  him  in  his 
bed,  in  the  twenty-first  year  of  his  reign, 
about  404  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

The  bridge  above  alluded  to,  constructed 
for  the  passage  of  the  army  of  Xerxes  across 
the  Hellespont,  was  formed  by  connecting 
together  ships  of  different  kinds,  some  long 
vessels  of  fifty  oars,  others  three-banked  gal- 
leys, to  the  number  of  300  on  the  side  toward 
the  sea,  and  318  on  that  of  the  archipelago  ; 
the  former  were  placed  transversely,  but  the 
latter,  to  diminish  the  strain  of  their  cables,  in 
the  direction  of  the  current, — all  secured 
by  anchors  and  cables  of  great  strength.  On 
extended  cables  between  the  lines  of  ship- 
ping were  laid  fast-bound  rafters,  over  these 
a la3Tcr  of  unwrought  wood,  and  over  the 
latter  was  thrown  earth  ; on  each  side  was  a 
fence,  to  prevent  the  horses  and  beasts  of 
burthen  from  being  terrified  by  the  sea,  in 
the  passage  from  shore  to  shore.  This  won- 
derful work  was  completed,  it  is  said,  in  one 
week,  480  b.c. 

XIMENES,  Francis,  a Spanish  cardinal, 
was  born  in  1437,  at  Torrelaguna,  in  Old 
Castile.  In  1507  the  pope  gave  him  a cardi- 
nal’s hat,  and  soon  after  the  king  appointed 
him  prime  minister,  which  office  he  dis- 
charged with  the  greatest  honor.  He  was 
very  successful  in  the  conversion  of  the 
Moors,  three  thousand  of  whom  were  bap- 
tized in  one  day  at  Grenada.  On  the  death 
of  Ferdinand,  in  151 G,  the  cardinal  was  ap- 
pointed regent  of  the  kingdom  ; and  one  of 
his  first  acts  was  to  introduce  a reformation 
in  the  government.  He  died  Nov.  8th,  1517. 
He  was  a great  patron  of  letters,  and  the 
Complutensian  Bible,  the  first  polyglot  edi- 
tion published,  was  printed  at  his  cost 


XIM 


960 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Y. 

YALE,  Eliiiu,  the  donor  of  Yale  College, 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  died  in  1724,  and  was 
buried  at  the  church  in  Wrexham,  Wales.. 
His  monument,  a plain  altar  tomb,  bears  this 
inscription : — 

Born  in  America,  in  Europe  bred, 

In  Africa  traveled,  in  Asia  wed, 

Where  long  he  lived  and  thrived,  in  London  dead, 
Much  good,  some  ill,  he  did;  so  hope  all’s  even. 
And  that  his  soul  through  mercy’s  gone  to  heaven. 
You  that  survive  and  read' this  tale,  take  care, 

For  this  most  certain  exit  to  prepare. 

Where  blest  in  peace  the  actions  of  the  just 
Smell  sweet,  and  blossom  in  the  silent  dust. 

His  father,  Thomas  Yale,  from  one  of  the 
most  respectable  families  in  Wales,  came 
from  England  with  the  first  colonists  of  New 
Haven,  and  there  Elihu  was  born,  April  5th, 
1058.  Elihu  went  to  the  East  Indies  at  the 
age  of  thirty  as  an  adventurer,  became 
wealthy,  obtained  the  presidency  of  Madras, 
and  is  said  to  have  ruled  with  oppressive 
authority.  He  caused  his  groom  to  be  hanged 
for  riding  out  a favorite  horse  without  leave. 
For  this  murder  he  was  ordered  to  England, 
where  he  was  tried  for  the  crime,  but  by 
some  means  escaped  punishment,  except  a 
heavy  fine. 

YORKE,  Philip,  Earl  of  Hardwick,  chan- 
cellor of  England,  died  in  1764,  aged  seventy- 
four. 

Y7ORKE,  Cn arles,  second  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  an  elegant  and  profound  scholar. 

In  1770  he  was  appointed  chancellor,  and 
created  Lord  Mordan ; but  he  died  in  three 
days,  before  the  seals  were  affixed  to  his 
patent  of  peerage. 

YORKTOWN,  Siege  of.  In  the  summer 
of  1781  Washington  succeeded  in  cooping  up 
Lord  Cornwallis  and  his  army  of  7,000  men 
at  York  town,  Ya.  The  French  fleet  under 


Count  de  Grasse  guarded  the  mouth  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  and  prevented  succor  by 
sea.  The  combined  American  and  French 
armies,  commanded  by  Washington  and 
Rochambeau,  were  12,000  strong,  exclusive 
of  the  Virginia  militia  that  patriotic  Gov. 
Nelson  had  brought  into  the  field.  Gen. 
Lincoln  opened  the  first  parallel  on  the  6th 
of  October,  and  on  the  9th  the  batteries  com- 
menced fire,  Washington  putting  the  match 
to  the  first  gun.  Cornwallis  looked  in  vain 
for  relief  from  Sir  Ilenr}'  Clinton,  who  was 
hampered  by  naval  delays ; he  held  out  as 
long  as  was  possible,  and  surrendered  on  the 
19th. 

Congress  voted  thanks  to  the  victors,  with 
appropriate  trophies  to  Washington,  Rocham- 
beau, and  De  Grasse,  and  appointed  a day 
for  general  thanksgiving  and  prayer.  When 
Lord  North,  the  British  premier,  heard  of 
the  capture  of  Cornwallis  and  his  army,  he 
wildly  exclaimed,  “ O God  ! it  is  all  over  ! ” 
The  event  was  a death  blow  to  the  war. 

Y^OUNG,  Edward,  the  author  of  “Night 
Thoughts,”  was  born  at  his  father’s  parson- 
age near  Winchester  in  16S4,  and  died  in 
1765.  He  commenced  life  as  a courtier  and 
poet,  and  continued  such  till  his  death. 
When  upward  of  fifty  he  took  orders. 

YYRES  (now  Ivky),  Battle  of,  March  2d, 
1590,  between  Henry  IY.  of  France,  aided 
by  his  chief  'nobility,  and  the  generals  of  the 
Catholic  league,  over  whom  the  king  obtained 
a complete  victory.  This  success  enabled 
Ilenr}^  to  blockade  Paris,  and  reduce  that 
capital  to  the  last  extremity  by  famine;  but 
the . Duke  of  Parma,  by  orders  from  Philip 
of  Spain,  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  league, 
and  obliged  the  king  to  raise  the  blockade. 


YYR 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


961 


ZAMA,  Battle  of.  Between  the  two 
greatest  commanders  in  the  world  at  the 
time,  Hannibal  and  Scipio  Africanus,  b.c.  202. 
This  battle  has  been  called  the  most  impor- 
tant that  was  ever  fought ; it  was  won  by 
Scipio,  and  was  decisive  of  the  fate  of  Car- 
thage ; it  ltd  to  an  ignominious  peace,  which 
was  granted  the  year  after,  and  closed  the 
second  Punic  war.  The  Romans  lost  but  2,000 
killed  and  wounded,  while  the  Carthaginians 
lost,  in  killed  and  prisoners,  more  than  40,000 ; 
some  historians  make  the  loss  greater. 

ZAMOSZ,  a strong  fortress  in  the  south- 
east of  Poland.  In  1650  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  by  the  Swedes;  in  1715  it  was 
surprised  by  the  Saxons ; and  in  the  civil 
contests  of  1771,  the  Poles  were  defeated  in 
its  vicinity,  by  the  Prussians.  In  1812  it 
was  one  of  the  few  towns  in  which  the  French 
left  a garrison,  after  their  retreat  from  Rus- 
sia. 

ZAMOSKI,  John,  great  chancellor  of  Po- 
land, and  general  of  the  army  of  that  king- 
dom. He  was  one  of  the  ambassadors  to 
France  to  offer  the  crown  to  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  whom  the  Polanders  had  chosen  king. 
This  prince  being  recalled  to  take  possession 
of  the  kingdom  of  France  as  Henry  III., 
Stephen  Bathori,  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
was  chosen  king  of  Poland,  who  had  so  great 
a consideration  for  Zamoski,  that  he  gave  his 
niece  to  him  in  marriage,  made  him  chancel- 
lor of  the  kingdom,  and  first  gave  him  the 
command  of  eight  thousand  men  in  the  war 
with  Muscovy,  and  afterward  of  all  the  army 
of  Poland.  Zamoski  acquitted  himself  in 
all  these  employments  with  much  courage 
and  great  success.  He  died  in  1605. 

ZANTE  (Zakynthos),  one  of  the  Ionian 
Islands,  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Zante, 
the  capital,  has  a population  of  24,000.  Its 
harbor  is  spacious,  and  its  ^environs  are 
pleasant  and  picturesque.  In  1820  several 
hundred  houses  were  overthrown  bjr  an 
earthquake.  The  island  was  in  possession 
of  the  Venetians  from  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  1797  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  in 
1799  by  the  Russians.  In  1815  it  became 
61  ZI 


one  of  the  members  of  the  Ionian  repub- 
lic. The  wine  of  Zante  is  in  great  request, 

, but  the  most  important  product  of  the 
island  is  the  currant,  which  is  the  fruit  of  a 
, dwarf  species  of  the  vine  originally  brought 
from  Corinth. 

ZELA,  Battle  of.  In  which  Julius  Caesar 
defeated  Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus,  son  of 
Mithridates,  47  b.c.  Caesar,  in  announcing 
this  victory,  sent  his  famous  dispatch  to  the 
senate  of  Rome,  in  these  words,  “ Veni}  vidi , 
vici”  (I  came,  I saw,  I conquered),  so  rapidly 
and  easily  was  his  triumph  obtained.  This 
battle  concluded  the  war;  Pharnaces  es- 
caped into  Bosphorus,  where  he  was  slain  by 
his  lieutenant  Asander;  and  Pontus  was 
made  a province  of  Rome,  and  Bosphorus 
given  to  Mithridates  of  Pergamus. 

ZENO,  of  Cittium  in  Cyprus,  lived  from 
862  b.c.  to  264  b.c.  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  sect  of  the  Stoics,  which  was  so  called 
from  a public  portico,  from  which  the  phi- 
losopher delivered  his  harangues.  It  was 
the  most  famous  portico  in  Athens,  and  was 
called  by  way  of  eminence,  stoa , the  porch. 
In  order  to  form  his  own  school  of  philoso- 
phy, and  to  collect  materials  for  a new  sys- 
tem, Zeno  had  attended  the  schools  of 
various  masters,  and  among  others  he  offered 
himself  as  a disciple  of  Polemo.  This  philoso- 
pher, aware  of  Zeno’s  object,  said,  “ I am 
no  stranger,  Zeno,  to  your  Phoenician  arts. 
I perceive  that  your  design  is  to  creep  slyly 
into  my  garden,  and  steal  away  my  fruit. 

As  a man  Zeno  appears  deserving  of  the 
highest  respect.  Although  sharing  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Cynics,  he  did  not  learn  their 
grossness,  their  insolence,  or  their  affecta- 
tion. In  person  he  was  tall  and  slender; 
and  although  of  a weakly  constitution,  he 
lived  to  a great  age,  being  rigidly  abstemi- 
ous, feeding  mainly  upon  figs,  bread,  and 
honey.  His  brow  was  furrowed  with  thought ; 
and  this  gave  a tinge  of  severity  to  his  as- 
pect, which  accorded  with  the  severity  of  his 
doctrines.  So  honored  and  respected  was  he 
by  the  Athenians  that  they  intrusted  to  him 
the  keys  of  the  citadel ; and  when  he  died 
they  erected  to  his  memory  a statue  of  brass. 


962 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


Ilis  death  is  thus  recorded.  In  his  ninety- 
eighth  year,  as  he  was  stepping  out  of  his 
school,  he  fell  and  broke  his  finger.  lie  was 
so  affected  at  the  consciousness  of  his  in- 
firmity, that  striking  the  earth  he  exclaimed, 
“ Why  am  I thus  importuned  ? Earth,  I 
obey  thy  summons.”  He  went  home  and 
strangled  himself.” 

ZENOBIA  was  a celebrated  princess  of 
Palmyra,  who  married  Odenatus,  whom 
Gallienus  acknowledged  as  his  partner  on 
the  Roman  throne.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband,  which,  according  to  some  authors, 
she  is  said  to  have  hastened,  Zenobia  reigned 
in  the  east  as  regent  of  her  infant  children, 
who  were  honored  with  the  title  of  Caesars. 
She  assumed  the  name  of  Augusta,  appeared 
in  imperial  robes,  and  ordered  herself  to  be 
styled  the  queen  of  the  east.  The  troubles 
which  at  that  time  agitated  the  western  parts 
of  the  empire,  prevented  the  effeminate  Gal- 
lienus from  checking  the  insolence  and  am- 
bition of  this  princess,  who  boasted  to  be 
sprung  from  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt.  Au- 
relian  was  no  sooner  invested  with  the 
imperial  purple,  than  he  marched  into  the 
east,  determined  to  punish  the  pride  of  Ze- 
nobia. He  well  knew  her  valor,  and  he  was 
not  ignorant  that  in  her  wars  against  the 
Persians,  she  had  distinguished  herself  no 
less  than  Odenatus.  She  was  the  mistress 
of  the  east ; Egypt  acknowledged  her  power, 
and  all  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  were 
subject  to  her  command.  When  Aurelian 
approached  the  plains  of  Syria,  the  Palmy- 
rean  queen  appeared  at  the  head  of  seven 
hundred  thousand  men.  She  bore  the  labors 
of  the  field  like  the  meanest  of  her  soldiers, 
and  walked  on  foot  fearless  of  danger.  Two 
battles  were  fought ; the  courage  of  the  queen 
might  have  gained  the  superiority  in  the 
last,  but  an  imprudent  evolution  of  the  Pal- 
myrean  cavalry  ruined  her  cause  ; and  while 
they  pursued  with  spirit  the  flying  enemy, 
the  Roman  infantry  suddenly  fell  upon  the 
main  body  of  Zcnobia’s  army,  and  the  defeat 
was  inevitable.  The  queen  fled  to  Palmyra, 
determined  to  support  a siege.  Aurelian  fol- 
lowed her,  and  after  he  had  almost  exhausted 
his  stores,  he  proposed  honorable  terms  of 
capitulation,  which  were  rejected  with  dis- 
dain by  the  warlike  princess,  in  an  arrogant 
letter  which  incensed  Aurelian  highly.  Her 


hopes  of  victory,  however,  soon  vanished, 
and  though  she  harassed  the  Romans  night 
and  day  by  continual  sallies  from  her  walls, 
and  the  working  of  her  military  engines,  she 
despaired  of  success  when  she  heard  that 
the  armies  which  were  marching  to  her  relief 
from  Armenia,  Persia,  and  the  east,  had 
partly  been  defeated  and  partly  bribed  from 
her  allegiance.  She  fled  from  Palmyra  in 
the  night ; but  Aurelian,  who  was  apprised 
of  her  escape,  pursued  her,  aifll  she  was 
caught  as  she  was  crossing  the  river  Euphra- 
tes. She  was  brought  into  the  presence  of 
Aurelian,  and  though  the  soldiers  were  clam- 
orous for  her  death,  she  was  reserved  to 
adorn  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror.  She 
was  treated  with  great  humanity,  and  Aure- 
lian gave  her  large  possessions  and  a superb 
villa  at  Tivoli,  where  she  was  permitted  to 
live  the  rest  of  her  days  in  peace,  with  all 
the  grandeur  and  majesty  which  became  a 
queen  of  the  east  and  a warlike  princess. 
Her  children  were  patronized  by  the  emperor, 
and  married  to  persons  of  the  first  distinc- 
tion at  Rome.  She  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Aurelian  about  the  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
third  year  of  the  Christian  era. 

Zenobia  was  eminently  beautiful,  with  ori- 
ental eyes  and  complexion,  teeth  like  pearls, 
and  a voice  of  uncommon  power  and  sweet- 
ness. Her  courage,  prudence,  and  fortitude 
were  remarkable.  The  strangest  feature  in 
her  character,  if  we  consider  the  manners  of 
her  country  and  age,  was  her  passion  for 
study,  and  her  taste  for  the  Greek  and  Latin 
literature.  Longinus,  one  of  the  most  ele- 
gant writers  of  antiquity,  was  lured  to  her 
court,  and  made  her  secretary  and  minister. 
In  imitation  of  Cleopatra,  her  pretended  an- 
cestress, she  affected  great  splendor  in  living 
and  attire.  In  dignity  and  discretion,  as 
well  as  beauty,  she  far  surpassed  the  Egyp- 
tian queen.  There  is  one  black  spot  in  her 
history.  When  she  fell  into  Aurclian’s 
power,  his  ferocious  soldiery  clamored  for 
her  blood.  £he  forgot  her  former  vaunts 
and  intrepidity  ; terror  made  her  base ; in 
her  panic  she  threw  herself  on  the  mercy  of 
the  emperor,  accused  her  ministers  as  the 
cause  of  her  determined  resistance,  and  said 
that  Longinus  had  written  in  her  name  that 
eloq*uent  and  defiant  letter  which  had  so  en- 
raged Aurelian.  Longinus,  with  the  rest  of 


ZEN 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


963 


her  immediate  friends  and  counselors,  were 
at  once  sacrificed  to  the  fury  of  the  soldiers. 

ZEUXIS,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  paint- 
ers of  antiquity,  490-400  b.c. 

ZIMISCES,  John,  a noble  Armenian,  con- 
tributed to  the  elevation  of  Nicephorus  II. 
to  the  throne  of  the  eastern  empire,  but  in- 
stead of  being  rewarded  for  his  services,  was 
sent  into  disgraceful  exile.  He  afterward 
conspired  with  the  empress  ; she  in  person 
opened  the  chamber-door  of  Nicephorus  to 
the  conspirators,  who  massacred  him  without 
opposition,  a.d.  9G9.  Zimisces  was  then  pro- 
claimed emperor  of  the  east,  and  signalized 
himself  in  many  engagements  and  victories, 
but  was  at  length  taken  off  by  poison,  a.d. 
975. 

ZIMMERMANN,  John  George,  Chevalier 
von,  an  eminent  physician  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  born  at  Brug,  in  the  canton  of  Berne, 
in  1728.  Having  made  choice  of  the  medi- 
cal profession,  he  was  appointed  public  phy- 
sician to  his  native  town,  employing  his 
leisure  hours  in  writing  many  pieces  in  prose 
and  verse,  the  most  popular  of  which  is  his 
work  on  Solitude.  His  professional  and  lite- 
rary celebrity  gained  him  the  post  of  royal 
physician  at  Hanover  and  in  Prussia.  He 
died  deranged  in  1795. 

ZINZENDORF,  Nicholas  Louis,  Count 
von,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1700.  He  was 
the  founder  and  head  of  the  sect  of  Moravian 
Brethren,  whose  devoted  missionaries,  under 
his  direction,  soon  spread,  not*  only  over  Eu- 
rope, but  in  Greenland  and  America,  in  Af- 
rica, and  in  China.  Zinzendorf  came  to 
America  in  1741,  and  preached  at  German- 
town, Bethlehem,  and  Nazareth,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  returned  to  Europe  in  1748,  and 
died  among  his  people,  on  the  9th  of  June, 
1760. 

ZTSKA.  The  real  name  of  this  renowned 
leader  in  the  early  religious  wars  of  Germany 
was  John  Tkocznow.  He  acquired  the  name 
of  Ziska  (which  means  ‘one-eyed’)  from  the 
loss  of  an  eye  in  battle.  He  was  born  about 
1380,  of  a noble  Bohemian  family,  and  was 
bred  in  the  imperial  court  and  camp.  When 
John  Huss  was  martyred  at  Constance,  the 
Bohemians  flew  to  arms,  to  avenge  his  death 
and  resist  the  bigotry  and  tyranny  of  the 
Emperor  Sigismund.  Ziska  was  a follower 
of  Huss,  and  the  Bohemians  made  him  their 


general.  The  war  was  ferocious  on  both  sides. 
Thd  fierce  Ziska  was  everywhere  successful, 
even  after  made  wholly  blind  by  the  loss  of 
his  other  eye  at  the  siege  of  Raab.  The  em- 
peror concluded  a humiliating  treaty,  and 
Ziska  soon  after  died  of  the  plague,  Oct.  11th, 
1425.  There  is  a legend  that,  by  his  dying 
orders,  his  skin  was  made  into  a drum,  to 
animate  the  Hussites  with  the  remembrance 
of  his  valor. 

ZOE.  . This  extraordinary  woman,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Emperor  Constantine,  married 
Romanus,  who,  in  consequence,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  of  the  Eastern  empire,  a.d.  1028. 
Zoe,  after  prostituting  herself  to  a Paphlago- 
nian  money-lender,  caused  Romanus  to  be 
poisoned,  and  wedded  her  paramour,  who 
reigned  as  Michael  IY.  On  his  death,  Zoe 
placed  her  adopted  son  in  power,  as  Michael 
Y.  ; the  trade  of  his  father  (careening  vessels) 
had  procured  him  the  surname  of  Calaphates. 
Within  twelve  months,  she  dethroned  him, 
and  his  eyes  were  put  out.  Zoe  and  her 
sister,  Theodora,  were  made  sole  empresses 
by  the  populace  ; but  after  two  months,  Zoe 
although  she  was  sixty  years  of  age,  took 
for  her  third  husband  Constantine  X.  She 
died  in  1050. 

ZOLLYEREIN,  the  name  given  to  the 
German  commercial  union,  of  which  Prussia 
is  the  head.  It  was  first  formed  in  1818,  and 
was  gradually  joined  by  nearly  all  the  Ger- 
man states,  except  Austria.  Feb.  19th,  1853, 
an  important  treaty  of  commerce  and  navi- 
gation, between  Austria  and  Prussia,  to  last 
from  January,  1854,  till  December,  1865,  wa§ 
signed,  to  which  the  other  states  of  the  Zoll- 
verein  gave  in  their  adhesion,  April  5th,  1853. 
The  word  Zollverein  means  in  English  ‘ cus- 
toms union.’ 

ZOPYRUS,  a Persian,  son  of  Megabyzus, 
who,  to  show  his  attachment  to  Darius,  the 
son  of  Hystaspes,  while  he  besieged  Baby- 
lon, cut  off  hjs  ears  and  nose,  and  fled  to  the 
enemy,  telling  them  that  he  had  received 
such  treatment  from  his  royal  master  be- 
cause he  had  advised  him  to  raise  the  siege, 
as  the  city  was  impregnable.  This  was  cred- 
ited by  the  Babylonians,  and  Zopyrus  was 
appointed  commander  of  all  their  forces. 
When  he  had  totally  gained  their  confidence, 
he  betrayed  the  city  into  the  hands  of  Darius, 
for  which  he  was  liberally  rewarded.  The 


ZOP 


D64 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


regard  of  Darius  for  Zopyrus  could  never  be 
more  strongly  expressed  than  in  whiflt  he 
used  often  to  say,  “that  he  had  rather  have 
Zopyrus  not  mutilated  than  twenty  Baby- 
Ions.” 

ZSCHOKKE,  Heinrich,  a celebrated  au- 
thor, was  born  at  Magdeburg  in  1781.  He 
inherited  in  childhood  a moderate  patrimony, 
which  enabled  him  during  his  youth  and 
early  manhood  to  gratify  his  desire  for  ad- 
venture and  various  knowledge.  He  finally 
settled  down  for  life  near  Aargau  in  Swit- 
zerland, in  1802,  and  died  in  1848.  The  best 
known  of  his  numerous  works  are  his  novels, 
in  which  he  displays  much  agreeable  humor. 

ZOUAV*ES.  To  give  a complete  under- 
standing of  the  origin  of  this  singular  corps, 
we  must  go  back  a little.  Algiers  was  set- 
tled in  1492  by  Moors  driven  from  Spain. 
They  recognized  only  a nominal  allegiance  to 
the  Turkish  sultan.  But  in  1509,  when  hard 
pushed  by  the  Spaniards,  they  sent  in  haste 
to  Turkey  for  aid.  Barbarossa,  a noted  pirate, 
sailed  to  their  help,  drove  off  the  Christians, 
and  fixed  upon  the  Moors  the  yoke  of  Turk- 
ish sovereignty.  In  1516  he  declared  him- 
self Dey  of  Algiers,  and  his  brother  succeed- 
ing him,  the  Ottoman  power  was  firmly 
established.  Hated  by  both  Moors  and 
Arabs,  and  frequently  attacked  by  Europeans, 
to  sustain  themselves  the  deys  were  obliged 
to  form  a body  of  mercenary  soldiers  drawn 
entirely  from  Turkey.  Brave  these  mercen- 
aries proved  themselves  in  many  a fierce  fight. 
Hardy  and  ready  they  were,  for  they  were 
hated  and  dreaded  beyond  measure  by  the 
Arabs,  and  theirs  was  a life  of  constant  ex- 
ertion. United  they  must  be,  for  in  union 
was  their  strength  and  safety.  They  were 
called  the  Odjaclc,  and  elected  or  deposed 
deys  at  pleasure ; the  dey,  nominally  their 
ruler,  was  in  reality  their  tool.  In  one  pe- 
riod of  twenty  years  there  were  six  deys,  of 
whom  four  were  decapitated,  one  abdicated 
through  fear,  and  one  died  peacefully.  When 
one  dey  was  strangled  or  deposed,  they  chose 
in  his  stead  the  boldest  and  bravest  of  their 
number.  Their  number  was  supposed  not 
to  exceed  15,000,  and  they  were  recruited 
from  the  meanest  classes  in  the  ports  of  the 
Levant.  In  1629  they  declared  the  kingdom 
free  from  the  dominion  of  Turkey  ; soon  after 
they  expelled  the  KouJouglis,  or  half-breed 


Turks,  and  enslaved  the  Moors.  Admitting 
some  of  the  latter  to  service  in  the  militia, 
they  never  allowed  them  to  hope  for  promo- 
tion. Only  Turks  or  renegade  Christians 
could  lead  the  soldiers,  whom  thus  no  feeling 
of  local  patriotism  mollified  in  their  course 
of  savage  cruelty,  grinding  the  face  of  the 
poor  natives  till  spirit  and  hope  were  lost, 
and  resistance  ceased  to  be  a settled  idea  in 
their  minds. 

When  the  French  fleet  came  up  to  Algiers 
in  1880,  the  bond  between  the  soldiery  and 
their  master  Hussein  Pacha,  was  nearly 
broken  ; he  had  just  slain  the  ringleaders  of  a 
plot  against  his  life,  and  the  surviving  con- 
spirators felt  they  were  not  safe  with  him. 
Beaten  in  every  skirmish  or  battle,  they  con- 
ceived a high  respect  for  the  military  gen- 
ius of  the  French,  and,  ere  the  close  of  the 
summer  campaign,  offered  their  services  in 
a body  to  General  Clausel;  this  offer  he 
promptly  declined,  and  they  carried  their 
swords  to  the  aid  of  less  scrupulous  powers. 
The  news  of  this  offer  spread  a lively  terror 
among  the  Arab  tribes.  Perceiving  the  fear 
in  which  these  Algerine  praetorians  were  held 
by  the  tribes,  Marshal  Clausel  conceived  the 
plan  of  replacing  them  by  a corps  of  light 
infantry,  consisting  of  two  battalions,  to  per- 
form the  services  of  household  troops,  and  to 
receive  some  name  as  significant  as  that  of 
the  terrible  Odjack.  The  new  corps  was 
therefore  called  by  the  name  of  Zouaves , from 
the  Arabic  word  Zouaoua.  The  Zouaoua  are 
a tribe,  or  rather  a confederation  of  tribes,  of 
the  Kabyles,  who  inhabit  the  gorges  of  the 
Jurjura  Mountains,  between  Algeria  and  the 
province  of  Constantine.  They  are  a brave, 
fierce,  laborious  people,  whose  submission  to 
the  Turks  was  never  more  than  nominal; 
they  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  best 
soldiers  in  the  regency.  They  were  well 
known  in  the  city  of  Algiers,  whither  they 
came  frequently  to  exchange  the  products  of 
their  industry  for  the  luxuries  of  comparative 
civilization. 

The  number  of  native  soldiers  received  into 
the  ranks  of  the  Zouaves  was  limited,  and  all 
the  officers,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest 
grade,  were  required  to  be  native-born 
Frenchmen.  Service  in  the  corps  was  alto- 
gether voluntary,  none  being  appointed  to  the 
Zouaves  who  did  not  seek  the  place;  but 


ZOU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


965 


there  were  found  enough  young  and  daring 
spirits  who  embraced  with  enthusiasm  this 
life,  so  harassing,  so  full  of  privation,  of 
rude  labor,  of  constant  peril.  The  first  bat- 
talion was  commanded  by  Major  Maumet, 
the  second  by  Captain  Duvivier. 

Scarcely  six  weeks  after  their  formation  the 
Zouaves  took  the  field  under  Marshal  Clausel, 
marching  against  Medeah,  an  important  sta- 
tion in  the  heart  of  western  Algeria.  On 
the  hill  of  Mouzaia  they  fought  their  first 
battle,  and  were  completely  successful.  They 
remained  two  months  as  a garrison  in  Me- 
deah, showing  great  valor  and  patience. 
Left  alone  in  a frontier  post,  constantly  in  the 
vicinity  of  a savage  foe,  watching  and  fight- 
ing night  and  day,  leaving  the  gun  only  to 
take  up  the  spade,  compelled  to  create  every- 
thing they  needed,  reduced  to  the  last  ex- 
tremities for  food,  cut  off  from  all  communi- 
cations,— it  was  a rough  trial  for  this  little 
handful  of  new  soldiers.  The  place  was  often 
attacked ; they  were  always  at  their  posts ; 
till  in  the  last  days  of  April  they  were  re- 
called, and  the  fortress  yielded  up  to  the 
feeble  bey  whom  the  French  had  decided  to 
establish  there.  In  June,  troubles  having 
again  risen,  General  Berthezene  conducted 
some  regular  troops  to  Medeah,  together  with 
the  second  battalion  of  Zouaves,  under  its 
gallant  captain,  Duvivier.  On  his  return  the 
troops  were  furiously  attacked  on  the  hill  of 
Mouzaia,  the  spot  wdicre  in  February  the 
Zouaves  had  received  the  baptism  of  fire. 
Weared  with  the  long  night-march,  borne 
down  by  insupportable  heat,  stretched  in  a 
long  straggling  line  through  mountain  passes, 
the  commander  of  the  van  severely,  wounded 
at  the  first  discharge,  they  themselves  sep- 
arated, without  chiefs,  and  surrounded  by  ene- 
mies, the  French  troops  recoiled ; when 
Duvivier,  seeing  the  peril  that  menaced  the 
army,  advanced  with  his  battalion.  Shout- 
ing their  war-cry  and  the  Marseillaise,  they 
rushed  upon  the  Kabyles,  turned  the  pursu- 
ers into  pursued,  and  covered  the  retreat  of 
the  army  till  it  could  ralty.  This  affair 
made  the  Zouaves — before  regarded,  if  not 
with  contempt,  at  least  with  dislike— -free  of 
the  camp. 

Losses  in  the  two  battalions  began  to  be 
seriously  felt,  for  the  growing  hostility  of  the 
Arabs  made  it  difficult  to  recruit  from  native 


sources.  In  March,  1833,  the  two  were 
united  into  one  battalion,  consisting  of  ten 
companies,  eight  of  which  were  to  be  exclu- 
sively European,  and  in  each  of  the  other  com- 
panies it  was  required  there  should  be  at  least 
twelve  Frenchmen.  Captain  Lamoriciere 
was  appointed  chief  of  the  battalion.  To 
the  training  the  Zouaves  received  under  this 
remarkable  man  much  of  their  after  success 
must  be  attributed.  In  his  dealings  with 
the  Arabs  he  had  shown  himself  the  first  who 
could  treat  with  them  by  other  means  than 
the  rifle  or  the  bayonet.  As  commander  of 
the  Zouaves  he  showed  talents  of  a high  order. 
He  Infused  into  them  the  spirit,  the  activity, 
the  boldness  and  impetuosity  which  he  him- 
self so  remarkably  possessed,  with  a certain 
independence  of  character  that  demanded 
from  those  who  commanded  them  a resolute 
firmness  on  essential,  and  a dignified  indul- 
gence on  unessential  points.  To  the  course 
of  discipline  used  by  him,  and  still  maintained 
in  this  arm  of  the  service,  are  due  their  tre- 
mendous working  power,  their  tirelessness, 
their  self-dependence,  and  all  their  qualities 
differing  from  those  of  other  soldiers ; so  that 
by  his  means  on£  of  the  most  irregular  spe- 
cies of  warfare  has  produced  a body  of  irre- 
sistible regular  soldiers,  and  border  combats 
have  given  rise  to  the  most  rigid  discipline  in 
the  world. 

The  post  of  Dely  Ibrahim  was  assigned  to 
the  Zouaves.  They  were  obliged  to  work  la- 
boriously, making  for  themselves  whatever 
was  needed;  whether  as  masons,  ditchers, 
blacksmiths,  carpenters,  or  farmers, — what- 
ever was  to  be  done,  they  were,  or  learned  to 
be,  sufficient  for  it.  What  time  was  not  de- 
voted to  labor  was  given  to  the  practice  of 
arms  and  the  acquisition  of  instruction  in  all 
departments  of  military  science ; so  that  many 
a soldier  was  there  fitted  for  the  position  he 
afterward  acquired  of  officer,  colonel,  or  gen- 
eral. To  fence  with  the  mounted  bayonet, 
to  wrestle,  to  leap,  to  climb,  to  run  for  miles, 
to  swim,  to  make  and  to  destroy  temporary 
bridges,  to  throw  up  walls  of  earth,  to  carry 
great  weights, — these  served  as  the  relax- 
ations of  the  unwearied  Zouaves.  To  vary 
the  monotony  of  such  a life,  there  was  enough 
adventure  to  be  found  for  the  seeking, — an 
incursion  into  the  Sahel,  or  into  the  plains  of 
Mitidja,  or  a wild  foray  through  the  northern 


ZOU 


966 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


gorges  of  the  Atlas.  They  learned  to  march 
rapidly  and  long,  to  sustain  the  extremes  of 
hunger,  thirst,  and  weather,  and  to  maneuvre 
with  intelligent  precision.  Their  costume 
and  equipment  were  brought  near  perfection  ; 
they  wore  the  Turkish  dress,  slightly  modi- 
fied,— a dress  suited  to  the  changes  of  that 
climate,  and  without  which  their  movements 
would  have  been  cramped  and  constrained. 
The  cost  of  a Turkish  uniform  suitable  for  an 
officer  would  be  heavy ; besides,  the  dress  of 
a Turk  of  rank  is  somewhat  ridiculous;  so 
the  officers  retained  the  hussar  uniform,  which 
is  rich  and  easy  to  wear.  Certain  officers 
used  on  the  march,  however,  to  wear  thtf  fez, 
or,  as  the  Arabs  called  it,  the  cJiechia.  La- 
moriciere was  known  in  Algeria  as  Bou  Che- 
chia, or  Papa  with  the  Cap.  The  corps  was 
the  best  practical  school  for  soldiers  and  offi- 
cers, and  many  of  the  best  French  generals 
began  their  military  career  in  the  wild  guer- 
rilla combats  or  the  patient  camp-life  of  that 
band  of  heroes. 

There  was  work  enough  for  the  Zouaves 
in  Algiers ; they  gained  fresh  laurels,  and 
they  were,  raised  to  a regiment.  In  the  sec- 
ond expedition  into  Constantine,  in  1837,  they 
formed  part  of  the  division  headed  by  the 
Duke  of  Nemours.  Lamoriciere  was  still 
their  leader.  Fighting  by  the  side  of  the  best 
soldiers,  they  proved  themselves  bravest 
where  all  were  brave.  In  the  assault, upon 
Constantine,  they  were  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  first  column  of  attack  ; Lamoriciere  was 
the  first  officer  on  the  breach,  and  carried  all 
before  him.  The  soldiers  he  had  trained  sup- 
ported him  nobly ; but  when  they  had  won 
the  day,  they  found  that  many  companies 
were  decimated,  some  nearly  annihilated,  and 
numbers  of  their  officers  had  fallen.  “ Those 
who  are  not  mortally  wounded  rejoice  at  this 
great  success,”  said  an  officer  to  the  duke. 

One  anecdote  will  give  some  idea  of  the 
troops  among  whom  the  Zouaves  shone  brav- 
est of  the  brave.  The  rear-guard  at  Man- 
sourah  was  under  the  command  of  Changar- 
nier ; it  was  reduced  to  three  hundred  men ; 
he  halted  this  little  troop  and  said,  “ Come, 
my  men,  look  these  fellows  in  the  face ; they 
are  six  thousand,  you  are  three  hundred; 
surely  the  match  is  even.”  This  speech  was 
sufficient.  The  Frenchmen  awaited  the  onset 
till  the  e'aemy  was  within  pistol-shot,  then 


after  a murderous  volley,  they  charged  on  the 
Arabs,  who  broke  and  fled  in  dismay.  Dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  day  they  would  not 
approach  this  band  nearer  than  long  rifle 
range. 

In  1839  alarming  symptoms  of  mutiny  ap- 
peared among  the  native  Zouaves.  Wild 
San  tons  of  the  desert — emissaries,  doubtless, 
of  Abd-el-Kader — held  secret  meetings  near 
the  camp  ; many  soldiers  attended  them,  and 
were  seduced  by  artful  harangues  and  prophe- 
cies. In  December,  1839,  at  the  raising  of  the 
standard  of  Islam,  the  natives  flocked  in  vast 
numbers  to  rid  the  land  of  the  French,  and 
most  of  the  native  Zouaves  deserted  to  join 
the  fortunes  of  the  prince  whom  the}'  rever- 
enced as  a prophet.  Old  soldiers,  trained  in 
the  French  service  to  a thorough  acquaintance 
with  European  tactics,  and  gray  with  battling 
long  for  Lamoriciere,  suddenly  left  him,  and 
by  their  knowledge  of  the  art  of  war  gave 
great  advantage  to  the  Arab  force.  The  Zou- 
aves not  infrequently  found  that  a sharp  re- 
sistance or  a masterly  retreat  on  the  part  of 
the  enemy  was  executed  under  the  direction 
of  an  old  comrade.  It  was  a critical  moment 
for  the  Zouaves  ; but  volunteers  flowed  in, 
young  men  full  of  ardor  and  excitement,  and 
in  many  instances  old  soldiers  who  had  al- 
ready served  their  time.  After  a winter  of 
petty  skirmishing,  and  re-establishing  in  Al- 
geria the  semblance  of  security,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans  led  the  army  against  Abd-el-Kader 
in  the  Arabs’  own  territory.  Whether  in 
charges  against  the  mountaineers,  who,  with 
the  aid  of  the  Arab  regulars,  defended  each 
pass;  or  sustaining  the  shock  of  the  provin- 
cial cavalry ; or  even  standing  unmoved  be- 
fore an  attack  of  Abd-el-Kader’s  terrible 
mounted  body  guard, — the  Zouaves  maintain- 
ed their  character  of  rapid,  intrepid,  success- 
ful soldiers.  What  names  we  find  in  this 
regiment!  Lamoriciere,  Regnault,  Renault, 
Cavaignac,  Leflo,  St.  Arnaud — future  gener- 
als, marshals,  dictators. 

A singular  instance  of  the  hardiness  of  the 
Zouaves  occurred  during  a forced  march  in 
this  campaign  to  support  a retreat  of  the  sev- 
enteenth light  infantry.  Their  cartridges 
were  fired  away,  the  regulars  of  Abd-el-Kader 
were  upon  them,  and  nothing  seemed  to  re- 
main but  a heroic  death,  when,  “ Comrades,” 
cried  one,  “ see,  here  are  stones ! ” Not  a 


zou 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


967 


word  more  ; each  caught  the  hint ; and  with 
volleys  of  stones  they  drove  off'  the  charging 
enemy,  and  broke  their  way  to  where  the 
remains  of  the  seventeenth  rallied,  after  a re- 
treat more  properly  to  be  called  a continual 
attack. 

With  the  arrival  of  Marshal  Bugeaud  the 
war  was  changed;  hitherto  it  had  been  a 
mere  war  of  occupation, — a holding  of  the 
ground  already  French  against  the  attacking 
Arabs ; Bugeaud’s  design  was,  to  follow  the 
Arabs  into  the  desert,  to  climb  the  steep 
mountains,  to  plunge  into  their  chasms,  to 
storm  every  hill  fort,  and  to  drive,  step  by 
step,  the  swift  Abd-el-Kader  from  the  land ; 
but  how  ? for  swift  troops  are  light-armed, 
carry  no  baggage,  and  but  little  provision ; 
and  to  follow  without  food  the  Arabs  who 
concealed  food  in  silos,  caches  in  the  ground, 
seemed  hopeless.  This  wTas  work  for  Lamor- 
iciere  and  his  Zouaves.  They  carried  only 
four  days’  provisions,  and  no  baggage  of  any 
sort.  When  they  drew  near  any  of  these 
silos,  which  were  always,  of  course,  near  the 
deserted  villages,  he  spread  out  his  troops  in 
a long  crescent,  and  they  advanced  slowly, 
working  up  the  ground  with  their  bayonets 
till  some  one  struck  on  the  stone  or  pebbles 
covering  the  prepious  deposit.  Trained  to 
tireless  activity,  they  could  thus  follow  the 
Arabs  with  little  delay  and  fatal  effect. 

The  native  Algerines  were  gradually  be- 
coming fewer  among  the  Zouaves,  and  in  1842 
disappeared  finally  from  their  ranks.  The  best 
and  bravest  soldiers  in*  the  African  army 
eagerly  sought  their  places,  attracted  by  the 
uniform,  the  manner  of  life,  the  constant  dan- 
ger and  no  less  constant  excitement,  the  lib- 
erty allowed,  the  glory  ever  open  to  all.  In 
1848  the  corps  received  a large  accession 
from  Paris;  the  gamins  of  the  revolution 
were  sent  to  them  in  great  numbers,  and  out 
of  these  unpromising,  rebellious  materials, 
some  of  the  finest  Zouaves  have  been  made. 
In  February,  1852,  Louis  Napoleon,  then 
president  of  the  republic,  decreed  that  three 
regiments  of  Zouaves  should  be  formed,  one 
on  each  of  the  existing  battalions  as  a nu- 
cleus. Officers  of  the  infantry  were  eligible 
to  the  new  regiments,  holding  the  same  grade ; 
the  men  were  to  be  drawn  from  any  infantry 
corps  in  the  army,  on  their  own  application, 
if  the  minister  of  war  saw  proper.  None  were 


accepted  but  men  physically  and  morally  in 
excellent  condition  ; the  officers  had,  for  the 
most  part,  already  served  writh  credit ; the 
subalterns  and  privates  had  been  many  years 
in  the  service ; and  even  many  corporals  and 
not  a few  ensigns  and  lieutenants  voluntarily 
relinquished  their  positions  to  serve  in  the 
rank  and  file  of  the  Zouaves. 

It  was  in  the  winter  of  1853-4  that  Louis 
Napoleon  said,  “If  the  war  break  out,  we 
must  show  our  Zouaves  to  the  Russians. 
They  were  a body  trained  in  the  school  of  a 
terrible  experience  for  twenty -four  years; 
they  had  learned,  like  the  lion-hunter  Gerard, 
to  take  death  by  the  mane,  and  look  into  his 
fiery  eyes  without  blenching.  They  went  to 
the  Crimea.  Russell,  the  brilliant  corres- 
pondent of  the  London  Times,  thus  describes 
the  first  of  them  he  saw  : — “ The  Zouave 
wears  a sort  of  red  ffez  cap,  with  a roll  of 
cloth  at  the  base  to  protect  the  head ; a jacket 
of  blue  cloth,  with  red  facings,  decorated  with 
some  simple  ornaments,  and  open  in  front  so 
as  to  display  the  throat;  and  a waistcoat,  or 
under  coat,  of  red  comes  dowm  to  the  hips. 
Round  his  waist  a broad  silk  sash  is  folded  sev- 
eral times,  so  a3  to  keep  up  the  ample  panta- 
loons and  support  the  back.  The  pantaloons, 
of  scarlet  cloth,  fit  close  over  the  hips,  and  then 
expand  to  the  most  Dutchman-like  dimen- 
sions, till  they  are  gathered  just  below  the 
knee  in  loose  bagging  folds,  so  that  they  look 
almost  like  a kilt.  From  the  knee  to  the 
ankle  the  leg  is  protected  by  a kind  of  greaves, 
made  of  stout,  yellow,  embroidered  leather, 
laced  (with  black  stripes)  down  the  back,  and 
descending  over  the  shoe.  The  whole  cos- 
tume is  graceful,  easy,  and  picturesque.  The 
men  (natives  of  France,  and  not  Arabs,  as 
many  suppose)  are  young  smart  fellows, 
about  five  feet  six  inches  in  height,  burnt  to 
a deep  copper  tint  by  the  rays  of  an  African 
sun,  and  wearing  the  most  luxuriant  beards, 
moustaches,  and  whiskers;  it  is,  however, 
hard  to  believe  these  fierce-looking  warriors 
are  Europeans.” 

All  Europe,  at  first  wondering  at  these 
strange  troops,  with  their  w ild  dress,  their 
half-savage  manners,  and  strange  method  of 
warfare,  found  speedy  cause  to  admire  their 
courage  and  success.  At  the  battle  of  the 
Alma,  Marshal  St.  Arnaud  was  unable  to  re- 
press his  admiration,  calling  them  “ the  brav- 


ZOU 


968 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF 


est  soldiers  in  the  world.”  They  rushed  like 
tigers  to  rescue  the  British  at  Inkerman. 
Russell  thus  describes  their  capture  of  the 
Mamelon  : “ The  French  went  up  the  steep  to 
the  Mamelon  in  most  beautiful  order,  and  eve- 
ry straining  eye  was  upon  their  movements, 
which  the  declining  daylight  did  not  throw  out 
into  bold  relief.  Still  their  figures,  like  light 
shadows,  flitting  across  the  dun  barriers  of 
earthwork,  were  seen  to  mount  up  unfailing- 
ly— were  seen  running,  climbing,  scrambling 
like  skirmishers  up  the  slopes  on  to  the  body 
of  the  work,  amid  a plunging  fire  from  the 
guns  which,  owing  to  their  loose  formation, 
did  them  as  yet  little  damage.  As  an  officer, 
who  saw  Bosquet  wave  them  on,  said  at  the 
moment,  ‘ they  went  in  like  a clever  pack  of 
hounds.’  In  a moment  some  of*  these  dim 
wraiths  shone  out  against  the  sky.  The  Zou- 
aves were  upon  the  parapet  firing  down  into 
the  place  from  above  ; the  next  moment  a flag 
was  up  as  a rallying  point  and  defiance,  and  was 
seen  to  sway  hither  and  thither,  now  up,  now 
down,  as  the  tide  of  battle  raged  round  it; 
and  now  like  a swarm  they  were  in  the  heart 
of  the  Mamelon,  and  a fierce  hand-to-hand  en- 
counter, here  with  the  musket,  there  with  the 
bayonet,  was  evident.  It  was  seven  minutes 
and  a half  from  the  commencement  of  the 
enterprise.  Then  there  came  a rush  through 
the  angle  where  they  had  entered,  and  then  a 
momentary  confusion  outside.  Hardly  had 
the  need  of  support  become  manifest,  and 
a gun  or  two  again  flashed  from  the  em- 
brasure against  them,  than  there  was  another 
run  in,  another  sharp  bayonet  fight  inside, 
and  this  time  the  Russians  went  out,  spiking 
their  guns.  Twice  the  Russians  made  head 
against  the  current,  for  they  had  a large 
mass  of  troops  in  reserve,  covered  by  the 
guns  of  the  round  tower.  Twice  they  were 
forced  back  by  the  onsweeping  flood  of 
French,  who  fought  as  if  they  had  eyes  upon 
them  to  sketch  the  swift  event  in  detail. 
For  ten  minutes  or  so  the  quick  flash  and  roll 
of  small  arms  had  declared  that  the  uncer- 
tain fight  waved  and  waved  inside  the  enclos- 
ure. Then  the  back  door,  if  one  may  use  a 
humble  metaphor,  was  burst  open.  The  noise 
of  the  conflict  went  away  down  the  descent 
on  the  side  towards  the  tower,  and  the  area 
grew  larger.  It  was  apparent  by  the  space 
over  which  the  battle  spread,  that  the  Rus- 


sians had  been  reinforced.  When  the  higher 
ground  again  became  the  seat  of  action  ; when 
there  came  the  second  rush  of  the  French 
back  upon  their  supports  ; when  rocket  after 
rocket  went  up  ominously  from  the  French 
general’s  position,  and  seemed  to  emphasize 
by  their  repetition  some  very  plain  com- 
mand,— we  began  to  get  nervous.  It  was 
growing  darker  and  darker,  so  that  with  our 
glasses  we  could  with  difficulty  distinguish 
the  actual  state  of  affairs.  There  was  even 
a dispute  for  some  time  as  to  whether  our 
allies  were  going  in  or  out  of  the  works.  At 
last,  through  the  twilight,  we  discovered  that 
the  French  were  pouring  in.  Our  ears  could 
gather  that  the  swell  and  babble  of  the. 
fight  was  once  more  rolling  down  the  inner 
face  of  the  hill,  and  that  the  Russians  were 
conclusively  beaten.  The  musket  flashes 
were  no  more  to  be  seen  within  the  work. 
There  was  no  more  lightning  of  the  heavy 
guns  from  the  embrasures.  A shapeless 
hump  upon  a hill,  the  Mamelon  was  an  ex- 
tinct volcano.” 

In  1855  a fourth  regiment  of  Zouaves  was 
created,  consisting  of  forty  picked  men  from 
each  company,  and  enrolled  in  the  imperial 
guard.  They  are  distinguished  by  wearing  a 
white  turban ; that  of  the  Other  regiments  is 
green. 

At  the  end  of  the  Russian  war  the  Zou- 
aves returned  to  Africa,  where  they  found 
employment  in  war  till  the  final  submission 
of  the  last  tribes,  July  15th,  1S57,  dissolved 
the  army  of  Kabylia,  and  made  them  per 
force  peaceful  till  hostilities  with  Austria  in 
1859  brought  them  to  win  fresh  laurels  on 
new  fields — at  Montebello,  and  Magenta,  and 
Solferino. 

Some  reports  represent  the  Zouaves  as 
cruel.  War  is  always  cruel,  but  that  Zou- 
aves are  more  cruel  than  other  soldiers  may 
be  doubted.  On  one  occasion  in  Africa  the 
Zouaves  had  in  their  charge  a large  bod}7  of 
prisoners,  wounded,  and  helpless  women,  old 
men,  and  children,  whom  they  were  conduct- 
ing to  restore  to  their  homes.  The  weather 
was  intensely  hot,  even  for  Africa ; the  near' 
est  well  was  eleven  leagues  distant ; and  the 
sufferings  of  the  poor  people  were  dreadful 
indeed.  Mothers  flung  down  their  infants 
on  the  burning  sand,  and  pressed  madly  on 
to  save  themselves  from  the  most  horrible  of 


ZOU 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


969 


deaths ; old  men  and  boys  sunk  exhausted, 
declaring  they  could  go  no  farther.  Then  it 


even  rash,  seek  to  win  their  epaulettes  anew 
in  this  hard  service,  and  gain  either  a glo- 
rious position  or  a glorious  death, — old  offi- 


was, an  eye-witness  says,  that  the  Zouaves 
behaved  like  very  sisters  of  charity  rather 
than  rough-bearded  soldiers ; they  divided 
their  last  morsel  with  these  unfortunates, 
gave  them  drink  from  their  own  scanty  stores, 
and,  putting  their  canteens  to  the  mouths  of 
the  dying,  revived  them  with  the  precious 
draught.  They  raised  the  screaming  infants ; 
overturned  and  held  ewes,  that  they  might 
suckle  the  poor  creatures  abandoned  to  des- 
pair by  their  mothers ; and,  in  many  instan- 
ces, carried  them  the  whole  distance  in  their 
arms.  At  night  they  ate  nothing,  giving 
their  food  to  the  helpless  prisoners,  whose 
lives  they  thus  saved  at  the  risk  of  their  own. 

In  accordance  with  Arab  customs,  the  Zou- 
aves, who  live  in  common,  compose  circles, 
to  which  they  give  the  name  of  tribes.  In 
the  tribe  each  one  has  his  allotted  task ; one 
attends  to  making  the  fires  and  procuring 
wood;  another  draws  water  and  does  the 
cooking;  another  makes  the  coffee  and  ar- 
ranges the  camp,  &c.  The  colonel  is  the  man 
most  venerated  by  them  ; they  look  upon  him 
as  the  father  of  the  family,  and  familiarly 
speak  of  him  as  papa.  They  are  now  the 
military  notabilities  of  the  world;  once  it 
was  the  grenadiers  of  England,  then  the  old 
guard  of  Napoleon,  then  the  imperial  guard 
of  Russia;  now  it  is  the  Zouaves.  They 
upset  all  the  old  rules  for  behavior  in  battle. 
They  attack  upon  a sharp  run ; one  man 
after  another  mounts  upon  the  shoulders  of 
his  fellows,  forming  human  pyramids,  and 
scaling  windows  and  portholes;  they  bound 
up  hill  like  tigers,  swim  streams  without 
wetting  their  arms,  and  climb  cliffs  like  the 
chamois.  They  despise  cartridges  and  be- 
lieve in  cold  steel,  wielding  their  bayonet 
swords  with  the  skill  of  fencers.  The  meth- 
od of  recruitment  adds  to  their  efficiency: 
the  soldiers  are  all  drawn,  not  from  con- 
scripts, but  from  applicants  for  the  service. 
They  are  proud  of  their  unique  costume ; 
proud  of  that  name,  Zouave ; proud  of  the 
splendid  actions  that  enrich  the  history  of  the 
corps ; happy  in  the  liberty  they  have,  both 
in  garrison  and  on  expeditions.  In  the  ranks 
are  officers,  who  tired  of  a lazy  life,  have 
taken  up  the  musket  and  the  chechia , — under 
officers,  who  having  already  served,  brave, 


cers  of  the  garde  mobile, — broad-shouldered 
marines,  who  have  served  their  time  on  ship- 
board, accustomed  to  cannon  and  the  thun- 
derings  of  the  tempest, — young  men  of  fam- 
ily, desirous  to  replace  with  the  red  ribbon 
of  the  legion  of  honor,  bought  and  colored 
with  their  blood,  the  dishonor  of  a life  gaped 
wearily  away  on  the  pavements  of  Paris. 

The  officers  are  generally  chosen  from  the 
regiments  of  the  line, — men  remarkable  for 
strength,  courage,  and  prudence;  full  of 
energy,  pushing  the  love  of  their  colors  to 
its  last  limit,  always  ready  to  confront  death 
and  to  run  up  to  meet  danger,  they  seek  glory 
rather  than  promotion.  Esprit  de  corps  is 
carried  by  the  Zouaves  to  its  highest  pitch ; 
the  common  soldiers  would  not  consent  to 
change  their  turbans  for  the  epaulettes  of  an 
ensign  in  any  other  branch  of  the  army. 
There  exists  between  the  officers  and  the 
men  a military  fraternity,  which,  far  from  de- 
stroying discipline,  tends  rather  to  draw 
more  closely  its  bonds.  The  officer  sees  in 
his  men  rather  companions  in  danger  and 
in  glory  than  inferiors;  he  willingly  attends 
to  their  complaints,  and  strives  to  spare  them 
all  unnecessa^  privations.  When  they  are 
exposed  to  difficulties,  he  does  not  hesitate 
to  employ  all  the  means  in  his  power  to  aid 
them.  In  return,  the  soldier  professes  for 
his  officer  an  affection,  a devotion,  a sort 
of  filial  respect.  Discipline,  he  knows,  must 
be  severe,  and  he  does  not  grumble  at  its  pen- 
alties. He  doe#  not  abandon  his  chief  in 
battle ; he  watches  over  him,  will  die  for  his 
safety,  will  not  let  him  fall  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy  if  wounded.  At  the  bivouac  he 
makes  the  officer’s  fire,  though  his  own  should 
die  for  want  of  fuel;  cares  for  his  horse; 
arranges  his  furniture ; if  any  delicacy  in  the 
way  of  food  can  be  procured,  he  brings  it  to 
the  chief. 

Our  sketch  is  in  part  condensed  from  an 
article  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 

ZUTPHEN,  an  inland  town  of  the  Nether- 
lands, province  of  Guelderland.  In  the  wars 
of  Philip  II.,  Zutphen  was  besieged  in  1572 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  refusing  the  citizens 
a capitulation,  entered  the  town  by  storm, 
and  committed  frightful  ravages.  It  was 


ZUT 


970 


COTTAGE  CYCLOPEDIA  OP 


retaken  in  1591,  and  during  this  s^ege  Sir 
Philip  Sidney  was  killed. 

ZWINGLE,  Ulkicii,  whose  name  in  the 
annals  of  Protestantism  ranks  second  only  to 
that  of  Luther,  was  born  on  New  Year’s  day, 
1484,  i-n  a remote  Swiss  village,  high  up  in 
the  mountains.  From  his  earliest  years  he 
loved  and  admired  his  native  heights ; in  after 
days  his  friend  Oswald  Myconius  said  of  him 
that  “from  living  so  near  to  heaven  he  had 
caught  something  of  a divine  influence.” 
lie  was  fond  of  study,  was  educated  at  Basle, 
Berne,  and  Vienna,  and  entered  the  priest- 
hood. In  1528  he  was  efected  preacher  to 
the  cathedral  church  at  Zurich.  His  theo- 
logical studies  had  led  him  to  a sense  of  the 
corruptions  of  the  church  ; he  preached  the 
pure  gospel,  and  cried  for  reform.  He  de- 
claimed against  the  indulgences,  and  effected 
the  same  separation  for  Switzerland  from  the 
papal  dominion,  which  Luther  did  for  Saxony. 
He  procured  two  assemblies  to  be  called ; by 
the  first  he  was  authorized  to  proceed,  and 
by  the  second  the  ceremonies  of  the  Romish 
church  were  abolished,  1519.  Zuinglius, 
who  began  as  a preacher,  died  in  arms  as  a 
soidier.  The  religious  dissensions  brought 
on  civil  war  in  Switzerland,  and  he  was  slain 
on  the  field  of  Cappel,  Oct.  12th,  1531. 

Zwingle’s  life  was  not  that  of  a priest,  a 
churchman,  a theologian,  but  that  of  a Swiss, 
a patriot,  a man.  He  did  not  begin  life  with 
a cut-and-dried  religious  system  which  he 
was  resolved  to  impose  upon  the  world ; he 
did  not  insist  that  all  truth  was  contained  in 
certain  religious  dogmas  more  or  less  diffi- 
cult of  comprehension.  II#  was  born  among 
the  mountains,  and  early  learnt  from  Nature’s 
teaching  the  love  of  God  and  of  his  country. 
As  he  grew  up,  he  perceived  in  the  mer- 
cenary levies  by  which,  for  no  cause  but 
money,  life  was  sacrificed  and  society  cor- 


rupted, a grievous  sin  against  God  and  a 
heavy  blow  and  scandal  to  Switzerland.  The 
circumstances  of  his  education,  no  less  than 
the  cast  of  his  own  mind,  led  him  to  seek 
for  a remedy  in  a healthier  state  of  morals, 
and  this  he  believed,  could  only  be  brought 
about  by  religion.  He  found  religion,  as  it 
existed,  corrupt,  and  altogether  inadequate 
for  this  purpose,  and  thus  he  was  brought 
into  collision  with  the  established  doctrines, 
not  with  the  furious  uncalculating  enthu- 
siasm of  a speculative  theorist,  but  with  all 
the  calm  temperate  energy  of  a practical  re- 
former. This  was  the  object  of  his  life, 
which  he  pursued  steadily,  though  perhaps 
not  always  wisely.  It  may  be  that  at  tho 
end  of  his  life  he  played  too  deep  a stake — 
that  not  even  the  greatness  of  the  evil  and 
the  danger,  justified  the  dreadful  remedy  of 
war  which  he  sought  to  apply.  If  this  be  so, 
at  least  he  paid  the  penalty ; his  error,  if 
such  it  was,  may  be  buried  on  the  field  of 
Cappel ; his  virtue,  his  patriotism,  and  his 
courage,  softened  as  these  qualities  were  by 
his  gentle  temper  and  winning  manners,  his 
proficiency  in  humanizing  arts,  his  famil- 
iarity with  what  is  noblest  in  letters, — these 
remain  purified  and  illumined  by  the  fire  of 
posthumous  persecution.  His  character  had 
not  the  brilliant  light  nor  the  deep  shade  of 
Luther’s ; he  had  not  that  rugged  honesty, 
that  tempestuous  energy,  that  deeply  stir- 
ring humor,  which  secure  for  the  German 
reformer  the  first  place  among  European 
heroes ; but  he  had  an  even,  well-balanced 
temperament,  which  if  less  attractive  is  cer- 
tainly not  less  rare.  There  is  no  passage  in 
his  life,  except  indeed  the  last,  equal  in  thrill- 
ing interest  to  Luther’s  journey  to  and  ap- 
pearance at  Worms;  but  his  whole  career 
up  to  1523  was  one  most  remarkable  for  its 
deliberate  progressive  success. 


ZWI 


AP.PENDIX 


ALASKA,  formerly  Russian  America,  was 
ceded  to  the  U.  S.  by  the  emperor  of  Russia, 
March  30, 1867,  for  $7,200,000.  Actual  pos- 
session was  taken  in  Oct.  It  has  577,390  sq. 
miles,  and  a population  of  75,000.  Its  capi- 
tal is  Sitka.  The  coast  line  is  4,000  miles, 
and  including  bays  and  inlets  over  11,000 
miles.  It  has  several  large  rivers,  one  of 
which  is  Yukon,  the  great  river  of  the  North, 
also  one  of  the  largest  mountains  on  the  con- 
tinent, Mt.  St.  Elias.  It  includes  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands,  the  most  remarkable  range  of 
volcanic  islands  on  the  western  continent. 
The  territory  is  well  timbered,  and  has  coal 
and  mineral  mines.  Its  principal  value  de- 
pends upon  its  lumber,  fisheries  and  furs. 
The  north-western  boundary  of  the  U.  S. 
now  begins  nearly  in  the  middle  of  Behring’s 
Straits,  and  reaches  thence  to  shore  of  Arctic 
Ocean  at  lat.  69  deg.  30  min.  It  stands 
about  30  deg.  farther  west  than  the  Sand- 
wich Islands. 

BUCHANAN,  James,  was  born  at  Stony- 
bater,  Franklin  Co.,  Pa.,  April  22,  1791; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1812,  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  Legislature  in  1814,  member  of 
Congress  1820  to  1832,  Minister  ^ Russia 
from  1831  to  1833,  U.  S.  Senator  from  1833 
to  1849,  Minister  to  England  from  1850  to 
1856,  President  of  the  U.  S.  1857-1861.  He 
died  at  Wheatland,  June  11,  1868. 

EARTHQUAKE  in  South  America.  It 
ranged  from  Port  Conception,  on  the  coast 
of  Chili,  to  Quito,  capital  of  Ecuador,  just 
below  the  equator.  It  must  be  classed  among 
the  most  terrible  convulsions  of  the  kind  ever 
known  on  the  American  Continent,  the  only 
parallel  to  it  being,  that  in  Feb.  1797,  (see 
page  285,)  when  the  whole  country  between 


I Santa  Fe  and  Panama  was  destroyed,  and 
40,000  people  buried  in  an  instant.  The  de- 
struction of  Arequipa,  a city  of  119,000  in- 
habitants was,  save  the  destruction  of  Arica 
and  Iquire  on  the  coast,  the  most  appalling 
disaster.  In  three  minutes  the  soil  shook  so 
that  it  was  impossible  to  hold  one’s  feet.  In 
about  five  minutes  the  whole  city  was  envel- 
oped in  clouds  of  dust  and  darkness.  Not  one 
house  was  left  standing  in  it.  Thus  the  work 
of  300  years  was  destroyed  in  a few  moments, 
and  it  will  take  centuries  to  restore  the  city.” 
Aug.  16,  an  earthquake  occurred  in  Ecua- 
dor with  great  destruction. 

On  the  12th  of  Sept.,  1866,  there  was  a 
severe  earthquake  at  the  Navigators  Islands, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1869  destructive  earth- 
quakes occurred  at  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

In  the  early  part  of  October,  1871,  earth- 
quakes took  place  in  South  America  by  which 
many  lives  and  much  property  was  destroy- 
ed. 

FOURTEENTH  CONSTITUTIONAL 
AMENDMENT. — The  following  is  the  text 
of  the  Fourteenfii  Amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution, as  passed  at  the  first  session  of  the 
39th  Congress,  June  16th,  1866  : 

Article  14,  Section  1.  All  persons  born  or 
naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  the  State  wherein  they 
reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any 
law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  im- 
munities of  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of 
life,  liberty  or  property  without  due  process 
of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its 
jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 
Sec.  2.  Representatives  shall  be  appor- 

971 


972 


APPENDIX. 


tioned  among  the  several  States  according  to 
their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole 
number  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding 
Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to 
vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors 
for  President  and  Vice  President  of  the 
United  States,  representatives  in  Congress, 
the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a State, 
or  the  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is 
denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such 
State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way 
abridge,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion 
or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation 
therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion 
which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall 
bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens 
twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Sec.  3.  No  person  shall  be  a Senator  or 
Representative  in  Congress,  or  elector  of 
President  or  Vice  President,  or  hold  any  of- 
fice, civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States, 
or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously 
taken  an  oath  as  a member  of  Congress,  or 
as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a 
member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an 
executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to 
support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebel- 
lion against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort 
to  the  enemies  thereof;  but  Congress  may, 
by  a vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  re- 
move such  disability. 

Sec.  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt 
of  the  United  States,  autl^rized  by  law,  in- 
cluding debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pen- 
sions and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing 
the  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be 
questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States 
nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt 
or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection 
or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any 
claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any 
slave ; but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and 
claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Sec.  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power 
to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation,  the 
provisions  of  this  article. 

On  the  20th  of  July,  1868,  Secretary  Sew- 
ard issued  a circular  reciting  the  action  which 


had  been  had  by  the  respestive  States,  and 
on  the  21st,  Congress  adopted  a resolution 
declaring  the  foregoing  article  to  be  a part 
of  the  Constitution. 

FIFTEENTH  CONSTITUTIONAL 
AMENDMENT. — The  following  is  the  text 
of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tution which  passed  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, Feb.  2 5$  1869,  by  the  following  vote  : 
yeas,  144  ; nays.  44  ; not  voting,  35  ; and  the 
Senate.  Feb  26,  1869,  by  a vote  of  30  yeas  to 
13  nays : 

Article  15,  Section  1.  The  right  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  de- 
nied or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or 
by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or 
previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Sec.  2.  The  Congress^shall  have  power  to 
enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

GRANT,  Ulyssks  Simpson,  was  born  on 
the  27th  of  April,  1822,  in  a small  one  story 
co.ttage  still  standing  in  Clermont,  Ohio  His 
father,  Jesse  R.  , was  an  upright,  hard  work- 
ing man,  and  his  mother,  Hannah  (Simpson), 
a kind,  faithful  woman.  As  a boy,  Grant 
was  cool  and  robust.  He  was  admitted  a 
cadet  at  West  Point  in  1839,  and  graduated 
in  a class  of  39,  his  rank  being  the  21st. 
Leaving  West  Point,  he  entered  the  army  as 
brevet  Second  Lieut,  in  the  4th  Infantry,  and 
began  his  services  on  July  1st,  1843.  His 
regiment  was  stationed  at  Jefferson,  near  St. 
Louis,  Mo.  The  next  summer  it  moved  to 
Natchitoches,  La.,  and  in  1845  was  sent  to 
Corpus  Christi  to  watch  the  Mexican  army. 
On  the  6th  and  7th  of  May,  1846,  he  was 
present  in  the  battles  of'  Palo  Alto  and  Resa- 
ca,  and  also  shared  in  the  bloody  affray  at 
Monte^u  When  Gen.  Scott  began  his  march 
to  the  city  of  Mexico,  Grant  was  withdrawn 
from  Gen.  Taylor’s  command  to  make  part  of 
an  invading  army.  On  the  1st  of  April,  1848, 
he  was  made  regimental  quarter-master,  and 
held  the  position  till  the  end  of  the  war. 
“ For  gallant  and  meritorious  conduct  ” there 
was  awarded  him  the  brevet  of  Captain. 

In  1851-3  he  was  stationed  at  Fort  Dallas, 
Oregon,  and  saw  some  service  against  the 
Indians.  Seeing  little  chanee  for  promotion, 
he  resigned  his  commission,  and  in  1854  be- 
gan life  as  a private  citizen.  During  the  in- 


APPENDIX. 


973 


terval,  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Rebellion,  he 
was  successively  a farmer,  wool  dealer,  auc- 
tioneer, and  house  agent,  and  in  1859  a part- 
ner with  his<*father  in  the  leather  business  in 
Galena,  111.  Though  with  indifferent  success 
pecuniarily,  yet  he  achieved  an  enviable  rep- 
utation for  industry  and  probity.  Prompt  in 
response  to  the  call  of  President  Lincoln  for 
75,000  men,  he  was  foremost  in  raising  a 
company,  and  in  May  tendered  his  services 
to  Gov.  Yates.  His  military  experience  was 
employed  in  organizing  the  State  troops,  and 
by  his  energy  succeeded  in  raising  the  three 
months  men,  and  received  a commission  as 
Colonel  of  the  twenty-first  Illinois  Vols.  At 
St.  Joseph,  though  the  youngest  Col.  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  combined  forces, 
and  in  Aug.  received  a commission  as  Brig. 
Gen.  of  Vols.,  and  was  ordered  to  Cairo  to 
take  command  of  the  District  of  South-east 
Missouri.  Learning  that  the  Confederates 
were  concentrating  at  Belmont,  Mo.,  so  as  to 
blockade  the  Mississippi  River,  Gen.  Grant, 
on  the  7th  of  Nov.,  attacked  the  rebel  works, 
destroyed  the  camp  and  took  a large  number 
of  prisoners. 

He  captured  Fort  Henry  on  the  3d  and 
Fort  Donelson  on  the  16th  of  February.  His 
reply  to  Gen.  Buckner — in  command  of  Fort 
Donelson — who  proposed  an  armistice,  has 
become  historical,  and  is  the  origin  of  his 
soubriquet  “ Unconditional  Surrender  Grant/' 
There  followed  upon  this  success,  and  as  the 
result  of  Grant’s  aggressive  policy,  the  great 
victories  in  the  West.  The  first  was  the 
battle  of  Shiloh  or  Pittsburg  Landing,  on 
April  6th  and  7th,  with  a force  of  38,000 
against  Gen.  / Beauregard.  The  loss  was 
heavy,  not  less  than  15,000,  and  the  Confed- 
erate loss  was  greater.  During  tl^  engage- 
ment Gen.  Grant  was  in  the  thickest  of  the 
fire,  and  on  the  second  day  headed  a charge 
himself/  and  was  slightly  wounded  in  the 
ankle.  It  was  complained  of  as  gained  at 
too  great  a sacrfice  of  life,  and  Gen.  Grant’s 
personal  character  was  defamed.  This  vic- 
tory was,  however,  of  immeasurable  value 
and  importance,  showing  to  the  country  that 
we  were  engaged  in  a contest  for  manhood, 
and  this  “battle  proved  that  Northern  valo 
and  pluck  were  an  overmatch  for  Southern. 


The  prestige  of  such  a victory  was  invalu- 
able, revealing  the  fact  that  final  success 
could  be  won  only  by  great  sacrifice  of  blood. 
It  so  inspired  the  Union  soldiery  that  there 
was  never  from  that  day  any  lack  of  courage 
and  readiness  to  go  into  the  deadliest  fray. 

The  siege  of  Corinth  and  its  evacuation 
followed  close  upon  the  battle  of  Shiloh.  On 
the  11th  of  July  there  was  a new  arrange- 
ment of  forces,  Gen.  Halleck  having  become 
General-in-chief  at  Washington.  Gen.  Grant 
was  assigned  to  the  command  of  West  Tenn. 
Department,  with  head-quarters  at  Corinth. 
Memphis  was  surrendered  June  6th,  the  bat- 
tle of  Iuka  on  the  19th  of  Sept.,  the  great 
battle  of  Corinth  on  the  3d  and  4th  of  Oct., 
the  movement  upon  Vicksburg  Nov.  4th,  fol- 
lowed by  its  protracted  siege  and  final  cap- 
ture, when  the  full  control  of  the  operations 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Gen.  Grant.  This 
siege  forms  one  of  the  most  thrilling  chapters 
of  the  war.  It  evinced  on  the  part  of  the 
commander  a strategy  and  comprehension  of 
the  situation  and  a mastery  of  obstacles  which 
proved  the  transcendent  military  power  of 
the  General.  The  surrender  of  this  strong- 
hold and  the  breaking  of  the  backbone  of  the 
Rebellion  was  achieved  on  the  3d  of  July, 
1863.  No  more  brilliant  victory  can  be  found 
in  military  annals.  Then  followed  various 
smaller  successes  and  movements. 

March  2,  1864,  the  grade  of  Lieut.  Gen. 
of  the  army  having  peen  revived,  Congress 
approved  the  nomination  of  Gen.  Grant  by 
Pres.  Lincoln  to  this  high  station,  and  he 
went  to  Washington  to  receive  his  commis- 
sion and  take  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
United  States. 

Transferred  from  the  West  to  the  East, 
having  special  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  Gen.  Grant’s  career  may  be  briefly 
stated  in  the  memorable  events  of  the  cross- 
ing the  Rapidan,  the  battle  of  the  Wilder- 
ness, of  Spottsylvania  Court  House,  Cold 
Harbor,  siege  of  Petersburg,  evacuation  of 
Richmond,  pursuit  of  Gen.  Lee  and  the  Con- 
federate army,  their  surrender  April  9,  1865, 
and  the  end  of  the  Great  Rebellion. 

His  course  as  commander  of  the  armies  in 
the  matter  of  reconstruction  need  not  be  re- 


9T4 


APPENDIX. 


cited.  In  July,  1866,  the  grade  of  General 
was  created  in  the  army,  and  Grant  was  nomi- 
nated and  confirmed  on  the  25th  of  July. 
IliS  refusal  to  be  an  accomplice  with  Pres. 
Johnson  in  his  reactionary  policy,  and  his 
wisdom,  stability,  and  statesmanship  evinced 
in  the  affairs  of  peace,  caused  the  Republican 
party  to  turn  to  him  as  the  one  eminently  fit- 
ted to  take  charge  of  the  Government,  and 
make  permanent  in  legislation  and  national 
policy  the  results  to  which  they  were  entitled 
by  successful  arms.  Gen.  Grant  received  the 
nomination  as  candidate  for  President,  and 
having  been  elected,  was  inaugurated  March 
4th,  1869. 

HUMBOLDT,  Baron  Yon,  (Karl  Wil- 
helm,) a celebrated  German  philologist  and 
statesman,  born  at  Potsdam,  on  the  22d  of 
June,  1767.  His  early  education  was  under 
the  direction  of  Joachim  Campc,  a distin- 
guished philanthropist.  About  1788  he  enter- 
ed the  University  of  Gottingen.  In  1789  he 
visited  Paris  and  became  one  of  the  most  en- 
thusiastic followers  of  the  new  regime.  He  af- 
terwards studied  at  Jena  awhile  and  formed 
intimate  friendships  with  Schiller,  and  Goethe. 
In  1791  he  married  Caroline  Yon  Drachen- 
roden.  In  1799  he  published  a critical  essay 
on  Goethe’s  “ Herman  and  Dorothea,”  which 
established  his  reputation  as  a critic.  In  1802 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  Rome  by  the 
King  of  Prussia.  He  returned  to  Prussia  in 
1808,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  public 
instruction.  In  181 C. he  was*sent  as  embassa- 
dor to  Vienna,  and  while  thus  publicly  em- 
ployed, devoted  all  his  leisure  time  to  the 
study  of  languages.  He  influenced  Austria 
to  join  the  coalition  against  Napoleon  in  Au- 
gust, 1813,  and  represented  Prussia  at  the 
conference  ofChatillon,  in  the  Congress  of  Vi- 
enna in  1814.  In  1816  he  was  sent  as  em- 
bassador to  London,  and  was  made  minister 
and  privy  counsellor  at  Berlin  in  1819.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  an  “ Essay  on  the  War 
of  the  French  Constitution”  and  a metrical 
translation  of  the  “Agamemnon  of  Aeschy- 
lus.” lie  died  at  Tegel,  near  Berlin,  April 
8th,  1835. 

PEABODY,  George,  the  eminent  phi- 
lanthropist, whose  more  than  princely  bene- 
factions have  made  his  name  so  illustrious  on 


two  continents,  and  endeared  his  memory  to 
so  many  millions,  was  born  in  Danvers,  Mass., 
Feb.  18,  1795,  and  died  in  London,  England, 
Nov.  4,  1869,  in  his  75th  year.  Having  very 
few  educational  advantages  in  childhood,  at 
the  age  of  eleven  he  became  a clerk  in  a 
grocery  store  in  Danvers.  Serving  three 
years  in  this  capacity,  then  living  a year  with 
his  grandfather  in  Thetford,  Vt.,  in  his  six- 
teenth year,  he  became  the  clerk  of  his  broth- 
er in  Newburyport.  At  the  solicitation  of  an 
uncle  he  soon  after  removed  to  Georgetown, 
D.  C.  This  uncle,  Mr.  John  Peabody,  being 
involved  in  debt,  carried  on  business  in  his 
nephew’s  name.  The  war  of  1812  com- 
mencing, Mr.  Peabody,  though  exempt  from 
military  duty  by  reason  of  youth,  gave  his 
services  to  his  country  as  a volunteer.  After 
the  war,  being  invited  to  a partnership  with 
Elisha  Riggs  of  Georgetown,  who  furnished 
the  capital,  he  engaged  in  the  drapery  busi- 
ness, and  was  so  successful  as  to  remove,  in 
1815,  to  Baltimore.  He  soon  had  branch 
houses  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  In 
ten  years  after  he  was  the  head  of  the  firm* 
This  business  requiring  frequent  visits  to 
England,  to  purchase  goods,  in  1837  he  be- 
came a resident  in  London.  Six  years  later 
(1843)  he  retired  from  the  American  firm, 
and  established  a banking  house  in  London. 
His  business  became  very  extensive,  so  that 
he  rapidly  added  to  the  handsome  fortune 
which  he  had  acquired  in  his  American 
house  — accumulating  an  estate  of  nearly 
twenty  millions. 

In  1851  he  assumed  the  expense  of  the 
American  Department  in  the  Crystal  Palace, 
and  in  1852  gave  $10,000  toward  Dr.  Kane’s 
second  voyage  in  search  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin and #20,000  to  his  native  town  of  Dan- 
vers for  educational  purposes,  and  afterwards 
increased  the  gift  to  over  $200,000. 

In  1857  Mr.  Peabody  came  to  this  country, 
and  one  of  the  first  things  he  did  was  to 
found  an  educational  institution  in  Baltimore, 
by  the  gift  of  $300,000.  To  this  were  added 
afterward  $200,000,  and  in  1866,  $500,000 
more,  and  in  Sept.,  1869,  $400,000,  all  mak- 
ing an  aggregate  of  $1,400,000.  .Returning 
to  England  in  1858,  he  began  the  execution 
f apian  that  had  been  contemplated  several 


APPENDIX. 


975 


years,  viz  : in  gratitude  for  liis  success  in 
England,  to  “ make  a donation  for  jthe  bene- 
fit of  the  poor  of  London.”  Accordingly 
on  March  13#1862,  he  wrote  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  U.  S.  Minister  to  England,  Lord 
Stanley,  and  others  whom  he  had  chosen  as 
trustees,  that  he  had  placed  £150,000  at 
tliir  disposal  “ to  ameliorate  the  condition 
of  the  poor  of  the  great  metropolis.”  He 
afterward  added  £200,000,  making  an  aggre- 
gate of  nearly  $2,000,000.  In  acknowledg- 
ment of  this  princely  gift,  Queen  Victoria 
wrote  a letter  of  thanks,  most  handsomely 
expressed,  accompanied  by  an  elaborate  and 
costly  portrait  of  himself. 

Visiting  this  country  again  in  1866,  he 
gave  $1,500,000  as  a Southern  educational 
fund,  and  in  his  last  visit  in  1869,  added  an- 
other million.  The  following  are  some  of 
his  minor  gifts : To  Phillip’s  Academy  An- 

dover, Mass.,  $25,000  ; to  the  Newburypcrt 
Library,  $15,000  ; for  building  a new  church 
in  Georgetown,  Mass.,  $100,000  ; to  a library 
in  same  town,  $16,000 ; to  the  Essex  Insti- 
tute in  Salem,  $140,000;  the  library  in 
Thetford,  Vt.,  $5,000 ; to  the  Mass.  Hist. 
Society  in  Bdfeton,  $20,000 ; to  the  Peabody 
Institute  of  Archeology  in  Cambridge,  $150,- 
000 ; to  establish  a Geological  branch  at 
Yale  College,  $150,000;  to  the  Maryland 
Historical  Society,  $20,000 ; to  Kenyon  Col- 
lege, Ohio,  $25,000  ; for  a library  in  George- 
town, D.  C.,  $15,000,  His  public  benefac- 
tions make  an  aggregate  of  $7,000,000.  So 
wisely  and  generously  distributing  his  wealth, 
it  may  be  presumed,  that  on  thousands  of 
smaller  and  unknown  channels,  he  has  sent 
forth  his  charities  to  bless  his  fellow  men. 

In  testimony  of  his  high  character  and 
lavish  benevolence,  his  statue  has  been 
erected  at  the  London  Exchange,  th^Prince 
of  Wales  presiding  over  the  ceremonies. 
For  his  gift  to  Education  in  the  South,  the 
U.  S.  Congress  presented  him  with  a com- 
memorative gold  medal.  The  funeral  cere- 
monies in  honor  of  Mr.  Peabody  were  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  where  his  remains  were 
deposited  to  await  their  removal  to  this 
country.  The  United  States  Government 
having  sent  a ship  to  England  to  bring  the 
body  of  Mr.  Peabody  to  his  native  land  for 
burial  in  his  native  town,  the  English  Gov- 


ernment solicited  the  privilege  of  paying 
their  honor  to  his  memory.  Her  Majesty’s 
ship  Monarch,  the  largest  in  the  world  save 
the  Great  Eastern,  convoyed  by  national 
ships  of  the  American  and  French  navies, 
was  appointed  for  this  service,  and  arrived 
in  Portland,  Me.,  in  Jan.,  ’70,  with  her  charge, 
and  the  burial  in  Danvers,  with  appropriate 
honors  to  the  departed  benefactor,  occurred. 
Thus  he  who  went  forth  a poor  boy,  returned 
with  the  special  honor  of  three  great  nations. 

PIERCE,  Franklin,  the  fourteenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Hills- 
borough, N.  H.,  the  23d  of  Nov.,  1804,  and 
died  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  Oct.  8,  1869,  aged 
65.  He  was  the  son  of  Gen.  Benj.  Pierce, 
an  officer  of  the  patriot  army  in  the  War  of 
Independence.  He  entered  Bowdoin  Col- 
| lege  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  was  grad- 
uated with  honor  in  1824.  He  then  entered 
the  office  of  Levi  Woodbury  to  study  law, 
and  in  1827  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  his 
native  town. 

Mr.  Pierce  did  not  succeed  well  at  the  bar 
in  early  life,  his  attention  being  engrossed  by 
politics.  In  1829  he  was  elected  to  the  State 
Legislature  as  a democrat,  and  was  reelected 
each  year  until  1833,  when  lie  was  sent  to 
Congress.  After  serving  two  terms  in  Con- 
gress, he  was  chosen  United  States  Senator, 
and  took  his  seat  beside  Clay,  Webster,  Cal- 
houn, Benton  and  the  other  great  debaters  of. 
that  day,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-three,  and 
was  the  youngest  man  in  the  Senate. 

Pie  returned  in  1842  to  the  practice  of  his 
profession,  in  which  he  was  now  very  success- 
ful. Removing  to  Concord,  he  gained  both 
reputation  and  money,  as  a counsellor  and 
pleader,  while  he  also  obtained  influence  with 
his  party.  In  1847  he  volunteered  for  service 
in  the  Mexican  war,  was  at  once  appointed 
Colonel  of  the  Ninth  Regiment  of  volunteers, 
and  was  afterward  promoted  to  the  command 
of  a brigade,  as  Brig.  General. 

In  June,  1852,  after  a long  struggle  between 
James  Buchanan,  Lewis  Cass  and  others  for 
the  Democratic  nomination  to  the  Presidency, 
the  Baltimore  Convention  surprised  the  coun- 
try by  suddenly  and  unanimously  choosing 
Mr.  Pierce  as  their  candidate.  After  a dull 


976 


APPENDIX. 


canvass,  the  least  animated  contest  since 
1836,  he  was  elected  President  by  the  vote 
in  the  Electoral  College,  of  all  the  States  ex- 
cept four.  In  his  inaugural  address  in  March 
1853,  Mr.  Pierce  boldly  took  extreme  pro- 
slavery ground,  denouncing  all  agitation 
against  the  institution,  and  claiming  for  it 
the  direct  protection  of  the  Constitution. 
His  administration  was  in  many  respects  of 
signal  ability  ; it  was  especially  vigorous  and 
creditable  in  its  management  of  our  foreign 
relations,  but  the  principal  measure  by  which 
it  will  be  remembered,  is  the  repeal  of  the 
Missouri  Compromise  Act  of  1820,  by  which 
slavery  had  been  restricted  to  the  region 
south  of  36  deg.  30  min.  north  latitude.  This 
measure,  devised  in  the  interest  of  the  slave 
power  of  the  country,  and  forced  through 
Congress  by  party  drill  and  influence,  shocked 
the  conscience  of  the  people,  and  hastened 
the  crisis  of  the  final  conflict  between  free- 
dom and  slavery.  The  civil  war  in  Kansas 
grew  directly  out  of  this  legislation.  Failing 
of  a renomination,  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  retirement  at  Concord. 

STANTON,  Edwin  M.,  American  jurist 
and  War  minister,  son  of  Dr.  David  and 
Lucy  (Norton)  Stanton,  was  born  in  Steu- 
benville, O.,  in  1815,  and  died  Dec.  24, 1869, 
aged  54  years. 

When  15  years  old  he  became  clerk  in  a 
bookstore  at  Steubenville,  and  subsequently 
spent  two  years  at  Kenyon  (O.)  College,  re- 
turning to  the  bookstore,  however,  before 
graduation.  At  the  age  of  21  (1836)  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  practised  law  in  Cadiz, 
O.,  1836-39;  and  Steubenville,  1839-48; 
Pittsburg,  1848-57 ; Washington,  D.  C.,  1857, 
1862,  1868-69.  While  yet  a young  lawyer 
he  was  elected  prosecuting  attorney  of  Har- 
rison county.  In  1842,  he  was  chosen  re- 
porter of  the  Ohio  Supreme  Court,  and  pub- 
ished  three  volumes  of  reports.  Removing  to 
Pittsburg  in  184  7,  he  rapidly  acquired  a large 
and  lucrative  practice.  In  1857  his  business 
had  so  expanded  that  he  found  it  necessary  to 
remove  to  Washington,  to  be  near  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court.  His  triumph  in  the  great 
California  land  cases,  against  the  Mexican 
grantees,  and  other  successes,  made  a decided 


impression,  and  he  was  soon  acknowledged 
to  be  one  ^»f  the  ablest  advocates  before  the 
court  of  the  nation.  He  was  called  to  fill  the 
office  of  Attorney  General  in  Resident  Bu- 
chanan's Cabinet,  just  vacated  by  Mr.  Black, 
in  1861,  and  was  a selection  most  fortunate 
for  the  country  in  those  critical  days. 

On  Jan.  11,  1862,  nine  months  after  Mr. 
Lincoln’s  inauguration,  he  chose  Mr.  Stanton 
— -though  he  l^ad  been  in  the  Cabinet  of  the 
opposing  party — as  his  Secretary  of  War. 
Never  perhaps  was  there  a more  illustrious 
example  of  the  right  man  in  the  right  place. 
It  seemed  almost  as  if  it  were  a special  Provi- 
dential interposition  to  incline  the  President 
to  go  out  of  his  own  party  and  select  this 
man  for  this  most  responsible  of  all  trusts 
save  his  own.  With  an  unflinching  force,  an 
imperial  will,  a courage  never  once  admitting 
the  possibility  of  failure,  and  having  no  pa- 
tience with  cowards,  compromisers,  and  self- 
seekers,  with  the  most  jealous  patriotism,  he 
displaced  the  incompetent  and  exacted  brave, 
mighty  endeavor  of  all,  yet  only  like  what 
his  strong  and  unselfish  love  of  country  ex- 
acted of  himself.  He  reorganized  the  war 
with  herculean  toil ; through  all  the  years  of 
this  national  struggle,  he  saw,  thought  of, 
labored  but  for  one  result — Victory.  The 

amount  of  work  he  did  in  some  of  these  criti- 
cal, terrible  months,  was  absolutely  amazing, 
by  its  comprehension  of  details,  the  solution 
of  vexed  questions,  the  mastery  of  formidable 
difficulties.  It  is  no  wonder  that  his  word 
sometimes  cut  with  sharp,  quick  blow  like  a 
sword,  or  that  the  stroke  of  his  pen  was  some- 
times like  a thunder  bolt.  It  was  not  the 
time  for  hesitation  or  doubt,  or  even  argu- 
ment. • He  meant  his  imperiled  country 
should  be  saved,  and  whatever  by  half-loyalty 
or  self-seeking,  seemed  to  him  to  stand  in  her 
way,  only  attracted  the  lightning  of  his 
power. 

The  nation  owes  as  much  to  him  as  to  any 
who,  in  counsel  or  in  the  field,  contributed  to 
its  salvation.  And  his  real  greatness  -was 
never  more  conspicuous  than  at  the  time  of 
Mr.  Lincoln’s  assassination.  His  presence 
of  mind,  his  prompt  decision,  his  unfailing 
faith  and  courage,  strengthened  those  around 


APPENDIX. 


977 


him,  and  prevented  the  issue  of  a frightful 
panic  and  disorder  following  that  unexpected 
assault  upon  the  life  of  the  republic.  To 
have  equipped,  fed,  clothed,  and  organized  a 
million  and  a half  of  soldiery,  and  when 
their  work  was  done,  in  two  days  to  have  re- 
manded them  back  to  the  peaceful  industries 
from  which  they  had  been  taken ; to  have 
had  the  nation  s wealth  at  his  disposal,  and 
yet  so  incorruptible  that  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions could  not  tempt  him,  has  secured  for 
him  a high  and  honored  place  in  history. 

Such  a man,  so  true,  so  intent  upon  great 
objects,  must  many  a time  have  thwarted  the 
greed  of  the  corrupt,  been  impatient  with  the 
hesitation  of  the  imbecile,  and  fiercely  indig- 
nant against  half-heartedness  and  disloyalty. 
Whatever  faults,  therefore,  his  enemies  may 
allege,  these  will  all  fade  away  in  the  splen- 
dor with  which  coming  ages  will  enoble  the 
greatest  of  War  Ministers  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury. He  will  be  remembered  as  one  “who 
never  dreamed  of  surrender,  never  thought 
of  self,  and  who  held  the  helm  in  sunshine 
and  in  storm,  with  the  same  untiring  grip.” 

Nor  were  his  services  less  valuable  to  his 
country  when,  after  the  surrender  of  the  con- 
federate armies,  the  rebellion  was  transferred 
to  the  White  House,  and  he  stood  the  fearless 
unflinching  patriot  against  the  schemes  and 
usurpations  of  its  accidental  occupant.  Mr. 
Stanton  entered  upon  his  great  trust  in  the 
fullest  prime  of  manhood,  equal  to  a toil  and 
strain  that  would  have  prostrated  a dozen 
of  ordinary  public  men.  He  left  his  depart- 
ment incurably  broken  in  health.  He  en- 
tered upon  it  in  affluence,  with  a large  and 
remunerative  practice.  He  left  it  without  a 
stain  upon  his  hands,  but  with  his  fortune 
lessened  and  insufficient.  Yet  when  it  was 
contemplated  by  some  of  his  friends,  after 
his  retirement,  to  tender  him  a handsome  gift 
of  money,  he  resolutely  and  unhesitatingly 
forbade  it,  and  the  project  had  to  be  abandon 
ed.  He  was  as  truly  a sacrifice  to  his  country 
as  the  brave  soldier  who  laid  down  his  life  in 
the  prison  pen,  or  sanctified  the  field  with  his 
blood. 

He  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from 
Yale  College  in  1867.  It  was  not  only  a 
62 


grateful  circumstance,  but  a fitting  honor, 
that  the  President  (in  Dec.,  1869,)  should 
appoint  him  to  a seat  on  the  Bench  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  The 
ready,  unhesitating  manner  in  which  the 
Senate  confirmed  the  nomination— without  the 
customary  reference  to  a committee — and  the 
popular  response  to  the  appointment,  are  a 
striking  testimony  to  the  eminent  abilities  of 
Mr.  Stanton,  and  the  unlimited  faith  the 
government  and  the  people  had  in  the  man. 

For  an  unswerving  and  passionate  patriot- 
ism, for  a magnificent  courage,  for  rare  un- 
selfishness, for  transcendent  abilities,  for  im- 
measurable service  to  his  country,  the  figure 
of  the  greatest  War  Minister  in  modern 
times,  will  tower  with  as  noble  grandeur,  as 
undimmed  and  enviable  splendor  as  that  of 
any  in  the  history  of  the  Republic  which, 
like  his  friend  and  co-worker,  Mr.  Lincoln, 
he  gave  his  life  to  save. 

SUEZ  SHIP  CANAL.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  great  Continental  Railway,  uniting 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  no  work  of 
modern  times  is  more  remarkable  than  the 
Ship  Canal  across  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  (ly- 
ing between  the  Mediterranean  and  Red 
seas,)  connecting  the  continents  of  Asia  and 
Africa.  Napoleon  conceived  such  a project, 
and  for  many  years  the  subject  attracted  at- 
tention in  Europe. 

In  1846  a commission  was  issued  to  Rob’t 
Stephenson  of  England,  Talabot,  the  great 
French  contractor,  and  Signor  Negretti,  the 
scientific  engineer  of  Austria.  That  year 
the  isthmus  was  surveyed.  Eight  years  later 
M.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  proposed  to  Mo- 
hammed Said  the  scheme  of  re-opening  the 
ancient  canal  of  Sesostris,  and  it  is  mainly  to 
the  engineering  enterprise  and  untiring  en- 
ergy of  M.  Lesseps  that  the  world  is  indebt- 
ed for  the  work. 

In  1858  a company  was  formed  with  a 
capital  of  $40,000,000,  and  the  services  of 
20,000  serfs  were  secured  from  the  Viceroy 
of  Egypt.  Starting  from  Port  Said  on  the 
Mediterranean,  the  canal  runs  southward 
through  Lake  Menzaleh,  (a  marshy  body  of 
water  requiring  embankments)  about  seventy- 
five  miles  to  the  intermediate  port  of  Isma- 


978 


APPENDIX. 


lia ; thence  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Timsah 
and  through  the  Bitter  Lakes ; then  debouch- 
ing about  twelve  miles  further  south  into  the 
Red  Sea,  at  a point  about  a mile  southeast 
of  Suez.  The  distance  traversed  is  a little 
over  a hundred  miles.  The  average  width 
on  the  top  is  328  feet,  and  at  the  bottom  246 
feet.  The  average  depth  of  water  through- 
out the  canal  is  26  feet. 

The  company  are  entitled  to  the  revenues 
for  99  years  by  paying  the  Viceroy  15  per 


cent,  of  them.  The  canal  at  the  end  of  the 
century  is  to  go  into  the  possession  of  the 
Egyptian  government.  The  cpmpletion  of 
the  work  was  celebrated  Nov.  17th  and  18th, 
1869,  with  imposing  religious  ceremony  and 
gorgeous  festivity.  Princes  and  Emperors 
from  Europe,  with  the  Empress  Eugenie  of 
France,  were  present  to  pay  tribute  to  the 
genius  of  the  eminent  engineer,  and  show 
their  appreciation  of  the  vast  utility  of  the 
work  he  had  accomplished. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


OP 

AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


923.  Discovery  of  Greenland  by  the  Icelanders. 

1435.  Columbus  born  at  Genoa,  in  Italy. 

1492.  Aug.  3d,  Columbus  sails  from  Palos  in  Spain. 

Oct.  12th,  he  discovers  Guanahani,  one  of  the  Bahamas. 

Oct.  27,  Cuba  discovered. 

Dec.  6th,  Hayti  or  Hispaniola  discovered. 

1493.  Jan.  16th,  Columbus  returns  to  Spain. 

Sept.  25th,  he  sails  from  Cadiz  on  his  second  voyage. 

Dec.  8th,  he  founds  Isabella  in  Hispaniola,  the  first  European  town  in  the  New  Woild 

1494.  Columbus  discovers  Jamaica. 

1496.  Columbus  returns  to  Spain. 

Tobacco  discovered  in  Hayti. 

1497.  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  discovered  by  the  Cabots. 

1498.  May  30th,  Columbus  sails  from  Spain  on  his  third  voyage. 

July  31st,  Trinidad  discovered. 

Aug.  1st,  Columbus  discovers  the  South  American  continent. 

1499.  South  America  visited  by  Americus  Yespucius. 

1500.  The  Amazon  at  its  mouth  discovered  by  Pmgon. 

Columbus  sent  back  in  chains  to  Spain  by  Bovadilla. 

April  23d,  Brazil  discovered  by  Cabral. 

1502.  May  11th,  Columbus  sails  from  Spain  on  his  last  voyage. 

Aug.  14th,  he  discovers  the  Bay  of  Honduras. 

1504.  Columbus  returns  to  Spain. 

1506.  May  20th,  he  dies  at  Valladolid,  in  his  fifty  ninth  year. 

1508,  St.  Lawrence  River  first  navigated  by  Aubert. 

1510.  First  colony  planted  on  the  main  land,  at  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  by  Balboa. 

1512.  April  2d,  Florida  discovered  by  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon. 

Baracoa,  the  first  town  in  Cuba,  built  by  Velasquez. 

1513.  Sept.  26th,  Pacific  Ocean  discovered  by  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa. 

1516.  Rio  de  la  Plata  discovered  by  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis. 

1517.  Patent  granted  by  Charles  V.  for  an  annual  import  of  4,000  negro  slaves  to  Bt; 

paniola,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  Puerto  Rico. 

Yucatan  explored  by  Francis  Hernandez  Cordova. 


980 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1518.  Grijalva  discovers  the  southern  part  of  Mexico. 

1519.  March  13th,  Cortez  lands  at  Tabasco  in  Mexico. 

April  22d,  he  arrives  at  San  Juan  de  Ulloa. 

Vera  Cruz  settled  by  Cortez. 

Nov.  8 th,  he  enters  Mexico. 

1520.  Montezuma  dies. 

Magellan  discovers  Patagonia. 

De  Ayllon  discovers  Carolina. 

1521.  Death  of  Guatemozin,  and  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Cortez. 

1522.  Bermudas  discovered  by  Juan  Bermudez. 

1524.  Yerrazani  explores  the  coast  of  North  America. 

1 525.  First  invasion  of  Peru  by  Pizarro  and  Almagro. 

1526.  Sebastian  Cabot  explores  the  La  Plata. 

1531.  Second  invasion  of  Peru  by  Pizarro. 

1533.  Lima  founded  by  Pizarro. 

1535.  Chili  invaded  by  Almagro. 

Cartier  explores  the  St.  Lawrence. 

1537.  California  discovered  by  Cortez. 

1539.  Ferdinand  de  Soto  heads  an  expedition  to  conquer  Florida. 

1540.  Orellana  explores  the  Amazon  from  Peru  to  the  Atlantic. 

1541.  De  Soto  discovers  the  Mississippi. 

1545.  Silver  mines  of  Potosi  discovered. 

1548.  Platina  discovered  in  the  south  of  Mexico. 

1549.  Roberval  sails  for  Canada  with  a colony. 

1562.  Coligny  attempts  to  found  a colony  of  French  Protestants  iv  Florida. 

1563.  Slaves  first  imported  into  the  West  Indies  by  the  English. 

1565.  St.  Augustine  founded  by  the  Spaniards. 

1576.  Elizabeth’s  and  Frobisher’s  Straits  discovered  by  Martin  Frobisher. 

1584.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  dispatches  two  vessels  to  Virginia. 

1585.  He  attempts  to  found  a colony  at  Roanoke. 

1586.  Discovery  of  Davis’s  Straits. 

Tobacco  introduced  into  England  by  Mr.  Lane. 

1587.  Aug.  13th,  first  Indian  baptized  in  Virginia. 

1602.  May  15th,  Cape  Cod  discovered  and  named  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold. 

May  21st,  he  discovers  Martha’s  Vineyard. 

1603.  Coast  of  Maine  visited  by  Martin  Pring. 

1605.  Port  Royal,  Acadie  [Nova  Scotia],  founded  by  the  French  under  De  Monts. 

1606.  James  I.  grants  North  Virginia  to  the  Plymouth  Company,  and  South  Virginia  to 

the  London  Company. 

1607.  The  Plymouth  Company  send  George  Popham  to  found  the  “Sagadahoc  Colony,”  at 

the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec,  in  North  Virginia. 

The  London  Company  send  Christopher  Newport  to  found  the  “Jamestown  Colony,” 
in  South  Virginia. 

May  13th,  Jamestown  is  founded. 

1608.  July  3d,  Quebec  founded  by  Champlain. 

Pocahontas  saves  the  life  of  Captain  John  Smith  of  Virginia. 

1609.  Hudson  River  discovered  by  Henry  Hudson. 

1610.  Delaware  Bay  named  in  honor  of  Lord  de  la  War,  who  visited  the  bay  at  that  time 

and  died  on  his  vessel  at  its  mouth. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


981 


1611.  Lake  Champlain  discovered  by  Champlain. 

1613.  Pocahontas  weds  John  Rolfe. 

1614.  New  York  settled  by  the  Dutch  on  Manhattan  Island  (now  New  York)  and  at  Fort 

Orange  (Albany). 

1616.  Tobacco  first  cultivated  in  Virginia. 

Baffin’s  Bay  discovered  by  Baffin. 

1617.  Pocahontas  dies  in  England. 

1619.  June  19th,  first  colonial  assembly  in  Virginia. 

1620.  Slaves  first  introduced  into  Virginia  by  the  Dutch. 

Nov.  10th,  the  Mayflower  anchors  in  Cape  Cod  harbor;  first  white  child  born  in 
New  England. 

Dec.  11th,  landing  of  the  Puritans  at  Plymouth. 

1621.  May  12th,  first  marriage  at  Plymouth. 

1622.  Massacre  of  347  men,  women,  and  children  of  the  Virginia  colony,  by  the  Indians. 

1623.  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  settled  by  the  English. 

New  Jersey  settled  by  the  Swedes  and  Dutch. 

1627.  Delaware  settled  by  Swedes  and  Finns. 

1628.  Salem,  Mass.,  founded  by  John  Endicott. 

1629.  Charlestown  founded  by  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony. 

1630.  Boston,  Cambridge,  Roxbury,  and  Dorchester  founded. 

John  Winthrop  first  governor  of  Massachusetts  Bay  colony. 

Oct.  19th,  first  general  court  holden  at  Boston. 

1633.  First  house  erected  in  Connecticut,  at  Windsor. 

1634.  Maryland  founded  by  Lord  Baltimore. 

Roger  Williams  banished  from  Massachusetts. 

1636.  Hartford  settled. 

Providence,  R.  I.,  founded  by  Roger  Williams. 

1637.  First  synod  convened  at  Newtown  (now  Cambridge),  Mass. 

Destruction  of  the  Pequots  in  Connecticut. 

Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson  banished  from  Massachusetts. 

1638.  New  Haven  founded  by  Eaton  and  Davenport. 

Harvard  College  founded. 

June  1st,  earthquake  in  New  England. 

1639.  First  printing-press  set  up  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  by  Stephen  Day. 

1640.  Montreal  founded. 

1642.  Oct.  9th,  first  commencement  at  Harvard  College. 

1643.  May  19th,  union  of  the  New  England  colonies. 

1645.  Clayborne’s  rebellion  in  Maryland. 

1646.  First  act  passed  by  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts,  for  the  spread  of  the  gospel 

among  the  Indians. 

1648.  First  execution  for  witchcraft. 

New  London  settled. 

1 650.  Harvard  College  chartered. 

Constitution  of  Maryland  settled. 

1651.  Navigation  act  passed  b}'  England,  restricting  the  commerce  of  the  colonies. 

1652.  First  mint  established  in  New  England. 

1654.  Yale  College  first  projected  by  Mr.  Davenport. 

1655.  Stuyvesant  captures  the  Swedish  settlement  in  Delaware. 

Conquest  of  Jamaica  by  the  English. 


982 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


103(3.  First  arrival  of  Quakers  in  Massachusetts,  and  persecution. 

1659.  Four  Quakers  executed  on  Boston  Common. 

1660.  Restoration  of  monarchy  in  England  under  Charles  II.  ; the  regicides  Whalley  and 

Goffe  seek  refuge  in  New  England. 

1663.  Carolina  granted  to  Lord  Clarendon  by  Charles  II. 

1664.  Aug  27th,  surrender  of  New  Amsterdam  to  the  English. 

1665.  June  12th,  New  York  city  incorporated. 

Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  settled. 

1672.  Charleston,  S.  C.,  founded. 

First  copyright  granted  by  Massachusetts. 

1673.  New  York  retaken  by  the  Dutch  ; restored  in  1674. 

Mississippi  River  explored  by  Marquette  and  Joliet. 

1675.  June  24th,  commencement  of  King  Philip’s  war;  attack  on  Swanzey. 

1676.  Aug.  12th,  death  of  King  Philip. 

New  Jersey  divided  into  East  and  West  Jersey. 

Bacon’s  rebellion  in  Virginia. 

1681.  Grant  of  Pennsylvania  to  William  Penn. 

1682.  Oct.  24th,  Penn  arrives  in  America. 

De  la  Salle  takes  possession  of  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
and  calls  it  Louisiana. 

1683.  First  legislative  assembly  in  New  York. 

Roger  Williams  dies,  in  his  eighty-fourth  year. 

1686.  First  Episcopal  parish  formed  in  Boston. 

Sir  Edmund  Andros  appointed  governor  of  New  England  by  James  II. 
Massachusetts  deprived  of  her  charter. 

1687.  First  printing-press  established  near  Philadelphia  by  William  Bradford. 

1688.  New  York  and  New  Jersey  united  to  New  England  under  Sir  Edmund  Andros. 

1689.  William  III.  accedes  to  the  English  throne. 

Sir  Edmund  Andros  seized  and  imprisoned  in  Boston,  and  sent  home  to  England. 
War  between  England  and  France. 

1690.  Feb.  8th,  Schenectady  burned  by  the  French  and  Indians. 

First  paper  money  issued  in  Massachusetts. 

Successful  expedition  of  Sir  William  Phips  against  Port  Royal,  Nova  Scotia. 

1691.  Trial  and  execution  of  Leisler  and  Milborne  at  New  York,  on  a charge  of  treason. 

1692.  Massachusetts  Bay  colony  and  Plymouth  colony  united  under  a new  charter. 

The  witchcraft  delusion  rife  at  Salem. 

William  and  Mary  College,  Virginia,  chartered. 

1693.  Episcopal  church  established  at  New  York. 

First  printing-press  established  in  New  York,  by  William  Bradford. 

1695.  Rice  introduced  into  Carolina  from  Africa. 

1696.  Indian  attack  on  Haverhill. 

1697.  Peace  of  Ryswick  ; close  of  King  William’s  war. 

1698.  First  French  colony  arrive  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 

Earl  of  Bellamont  governor  of  New  York. 

1699.  Kidd  the  pirate  apprehended  at  Boston. 

1701.  Yale  College  founded  at  Saybrook. 

Commencement  of  Queen  Anne’s  war. 

1702.  Episcopal  church  established  in  New  Jersey  and  Rhode  Island. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY, 


983 


1T08.  Culture  of  silk  introduced  into  Carolina. 

Duty  of  £4  laid  on  imported  negroes  in  Massachusetts. 

1704.  Tonnage  duty  laid  by  Rhode  Island  on  foreign  vessels. 

Act  “ to  prevent  the  growth  of  popery,”  passed  by  Maryland. 

First  newspaper  {Boston  News  Letter ) published  at  Boston,  by  Bartholomew  Green. 
French  and  Indians  attack  Deerfield,  Mass. 

1706.  Bills  of  credit  issued  by  Carolina. 

1709.  First  printing-press  in  Connecticut,  set  up  at  New  London,  by  Thomas  Short. 

1710.  First  colonial  post-office  at  New  York. 

German  settlements  in  North  Carolina. 

Nova  Scotia  permanently  annexed  to  the  British  crown. 

1711.  South  Sea  Company  incorporated. 

1712.  Free  schools  founded  in  Charlestown,  Mass. 

1713.  The  Tuscaroras  join  the  Five  Nations. 

Peace  of  Utrecht;  close  of  Queen  Anne’s  war. 

1714.  First  schooner  built  at  Cape  Ann. 

1717.  New  Orleans  founded  by  the  French. 

Yale  College  removed  from  Say  brook  to  New  Haven. 

1718.  Impost  duties  laid  by  Massachusetts  on  English  manufactures  and  English  ships. 

1719.  First  Presbyterian  church  founded  in  New  York. 

1720.  Tea  first  used  in  New  England. 

1721.  Inoculation  for  small-pox  introduced  into  New  England. 

1722.  Paper  money  first  issued  in  Pennsylvania. 

1724.  Fort  Dummer  built  in  Vermont. 

1725.  First  newspaper  in  New  York  {New  York  Gazette ) published  by  William  Bradford. 

1726.  First  printing-presses  established  in  Virginia  and  Maryland. 

1727.  Earthquake  in  New  England. 

1729.  North  and  South  Carolina  separated. 

1730.  First  printing-press  and  newspaper  established  at  Charleston,  S.  C. 

1731.  Fort  built  at  Crown  Point. 

1732.  Tobacco  made  a legal  tender  in  Maryland  at  Id.  per  pound,  and  corn  at  20d.  per 

bushel. 

Feb.  2 2d,  George  Washington  born. 

First  printing-press  and  newspaper  established  at  Newport,  R.  I. 

1733.  Georgia  settled  by  Oglethorpe. 

Freemasons’  lodge  first  held  in  Boston. 

1737.  Earthquake  in  New  Jersey. 

1738.  College  founded  at  Princeton,  N.  J. 

1741.  Jan.  1st,  General  Magazine  and  Historical  Chronicle,  first  published  by  Benjamin 

Franklin. 

1 742.  Faneuil  Hall  erected  at  Boston  by  Peter  Faneuil. 

1744.  King  George’s  war  begins. 

1745.  Louisburg,  on  Cape  Breton  Island,  taken  by  the  English. 

1748.  Treaty  of  Aix  la  Chapelle ; King  George’s  war  closed. 

1750.  First  theatrical  performance  in  Boston. 

1753.  George  Washington  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the  French  commandant  on  the  Ohio. 

1754.  Columbia  College  in  New  York  founded. 

Beginning  of  the  old  French  war. 


984. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1754.  April  18th,  Fort  Du  Quesne  built. 

May  28th,  Washington  defeats  a party  of  French  under  Jumonville  at  the  Great 
Meadows. 

July  4th,  Benjamin  Franklin  proposes  a plan  of  union  for  the  colonies. 

Tennessee  first  settled. 

1755.  June  4th,  Col.  Monckton  destroys  the  French  settlements  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 

July  9th,  Braddock’s  defeat. 

Sept.  8th,  battle  of  Lake  George. 

Expeditions  against  Niagara  and  Crown  Point. 

First  newspaper  ( Connecticut  Gazette ) published  at  New  Haven. 

1756.  May  17th,  war  declared  with  France  by  Great  Britain. 

Loudon  and  Abercrombie  command  the  British  forces  in  America ; Montcalm  the 
French. 

First  printing-press  and  newspaper  established  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  by  Daniel 
Fowle. 

1757.  Fort  William  Henry  taken  by  the  French. 

1758.  July  26th,  Louisburg  taken  by  the  English. 

Aug.  27th,  Fort  Frontenac  taken  by  the  English. 

Nov.  25th,  Fort  Du  Qu.esne  (now  Pittsburg)  taken  by  the  English. 

1759.  Niagara,  Ticonderoga,  and  Crown  Point  taken  by  the  English,  in  July. 

Sept.  13th,  battle  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham  ; Wolfe  and  Montcalm  slain. 

Sept.  18th,  Quebec  surrenders  to  the  English. 

1761.  March  12th,  earthquake  in  New  England. 

1763.  Feb.  10th,  treaty  of  Paris  ; France  surrenders  to  Great  Britain  all  her  possessions  in 

North  America  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

First  newspaper  printed  in  Georgia. 

1764.  March,  right  to  tax  American  colonies  voted  by  house  of  commons. 

April  5th,  first  act  for  levying  revenue  passed  by  parliament. 

April  21st,  Louisiana  ordered  to  be  given  up  to  Spain. 

1765.  The  stamp  act  passed  by  parliament;  it  receives  the  royal  assent  March  22d. 

May  29th,  Virginia  resolutions  against  the  right  of  taxation. 

June  6th,  Massachusetts  proposes  a congress  of  deputies  from  the  colonies. 

Oct.  7th,  a congress  of  twenty-seven  delegates  convenes  at  New  York,  and  publishes 
a declaration  of  rights  and  resolutions  against  the  stamp  act. 

1766.  February,  Dr.  Franklin  examined  before  the  house  of  commons,  relative  to  the  repeal 

of  the  stamp  act. 

March  18th,  the  stamp  act  repealed. 

1767.  June  20th,  taxes  laid  on  paper,  glass,  painters’  colors,  and  teas. 

Non-importation  agreements  adopted  by  the  colonial  assemblies. 

1768.  February,  circular  issued  by  the  Massachusetts  assembly  to  the  other  colonies,  to 

unite  in  obtaining  a redress  of  grievances. 

1769.  Dartmouth  College  incorporated. 

American  Philosophical  Society  at  Philadelphia. 

1770.  March  5th,  the  Boston  massacre  ; citizens  killed  by  British  troops  in  State  street. 
April  12th,  Lord  North’s  partial  repeal  act  passed. 

1773.  Dec.  16th,  destruction  of  342  chests  of  tea  in  Boston  harbor. 

1774.  March  31st,  Boston  port  bill  passed  by  parliament ; declaring  that  no  person  should 

be  allowed  to  land  or  discharge,  or  to  ship,  any  wares  or  merchandise  at  the  port 
of  Boston. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


985 


1 774.  Gen.  Gage  fortifies  Boston  Neck. 

The  members  of  the  Massachusetts  assembly  resolve  themselves  into  a provincial 
congress. 

Sept.  4th,  continental  congress  meets  at  Philadelphia. 

Dr.  Franklin  dismissed  from  the  post-office. 

Committees  of  “safety”  and  “supplies”  appointed  by  Massachusetts;  twelve  thou- 
sand men  to  be  equipped  for  service. 

1775.  Several  ships  of  the  line  and  ten  thousand  troops  ordered  to  America. 

April  19th,  battle  of  Lexington. 

May  10th,  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  taken  by  the  provincials  under  Ethan  Allen. 
Congress  votes  to  raise  an  army  of  twenty  thousand  men. 

June  15th,  George  Washington  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army. 
June  17th,  battle  of  Bunker’s  Hill. 

July  12th,  Washington  takes  command  of  the  army  at  Cambridge. 

Sir  William  Howe  succeeds  Gen.  Gage  as  commander  of  the  royal  forces  in  America. 
The  royal  governors  take  refuge  on  board  the  British  shipping. 

Dec.  13th,  resolution  of  Congress  to  fit  out  a navy  of  thirteen  ships. 

Dec.  31st,  assault  on  Quebec ; Gen.  Montgomery  falls,  and  Gen.  Arnold  is  wounded. 

1776.  Jan.  1st,  Lord  Dunmore  burns  Norfolk,  Va. 

March  4th,  Washington  fortifies  Dorchester  Heights. 

March  17th,  the  British  evacuate  Boston. 

April,  Washington  removes  his  army  to  New  York. 

June  28th,  repulse  of  the  British  at  Charleston. 

July  4th,  declaration  of  independence. 

Dr.  Franklin  sent  to  Paris,  to  obtain  the  favor  of  the  French  government. 

Aug.  27th,  battle  of  Long  Island  ; the  British  victorious. 

Washington  abandons  New  York  city  ; the  British  take  possession,  Sept.  15th. 

Oct.  28th,  battle  of  White  Plains. 

Nov.  16th  and  18th,  the  British  take  Fort  Washington  and  Fort  Lee. 

November  and  December,  Washington  retreats  through  New  Jersey. 

Dec.  20th,  battle  of  Trenton  ; Washington  captures  one  thousand  Hessians. 

1777.  Jan.  3d,  battle  of  Princeton  ; the  British  are  defeated. 

Washington  encamps  at  Morristown. 

April  26th.  Tryon  destroys  Danbury,  Conn. 

Lafayette  arrives  from  France  with  troops  and  supplies  ; congress  gives  him  a major- 
general’s  commission,  July  31st. 

Aug.  16th,  battle  of  Bennington. 

Sept.  11th,  battle  of  Brand}''wine. 

Sept.  19th,  battle  of  Stillwater. 

Sept.  26th,  the  British  occupy  Philadelphia. 

Oct.  4th,  battle  of  Germantown. 

Oct.  7th,  battle  of  Saratoga. 

Oct.  17th,  surrender  of  the  British  army  under  Burgoyne. 

Nov.  15th,  articles  of  confederation  adopted  by  congress,  and  finally  ratified  by  the 
states  in  March,  1781,  Maryland  being  the  last  to  accept  them. 

Nov.  16th  and  18th,  the  British  capture  Forts  Mifflin  and  Mercer  on  the  Delaware. 
Dec.  8th,  Washington’s  army  encamps  at  Valley  Forge. 

Conspiracy  to  supplant  Washington. 


986  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

1778.  Feb.  6 th,  treaty  of  alliance  with  France  ; she  acknowledges  the  independence  of  the 

United  States. 

March  11th,  Lord  North’s  conciliatory  bills  passed  by  parliament. 

June  18th,  the  British  evacuate  Philadelphia. 

June  28th,  battle  of  Monmouth. 

July  11th,  arrival  of  a French  fleet  under  Count  d’Estaing. 

July  3d  and  4th,  massacre  of  Wyoming. 

Aug.  30th,  Gen.  Sullivan  retreats  from  Rhode  Island. 

Dec.  29th,  Savannah  taken  by  the  British. 

1779.  March  3d,  battle  of  Briar  Creek. 

May  14th,  Norfolk  taken  by  the  British. 

June  16th,  war  between  England  and  Spain. 

June  20th,  battle  of  Stono  Ferry. 

July  5th  and  7th,  Fairfield  and  Norwalk,  Conn-,  burned  by  the  British. 

July  16th,  storming  of  Stony  Point  by  the  Americans  under  Wayne. 

July  and  August,  Sullivan’s  expedition  against  the  Indians  on  the  SusqUehannah. 
Sept.  23d,  Paul  Jones  captures  two  British  frigates  off  the  coast  of  Scotlandr 
Oct.  9t,h,  repulse  of  the  Americans  at  Savannah. 

1780.  April  14th,  battle  at  Monk’s  Corner,  S.  C. 

May  6th,  battle  on  the  Santee  River. 

May  12th,  surrender  of  Gen.  Lincoln  and  American  army  at  Charleston. 

July  12th,  arrival  at  Rhode  Island  of  French  fleet  and  army,  under  Admiral  da 
Ternay  and  Count  de  Rochambeau. 

Aug.  16th,  battle  of  Sander’s  Creek,  near  Camden;  Gates  defeated. 

Sept.  23d,  treason  of  Gen.  Arnold,  and  arrest  of  Major  Andre. 

Oct.  2d,  Major  Andre  hanged. 

Oct.  7th,  battle  of  King’s  Mountain. 

Nov.  12th,  Battle  of  Broad  River. 

Nov.  20th,  battle  at  Blackstock. 

Dec.  20th,  war  between  England  and  Holland. 

1781.  Jan.  1st,  revolt  of  the  Pennsylvania  troops  at  Morristown. 

Bank  of  North  America  established. 

Expedition  of  the  British  under  Arnold  to  Virginia. 

Gen.  Greene  appointed  to  command  the  Southern  army. 

Jan.  17th,  battle  of  the  Cowpens. 

January  and  February,  remarkable  retreat  of  Gen.  Greene  across  the  Catawba,  Yad- 
kin, and  Dan  Rivers. 

March  15th,  battle  of  Guilford  Court-house. 

April  25th,  battle  of  Hobkirk’s  Hill  near  Camden. 

Aug.  14th,  American  and  French  allied  army  march  from  the  Hudson  near  New  York 
to  Virginia  ; Cornwallis  is  hemmed  in  at  Yorktown. 

Sept.  6th,  burning  of  New  London  by  Arnold. 

Sept.  8th,  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  and  close  of  the  campaign  in  South  Carolina. 
Sept.  30th,  siege  of  Yorktown  by  the  Americans  and  French. 

Oct.  19th,  surrender  of  Cornwallis  and  7,000  troops  at  Yorktown. 

1782.  Feb.  27th,  resolutions  of  the  house  of  commons  in  favor  of  peace. 

March  20th,  resignation  of  Lord  North,  and  accession  of  a whig  administration  under 
the  Marquis  of  Rockingham. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


937 


1782,  April  1 7 tli,  Holland  acknowledges  our  independence. 

June  24th,  last  battle  of  the  Revolutionary  war — a skirmish  near  Savannah  ; some 
slight  skirmishes  in  South  Carolina  in  August,  in  one  of  which  Col.  John  Lau- 
rens of  South  Carolina  was  slain. 

Nov.  30th,  preliminaries  of  peace  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  signed 
at  Paris. 

1783  Jan.  20th,  preliminary  treaties  between  France,  Spain,  and  Great  Britain,  signed  at 
Versailles. 

Independence  of  the  United  States  acknowledged  by  Sweden,  Feb.  5th;  by  Den- 
mark, Feb.  25th ; by  Spain,  March  24th  ; and  by  Russia,  in  July. 

April  11th,  peace  proclaimed  by  congress ; April  19th,  announced  to  the  army  by 
Washington. 

Sept.  3d,  definitive  treaties  of  peace  between  England  and  the  United  States,  France, 
Spain,  and  Holland. 

Oct.  18th,  proclamation  for  disbanding  the  army ; Nov.  2d,  Washington’s  farewell 
orders. 

Nov.  25th,  New  York  evacuated  by  the  British. 

Dec.  23d,  Washington  resigns  his  commission. 

1784.  February,  first  voyage  from  China  to  New  York. 

1785.  Treaty  with  Prussia. 

June  2d,  John  Adams,  the  first  ambassador  from  the  United  States  to  Great  Britain, 
has  his  first  interview  with  George  III. 

1786.  Shay’s  insurrection  in  Massachusetts. 

1787.  May  to  September,  convention  to  form  a federal  constitution  in  session  at  Phila- 

delphia. 

1788.  Federal  constitution  adopted  by  eleven  states. 

1789.  George  Washington  elected  president;  inaugurated  April  30th. 

1790.  District  of  Columbia  ceded  by  Virginia  and  Maryland. 

May  29th,  federal  constitution  adopted  by  Rhode  Island. 

1791.  March  4th,  Vermont  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Bank  of  the  United  States  established. 

1792.  June  1st,  Kentucky  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1793.  Washington  re-elected  president. 

Death  of  John  Hancock. 

1794.  Insurrection  in  Pennsylvania. 

1796.  June  1st,  Tennessee  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Dec.  7th,  Washington’s  last  speech  to  congress. 

1797.  March  4th,  John  Adams  inaugurated  president. 

1798.  Washington  reappointed  commander-in-chief;  war  with  France  threatened. 

1799.  Dec.  14th,  death  of  Washington. 

1800.  Seat  of  government  removed  to  the  city  of  Washington. 

May  13th,  disbanding  of  the  provisional  army. 

1801.  March  4th,  Thomas  Jefferson  inaugurated  president. 

1802.  July  20th,  Louisiana  ceded  to  France  by  Spain. 

1803.  Feb.  19th,  Ohio  admitted  into  the  Union. 

April  30th,  Louisiana  purchased  by  the  United  States. 

August,  Commodore  Preble  bombards  Tripoli. 

1804.  Alexander  Hamilton  killed  by  Aaron  Burr  in  a duel. 


988 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1805.  June  3d,  treaty  of  peace  with  Tripoli. 

1806.  Expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clarke  to  the  Columbia  River. 

1807.  Trial  of  Aaron  Burr  for  treason. 

June  22d,  attack  on  the  frigate  Chesapeake. 

July  2d,  interdict  to  armed  British  vessels. 

Nov.  11th,  British  orders  in  council,  prohibiting  all  neutral  nations  from  trading  with 
France  or  her  allies,  excepting  upon  a payment  of  tribute  to  England. 

Dec.  17th,  Bonaparte’s  Milan  decree,  confiscating  all  vessels  submitting  to  search  b^ 
an  English  ship,  or  paying  the  above  tribute. 

Dec.  22d,  embargo  laid  by  the  United  States  government. 

Steamboat  invented  by  Robert  Fulton. 

1808.  Jan.  1st,  the  slave  trade  abolished. 

April  17th,  Bayonne  decree. 

1809.  March  1st,  the  embargo  repealed. 

March  4th,  James  Madison  inaugurated  president. 

1810.  March  23d,  Rambouillet  decree. 

1811.  May  16th,  engagement  between  the  President  and  Little  Belt. 

Nov.  7th,  battle  of  Tippecanoe. 

1812.  April  3d,  embargo  laid  for  ninety  days. 

April  8th,  Louisiana  admitted  into  the  Union. 

June  18th,  war  declared. 

June  23d,  British  orders  in  council  repealed. 

Aug.  15th,  surrender  of  Gen.  Hull  at  Detroit. 

Aug.  19th,  capture  of  the  frigate  Guerriere,  Capt.  Dacres,  by  the  frigate  Constitu- 
tion,  Capt.  Hull. 

Oct.  13th,  defeat  of  the  Americans  at  Queenstown. 

Oct.  18th,  capture  of  the  British  brig  Frolic  by  the  United  States  sloop  Wasp. 

Oct.  25th,  capture  of  the  British  frigate  Macedonian  by  the  frigate  United  States, 
Capt.  Decatur. 

Dec.  29th,  victory  over  the  British  frigate  Java  by  the  Constitution,  Capt.  Bain- 
bridge. 

1813.  Feb.  25th,  the  Hornet,  Capt.  Lawrence,  captures  the  British  sloop  Peacock. 

April  27th,  capture  of  York,  Upper  Canada. 

May  27th,  battle  of  Fort  George. 

June  1st,  capture  of  the  frigate  Chesapeake,  Capt.  Lawrence,  by  the  British  frigate 
Shannon. 

Aug.  14th,  American  sloop  Argus  taken  by  the  British  sloop  Pelican. 

Sept.  10th,  Commodore  Perry’s  victory  on  Lake  Erie. 

Oct.  5th,  battle  of  the  Thames  ; Tecumseh  is  slain. 

Dec.  13th,  Buffalo  burnt. 

1814.  March  28th,  action  between  the  frigates  Essex  and  Phoebe  ; the  former  captured. 
July  5th,  battle  of  Chippewa. 

July  25th,  battle  of  Bridgewater,  or  Lundy’s  Lane. 

Aug.  9th,  11th,  Stonington  bombarded. 

Aug.  25th,  the  British  occupy  the  city  of  Washington,  and  burn  the  capttol. 

Sept.  11th,  Macdonough’s  victory  on  Lake  Champlain. 

Sept.  12th,  battle  near  Baltimore,  and  bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry. 

Dec.  24th,  treaty  of  Ghent  signed. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


989 


1815.  Jan.  8th,  battle  of  New  Orleans. 

Feb.  17th,  treaty  of  Ghent  ratified  by  the  president. 

March,  war  declared  with  Algiers. 

1816.  December,  Indiana  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1817.  March  4th,  James  Monroe  inaugurated  President. 

Dec.  10th,  Mississippi  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1818.  Dec.  3d,  Illinois  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1819.  Dec.  14th,  Alabama  admitted  into  the  Union. 

First  steamship  sailed  for  Europe. 

1820.  March  15th,  Maine  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Cession  of  Florida  to  the  United  States  ratified  by  Spain. 

1821.  Gas  first  used  for  lighting  streets  in  the  United  States,  at  Baltimore. 

July  1st,  Jackson  takes  possession  of  Florida. 

Aug.  10th,  Missouri  admitted  into.the  Union. 

First  settlement  of  Liberia. 

1824.  March  13th,  convention  with  Great  Britain  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade. 
April  5th,  convention  with  Russia  in  relation  to  the  north-west  boundary. 

Aug.  13th,  arrival  of  Gen.  Lafayette,  on  a visit  to  the  United  States. 

1825.  March  4th,  John  Quincy  Adams  inaugurated  president. 

Sept.  7th,  departure  of  Lafayette. 

1826.  July  4th,  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson  die. 

1829.  Feb.  20th,  resolutions  passed  by  the  Virginia  house  of  delegates,  denying  the  right 

of  congress  to  pass  the  tariff  bill. 

March  4th,  Andrew  Jackson  inaugurated  president. 

May  2d,  hail  falls  in  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  to  the  depth  of  twelve  inches. 

May  17th,  death  of  John  Jay,  at  Bedford,  New  York. 

Sept.  15th,  slavery  abolished  in  Mexico. 

Nov.  9th,  separation  of  Yucatan  from  Mexico,  and  union  with  the  republic  of  Cen- 
tral America. 

Dec.  4th,  revolution  commences  in  Mexico. 

1830.  Jan.  20th,  Gen.  BoltVar  resigns  his  military  and  civil  commissions. 

Jan.  27th,  city  of  Guatemala  nearly  destroyed  by  earthquakes. 

April  4th,  Yucatan  declares  its  independence. 

1831.  Jan.  12th,  remarkable  eclipse  of  the  sun. 

July  4th,  death  of  James  Monroe. 

Oct.  1st,  free-trade  convention  at  Philadelphia. 

Oct.  26th,  tariff  convention  at  New  York. 

1832.  Feb.  6th,  attack  on  Qualla  Battoo  in  Sumatra  by  the  United  States  frigate  Potomac. 
June  8th,  cholera  breaks  out  at  Quebec,  its  first  appearance  in  America. 

Aug.  27th,  capture  of  Black  Hawk. 

Sept.  26th,  University  of  New  York  organized. 

November,  union  and  state-rights  convention  of  South  Carolina. 

Dec.  28th,  John  Caldwell  Calhoun  resigns  the  office  of  vice-president. 
Electro-magnetic  telegraph  invented  by  Professor  Morse. 

1833.  March  1st,  new  tariff  bill  signed  by  the  president. 

March  4th,  Andrew  Jackson  inaugurated  president  for  a second  term. 

March  11th,  state-rights  convention  of  South  Carolina. 

May  16th,  Santa  Anna  inaugurated  president  of  Mexico. 


990 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1833.  Oct.  1st,  public  deposits  removed  from  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  by  order 
of  Gen.  Jackson. 

Nov.  13th,  remarkable  meteoric  showers  in  the  United  States. 

4834.  March  28th,  vote  of  censure  by  the  senate  against  Gen.  Jackson,  for  removing  the 
deposits.  (Expunged  soon  after.) 

1835.  April  18th,  French  indemnity  bill  passed  the  chamber  of  deputies. 

Dec.  16th,  great  fire  in  New  York. 

Seminole  war  in  Florida  begun. 

1836.  April  21st,  battle  of  San  Jacinto  in  Texas. 

June  14th,  Arkansas  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Dec.  15th,  burning  of  the  general  post-office  and  patent-office  at  Washington. 

1837.  Jan.  26th,  Michigan  admitted  into  the  Union. 

March  4th,  Martin  Van  Buren  inaugurated  president. 

1840.  Jan.  19th,  Antarctic  continent  discovered  by  the  United  States  exploring  expedi- 

tion. 

June  30th,  sub-treasury  bill  becomes  a law. 

1841.  March  4th,  William  Henry  Harrison  inaugurated  president. 

April  4th,  death  of  Gen.  Harrison ; John  Tyler  succeeds  to  the  executive. 

Aug.  9th,  sub-treasury  bill  repealed. 

Aug.  18th,  bankrupt  act  becomes  a law. 

1842.  March  3d,  bankrupt  act  repealed. 

Contest  for  the  extension  of  suffrage  in  Rhode  Island. 

June  17th,  Bunker  Hill  monument  celebration. 

Aug.  9th,  treaty  of  Washington  negotiated  by  Daniel  Webster  and  Lord  Ashbur- 
ton, defining  our  north-eastern  boundary,  and  for  suppressing  the  slave  trade 
and  giving  up  fugitive  criminals. 

Oct.  2d,  death  of  Dr.  Channing. 

1845.  March  1st,  Texas  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

March  3d,  Florida  admitted  into  the  Union. 

March  4th,  James  Knox  Polk  inaugurated  president. 

June  8th,  death  of  Andrew  Jackson. 

Dec.  24th,  Texas  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Treaty  with  China. 

1846.  May  8th,  battle  of  Palo  Alto,  on  the  Rio  Grande. 

May  9th,  battle  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  on  the  Rio  Grande. 

May  13  th,  proclamation  of  war  existing  with  Mexico. 

June  18th,  the  senate  advise  the  president  to  confirm  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain 
settling  the  boundary  of  Oregon  on  the  forty -ninth  parallel. 

July  28th,  new  tariff  bill  passed. 

Aug.  3d,  President  Polk  vetoes  the  river  and  harbor  bill. 

Aug.  6th,  revolution  in  Mexico  in  favor  of  Santa  Anna. 

Aug.  8th,  President  Polk  vetoes  the  French  spoliation  bill. 

Aug.  10th,  congress  adjourns. 

Aug.  18th,  Gen.  Kearney  takes  possession  of  Santa  Fe. 

Aug.  19th,  Commodore  Stockton  blockades  the  Mexican  ports  on  the  Pacific. 

Sept.  20th  to  24th,  storming  of  Monterey,  and  surrender  of  Gen.  Ampudia. 

Sept.  26th,  California  expedition  with  Col.  Stevenson’s  regiment  of  780  officers  and 
men  sails  from  New  York. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


991 


1846.  Oct.  25th,  Tabasco  in  Mexico  bombarded  by  Commodore  Perry. 

Nov.  14th,  Commodore  Conner  takes  Tampico. 

Dec.  6th,  Gen.  Kearney  defeats  the  Mexicans  at  San  Pasqual. 

Dec.  25th,  Col.  Doniphan  defeats  the  Mexicans  at  Brazito,  near  El  Paso. 

Dec.  28th,  Iowa  admitted  into  the  Union. 

1847.  Jan.  8th,  the  Mexican  congress  resolve  to  raise  $15,000,000  on  the  property  of  the 

clergy,  for  the  war  with  the  United  States. 

Jan.  8th  and  9th,  battles  of  San  Gabriel  and  Mesa  in  California ; Gen.  Kearney  de- 
feats the  Mexicans. 

Jan.  14th,  revolt  of  the  Mexicans  in  New  Mexico  against  the  United  States  au- 
thorities. 

Jan.  24th,  battle  of  Canada,  in  New  Mexico ; the  Americans  under  Col.  Price  are 
successful. 

Feb.  22d  and  23d,  battle  of  Buena  Vista. 

Feb.  28th,  battle  of  Sacramento ; Col.  Doniphan  and  924  Americans  defeat  4,000 
Mexicans. 

March  1st,  Gen.  Kearney  declares  California  a part  of  the  United  States. 

March  29th,  city  and  castle  of  Vera  Cruz  taken  by  the  army  and  fleet  under  Gen. 
Scott  and  Commodore  Perry. 

April  2d,  Alvarado  taken  by  Lieut.  Hunter. 

April  18th,  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo. 

April  18th,  Tuspan  taken  by  Commodore  Perry. 

Aug.  20th,  battles  of  Contreras  and  Churubusco. 

Sept.  8th,  Gen.  Worth  storms  Molina  del  Rey. 

Sept.  13th,  storming  of  the  citadel  of  Chapultepec. 

Sept.  14th,  the  American  army  enters  the  city  of  Mexico. 

Sept.  13th  to  Oct.  12th,  siege  of  Puebla,  held  by  the  Americans  against  the  Mexicans ; 
the  latter  are  repulsed  by  the  former  under  Col.  Childs. 

Oct.  9th,  the  city  of  Huamantla  taken  by  the  Americans,  under  Gen.  Lane. 

Oct.  20th,  port  of  Guayamas  bombarded  and  captured  by  the  Americans. 

Dec.  31st,  the  several  Mexican  states  occupied  by  the  American  army  placed  under 
military  contributions. 

1848.  Feb.  18th,  Gen.  Scott  relinquishes  the  command  in  Mexico  to  Gen.  Butler. 

Feb.  23d,  John  Quincy  Adams  expires  in  the  capitol  at  Washington. 

May  29th,  Wisconsin  admitted  into  the  Union. 

May  30th,  treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  which  had  been 
signed  at  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Feb.  2d,  1848,  afterward  modified  at  Washington, 
and  confirmed  by  the  Mexican  congress, — ratified  at  Queretaro  by  the  American 
commissioners,  Sevier  and  Clifford,  and  the  Mexican  minister  of  foreign  relations, 
Don  Luis  de  la  Rosa.  It  is  proclaimed  in  the  United  States,  July  4th,  1848. 

July  4th,  corner-stone  of  a monument  to  Gen.  Washington  laid  at  Washington; 
oration  by  Robert  C.  Winthrop,  speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives. 

Aug.  13th,  Oregon  territorial  bill,  with  a prohibition  of  slavery,  passed  by  congress. 

Dec.  8th,  first  deposit  of  California  gold  in  the  mint. 

1849.  March  5th,  inauguration  of  Zachary  Taylor  as  president. 

May  15th,  the  cholera  breaks  out  in  New  York. 

June  15th,  death  of  James  Knox  Polk,  at  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Aug.  11th,  President  Taylor  issues  his  proclamation  against  the  armed  expedition 
fitting  out  for  Cuba. 


992 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1849.  Aug.  31st,  convention  of  delegates,  called  by  Gen.  Riley  of  the  United  States  army, 

to  frame  a state  constitution  for  California,  meet  at  Monterey. 

Oct.  10th,  initial  point  of  the  boundary  line  with  Mexico  settled,  and  a monument 
with  inscriptions  erected.  Lat.  32°  31'  59.58."  Long.  119°  35'  0.15"  west  from 
Greenwich. 

Nov.  19th,  the  survey  of  the  boundary  line  between  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and 
Maryland,  comprising  the  greater  part  of  Mason  and  Dixon’s  line,  is  completed. 

1850.  Feb.  12th,  the  original  manuscript  of  Washington’s  Farewell  Address  is  sold  at  auc- 

tion, by  the  heirs  of  Mr.  Claj'polo,  printer,  and  purchased  by  James  Lenox,  of 
New  York,  for  $2,300. 

Feb.  22d,  President  Taylor  attends  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of  the  Virginia 
monument  to  Washington  at  Richmond. 

March  31st,  death  of  John  Caldwell  Calhoun  at  Washington. 

April  27th,  the  Collins  line  of  steamers  goes  into  operation;  the  Atlantic  sails  from 
New  York  for  Liverpool. 

May  23d,  two  vessels,  the  Advance  and  the  Rescue,  fitted  out  by  Henry  Grinnell. 
of  New  York,  to  search  for  Sir  John  Franklin  in  the  Arctic  seas,  sail  from  New 
York. 

July  9th,  death  of  President  Taylor  at  Washington. 

July  10th,  Millard  Fillmore  takes  the  oath  of  office  as  president. 

Sept.  9th,  California  admitted  into  the  Union,  and  the  territories  of  Utah  and  New 
Mexico  organized. 

Sept.  18th,  fugitive  slave  bill  passed. 

Sept.  20th,  act  passed  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  in  the  District  of 
Columbia. 

Sept.  17th,  death  of  James  Fenimore  Cooper. 

1851.  Dec.  24th,  principal  room  of  the  congressional  library  destroyed  by  fire,  with  loss 

of  about  35,000  volumes. 

1852.  June  29th,  Henry  Clay  dies  at  Washington,  j 
Oct.  24th,  Daniel  Webster  dies  at  Marshfield. 

1853.  March  4th,  Franklin  Pierce  inaugurated  president. 

July  2d,  Koszta  affair  at  Smyrna ; Capt.  Ingraham  demands  Koszta’s  release. 

July  14th,  crystal  palace  at  New  York  opened. 

1854.  Feb.  28th,  the  American  mail  steamer  Black  Warrior  seized  at  Havana. 

March  23d,  commercial  treaty  concluded  between  Japan  and  the  United  States  by 
Commodore  Perry. 

July  13th,  American  sloop  of  war  Cyane,  Capt.  Hollins,  bombards  San  Juan  de 
Nicaragua,  or  Grey  town. 

Aug.  2d,  reciprocity  treaty  with  Great  Britain  ratified,  respecting  the  Newfound- 
land fisheries,  international  trade,  &c. 

1855.  Troubles  in  Kansas. 

July,  dispute  with  the  British  government  concerning  the  attempt  to  recruit  for 
the  Crimean  army  in  the  United  States. 

Sept.  7th,  the  firs  Hebrew  temple  in  the  Mississippi  valley  is  consecrated  in  St.  Louis. 
Oct.  17th,  barque  Maury  seized  at  New  York  on  suspicion  of  being  intended  lor 
the  Russian  service  in  the  war ; she  is  discharged  Oct.  19th. 

Oct.  24th,  snow  in  Vermont,  northern  New  York,  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  Nashville. 
Tenn. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


993 


1855.  Dec  23d,  British  discovery  ship  Resolute,  abandoned  in  the  Arctic  seas  by  her  officers 

and  crew,  is  brought  into  New  London  by  a whaler. 

1856.  Jan.  23d,  the  Collins  steamer  Pacific,  Capt.  Asa  Eldridge,  leaves  Liverpool  for  New 

York,  and  is  never  heard  from  afterward. 

April  11th,  the  great  bridge  across  the  Mississippi  at  Rock  Island  completed,  and 
locomotives  pass  from  the  Illinois  to  the  Iowa  side. 

April  15th,  affray  at  Panama  between  the  passengers  of  the  American  Transit 
Company  and  the  natives,  in  which  thirty  passengers  are  killed  and  twenty 
wounded. 

May  18th,  the  vigilance  committee  of  San  Francisco  take  the  murderers  Casey  and 
Cora  from  the  jail,  try  them,  and  on  the  22d  hang  them. 

May  22d,  Charles  Sumner,  senator  from  Massachusetts,  violently  assaulted  in  the 
senate  chamber  at  Washington  by  Preston  S.  Brooks,  representative  from  South 
Carolina. 

May  28th,  Mr.  Crampton,  the  British  envoy  at  Washington,  dismissed  by  our  gov- 
ernment. 

July,  a submarine  diver  from  Buffalo  raises  the  safe  of  the  American  Express 
Company,  which  was  lost  with  the  steamer  Atlantic  in  1852  ; its  contents  are 
in  a good  state  of  preservation. 

Aug.  10th,  Last  Island,  a summer  resort  on  the  Louisiana  coast,  is  entirely  sub- 
merged during  a terrific  storm  of  three  days  ; 173  persons  are  lost. 

Aug.  21st,  the  famous  Charter  Oak  at  Hartford  blown  down. 

Aug.  28th,  the  Dudley  Observatory  at  Albany  inaugurated. 

Nov.  9th,  death  of  John  Middleton  Clayton,  at  Dover,  Del. 

Dec.  30th,  the  Arctic  discovery  ship  Resolute,  purchased  from  its  finders  and  refitted 
by  the  United  States,  is  surrendered  to  the  British  government  at  Portsmouth, 
England,  by  Capt.  Hartstein  on  behalf  of  the  United  States. 

1857*  Feb.  16th,  Elisha  Kent  Kane  dies  at  Havana. 

March  4th,  James  Buchanan  inaugurated  president. 

March  6th,  Chief  Justice  Taney  delivers  the  opinion  of  the  supreme  court  in  the 
famous  Dred  Scott  case. 

Aug.  5th,  the  shore  end  of  the  Atlantic  telegraph  cable  is  received  from  the  United 
States  steam-frigate  Niagara,  with  much  ceremony,  at  Valencia  Bay,  by  the  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  is  made  fast. 

Aug.  7th,  the  Agamemnon  and  Niagara,  with  their  attendant  vessels,  leave  Valencia 
Bay,  the  Niagara  paying  out  the  cable. 

Aug.  11th,  the  cable  breaks,  335  miles  having  been  paid  out. 

Sept.  15th,  Brigham  Young  forbids  any  armed  force  entering  Salt  Lake  City  on  any 
pretense,  orders  the  Mormon  troops  to  hold  themselves  in  readiness,  and  declare? 
martial  law. 

Sept.  26th,  the  Philadelphia  banks  suspend  specie  payments. 

Oct.  14th,  the  New  York  banks  suspend  specie  payments. 

Oct.  15th,  the  Boston  banks  suspend  specie  payments. 

Dec.  12th,  the  New  York  banks  resume  specie  payments,  and  on  the  14th  the 
Boston  banks. 

Dec.  14th,  the  Utah  army  reaches  Fort  Bridger,  and  encamps  for  the  winter. 

1858.  April  10th,  Thomas  Hart  Benton  dies  at  Washington,  aged  seventy-six. 

May  11th,  Minnesota  admitted  into  the  Union. 

63 


994 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE,  ETC. 


1858.  June  14th,  Gov.  Cumming  of  Utah  proclaims  pardon  for  all  treason  and  sedition 
heretofore  committed  in  the  territory. 

Aug.  5th,  news  of  the  successful  laying  of  the  Atlantic  telegraph  cable  is  received 
throughout  the  country  with  great  demonstrations  of  joy.  The  cable  was  spliced 
in  mid  ocean  July  29th  ; the  Agamemnon  reached  Valencia,  Aug.  4th,  and  the 
Niagara  Trinity  Bay,  Aug.  5th. 

Aug.  16th,  first  message  sent  across  the  Atlantic  telegraph  cable,  from  Queen  Victo- 
ria  to  President  Buchanan. 

Aug.  28th,  Bev.  Eleazer  Williams,  who  claimed  to  be  the  lost  dauphin  of  France, 
son  of  Louis  XVI.,  died  at  Hogansburg,  N.  Y. 

L859.  Oregon  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Feb.  10,  Treaty  with  Paraguay. 

May  11,  Vicksburg  Convention  resolves  in  favor  of  opening  slavetrade. 

July  9,  Gen.  Harney  occupies  San  Juan  Island,  AV.  T. ; danger  of  collision  with 
Great  Britain. 

Oct.  6,  John  Brown’s  seizure  of  Harper’s  Ferry,  he  is  taken,  and  hung  Dec.  2. 

186 D.  April  23,  Democratic  convention  meets  at  Charleston;  final  nominations,  S.  A. 
Douglas,  and  by  a seceding  portion,  J.  C.  Breckinridge. 

May  9,  Bell  and  Everett  nominated  by  a “ Constitutional  Union  Convention,”  at 
Baltimore. 

May  12,  Japanese  embassy  reaches  Hampton  Roads ; visits  Baltimore,  Washington, 
&c. ; sails  from  New  York,  May  30.J) 

May  18,  Lincoln  nominated  by  Republican  convention  at  Chicago. 

Aug.  5,  Walker  the  “fillibuster”  lands  in  Honduras  for  the  last  time;  is  taken,  and 
shot  Sept.  12. 

i Sept.  20,  The  Prince  of  Wales  enters  the  United  States  at  Detroit;  goes  to  Chicago, 
Cincinnati,  Washington,  Richmond,  New  York;  sails  from  Portland,  Oct.  20. 

Nov.  6,  A.  Lincoln  elected  president. 

Dec.  20,  South  Carolina  secedes,  followed  within  six  months  by  the  ten  other  states 
south  of  Maryland  and  Kentucky. 

1861.  Feb.  4,  Seceders’  convention  at  Montgomery,  Ala. ; they  call  themselves  “ Confed- 
erate States  of  America,”  and  adopt  a constitution. 

Feb.  14,  Jeff.  Davis  made  president  of  the  confederates ; they  raise  troops  and  arm 
for  war. 

April  14,  Fort  Sumter  surrenders  after  two  days’  bombardment  by  the  confederates, 
who  seize  all  U.  S.  vessels,  forts,  mints  and  other  property  in  their  states,  except 
Forts  Monroe,  Taylor,  Jefferson  and  Pickens. 

April  15,  President  Lincoln  calls  out  75,000  volunteers  to  defend  Washington  against 
the  confederate  forces  in  Virginia^) 

April  19,  a murderous  attack  on  the  Massachusetts  troops  going  through  Baltimore 
to  Washington.  v 

May  24,  murder  of  Col.  Ellsworth,  during  the  occupation  of  Alexandria  by  U.  S.  troops. 

June  10,  an  attack  from  Fortress  Monroe  on  the  confederate  battery  at  Big  Bethel, 
repulsed. 

July  21,  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  lost  by  the  U.  S.  forces  under  McDowell. 

Aug.  10,  battle  of  Dug  Springs,  Mo.,  won  by  U.  S.  troops,  but  their  leader,  Gen. 
Lyon,  killed. 

Aug.  29,  rebel  forts  at  Hatteras  Inlet,  and  700  troops,  taken  by  U.  S.  fleet. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


995 


1861.  Aug.  30th,  Fort  Morgan  abandoned  by  the  rebels. 

Aug.  31st,  Gen.  Fremont  issues  proclamation  freeing  slaves  in  Missouri. 

Sept.  3d,  Massacre  on  Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph  R.  R.  ; Platte  Bridge  burned. 

Sept.  5th,  rebels  occupy  Columbus,  Ky. ; union  troops  next  day  occupy  Paducah. 
Sep^  10th,  Rosecrans  defeats  the  rebels  under  Floyd,  at  Carnifex  Ferry,  Va. 

Sept.  12th,  13th,  rebels  twice  defeated  in  attacks  on  Cheat  Mountain,  W.  Ya.  CoL 
John  A.  Washington  proprietor  of  Mt.  Vernon,  killed. 

Sept.  20th,  Col.  Mulligan  surrenders  Lexington,  Mo.,  to  the  rebel  Price,  after  59 
hours  witho'ut  water.  Loss,  2,500  prisoners,  and  a large  amount  of  gold. 

Oct.  3d,  Battle  of  Green  Briar,  Ya.  ; rebels  defeated,  considerable  loss. 

Oct.  5th,  rebels  attack  union  troops  at  Chicomacomico,  N.  C.,  but  destructively 
shelled  by  gunboat  Monticello  and  driven  off. 

Oct.  9th,  rebel  attack  on  Wilson’s  Zouaves  at  Santa  Rosa  Island  ; severely  repulsed. 
Oct.  11th,  rebel  steamer  Nashville  escapes  out  of  Charleston. 

Oct  12tl\  rebel  ram  and  fireships  attack  union  fleet  at  Southwest  Pass  ; repulsed. 
Oct.  12th,  steamer  Theodora  escapes  out  of  Charleston  with  Slidell  and  Mason. 

Oct.  16th,  Lexington,  Mo.,  recaptured  by  union  troops. 

Oct.  21st,  battle  of  Ball’s  Bluff,  Va.  ; Col.  Baker  killed,  and  unionists  defeated. 

Oct.  26th,  Zagonyi  with  162  cavalry,  at  Springfield,  Mo.,  rout  2,000  rebels. 

Oct.  29th,  the  Port  Royal  naval  expedition  sails  from  Fortress  Monroe,  under  Dupont, 
Nov.  1st,  Lieut.  Gen.  Winfield  Scott  placed  on  retired  list  with  full  pay.  .Gen. 

McClellan  made  general-in-chief  in  his  stead. 

Nov.  2d,  Fremont  removed  and  Hunter  succeeds  him  in  Missouri. 

Nov.  7th,  battle  of  Belmont,  Mo.  ; Gen.  Grant  attacks  rebels,  damaging  them  much. 
Nov.  7th,  union  fleet  bombards  and  carries  rebel  works  at  Port  Royal. 

Nov.  8th,  Capt.  Wilkes  in  the  San  Jacinto  takes  Slidell  and  Mason  out  of  the  Trent 
Nov.  9th,  Gen  Halleck  placed  over  Department  of  West,  and  Gen.  Buell  in  Kentucky. 
Nov.  19th,  Missouri  legislature  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession. 

Nov.  22d,  23d,  bombardment  between  Fort  Pickens  and  rebel  batteries  ; little  result. 
Nov.  24th,  Mason  and  Slidell  placed  in  Fort  Warren. 

Pec.  3d,  Gen.  Phelps  lands  on  Ship  Island  with  advance  of  Gen.  Butler’s  expedition. 
Dec.  4th,  John  C.  Breckinridge  expelled  from  U.  S.  Senate  by  unanimous  vote. 

Dec.  12th,  great  fire  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  One-third  of  the  city  burned. 

Dec.  17th,  stone  fleet  sunk  to  block  up  mouth  of  Savannah  River. 

Dec.  18th,  Gen.  Pope  defeats  rebels  with  great  loss  at  Shawnee.Mound,  Mo. 

Dec.  20th,  battle  of  Drainesville ; Gen.  McCall  severely  defeats  the  rebels. 

Dec.  21st,  Charleston  harbor  shut  by  sinking  a stone  fleet  at  its  mouth. 

Dec.  30th,  Slidell  and  Mason  surrendered,  on  the  justifiable  demand  of  England. 
Dec.  31st,  U.  S.  forces  to-day,  660,971  soldiers,  22,000  sailors,  and  246  ships,  with 
1,892  guns. 

1862.  Jan.  1st,  Fort  Pickens  breaches  Fort  Barrancas  and  burns  the  navy  yard. 

Jan.  8th,  battle  of  Blue  Gap,  Va.’;  rebels  defeated  after  sharp  contest. 

Jan.  10th,  battle  of  Middle  Creek,  Ky , Gen.  Garfield  severely  defeating  H.  Marshall. 
Jan.  10th,  Waldo  P.  Johnson  and  Trusten  Polk  of  Mo.,  expelled  from  U.  S,  Senate. 
Jan.  11th,  Burnside’s  expedition  leaves  Fortress  Monroe  for  North  Carolina. 

Jan.  13th,  Simon  Cameron,  Secretary  of  War,  resigned.  Edwin  M Stanton  ap- 
pointed his  successor, 

Jan  19th,  battle  at  Mill  Springs ; rebels  severely  defeated  and  Gen  Zoihcoffer  killed. 


996  chronological  table 

18C2.  Jan.  30th,  Ericsson’s  Monitor  launched  at  Green  Point,  L.  I. 

Feb.  6th,  Fort  Henry,  on  Tennessee  River,  taken  by  Commodore  Foote’s  gunboats. 
Feb.  7,  8th,  battle  of  Roanoke  I.,  Burnside  taking  2,500  prisoners  and  the  island. 
Feb.  16th,  Gen.  Grant  takes  Fort  Donelson  with  over  13,000  prisoners,  after  four 
days  of  tremendous  fighting. 

Feb.  18th,  the  first  regular  rebel  Congress  assembled  at  Richmond. 

Feb.  21st,  Gordon  the  slaver  hung  at  New  York  ; the  first  execution  under  TJ.  S. 
slave  trade  law. 

Feb.  21st,  severe  but  indecisive  battle  between  Canby  and  rebels  near  Fort  Graig. 
Feb.  22d,  Jeff.  Davis  inaugurated  rebel  president  for  six  years. 

Feb.  24th,  Gen.  Nelson’s  troops  occupy  Nashville,  the  rebels  retreating. 

Feb.  25th,  the  U.  S.  government  seizes  all  the  telegraph  lines.  \ 

March  3d,  rebel  forces  evacuate  Columbus,  Ky.,  and  union  troops  occupy  it. 

March  6th-8th,  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  Ark.,  desperate  fight  and  severe  rebel  defeat. 
March  8th,  rebel  ram  Virginia  (the  Merrimac,)  comes  out  of  Norfolk,  sinks  the  Cum- 
berland and  captures  and  burns  the  Congress,  U.  S.  ships  of  war. 

March  9th,  the  Monitor  engages  and  drives  off  the  Merrimac,  saving  the  Minnesota. 
March  10th,  rebels  evacuate  position  at  Manassas  Junction,  and  union  forces  occupy  it. 
March  13th,  Gen.  Pope  drives  rebels  from  New  Madrid,  taking  vast  stores,  &c. 
March  14th,  battle  of  Newbern ; Burnside  defeats  rebels  and  occupies  the  place. 
March  16th,  Gen.  Garfield  surprises  and  utterly  routs  the  rebels  at  Pound  Gap. 
March  23d,  battle  of  Winchester,  Va. ; rebels  badly  defeated,  losing  over  1,000 
besides  prisoners. 

April  4th,  Army  of  Potomac  advances  towards  Yorktown ; beginning  of  Peninsular 
campaign. 

April  6-7th,  battle  of  Shiloh  or  Pittsburg  Landing;  rebels  gaining  first  day,  but 
severely  defeated  on  the  second,  losing  20,000  or  more. 

April  7th,  Island  No.  Ten,  surrenders  to  Pope,  after  23  days’  siege,  the  position 
being  flanked  by  cutting  a canal.  Rebel  loss,  13  steamers,  6,000  men,  70  guns,  &c. 
April  11th,  Fort  Pulaski  surrendered  by  rebels  after  30  hours’  bombardment. 

April  11th,  Gen.  Mitchel  makes  a forced  march  and  takes  Huntsville,  Ala. 

April  16th,  bill  abolishing  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia  becomes  a law. 

April  18th,  bombardment  of  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  below  New  Orleans,  begun. 
April  19th,  battle  of  Camden  or  South  Mills,  N.  C.,  Gen.  Reno  routs  the  rebels. 
April  24th,  Farragut’s  fleet  runs  past  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  amid  a tremen- 
dous cannonade. 

April  25th,  Farragut’s  fleet  arrives  before  New  Orleans. 

April  25th,  Fort  Macon,  N.  C.,  taken  by  union  forces,  after  11  hours  firing. 

April  28th,  New  Orleans  formally  surrendered,  and  Gen.  Butler  enters.  Forts  Jack- 
son  and  St.  Philip  surrendered  the  same  evening. 

April  29th,  Gen.  Mitchell  defeats  the  rebels  and  captures  Bridgeport,  Ala. 

May  4th,  McClellan’s  forces  enter  Yorktown, -the  rebels  having  fled  in  the  night. 

May  5th,  battle  at  Williamsburg;  rebels  defeated,  and  they  evacuate  at  night. 
May  7th,  battle  of  West  Point,  Va. ; rebels  driven  over  the  Chickahominy. 

May  9th,  Banks  having  advanced  nearly  to  Staunton,  Va.,  returns  down  the  Valley. 
May  10th,  union  troops  enter  Norfolk,  the  rebels  evacuating  it. 

May  10th,  severe  naval  fight  on  the  Mississippi  near  Fort  Wright ; rebels  defeated. 
May  11th,  rebels  blow  up  their  ram  Virginia  or  Merrimac,  at  Craney  Island. 


OF  AMLEICAN  HISTORY. 


99T 


1862.  May  13th,  Robert  Smalls,  a negro,  runs  steamer  Planter  out  of  Charleston. 

May  17th,  union  gunboats  repulsed  by  Fort  Darling  on  James  River. 

May  20th,  McClellan’s  advance  within  eight  miles  of  Richmond. 

May  22d,  McClellan  advances  in  force,  crossing  the  Chickahominy  in  two  places. 

May  22d,  Col.  Kenly  badly  defeated  at  Front  Royal  by  tl<*  rebel  Ewell ; Banks  also 
• attacked  at  same  time  at  Strasburg  in  the  Valley. 

May  23d,  McClellan  in  position  5 miles  from  Richmond. 

May  25th,  Banks  defeated  at  Winchester  and  retreats  to  Potomac  River. 

May  30th,  Halleck’s  troops  occupy  Corinth,  Miss.,  the  rebels  evacuating  it. 

May  31st,  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  McClellan’s  advance  defeated  severely  by  rebels. 

May  31st,  union  troops  enter  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  the  rebel  government  running  oft' 
June  1st,  second  day’s  tight  at  Fair  Oaks,  resulting  in  decided  union  advantages. 
June  1st,  Fremont  advancing  up  the  Valley,  occupies  Strasburg. 

June  6th,  great  naval  battle  in  the  river  before  Memphis;  rebel  fleet  nearly  annihi- 
lated ; Memphis  surrendered  on  the  same  day  to  Commodore  Davis. 

June  8th,  battle  of  Cross  Keys,  Va. ; rebels  retire  after  a severe  fight. 

June  9th,.  battle  of  Port  Republic,  Va.  ; Gen.  Shields  driven  back  with  loss. 

June  14th,  union  troops  repulsed  with  much  loss  on  James  Island,  near  Charleston. 
June  17th,  Halleck’s  forces  advance  to  Holly  Springs,  Miss. 

June  17th,  union  gunboats  carry  rebel  works  at  St.  Charles,  Ark.,  but  “Mound 
City”  disabled. 

June  20th,  bill  prohibiting  Slavery  in  the  Territories  becomes  a law. 

June  24th,  McClellan  begins  to  “change  his  base”  to  James  River, 

June  25th,  Gen.  Pope  placed  over  forces  in  the  Valley,  and  Gen.  Fremont  relieved. 
June  26th,  battle  of  Mechanicsville,  both  sides  losing  heavily,  and  union  troops 
retreating. 

June  27th,  battle  of  Gaines’  Mill,  union  troops  crossing  the  Chickahominy  at  night. 
June  29th,  battles  of  Peach  Orchard  and  Savages’  Station  ; both  sides  losing  heavily. 
June  30th,  battles  of  White  Oak  Swamp  and  Charles  City  Cross  Roads,  union  troops 
nearing  the  James,  and  the  gunboats  aiding  them  materially. 

July  1st,  battle  of  Malvern  Hill,  last  of  the  Seven  Days’  Battles ; rebels  repulsed 
with  great  loss,  and  the  position  on  the  James  maintained.  Total  union  losses  in 
seven  days,  15,224. 

July  1st,  President  Lincoln  calls  for  600,000  volunteers. 

July  7th,  battle  of  Bayou  de  Cache,  Ark.,  Gen.  Curtis  severely  defeats  Albert  Pike. 
July  11th,  Gen.  Halleck  General-in-Chief  of  all  the  armies  of  the  U.  S. 

July  13th,  Murfreesboro’,  Tenn.,  taken  by  rebels,  with 'garrison  and  Gen.  Crittenden. 
July  14th,  Gen.  Pope  takes  command  of  the  Army  of  Virginia  and  issues  address. 
July  15th,  battle  of  Fayetteville,  Ark.,  Maj.  Miller  thoroughly  beating  Gens.  Rains, 
Coffee  and  others., 

July  22d,  Vicksburg  canal  completed  and  found  useless  ; siege  postponed. 

July  27th,  Gen.  Pope  takes  the  field  in  northern  Virginia. 

Aug.  2d,  Gen.  Pope’s  advance  crosses  the  Rapidan  and  occooies  Orange  Court  House. 
Aug.  3d,  rebel  Gen.  Jeff  Thompson  defeated  with  great  loss  near  Memphis. 

Aug.  3d,  Gen.  Halleck  orders  McClellan  to  bring  his  army  out  of  the  Peninsula. 
Aug.  4th,  Draft  for  300  000  men  ordered  unless  volunteering  prevent. 

Aug.  5th,  Gen.  Breckinridge  attacks  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  and  repulsed  with  heavy  los& 
Aug.  6th,  Commander  Porter  destroys  rebel  ram  Arkansas  near  Vicksburg. 


998 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABU 


1862.  Aug.  8th,  battle  in  New  Mexico,  Gen.  Canby  routing  rebels  under  Sibley,  who  is 

killed  by  his  owrn  men. 

Aug.  9th,  battle  of  Cedar  Mountain,  Ya.,  Banks  defeated  with  heavy  loss. 

Aug.  22d,  McClellan’s  advance  reaches  Alexandria,  his  removal  being  safely  made. 
Aug.  28th,  Sigel  and  McDowell  defeat  rebels  at  Centreville,  Ya. 

Aug.  29th  and  30th,  Gen.  Pope  defeated  at  Bull  Run  after  very  heavy  fighting,  3nd 
falls  back. 

Aug.  30th,  Gen.  Nelson  defeated  by  rebels  under  Kirby  Smith,  at  Richmond,  Ky. 

» Sept.  1st,  battle  of  Chantilly,  Ya.  ; rebels  defeated,  but  Gens.  Kearney  and  Stevens 
killed. 

Sept.  3d,  Gen.  Pope  transferred  to  department  of  the  northwest. 

Sept.  4th,  Lee’s  army  begins  to  cross  the  Potomac  at  Poolesville,  Md. 

Sept.  14th,  battle  of  South  Mountain  ; rebels  pushed  back  after  very  heavy  fight- 
ing Post  at  Harper’s  Ferry  surrendered  by  Col.  Miles,  to  rebels. 

Sept.  16th  and  17th,  battle  of  Antietam  ; rebels  defeated,  losing  25,000. 

Sept.  17th,  Cruiser  Alabama  takes  her  first  prize,  near  Azores. 

Sept.  19th,  rebels  retreat  over  the  Potomac. 

Sept.  20th,  Rosecrans  wins  battle  of  Iuka  over  Gen.  Price,  who  loses  1,438  men. 
Sept.  22d,  Emancipation  Proclamation  announced  for  Jan.  1st,  1863. 

Sept.  24th,  proclamation  of  suspension  of  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in  military  cases. 
Oct.  3d-5th,  severe  battles  at  Corinth,  Miss.,  and  very  damaging  defeat  of  the  rebels. 
Oct.  8-9th,  two  days  battle  at  Perryville,  Ky.,  Rousseau  thoroughly  defeats  rebels. 
Oct.  10-12th,  Stuart’s  rebel  cavalry  enter  Penn.,  seize  and  rob  Chambersburg. 

Oct.  22d,  Gen.  Blunt  routs  the  rebels  at  Maysville,  Arkansas. 

Oct  26th,  Gen.  McClellan  after  repeated  orders  advances  into  Yirginia. 

Nov.  5th,  Gen.  McClellan  relieved,  and  Gen.  Burnside  put  in  his  place. 

Nov.  28,  Gen.  Blunt  defeats  the  rebel  Marmaduke,  with  heavy  loss,  at  Cane  Hill,  Ark. 
Dec.  7th,  Gens.  Blunt  and  Herron  defeat  Hindman,  at  Prairie  Grove,  Ark 
Dec.  11th,  Burnside’s  troops  cross  the  river  at  Fredericksburg. 

Dec.  13th,  battle  of  Fredericksburg  ; entire  failure  to  carry  the  rebel  positions. 

Dec.  16th,  Banks  supersedes  Butler  in  the  department  of  the  Gulf. 

Dec.  23d,  Jeff.  Davis  issues  a proclamation  outlawing  Gen.  Butler. 

Dec.  26th,  29th,  Attack  of  Vicksburg  by  Gen.  Sherman,  but  it  fails. 

Dec.  31st,  and  next  four  days ; battle  of  Stone  River  or  Murfreesboro’,  Rosecrans 
defeating  Bragg  after  a terrific  and  exhausting  series  of  combats. 

Dec.  31st,  the  Monitor  founders  at  sea,  off  Cape  Hatteras. 

1863.  Jan.  1st,  the  definite  Emancipation  Proclamation  issued. 

Jan.  11th,  Arkansas  Post  surrenders  to  Gen*.  McClernand. 

Jan.  24th,  Gen.  Hooker  succeeds  Gen.  Burnside  over  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
Jan.  27th,  monitors  in  vain  bombard  Fort  McAllister,  on  Ogeechee  River. 

Feb.  25th,  act  to  provide  a national  currency  becomes  a law. 

Feb.  28th,  rebel  steamer  Nashville  destroyed  by  the  Montauk  in  Ogeechee  River. 
March  8th,  twenty-three  rebel  steamers  captured  up  Yazoo  River. 

March  14th,  severe  bombardment  of  Port  Hudson,  and  attempt  by  fleet  to  pass 
rebel  batteries. 

April  1st,  Farragut  runs  batteries  at  Grand  Gulf,  and  ravages  Red  River  country. 
April  7th,  attack  by  ironclads  on  Fort  Sumter ; five  out  of  seven  vessels  disabled, 
fort  unhurt. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY 


999 


1863.  April  16th,  Admiral  Porter’s  fleet  of  gunboats  runs  the  batteries  at  Vicksburg. 

April  27th,  advanced  movements  of  Gen.  Hooker’s  Chancellorsville  campaign  begin. 
May  1st,  battle  of  Thompson’s  Hills  or  Port  Gibson ; beginning  of  Grant’s  move 
to  rear  of  Vicksburg. 

May  l~5th,  battle  of  Chancellorsville  ; indecisive,  but  great  losses  on  both  sides. 
May  2d,  Col.  Grierson’s  force  reaches  Baton  Bouge  safe,  after  his  fifteen  days  ride 
through  Mississippi. 

May  3d,  Col.  Streight  and  his  command  of  1,600  men  captured  in  Ala. 

May  5th,  Vallandigham  arrested  for  treason  at  Dayton,  0. 

May  5th,  Hooker’s  army  retires  over  the  Rappahannock  ; Lee  does  not  follow. 

May  10th,  death  of  Stonewall  Jackson,  from  wound  at  Chancellorsville. 

May  14th,  battle  of  Jackson,  Miss.,  Logan  and  Crocker  defeating  the  rebels  and 
taking  the  place. 

May  15th,  battle  of  Edwards’  Station ; Grant  defeats  the  rebels. 

May  16th,  battle  of  Baker’s  Creek  or  Champion  Hill  ; Grant  completely  routs  Pem- 
berton, who  loses  4,000  men  and  29  guns. 

May  17th,  battle  of  Black  River  Bridge ; Grant  takes  2,000  men  and  17  guns,  and 
Pemberton  retreats  to  Vicksburg. 

May  18th,  Gen.  Grant’s  troops  take  position  round  Vicksburg  and  the  siege  begins. 
May  25th,  Admiral  Porter  has  destroyed  ten  millions’  worth  of  property  up  the  Yazoo. 
June  13th,  rebels  under  Lee  are  moving  northward ; Hooker  starts  to  meet  them. 
June  17th,  rebel  advance  at  Chambersburg  and  in  Maryland. 

June  17th,  rebel  ram  Atlanta  captured  by  the  Weehawken  in  fifteen  minutes. 

June  28th,  Gen.  Meade  supersedes  Gen.  Hooker  in  command  of  Army  of  Potomac. 

Lee’s  forces  are  within  four  miles  of  Harrisburg. 

July  l-3d,  battle  of  Gettysburg ; Lee  defeated  and  retreats  at  once  southward. 

July  4th,  unconditional  surrender  of  Vicksburg  and  31,000  men  to  Gen.  Grant. 
July  8th,  Port  Hudson  with  7,000  men  surrenders  to  Gen.  Banks.  The  Mississipp' 
is  thus  opened. 

July  8-15th,  the  guerrilla  Morgan  invades  Indiana  and  Ohio. 

July  10th,  Gen.  Gillmore  begins  his  attack  on  Forts  Wagner  and  Gregg,  Charleston 
July  13th,  Lee  recrosses  the  Potomac  into  Virginia. 

July  13-18th,  draft  riots  in  New  York  City,  several  negroes  tortured  and  hung  by 
mob,  and  much  burning  and  robbing ; 1,300  rioters  killed,  and  riots  put  down. 
July  18th,  unsuccessful  assault  on  Fort  Wagner. 

July  26th,  Morgan  and  400  guerrillas  captured  near  New  Lisbon,  Ohio. 

Aug.  16th,  Rosecrans  begins  his  march  upon  Chattanooga. 

Aug  21st,  Quantrell’s  guerrillas  rob  Lawrence,  Kansas,  murdering  several  citizens. 
Aug.  23d,  shells  thrown  nearly  six  miles  into  Charleston ; Beauregard  protests. 
Aug.  30th,  Rosecrans  crosses  the  Tennessee  River  near  Chattanooga, 

Sept.  1st,  Gen.  Burnside’s  advance  occupies  Knoxville,  Tenn. 

Sept.  6th,  rebels  evacuate  Forts  Wagner  and  Gregg,  and  Gillmore  occupies  them. 
Sept.  9th,  Rosecrans’  advance  occupies  Chattanooga. 

Sept.  12th,  the  Sabine  Pass  expedition  returns  to  New  Orleans  a failure. 

Sept.  19th,  20th,  battle  of  Chickamauga ; Rosecrans  severely  defeated  by  Bragg 
losing  15,661. 

Oct.  16th,  Gen.  Grant  placed  over  the  three  departments  of  the  Ohio,  Cumberland 
and  Tennessee. 


1000 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1©63.  Oct.  17th,  President  Lincoln  calls  for  300,000  more  men. 

Oct.  20th,  Gen.  Thomas  succeeds  Rosecrans  in  his  command. 

Oct.  28th,  Gen.  Hooker’s  forces  take  Lookout  Mountain. 

Nov.  2-4th,  Gen  Banks’  forces  occupy  Brazos  Island,  and  Brownsville,  Texas. 

Nov  7th,  Gen.  Meade  crosses  the  Rappahannock  southward  ; Lee  retiring. 

Nov.  17th,  Burnside,  falling  back  before  Longstreet,  enters  the  works  at  Knoxville; 
the  siege  begins. 

Nov.  23-5th,  battle  of  Chattanooga ; splendid  victory  over  Bragg,  who  loses  sixty 
guns  and  retreats  rapidly. 

Nov.  28th,  Morgan  and  six  of  his  officers  dig  out  of  Ohio  State  Prison. 

Nov.  29th,  rebels  repulsed  with  great  slaughter  in  attack  on  Knoxville 

Dec.  1st,  Mead  recrosses  the  Rapidan.  Grant’s  army  concentrates  at  Chattanooga. 

Dec.  4th,  Longstreet  raises  the  siege  of  Knoxville  and  retreats  toward  Virginia. 

Dec  6th,  monitor  Weehauken  sinks  at  her  anchors  at  Charieston,  31  men  lost. 

Dec.  8th,  President  Lincoln  issues  his  amnesty  proclamation 

Dec.  16th,  Gen.  Averill’s  raid  destroys  vast  rebel  supplies  at  Saiem  in  S.  W.  Virginia. 
1864.  Jan.  1st,  Emancipation  anniversary  celebrated  by  many  colored  people. 

Jan.  25th,  Cornelius  Vanderbilt  thanked  by  Congress  lor  his  gift  to  the  U.  S.  of  the 
Vanderbilt,  worth  $800,000. 

Jan  29th,  Gen.  Palmer  occupies  Tunnel  Hill,  Ga.,  the  rebels  having  left  in  the  night. 
Jan.  31st,  Gen.  Hood  having  succeeded  Bragg,  falls  back  from  Ringgold  and  Dalton. 
Feb.  1st,  draft  ordered  of  500,000  men. 

Feb.  3-5th,  Gen.  Sherman  marches  from  Vicksburg  eastward  to  Jackson. 

Feb.  7th,  Gillmore’s  advance  lands  at  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  under  Gen.  Seymour. 

Feb.  14th,  Sherman  occupies  Meridian,  Miss.,  and  destroys  immense  rebel  stores. 
Feb.  17th,  gunboat  Housatonic  sunk  at  Charleston  by  rebel  torpedo  boat  Davis, 
which  sunk  too. 

Feb.  20th,  Gen.  Seymour  with  Gilmore’s  troops  very  severely  defeated  at  Olustee,  Fla. 
Feb.  21-23d,  Gen.  Smith  has  three  days  running  fight  with  Forrest  and  others  in 
Miss.,  and  at  last  defeats  them. 

Feb.  23d,  Gen.  Palmer  drives  the  rebels  at  Tunnel  Hill,  Ga. 

Feb.  28th,  Kilpatrick  and  Custar  start  on  raid  round  Richmond;  Kilpatrick  goes 
within  2 miles  of  the  city.  On  this  raid  Col.  Dahlgren  is  shot. 

March  2d,  Gen.  Grant  made  lieutenant-general. 

March  6th  Sherman  is  marching  eastward  again  from  Vicksburg. 

March  10th,  Bank’s  Red  River  expedition  sets  out  from  Vicksburg. 

March  14th,  Gen.  Smith  and  Admiral  Porter  take  Fort  DeRussy,  La. 

March  15th,  President  Lincoln  calls  for  200,000  more  men,  to  be  drafted  April  15. 
March  16th,  Arkansas  votes'  to  become  a free  state. 

March  16th,  Gen’s  Banks  and  Smith  reach  Alexandria,  La.,  the  rebels  retiring. 
March  17th,  Gen.  Grant  assumes  supreme  command  of  all  the  armies  of  the  U.  S. 
March  28th,  battle  of  Cane  River,  La. ; Gen.  Smith’s  forces  defeat  the  rebel  Gen.  Taylor. 
April  4th,  Gen.  Steele  defeats  the  rebel  Marmaduke  on  Little  Missouri  River,  Ark. 
April  4th,  New  York  Metropolitan  Sanitary  Commission  Fair  opened. 

April  8th,  Gen.  Banks’  army  severely  defeated  at  Sabine  Cross  Roads,  by  Kirby  Smith. 
April  9th,  rebels  attacking  Banks’  retreating  army  at  Pleasant  Hill  are  repulsed. 
April  12th,  The  massacre  of  surrendered  negro  soldiers  by  Forrest  at  Fort  Pillow. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  1001 

1864.  April  17th,  rebel  Gen.  Hoke  with  10,000  men  begins  the  siege  of  Plymouth,  N.  C. 
April  19th,  rebel  ram  Albemarle  attacks  and  drives  union  ships  at  Plymouth. 

April  19th,  Red  River  falls,  and  leaves  Porter’s  fleet  helpless  above  Grand  Ecore. 
April  20th,  Plymouth,  N.  C.,  surrenders  to  Hoke,  after  stout  resistance. 

April  23d,  N.  Y.  Sanitary  fair  closes;  receipts  over  a million  dollars. 

April  24th,  rebels  following  up  Banks,  severely  defeated  at  Cane  River. 

April  28th,  Washington,  N.  C.,  evacuated  by  union  troops ; the  ram  Albemarle 
controls  the  sounds. 

May  2d,  Lt.  Col.  Bailey  begins  to  dam  Red  River  to  let  the  fleet  out. 

May  3d,  Gen.  Grant  breaks  camp  and  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  moves  to  the  Rapidan. 
May  4th,  Grant’s  army  crosses  the  Rapidan. 

May  5-6th,  the  tremendous  battle  of  the  Wilderness ; resulting  in  Lee’s  retiring. 

May  5th,  Gen.  Butler  occupies  Bermuda  Hundred. 

May  5th,  sea  fight  in  Albemarle  Sound  with  the  ram  Albemarle,  which  is  driven  off. 
May  7th,  Sherman  advances  from  Chattanooga,  on  his  Atlantic  campaign. 

May  9th,  Gen.  M’Pherson  forces  his  way  through  Snake  Creek  Gap. 

May  9th,  Crook  defeats  the  rebel  Jenkins  and  McCausland  at  Cloyd’s  Mountain,  Ya. 
May  10- 18th,  Grant  fighting  and  assaulting  Lee’s  Spotsylvania  lines  with  immense 
fury  ; but  stubbornly  met.  Grant  at  last  flanking  by  the  left,  Lee  retires. 

May  11th,  Sheridan  wins  a cavalry  fight  at  Yellow  Tavern,  killing  Gen.  Stuart. 

May  1 3—1 6th,  Butler’s  attack  on  Fort  Darling,  finally  broken  up  by  a sortie. 

May  13th,  Admiral  Porter’s  fleet  has  passed  down  Red  River  by  Col.  Bailey’s  dam. 
May  15th,  battle  of  Resaca,  Ga.,  Hooker  carrying  an  important  rebel  position. 

May  15th,  battle  of  New  Market,  AY.  Ya.  ; Sigel  defeated  by  Breckenridge,  and  others. 
May  15th,  Banks’  troops  defeat  the  rebels  at  Aroyelles  Prairie,  La. 

May  18th,  Sherman  to-day  occupies  Kingston,  pursuing  Johnston. 

May  19th,  J.  Howard’s  forged  proclamation  for  400,000  troops  appears. 

May  21st,  Grant  advances  from  Spotsylvania. 

May  23-24th,  Grant  crosses  the  North  Anna,  Lee  still  retiring. 

May  28th,  battle  of  Dallas  ; Johnston  thrice  assaults  Sherman  in  vain,  losing  heavily. 
June  1st,  First  day’s  battle  of  Cold  Harbor,  Grant  holding  his  lines  against  furious 
rebel  assaults.  The  fighting  on  this  ground  continues  for  a week. 

June  2d,  Sherman’s  cavalry  occupy  Allatoona  Pass, the  door  to  the  level  country. 
June  5th,  battle  of  Mt.  Crawford,  Ya.,  Gen.  Hunter  severely  defeating  the  rebel  Jones. 
June  7th,  Mr.  Lincoln  renominated  at  Baltimore. 

June  10th,  Gilmore  andKautz  attack  Petersburg.  Kautz  enters  the  town,  but  Gill- 
more  not  being  up  to  time,  can  not  hold  it  and  has  to  retreat. 

June  10th,  Gen.  Sturgis  very  badly  defeated  by  the  rebels  at  Tishemingo  Creek,  Miss. 
June  11th,  Sheridan  defeats  the  rebels  in  hot  cavalry  fight  at  Trevillian  Station. 

June  12-15th,  Grant  moves  his  army  to  the  south  side  of  James  River. 

June  12th,  Geft.  Burbridge  defeats  Morgan  at  Cynthiana,  recapturing  many  prison- 
ers made  the  11th. 

June  13th,  Fugitive  Slave  Law  repealed. 

June  15-18th,  a series  of  determined  and  powerful  assaults  on  Petersburg,  but  none 
successful ; that  city  is  from  this  time  forward  constantly  bombarded  and  besieged. 
June  15th,  battle  of  Pine  Mountain  ; Sherman  drives  rebels  back  to  their  works. 
June  15th,  fifty  union  officers,  prisoners,  placed  under  fire  at  Charleston  by  the  rebels. 


1002 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1864.  June  17th,  battle  of  Quaker  Church,  which  convinces  Hunter  that  he  can  not  reach 
Lynchburg,  and  next  day  he  retreats. 

June  19th,  The  Alabama  sunk  off  Cherbourg  by  the  Kearsarge,  Capt.  Winslow. 

June  22d,  emancipation  amendment  submitted  to  the  states  by  Congress. 

June  24th,  Maryland  constitutional  convention  adopts  emancipation  clause. 

June  27th,  Sherman  vigorously  but  vainly  attacks  the  rebels  at  Kenesaw. 

June  28th,  Wilson  and  Kautz  attacked  and  their  troops  dispersed  at  Double  Ridge 
on  Nottoway  River. 

July  8d,  Sherman  occupies  Kenesaw  and  Marietta,  having  flanked  the  rebels  out. 
July  5-13th,  rebels  under  Early  enter  Maryland,  come  within  five  miles  of  Washington 
and  retreat  with  great  plunder. 

July  10th,  Rousseau  with  2,700  men  moves  into  Alabama  on  a raid. 

July  12th,  Clay,  Holcombe  and  Sanders  write  to  Mr.  Greeley  to  get  them  passes  to 
Washington  to  treat  for  peace. 

July  13-15th,  Gen.  Smith  defeats  Forrest  and  others  in  five  battles  in  Mississippi. 
July  15th,  incendiaries  burn  six  steamers,  worth  $300,000  at  St.  Louis. 

July  16th,  gold  about  this  time  at  its  highest  in  New  York,  viz.,  284  per  cent. 

July  17th,  Hood  succeeds  Johnston  in  command  in  Atlanta. 

July  17th,  Jaquess  and  Gilmore  in  Richmond,  try  in  vain  to  treat  for  peace. 

July  18th,  Rousseau  is  destroying  an  immense  value  in  railroads  and  provisions  in 
Alabama  ; and  cuts  road  between  Atlanta  and  Mobile. 

July  18th,  Greeley’s  negotiation  with  the  rebels  at  Niagara  comes  to  nothing. 

July  20th,  first  attack  of  Hood  on  Sherman  ; it  fails,  and  rebel  loss  6,000. 

July  22d,  Hood  attacks  Sherman  furiously  but  vainly,  and  loses  14,000.  Rousseau 
joins  Sherman. 

July  22d,  first  publication  of  statements  about  the  “ Order  of  American  Knights.” 
July  30th,  great  mine  under  rebel  works  at  Petersburg  exploded,  but  by  mismanage- 
ment, the  attack  results  in  union  repulse  with  loss  of  4,000. 

July  30th,  McCausland  burns  two  thirds  of  Chambersburg,  Pa. 

July  30th,  Gen.  McCook’s  raiding  force  dispersed  by  rebels  in  Ga. ; and  next  day 
Stoneman’s  captured. 

Aug.  5th,  Admiral  Farragut’s  splendid  victory,  in  forcing  his  way  into  Mobile  Harbor, 
defeating  rebel  fleet  and  capturing  ram  Tennessee  and  Admiral  Buchanan. 

Aug.  7th,  Averill  totally  defeats  McCausland  and  other  rebels  at  Moorfield,  W.  Ya. 
Aug.  7th,  Sheridan  takes  command  of  the  Valley  and  concentrates  at  Harper’s  Ferry. 
Aug.  8th,  Fort  Gaines  at  Mobile  surrenders  to  Farragut  and  Granger. 

Aug.  10th,  canal  at  Dutch  Gap,  below  Richmond,  begun. 

Aug.  18th,  battle  at  Reams’  Station;  Warren  holds  his  position  on  the  railroad; 

fierce  rebel  attacks  made  also  in  vain  in  the  next  two  days. 

Aug.  23d,  Fort  Morgan  at  Mobile  surrenders  to  Granger  and  Farragut. 

Aug  25th,  severe  battle  at. Reams’  Station,  the  rebels  finally  obtaining  our  works. 
Aug  26-30th,  Sherman  moves  suddenly  round  and  cuts  the  railroad  south  of  Atlanta. 
Aug  31st,  Gen.  McClellan  nominated  at  Chicago. 

Sept.  1st,  Gen.  Davis  routs  Hardee’s  corps  with  great  loss,  insuring  Hood’s  retreat. 
Sept.  2d,  Hood  evacuates  Atlanta,  destroying  enormous  stores,  &c.  Sherman  enters  it. 
Sept  4th,  the  guerrilla  Morgan  shot  by  Gillem’s  men  at  Greenville,  E.  Tenn. 

Sept.  16th,  rebels  boldly  drive  2,500  cattle  safe  off  from  behind  Gen.  Kautz’s  lines. 
Sept.  19th,  battle  of  Opequan,  a brilliant  victory  by  Sheridan  over  Early. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


10  03 


1864.  Sept.  19th,  Lake  Erie  steamers  Island  Queenand  Parsons  seized  by  rebels. 

Sept.  22d,  battle  of  Fisher’s  Hill;  very  thorough  defeat  by  Sheridan  of  Early. 

Sept.  27th,  obstinate  defence  of  fort  at  Pilot  Knob,  Mo.,  deranging  Price’s  invasion. 
Sept.  29th,  battle  at  Chapin’s  Farm  north  of  James  River;  rebel  works  taken. 
Sept.  29th,  Hood  moves  on  the  march  which  ends  in  his  Nashville  defeat. 

Oct.  9th,  battle  of  Round  Top  Mountain  ; Torbert  chasing  Rosser  26  miles. 

Oct.  19th,  battle  of  Cedar  Creek ; Sheridan  utterly  routing  and  dispersing  Early’s  army 
Oct.  19th,  rebel  refugees  from  Canada  rob  banks  and  citizens  at  St.  Alban’s,  Yt. 

Oct.  25th,  Pleasanton  routs  Price  at  Marais  des  Cygnes,  Ark. 

Oct.  27th,  reconnoisance  in  force  along  all  Grant’s  lines,  but  without  much  result. 
Oct.  28th,  Lieut.  Cushing  with  torpedo  boat  sinks  ram  Albemarle. 

Nov.  8th,  Lincoln  and  Johnson  elected.  Gen.  McClellan  resigns  his  commission. 
Nov.  14th,  Sherman’s  great  march  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea  begins  to-day. 

Nov.  25th,  a gang  of  rebel  incendiaries  fire  several  hotels  in  New  York,  and  Barnum’a 
Museum,  fortunately  without  success. 

Nov.  30th,  battle  of  Franklin,  Tenn.,  an  important  victory,  decisively  checking  Hood, 
Dec.  1st,  Hood  takes  position  before  Thomas’  works  at  Nashville,  for  a siege. 

Dec.  6th,  Mr.  Chase  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S.,  in  place  of  Roger  B.  Taney. 
Dec.  10th,  Sherman  is  before  Savannah,  and  on  the  12th  communicates  with  the  fleet. 
Dec.  13th,  Hazen’s  division  of  Sherman’s  army  storms  Fort  McAllister  in  half  an  hour. 
Dec.  13th,  the  Canadian  Judge  Coursol  releases  the  St.  Alban’s  raiders. 

Dec.  15-1 6th,  battle  of  Nashville ; Gen.  Thomas  fatally  defeats  Hood’s  army. 

Dec.  17th,  passports  required  on  the  Canadian  frontier,  a great  damage  to  Canada. 
Dec.  18-20th,  Gen.  Stoneman,  raiding  in  S.  W.  Va.,  has  a severe  3 days’  fight  with 
Breckinridge,  defeating  him  and  breaking  up  the  forts  and  salt  works  at  Saltville 
Dec.  19th,  President  Lincoln  orders  300,000  more  volunteers,  or  a draft. 

Dec.  21st,  Sherman  enters  Savannah,  Hardee  having  retreated  northward. 

Dec.  22d,  Hood  is  safe  beyond  Duck  River,  having  lost  20,000  men  in  Tennessee. 
Dec.  24-25th,  Butler  and  Porter  attack  Fort  Fisher,  N.  C.,  but  in  vain. 

Dec.  31st,  Farragut  presented  with  $50,000  by  his  admirers  in  New  York. 

1865-  Jan.  8th,  Blair  and  Singleton  visit  Richmond  to  treat  about  peace,  but  in  vain. 

Jan.  12-15th,  second  expedition  against  FI?  Fisher,  bombards  it  and  storms  it  on  15th, 
Jan.  14th,  Sherman  moves  out  of  Savannah  on  his  march  northward  to  join  Grant. 
Jan.  16th,  Sherman  sets  apart  lands  for  freedmen,  from  Charleston  southward. 

Jan.  31st,  constitutional  amendment  abolishing  slavery  submitted  to  states  by  Congress. 
Feb.  3d,  President  Lincoln’s  abortive  conference  with  the  rebels  Stephens,  Hunter 
and  Campbell. 

Feb.  16-17th,  Sherman  shells  and  enters  Columbia,  S.  C.,  Beauregard  evacuating. 
Feb.  18th,  union  troops  occupy  Charleston,  rebels  evacuating;  450  good  cannon  taken. 
Feb.  22d,  Wilmington  occupied  by  Gen.  Terry’s  troops,  coming  from  Fort  Fisher. 
Feb.  24th,  Beall,  the  Lake  Erie  pirate,  sentenced  on  the  14th,  hanged  to-day. 

March  2d,  Sheridan  moving  to  join  Grant,  defeats  Early  at  Waynesboro’,  Va.,  and 
captures  almost  his  whole  force. 

March  9th,  the  emancipation  amendment  thus  far  adopted  by  16  states  and  rejected 
by  2,  Del.  and  N.  J. 

March  16th,  battle  of  Averysboro  ,’  N.  C.,  Hardee  withstands  Sherman’s  attacks,  but 
retires  at  night. 

Inarch  19th,  battle  of  Bentonsville,  N.  C.,  Johnston  attacks  Sherman  in  vain. 


1004 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE,  ETC. 

/ ; 

1865.  March  25th,  rebels  take  Ft.  Steadman  before  Petersburg,  but  are  quickly  expelled, 
losing  2,500. 

March  25th,  Kennedy,  the  N.  Y.  hotel  burner,  hanged  at  Fort  Lafayette. 

March  29th,  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  moves  out  for  the  final  assault  upon  Lee. 

April  1st,  Sheridan  and  Warren  severely  defeat  rebels  atDinwiddie  C.  H.,  6,000  taken. 
April  2d,  Grant  attacks  heavily  along  his  whole  line ; Lee  decisively  defeated,  Peters- 
burg and  Richmond  evacuated  at  night,  and  Davis  flees. 

April  9th,  Lee  surrenders  remains  ot  his  army;  being  26,115  men, 

April  11th,  blockade  changed  by  proclamation  into  a legal  closure  of  ports. 

April  12th,  Canby’s  troops  enter  Mobile,  the  siege  having  lasted  since  March  11. 
April  14th,  Gen.  Anderson  hoists  on  Fort  Sumter  the  same  flag  he  lowered  there. 
April  14th,  Booth  assassinates  President  Lincoln,  and  his  confederate  Payne  tries  to 
kill  Mr.  Seward;  Mr.  Lincoln  dies. at  7.22  next  morning. 

April  18th,  Sherman  and  Johnston  negotiate  a peace,  which  is  promptly  repudiated 
at  Washington. 

April  25th,  Booth  discovered  in  a barn  in  Va.,  and  refusing  to  surrender,  is  shot  and 
dies  in  four  hours. 

April  27th,  Johnston  surrenders  his  forces  on  new  and  proper  terms. 

April  28th,  steamer  Sultana  burned  near  Memphis;  1,500  souls  lost  out  of  2,106. 
May  9th,  assassins  of  Mr.  Lincoln  put  on  trial  at  Washington. 

May  10th,  President  Johnson’s  proclamation  forbidding  neutrals  to  harbor  rebel  ships* 
May  10th,  Jeff  Davis  captured  in  female  disguise  at  Irwinsville,  Ga. 

May  23d,  President  Johnson  reviews  80,000  troops  in  Washington. 

May  26th,  Kirby  Smith  surrenders  to  Canby  the  last  rebel  forces  in  the  field. 

May  29th,  President  Johnson  proclaims  an  amnesty  with  14  kinds  of  exceptions. 

June  10th,  great  fire  at  Nashville,  burning  8 or  10  millions  worth  of  U.  S.  stores,  &c. 
June  15th,  Galveston  quietly  occupied  by  Admiral  Thatcher;  last  rebel  port  yielded. 
June  17th,  Gov’s  Johnson  of  Ga.,  and  Hamilton  of  Texas,  appointed  by  the  President. 

Sharkey  of  Miss.,  and  Holden  of  N.  C.,  already  appointed. 

June  23d,  up  to  this  date  the  pirate  Shenandoah  has  destroyed  10  whalers. 

June  233,  blockade  finally  ended,  and  next  day  trade  restrictions  removed. 

July  7th,  the  assassins  Harold,  P^yne,  Atzeroth  and  Mrs.  Surratt,  hung  at  Wash- 
ington; Arnold,  Mudd,  Spangler  and  McLaughlin  imprisoned  for  life. 

July  13th,  Barnum’s  Museum,  New  York,  destroyed  by  fire. 

July  13th,  Gov.  Marvin  of  Fla.,  appointed;  Perry  of  S.  C.  appointed  on  the  1st. 
Aug.  14th,  great  Ketchum  forgery  of  some  $2,000,000  comes  out  in  New  York. 

Aug.  15th,  Wirz,  keeper  of  rebel  Andersonville  prison,  put  on  trial. 

Aug.  23d,  Mississippi  convention  adjourns,  having  nullified  secession  ordinance  and 
accepted  emancipation. 

Sept.  1st,  removal  of  restrictions  from  Southern  ports. 

Sept.  12th,  Alabama  declared  the  ordinance  of  secession  “null  and  void,”  abolished 
slavery,  and  repudiated  the  rebel  debt. 

Sept.  14th,  chiefs  of  rebel  Indians  sign  treaty  of  loyalty  with  U.  S. 

Sept.  15th,  South  Carolina  repealed  the  ordinance  of  secession. 

Sept.  19th,  South  Carolina  declared  slavery  abolished. 

Sept.  23d,  Alabama  convention  recognized  abolition  and  passed  emancipation  clause. 
Sept.  29th,  Gov.  Sharkey  of  Mississippi  recognized,  by  proclamation,  the  rights  of 
the  negro. 


OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


10C5 


1865.  Oct.  2d,  Government  of  Cuba  surrendered  the  pirate  Stonewall  to  the  U.  S. 

Oct.  7th,  North  Carolina  declared  the  secession  ordinance  “ null  and  void ;”  prohibited 
slavery  in  the  state  forever,  on  the  9th.  and  repudiated  the  rebel  debt  on  the  19th. 
Oct.  11th,  A.  H.  Stephens  and  other  prominent  rebels  released  from  Fort  Warren. 
Oct.  12th,  Proclamation  of  the  President  ending  Martial  Law  in  Kentucky. 

Oct.  10th,  Champ  Ferguson  the  guerilla,  was  hung  in  Nashville,  and  Magruder  the 
guerilla,  hung  in  Louisville. 

Oct.  25  th,  Florida  annulled  the  ordinance  of  secession. 

Nov.  4 th,  Georgia  declared  slavery  abolished,  and  on  the  8th  declared  her  war  debt 
“ null  and  void.” 

Nov.  6th,  Florida  declared  slavery  abolished. 

Nov.  10th,  Henry  Wirz  was  executed  at  the  Old  Capitol  Prison. 

Nov.  13th,  South  Carolina  passed  the  Constitutional  Amendment  abolishing  slavery. 
Dec.  1st,  Writ  of  habeas  corpus  restored  in  the  Northern  States  by  the  President. 
Dec.  2d,  Alabama  ratified  the  anti-slavery  Amendment. 

Dec.  18th,  The  Sec.  of  State,  Mr.  Seward,  officially  declared  slavery  abolished  through- 
out the  United  States,  27  states  having  ratified  the  Constitutional  Amendment. 
Dec.  21st,  President  Lincoln’s  remains  transferred  to  their  final  resting  place  in  Oak 
Ridge  Cemetery,  Springfield,  111. 

Dec.  28th,  Florida  ratified  the  anti-slavery  Amendment. 

Dec.  30th,  Hon.  Wm.  Henry  Winter  Davis,  of  Maryland,  died. 

1866.  Jan.  12th,  Order  by  Gen.  Grant  for  the  protection  of  loyal  persons  in  the  South. 
Jan.  22d,  Free  School  Bill  defeated  in  the  Tenn.  Senate. 

Jan.  29th,  Death  of  Rev.  Eliphalet  Nott,  D.  D.,  Pres,  of  Union  College,  N.  Y. 

April  2d,  Proclamation  of  the  President  declaring  the  insurrection  ended  in  the  late 
rebellious  states. 

April  6 th,  Civil  Rights  bill  p<psed  the  Senate  over  the  President’s  veto,  by  a vote  of 
33  to  15 ; and  the  House,  on  the  9th,  by  a vote  of  122  to  41,  and  became  a law. 
June  8th,  the  14th  Constitutional  Amendment  passed  the  Senate  by  a vote  of  33  to 
11 ; and  the  House,  on  the  13th,  by  a vote  of  120  against  32. 

July  4th,  extensive  conflagration  in  Portland,  Me.;  one  third  of  the  city  burnt,  and 
property  amounting  to  $10,000,000. 

July  23d,  Tennessee  having  ratified  the  Constitutional  Amendment,  a resolution  ad- 
mitting her  Representatives  and  Senators,  passed  both  Plouses  of  Congress. 

July  27th,  laying  of  the  Atlantic  Cable  successfully  completed. 

July  30th,  Massacre  in  New  Orleans  of  leading  Unionists  and  Colored  men. 

Aug.  20th,  Writ  of  habeas  corpus  restored  by  proclamation  of  the  President. 

1867.  Jan.  4th,  Congress  passed  the  Confiscation  and  Amnesty  Bill. 

Jan.  12th,  the  New  York  Excise  Bill  went  into  operation. 

Jan.  18th,  Samuel  Downing,  the  last  Revolutionary  soldier,  died  at  Edinburgh,  N. 
Y.,  aged  105. 

Jan.  20th,  death  of  N.  P.  Willis,  the  eminent  writer. 

Feb.  7th,  Mr.  Peabody  gave  $2,100,000  for  education  at  the  South. 

Feb.  17th,  death  of  Dr.  A.  D.  Bache,  long  chief  of  the  Coast  Survey. 

March  1st,  Nebraska  was  proclaimed  a State  (the  37th). 

April  26th,  Japanese  Commissioners  arrived  at  Washington. 

May  13th,  Jeff*.  Davis  bailed  for  $100,000. 

July  1st,  the  new  “Dominion  of  Canada”  inaugurated  at  Ottawa. 

Nov.  19th,  death  of  Fitz-Greene  Halleck,  at  Guilford,  Ct.,  aged  77. 

1868.  Jan.  6th,  Samuel  Nicolson,  inventor  of  “ Nicolson  pavement,”  died  at  Boston,  aged  76. 


1006 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE,  ETC. 


1868.  Feb.  24th,  House  of  Representatives  voted  to  impeach  President  Johnson. 

May  22d,  nomination  of  Gen.  Grant  for  President,  at  Chicago. 

May  26tli,  acquittal  of  President  Johnson  by  35  yeas  to  19  nays,  only  one  vote  lack- 
ing to  sustain  the  impeachment. 

June  11th,  James  Buchanan,  Ex-President  of  U.  S.,  died  at  Wheatland,  Pa.,  aged  77. 
July  4th,  the  President  issued  a full  Pardon  and  Amnesty  Proclamation. 

July  28th,  Mr.  Seward,  Secretary  of  State,  issued  a final  proclamation  that  the  14th 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  had  been  adopted. 

Aug.  3d,  death  of  Gen.  Charles  G.  Halpine  (Miles  O’Reilly),  at  New  York. 

Aug.  11th,  death  of  Thaddeus  Stevens,  at  Washington,  aged  76  years. 

Sept.  3d,  death  of  Thomas  H.  Seymour,  at  Hartford,  Ct. 

Oct.  21st,  great  earthquake  in  California. 

Nov.  3d,  Gen  Grant  was  elected  President,  and  Schuyler  Colfax  Vice  President. 

1869.  March  27th,  James  Harper,  of  the  publishing  house  of  Harper  Bros.,  died,  aged  73# 
May  8th,  the  Pacific  Railroad,  begun  at  Sacramento  July  1863,  was  finished,  and  the 

last  rail  laid  with  suitable  ceremony.  - 
June  14th,  Joseph  Dixon,  remarkable  inventor,  died  at  Jersey  City,  aged  71. 

June  16th-19th,  National  Peace  Jubilee  at  the  Coliseum  in  Boston. 

June  18th,  Henry  J.  Raymond,  founder  and  editor  of  the  N.  Y.  Times,  died  in  N. 
Y.  City,  aged  49. 

July  2 2d,  John  A.  Roebling,  engineer,  died  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  aged  62. 

July  24th,  the  French  Transatlantic  Cable,  laid  in  the  Bay  of  Minon,  near  Brest, 
France,  June  17th,  reached  Duxbury,  Mass.,  July  24th. 

Sept.  6th,  Gen.  John  A.  Rawlins,  Sec.  of  War,  died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  aged  38. 
Sept.  8th,  William  Pitt  Fessenden,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  under  President  Lin- 
coln, died  at  Portland,  Me.,  aged  63. 

Oct.  8th,  Franklin  Pierce,  Ex-President  of  U.  S.,  died  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  aged  65. 
Nov.  4th,  George  Peabody,  the  eminent  philanthropist,  died. 

Nov.  7th,  Charles  Stewart,  Rear  Admiral  U,  S.  Navy,  died  at  Bordentown,  N.  J., 
aged  91. 

Nov.  11th,  Robert  James  Walker,  Statesman  and  Publicist,  died  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  aged  68. 

Dec.  24th,  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Sec.  of  War  during  the  Rebellion,  died. 

1870.  Jan.  19th,  Death  of  Robert  E.  Lee,  Major-General  of  the  Confederate  forces  in  the 

rebellion  of  1861. 

March  30th,  Ratification  of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
U.  S.,  securing  freedom  of  suffrage  to  the  colored  male  population  of  each  State. 
July  12th,  John  A.  Dahlgren,  Rear  Admiral  U.  S.  Navy,  died. 

Aug.  14th,  David  Glasco  Farragut,  Admiral  U.  S.  Navy,  died. 

1871.  March  22d,  Impeachment  of  Gov.  Wm.  W.  Holden,  of  North  Carolina,  for  malfeas- 

ance in  office. 

June  29th,  Expedition  under  Captain  C.  F.  Hall,  sailed  from  New  York  on  a voyage 
of  discovery  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Oct.  8tli,  Commenced  and  continued  for  several  days,  in  Chicago,  111.,  one  of  the 
greatest  Conflagrations  of  modern  times,  in  which  more  than  250  persons  lost  their 
lives,  and  destroyed  property  to  the  enormous  amount  of  $196,000,000. 

Oct.  26th,  death  of  General  Robert  Anderson,  Major  commanding  at  Fort  Sumpter 
at  the  commencement  of  the  rebellion  in  1861. 


ECCLESIASTICAL  CHRONOLOGY. 


100T 


ECCLESIASTICAL  CHRONOLOGY. 

A 1.  Jesus  Christ  born  in  Judea,  now  called  the  Holy  Land,  in  the  4004th  year  of  the 
world. 

26.  John  the  Baptist  commences  his  ministry. 

29.  Christ  is  baptized,  by  John  in  the  river  Jordan. 

33.  Crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ,  under  Pontius  Pilate ; six  weeks  after  which  event,  he 
ascends  to  heaven. 

35.  The  miraculous  conversion,  and  beginning  of  the  apostleship,  of  St.  Paul. 

39.  St.  Matthew  writes  his  gospel. 

44.  St.  Mark  pens  his  gospel. 

52.  The  Apostles  assemble  in  council  at  Jerusalem. 

62.  St.  Paul  bound  and  sent  to  Rome. 

64.  The  first  persecution  of  the  Christians.  Nero,  having  set  fire  to  Rome,  threw  the 
odium  of  the  act  upon  them.  Multitudes  were  massacred.  Some  were  wrapped  in 
the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  torn  and  devoured  by  dogs  ; others  were  crucified,  and 
many  were  burned  alive. 

66.  The  last  Jewish  war  against  the  Romans  commences. 

67.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  suffer  martyrdom  at  Rome  by  crucifixion,  the  former  with  his  head 

downward. 

70.  Jerusalem,  as  foretold  by  Christ,  totally  destroyed  by  the  Romans,  and  the  plough- 
share driven  over  its  ruins.  During  this  terrible  siege,  upward  of  3,000,000  of  the 
Jews  perished. 

95.  The  second  persecution  against  the  Christians. 

99.  St.  John  dies,  in  the  102d  year  of  his  age.  Prior  to  this  event,  he  had  been  cast  into 
a caldron  of  boiling  oil,  taken  out  unharmed,  and  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos, 
where  he  wrote  the  Revelation. 

102.  Pliny,  the  younger,  writes  his  epistle  to  the  Emperor  Trajan  at  Rome,  informing  him 
of  the  mode  of  worship  practiced  by  the  early  Christians.  Among  other  charges, 
he  says,  “Solent  statu  die  convenire,  et  carmina  dicere  quasi  Deo;”  i.  e.,  “They 
were  accustomed  to  assemble  on  a stated  day,  and  sing  hymns  to  God.” 

107.  Third  persecution  against  the  Christians. 

118.  Fourth  persecution  against  the  Christians. 

130.  The  Emperor  Adrian  attempts  to  rebuild  Jerusalem  and  restore  the  temple,  but  his 
workmen  are  foiled  by  earthquakes  and  fiery  eruptions. 

202.  Fifth  persecution  against  the  Christians. 

235.  Sixth  persecution  against  the  Christians. 

250.  Seventh  persecution  against  the  Christians. 

257.  Eighth  persecution  against  the  Christians. 

272.  Ninth  persecution  against  the  Christians. 

303.  Tenth  persecution  against  the  Christians  ; after  which  a series  of  persecutions  broke 
out  with  the  bitterest  violence  and  cruelty.  Droves  of  victims  were  bound  together 
with  ropes,  and  cast  into  the  sea. 

311.  The  Emperor  Constantine  becomes  a convert  to  Christianity,  and  abolishes  heathen- 
ism from  his  empire. 


1008 


ECCLESIASTICAL  CHRONOLOGY. 


315.  Rise  of  Arianism. 

325.  The  first  grand  council  of  Nice,  in  which  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches  were 
represented. 

343.  The  Christians  are  persecuted  in  Persia. 

496.  Clovis,  King  of  France,  is  baptized,  and  embraces  the  Christian  religion. 

516.  The  computation  of  time  from  the  birth  of  Christ,  introduced  by  Dionysihs,  a 
monk. 

597.  Augustine,  the  monk,  goes  to  England  and  teaches  the  Christian  religion. 

606.  The  Bishop  of  Rome  is  ordained  the  universal  head  of  the  church. 

622.  Mahomet  begins  lo  promulgate  his  religion  by  the  sword. 

637.  Jerusalem  captured  by  the  Saracens. 

698.  The  Piets  in  Great  Britain  are  converted  to  Christianity. 

748.  Middle  or  dark  ages,  in  which  science  slumbers,  or  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  cloisters. 
756.  The  popes  are  constituted  civil  lords  in  Italy,  and  arrogantly  claim  dominion  over  the 
whole  world. 

800.  The  German  empire  instituted  by  Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the  Great,  the  Germans 
heretofore  having  been  divided  into  different  tribes  or  separate  kingdoms. 

878.  The  university  at  Oxford  founded  by  Alfred  the  Great,  King  of  England. 

915.  The  university  of  Cambridge  established. 

1065.  Jerusalem  captured  from  the  Saracens  by  the  Ottomans  or  Turks. 

1065.  William,  Duke  cf  Normandy,  conquers  England,  and  takes  possession  of  the  throne. 
1096.  The  first  crusade  to  Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land,  undertaken  by  several  Christian 
sovereigns,  with  the  avowed  object  of  recovering  Jerusalem  and  the  holy  sepul- 
chre out  of  the  hands  of  the  Turks  and  Saracens. 

1110.  Revival  of  literature  in  the  university  of  Cambridge. 

1147.  Second  crusade  to  Palestine. 

1177.  Saladin  defeated  before  Jerusalem.  The  crusade  attended  with  immense  loss  of  blood 

and  treasure. 

1178.  The  Albigenses  and  Waldenses,  two  Christian  sects,  take  their  rise  in  the  south  of 

Europe. 

1189.  Third  crusade  against  the  Holy  Land,  conducted  with  great  fierceness  and  bravery, 
under  the  kings  of  England  and  France. 

1192.  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  defeats  Saladin  at  Ascalon.  The  victory,  however,  is  not  decis- 
ive. The  crusades  are  finally  abandoned  as  not  being  worth  the  immense  sacrifice 
of  blood  and  treasure  they  had  already  cost. 

1215.  Magna  Charta  signed  by  King  John  of  England. 

1233.  The  Dominican  friars  get  the  management  of  the  inquisition  into  their  hands. 

1369.  John  WicklifFe  commences  preaching  in  England. 

1414.  The  council  of  Constance  assemble. 

1415.  John  IIuss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  are  condemned  and  burnt  for  their  religious 

opinions. 

1509.  John  Calvin  born. 

1517.  Martin  Luther  writes  against  indulgences  in  Germany,  which  paves  the  way  for  the 
reformation. 

1519.  Zuinglius  begins  the  reformation  in  Switzerland. 

1529.  The  diet  of  Spires  in  Germany  meet ; the  protesting  against  which  gave  rise  to  the 
name  of  Protestants. 


ECCLESIASTICAL  CHRONOLOGY.  1009 

1533.  Ilenry  VIII.,  of  England,  renounces  his  allegiance  to  the  pope,  and  styles  himself  the 
supreme  head  of  the  church  of  England. 

1540.  Foundation  of  the  order  of  Jesuits. 

1545.  The  Council  of  Trent  convenes. 

1555.  Michael  Servetus  burnt  at  the  instigation  of  John  Calvin  at  Geneva,  for  disbelieving 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

15G0.  John  Knox  introduces  the  Reformation  into  Scotland,  and  the  monasteries  are  torn 
down  and  burnt. 

1572.  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  in  France,  when  70,000  Huguenots  were  slain  through- 
out the  kingdom,  ify  secret  orders  from  Charles  IX.,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
mother,  Catherine  de  Medici. 

1598.  Henry  IV.  of  France  publishes  the  edict  of  Nantes,  permitting  Protestants  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion. 

1618.  The  synod  of  Dort  in  Holland  held. 

1685.  Revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV. 

1686.  The  duke  of  Savoy  persecutes  the  Waldenses. 

1689.  Toleration  act  for  dissenters  passed  by  the  English  parliament. 

1712.  Great  Arian  controversey  between  Clarke  and  Waterland. 

1722.  Count  Zinzendorf  becomes  head  of  the  Moravians,  or  United  Brethren. 

1729.  Christianity  declared  u part  of  the  law  of  the  land,”  in  England. 

1731.  First  rise  of  Methodism,  by  preaching  of  Wesley  and  Whitefield. 

1773.  Jesuits  suppressed  by  bull  of  Clement  XIV. 

1778.  Voltaire  dies,  aged  82. 

1781.  Raikes  opens  the  first  Sunday  School,  at  Gloucester,  England. 

1782.  Inquisition  abolished  in  Tuscany  and  Naples. 

1784.  Bishop  Seabury,  first  Episcopal  bishop  in  U.  S.,  consecrated. 

1790.  Bishop  Carroll,  first  Catholic  bishop  in  U.  S.  consecrated. 

1791.  John  Wesley  dies,  aged  88. 

1803.  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  founded. 

1807.  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  the  first  in  the  United  States,  founded. 

1810.  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  organized. 

1820.  Rise  of  the  Unitarian  controversy  in  the  United  States. 

1829.  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill  passed  in  England. 

1830.  Origin  of  Mormonism,  by  publication  of  Book  of  Mormon  by  Joseph  Smith. 

1841.  Dr.  Alexander  made  Protestant  bishop  of  Jerusalem. 

1841.  Schism  in  the  Scotch  church. 

1841.  Puseyite  controversy  rises  on  condemnation  of  Puseyite  tracts  by  Oxford  University. 

1844.  Ronge’s  Catholic  religious  reform  in  Germany. 

1845.  Pius  IX.  becomes  pope;  undertakes  many  reforms. 

1847.  Revolted  Catholic  cantons  of  Switzerland  subdued,  and  Jesuits  expelled. 

1850.  A Catholic  hierarchy  established  in  England;  Dr.  Wiseman  archbishop  of  West' 
minster. 

1852.  The  Madiai  family  persecuted  at  Florence;  liberated  by  English  influence. 

1856.  Christians  legally  equalized  with  Mohammedans  in  Turkey. 

1860.  Great  Epoch  in  History  of  Russia ; the  beginning  of  the  movement  for  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  serfs,  and  for  translating  the  Scriptures  into  Modern  Russ,  the 
vernacular  of  50,000,000  people. 

Manuel  Matamoros  and  others  persecuted  in  Spain  for  Bible  reading. 

64 


1010 


ECCLESIASTICAL  CHRONOLOGY. 


1»61.  Aprix  8th;  “Patent”  granted  by  Emperor  of  Austria  by  which  the  rights  and  liber- 
ties of  Protestants  were  acknowledged  and  guaranteed. 

18  .2.  Victor  Emanuel  suppressed  monasteries  in  Italy  ; devoting  them  to  educational  uses. 
Aug.  24th ; Bi-centenary  celebration  of  the  exodus  of  2000  faithful  ministers  from 
the  Church  of  England,  because  they  would  not  submit  to  the  “Act  of  Uniformity.” 
Sept.  2d ; Triennial  celebration  of  the  adoption  of  the  Belgic  Confession  in  Holland. 

1863.  First  meeting  of  the  General  Synod  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches,  in 

Vienna. 

Jesuits  expelled  from  New  Granada,  or  United  States  of  Columbia,  and  the  great 
movement  for  civil  and  religious  liberty  brought  fo  a successful  completion  by 
Gen.  Mosquera. 

1864.  Imperial  decree  suppressing  the  smaller  convents  in  Poland. 

Aug.  26th ; Monument  to  the  memory  of  John  Calvin  at  Geneva,  was  inaugurated 
on  the  bi-centenary  anniversary  of  the  death  of  the  Reformer. 

Dec.  21st;  Pope  Pius’  encyclical  letter  denouncing  religious  liberty. 

1865.  National  Council  of  the  Congregational  Churches  of  the  United  States,  held  in  Bos- 

ton 10  days,  June  14-24. 

1866.  Religious  toleration  guaranteed  in  Chili. 

Religious  toleration  declared  by  both  governments  in  Mexico,  Juarez’s  and  Maxi- 
milian’s. 

Oct;  First  Centenary  Anniversary  of  the  introduction  of  Methodism  into  the  U.  S. 

1868,  June  ; Grand  Council  of  the  bishops  and  clergy  of  the  Romish  Church  on  the  18th 

centenary  anniversary  of  the  martyrdom  of  Paul. 

June  22d;  Austria  having  abolished  the  “ Concordat,” — thus  withdrawing  from  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  the  sole  right  to  solemnize  marriages  and  control  the  ed- 
ucation of  the  empire — and  having  provided  also  a system  of  public  schools,  the 
Pope  delivered  an  allocution  against  such  legislation. 

June  29th ; The  Pope  issued  a bull  calling  a General  Council  of  the  Catholic  Church 
at  Rome,  on  the  8th  day  of  Dec.,  1869. 

July  10th;  The  Irish  Reform  Bill  was  passed  by  the  Plouse  of  Lords  in  England. 
Sept.  24th  ; The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  England,  having  invited  all  bishops  in 
communion  with  the  Church  of  England,  the  Pan  Anglican  Synod  was  opened  at 
Lambeth. 

A Bible  Society  organized  at  St.  Petersburg,  with  the  sanction  of  Emperor  Alex- 
ander. The  1st  Russian  Bible  Society,  with  279  auxiliaries,  having  been  sup- 
pressed by  the  Emperor  Nicholas. 

1869.  May  27tli ; The  General  Assemblies  of  the  Old  and  New  School  Presbyterians,  which 

separated  in  1837,  voted  to  reunite.  Two-thirds  of  the  Presbyteries  having  ap- 
proved of  the  union,  it  was  ratified  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Nov.  12th. 

June  28th;  The  First  Israelitish  Synod  met  at  Leipsic,  Germany. 

Sept.  — ; Pere  Ilyacinthe,  a Carmelite  monk  and  celebrated  preacher,  abandoned 
his  convent  and  ceased  to  preach  in  Notre  Dame,  Paris.  This  secession  caused 
great  excitement  in  France. 

Dec.  8th ; The  Oecumenical  Council  of  the  Catholic  Church  was  opened  at  Rome 
with  imposing  ceremonies — 700  prelates  and  about  2,000  ecclesiastics  being  present. 


THE  LATE  WAR. 


1011 


THE  WAR  BETWEEN  FRANCE  AND  SARDINIA,  AND  AUSTRIA. 

The  Emperor  Louis  Napoleon  publicly  expresses  to  the  Austrian  envoy  at  his  court  his 
regret  that  the  two  governments  are  not  on  better  terms — which  leads  to  mutual  arma- 
ments— January  1st,  1859. 

Events  growing  daily  more  threatening,  it  is  announced  that  England  has  sent  Lord 
lowley  on  a peace  mission  to  Vienna,  February  22d. 

The  announcement  is  made  that  a Peace  Congress  will  be  held,  March  19th. 

All  hopes  of  peace  are  quenched  by  the  news  that  Austria  has  insisted  upon  the  disarma- 
ment of  Sardinia  alone,  as  a condition  precedent  to  any  peace  negotiations,  April  8th. 

Austrian  and  Sardinian  forces  having  assembled  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Ticino,  Count 
Gyulai  forwards  a peremptory  summons  to  the  King  of  Sardinia  to  disarm  within  three 
days,  on  penalty  of  war,  April  22d. 

Victor  Emmanuel  having  returned  an  indignant  refusal,  is  invested  with  dictatorial  pow- 
ers, April  23d. 

Lord  Malmesbury  issues  a final  proposition  for  negotiation — which  is  accepted  by  Austria, 
and  rejected  by  France,  April  25th. 

French  troops  begin  to  land  at  Genoa,  April  25th. 

Tuscany  tnrows  off  its  government  and  declares  for  Victor  Emmanuel,  April  25th. 

The  Austrian  army,  in  three  divisions,  crosses  the  Ticino,  April  29th. 

A detachment  of  Austrians,  in  attempting  to  cross  the  Po  at  Frassinetto,  is  repulsed  by 
the  Sardinians,  May  3d. 

Louis  Napoleon  issues  decrees  relating  to  his  departure  for  the  army. 

Louis  Napoleon  leaves  Paris  May  10th,  reaches  Genoa  on  the  12th,  and  joins  the  army 
on  the  14th. 

The  battle  of  Montebello  is  fought  between  the  outposts  of  the  two  armies,  the  French, 
under  Gen.  Forey,  compelling  the  Austrians  to  withdraw,  May  20th. 

Garibaldi,  at  the  head  of  6,000  Italian  volunteers,  crosses  the  Ticino,  May  23d. 

Garibaldi  fights  his  way  into  the  city  of  Como,  May  27th. 

The  battle  of  Palestro  is  fought  by  about  12,000  Sardinians,  under  their  king,  and  20,000 
Austrians,  under  Gen.  Zobei,  the  latter  withdrawing,  June  1st. 

The  battle  of  Magenta  is  fought,  in  which  100,000  allies,  under  Gen.  McMahon,  rout 

120.000  Austrians,  under  Gen.  Gyulai,  June  4th. 

The  Emperor  Napoleon  and  King  Victor  Emmanuel  enter  Milan,  June  8th. 

The  battle  of  Malegnano  is  fought,  the  Austrians,  under  Benedick,  being  driven  from 
their  position  by  the  allies  under  D’Hilliers,  June  9th. 

The  battle  of  Solferino  is  fought,  under  the  command  of  the  two  Emperors,  by  nearly 

400.000  troops,  the  Austrians  being  compelled  to  retire,  June  24th. 

The  Sardinians  begin  to  invest  the  fortress  of  Peschiera,  June  28th. 

The  allies  cross  the  Mincio,  June  30th. 

The  French  Emperor  takes  up  his  head-quarters  at  Vallegio,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Mincio,  July  3d. 

The  armistice  between  the  belligerents,  to  last  until  August  15th,  is  signed  July  8th. 

Peace  between  the  two  Emperors  agreed  upon  at  Villafranca,  July  11th. 


1012 


LATE  WAR. 


THE  WAR  OF  PRUSSIA  AND  ITALY  WITH  AUSTRIA. 

By  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  the  duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  which  had  belonged  t ) 
Denmark  for  a long  time,  were  fully  confirmed  to  her.  But  in  1863  the  king  of  Denmark 
granted  independent  rights  to  Holstein  and  annexed  Schleswig  to  his  own  kingdom.  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia  both  protested  against  this,  and  the  German  Diet  demanded  the  annul- 
ment of  the  decree  of  annexation,  and  that  both  duchies  be  united  with  the  German  Con- 
federation. The  refusal  of  Denmark  led  to  a war  with  Prussia,  backed  by  Austria,  which 
resulted  in  wresting  the  duchies  from  Denmark.  But  Austria  and  Prussia  were  soon  at 
variance  as  to  what  should  be  done  with  the  provinces.  Prussia,  ever  anxious  to  extend 
her  boundaries,  proposed  to  absorb  Holstein.  Austria,  jealous  of  her  neighbor,  protested 
against  it.  In  the  German  Diet,  Austria  demanded  the  mobilization  of  the  Federal  army, 
and  though  opposed  by  Prussia,  carried  the  measure  June  14th,  1866  by  a vote  of  9 to  6. 
The  Prussian  representative  thereupon  declared  the  Diet  dissolved  and  that  Prussia  would 
regard  any  state  voting  for  mobilization,  as  having  committed  an  act  of  hostility  against 
herself.  From  this  blunder  ol  Austria  came  the  war  of  1866.  The  very  next  day,  June 
15th,  Prussia  invaded  Saxony  and  Hanover  occupying  their  capitals.  Italy  allied  herself 
with  Prussia,  hoping  to  regain  Venetia  from  Austria,  and  thus  strike  a blow  for  “Italian 
unity.”  Both  simultaneously  declared  war,  June  18th,  the  anniversary  of  Fehrbelin,  Kolin 
and  Waterloo,  great  Prussian  battles.  A severe  battle  at  Custozza,  near  Verona,  was 
fought  by  Italians  against  Austria,  June  24th,  the  Austrians  being  victorious.  Occupying 
Holstein,  overrunning  Saxony  and  Hanover,  the  Prussian  army  moved  into  Bohemia,  in 
two  columns.  The  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies  first  felt  each  other  June  26th,  at  Lie- 
beneau,  the  former  being  the  victors.  A larger  battle  was  fought  at  Podal,  and  two  more 
at  Nachod  and  Skalitz  on  the  27th,  the  Prussians  winning  the  day.  The  next  day  at 
Trauteneau  the  Prussians,  after  a severe  engagement,  remained  masters  of  the  field.  The 
other  column  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Munchengratz.  On  the  29th  a great  and  sanguinary 
conflict  occurred  at  Gitschin  with  a Prussian  victory.  The  Austrians  in  full  retreat  made 
a stand  at  Sadowa  July  3d,  and  were  badly  routed.  This  was  the  decisive  battle  of  the 
war,  and  a great  Prussian  victory — 195,000  Austrians  and  225,000  Prussians  being  engaged, 
making  this  one  of  the  greatest  battles  of  history. 

The  Austrian  Emperor,  admonished  by  such  continued  defeat,  seeing  that  he  could  not 
cope  with  Prussia  and  Italy  both,  ceded  Venetia  to  France  and  besought  Napoleon’s  medi- 
ation to  procure  an  armistice  with  Italy.  Victor  Emanuel  declined? this,  saying  he  could 
do  nothing  without  the  consent  of  his  ally,  Prussia,  and  immediately  renewed  military 
operations.  Proposals  for  an  armistice  were  offered  by  Austria  to  Prussia  July  12th,  but 
they  were  rejected.  Flushed  with  victory,  Prussia  pushed  her  advantages  and  moved  on  to- 
ward Vienna,  the  Austrian  capital  and  would  have  captured  it,  and  was  also  on  the  eve  of 
winning  a battle  that  would  have  cut  off  Hungary,  when  an  armistice  was  agreed  upon  Juty 
18th.  A treaty  of  peace  w^as  signed  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  Aug.  30th,  70  days  after 
the  decision  of  the  German  Diet.  As  the  results  of  the  war,  first,  Prussia  acquired  Han- 
over, Schleswig,  Holstein,  Hesse  Cassel,  Nassau,  Frankfort,  a portion  of  Hesse  Darmstadt 
and  Bavaria.  Second,  the  Germanic  Confederation,  50  years  old,  was  dissolved. 

The  cession  of  Venetia  to  Italy  was  concluded  Oct.  19th.  The  joy  of  the  Venetians  in 
deliverance  from  the  despotism  of  Austria  was  evinced  by  the  vote  for  annexation  with 
Italy,  viz:  641,758  for,  and  68  against.  The  entrance  of  Emanuel,  King  of  Italy  into 
Venice  Nov.  7th,  to  take  possession,  was  celebrated  by  one  of  the  grandest  and  most  jubi- 
lant demonstrations,  and  thus  “Italian  unity”  was  restored. 

King  Emanuel,  oi*  Dec.  15th,  announced  to  his  Parliament  the  crowning  of  the  national 
edifice  in  Italy. 


WAR  BETWEEN  FRANCE  AND  PRUSSIA. 


1018 


THE  WAR  BETWEEN  FRANCE  AND  PRUSSIA. 

It  was  reported  at  Madrid,  July  3d,  1870,  that  Marshal  Prim  had  sent  a deputation  to 
offer  the  crown  of  Spain  to  a Prince  of  Hohenzollern  who  had  accepted  it.  The  French 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  the  Duke  of  Gramont,  informed  the  Spanish  Ambassador,  Baron 
Werther,  on  July  5th,  that  France  would  not  tolerate  the  establishment  of  the  Prince  of 
Hohenzollern  or  any  Prussian  Prince  upon  the  Spanish  throne. 

Prince  Antony  of  Hohenzollern,  on  July  12th,  telegraphed  the  Spanish  Ambassador  at 
Paris,  that  he  had  withdrawn  his  son  Leopold’s  candidature.  Count  Bernstoff,  Prussian  Am- 
bassador at  London,  notified  Lord  Granville,  on  July  15th,  that  the  King  declined  to  accede 
to  the  demand  of  France,  that  he  should  forbid  Prince  Leopold  to  alter  at  any  future  time 
his  decision  relative  to  accepting  the  Spanish  crown. 

A formal  declaration  of  war  was  sent  to  Berlin,  July  17th.  The  King  of  Prussia  opened 
the  North  German  Parliament  with  a speech,  on  July  19th,  and  threw  the  responsibility  of 
the  war  on  France.  Heavy  masses  of  troops  were  immediately  pushed  forward  to  the  fron- 
tier by  both  belligerents.  On  July  23d,  the  first  skirmish  of  the  war  took  place,  and  the 
first  blood  was  drawn  at  Rahling.  The  French  crossed  the  frontier  and  carried  the  heights 
above  Saarbriick,  August  2d.  The  Crown  Prince  attacked  the  French  at  Wessenburg,  and 
forced  them  to  retire  with  the  loss  of  the  General  of  Division,  Abel  Douay,  and  500  pris- 
oners, August  4tli.  The  battle  of  Woerth  is  fought,  the  Crown  Prince  defeating  the  French 
under  Marshal  McMahon,  and  capturing  2 eagles,  6 mittrailleuses,  30  cannon,  and  4,000  pris- 
oners, August  6th.  The  battle  of  Forbachis  fbught  Gen.  Steinmetz,  defeating  the  French 
under  Gen.  de  Frossard,  August  6th.  The  French  army  retreated,  Aug.  6th.  Paris  in  a 
state  of  seige,  Ang.  7tli.  The  French  army  are  concentrated  before  Metz,  Aug.  9th.  Ger- 
man armies  advance  on  Metz,  Aug.  14th.  The  battle  of  Gravelotte  takes  place,  lasting  nine 
hours,*  the  French  being  driven  back  to  Metz  from  which  they  had  advanced,  the  Germans 
losing  25,000,  the  French  24,000,  Aug.  18th.  The  bombardment  of  Strasburg  is  begun  July  19. 
The  battle  of  Beaumont  is  fought,  McMahon  having  7,000  men  taken  prisoners,  Aug.  31st. 
The  great  surrender  at  Sedan,  the  whole  French  army  under  McMahon,  together  with  the 
Emperor  and  vast  munitions  of  war  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Germans,  Sept.  2d.  Napo- 
leon arrives  as  a prisoner  of  war  at  Castle  Wilhelmshohe,  Sept.  6th.  Paris  is  surrounded 
by  the  German  armies,  Sept.  15th.  Jules  Favre  and  Count  Yon  Bismarck  endeavor  to  ef- 
fect an  armistice  but  fail,  near  the  close  of  the  month.  The  French  endeavor  to  cut  their 
way  out  of  Metz,  Oct.  9th.  The  capitulation  of  Metz  takes  place,  173,000  prisoners  being 
surrendered,  Oct.  24th.  Negotiations  for  an  armistice  fail,  Nov.  8th.  French  victory  at 
Orleans,  Nov.  10th.  Capitulation  of  New  Breisach,  5,000  French  prisoners  taken, 
Nov.  11th.  Continued  fighting  south  of  Paris,  Nov.  27th-29th.  Great  battles  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  Paris,  250,000  men  being  engaged,  Nov.  29th.  Dec.  2d,  battle  of  Orleans  is 
fought,  the  French  being  defeated,  Dec.  5th.  Battles  along  the  Loire,  the  French  retreat- 
ing, Dec.  5th-l  0th.  The  German  Princes  invite  King  William  to  assume  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  Dec.  6th— 9th.  French  seat  of  government  removed  to  Bordeaux,  Dec. 
11th.  Phalsburg  surrendered  to  the  Germans,  Dec.  13th.  Battle  near  Ameins,  both  sides 
claiming  the  victory,  Jan.  3d.  Battle  near  Le  Mans,  the  French  losing  40,000  and  the  Ger- 
mans 50,000,  Jan.  10th.  Battle  before  St.  Quentin,  the  French  losing  15,000  men,  Jan.  19. 
Engagement  on  the  Loire,  the  French  being  routed,  Jan.  19th.  Paris°capitulated,  Jan.  28th. 
Armistice  till  Feb.  19th,  agreed  upon  between  Count  Bismarck  and  Jules  Favre,  Jan.  30th. 
Napoleon  issues  a proclamation  to  the  electors  of  France  from  his  prison  at  Wilhelmshohe, 
heb.  8th.  Thiers  appointed  Chief  Executive  of  the  French  Republic  by  the  National  As- 
sembly, Feb.  17th.  Terms  of  peace  accepted  by  the  French,  Feb.  26th,  1871. 


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